ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF EXPANSIVE CLAYS by D.G. Fredlund Associate Professor of Civil Engineering University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan Presented to the Seminar on Shallow Foundations on Expansive Clays Regina, Saskatchewan October 27 & 28, 1975u. ul. W. VI. VII. vit. IX. ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF EXPANSIVE CLAYS INTRODUCTION PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE REGINA AREA 1. Climate 2. Physiography 3. Geology and Surficial Stratigraphy CLASSIFICATION AND MINERALOGICAL PROPERTIES 1, Grain Size 2. Atterberg Limits 3. Specific Gravity 4, Mineralogy 5. Surface Chemistry STRESS VARIABLES CONTROLLING BEHAVIOR EFFECT OF STRESS VARIABLE CHANGES ON VOLUME CHANGE PROPERTIES 1, Stress History 2. Present State of Stress 3. Future Deformations SHEAR STRENGTH CHANGES TYPICAL VALUES FOR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 1. Compressibility Properties 2. Swelling Properties 3. Shear Strength Properties SUMMARY LIST OF REFERENCESENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF EXPANSIVE CLAYS 1, INTRODUCTION Large portions on the earth's surface are subjected to desiccating influences that leave the upper portion of the soil profile cracked and unsaturated. Many of these soils contain large amounts of high swelling clay minerals. Light engineering structures placed on these profiles generally suffer distress due to expansion of the supporting material. The city of Regina is situated upon glacial Lake Regina. A wide range of engineering problems have been encountered that are related to the swelling behavior of the clay. The object of this paper is to outline the basic properties of Regina clay and to determine the effect of environmental factors on its behavior. Engineering problems related to this soil should be analysed in terms of: a) the mineralogical and physico-chemical nature of the clay deposit, b) the state of stress prior to and subsequent to construction, and c) the physical soi] properties The above categories constitute a most useful framework for engin- eering purposes. I], PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE REGINA AREA The physiographic features, geology and geomorphology of the Regina area are described in detail in the following reports and maps: a) D.F. Acton, J.S. Clayton, J.G. Elis, E.A. Christiansen, W.0. Kupsch, (1960), Phystographic Divieione of Saskatchewan, Map Wo. 1, Saskatchewan Research Council, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon.b) E.A. Christiansen, (1961), Geology and Groundwater Resources of the Regina Area, Saskatchewan, Saskatchewan Research Council, Geology Division, Report No. 2. c) 0.6. Ellis, DF. Acton and J.S, Clayton, (1965), The Soite of the Regina Map Area, Saskatchewan Institute of Pedology, Extension Publication 176, Extension Division, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, 11.1 Climate The climate of the Regina area can be classed as a cool semi-arid to sub-humid type. The temperatures vary widely from sunmer to winter with an overall average temperature of +15°C. The mean ronthly temper- ature is below 0°C for five months of the year. The total annual precipitation varies from 30 to 45 cm with snow contributing about 25% of the year's total. The months of May and June have the most precipitation. 11.2 Physiography. The main physfographic division of the Regina area is the Saskatche- wan Plains Region which is comprised of three sections (Figure 1) a) the Assiniboine River Plain b) the Moose Mountain Upland, and c) the Eyebrow Hills Upland The city of Regina is located near the centre of the Assiniboine River Plain, the lowland of the region. The local relief of the area is less than ten feet, except for the Qu'Appelle and Arm River channels and associated tributaries.FIGURE 1, PHYSTOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF THE REGINA MAP AREA. (AFTER D.F. ACTON, J.S. CLAYTON, J.G. ELLIS, E.A. CHRISTIANSEN AND W.0.KUPSCH, 1960)11.3 Geology and Surficial Stratigraphy The bedrock below the Regina city area consists of Upper Cretaceous shales (i.e. Bearpaw Formation) that are primarily composed of gray, highly consolidated montmorilionitic clays. The depth to bedrock is quite variable, believed to be due to faulting. During the Pleistocene epoch, ice covered the area. As a result, glacial till immediately overlies the shale which in turn is overlain by lacustrine silts and clays (i.e. Regina clay). Figure 2 shows the surficial deposits in the vicinity of Regina during the final stages of glacial history. The lacustrine silts and clays are in the order of 40 feet in thickness below Regina city (Figure 3). In general, the Regina clay deposit consists of a dark brown clay unit near the ground surface with a light grayish brown, siltier unit part way down the profile. The silty unit sometimes extends down to the underlying til] and sometimes reverts back to a clay unit which overlies the till. The silty unit becomes thicker towards the northeast (i.e. as the Condie Moraine 1s approached). Figures 4 and 5 show typical cross-sections of the surficial strati- graphy based on soil test boreholes associated with foundation investiga- tions in Regina.* Figure 4 is a North-South section along Albert Avenue and Figure 5 is an East-West section along Fourth Avenue. The ground surface is assumed horizontal. A detailed description of a typical sofl profile (Testhole #10) is shown in Figure 6 (Fredlund, 1963). The testhole is located back of 646 Williams Crescent at the intersection of Campbell Street and Williams Street. The upper portion of the clay has a crumbly, nuggetty macrostructure. With * P. Kozicki (1970), From the files of Ground Engineering Ltd.FIGURE 2. FINAL STAGES OF GLACIAL HISTORY (AFTER E.A. CHRISTIANSEN, 1961) HUGHGeeeeeoFIGURE 3, ISOPACH MAP OF REGINA CLAY (AFTER £.A, CHRISTIANSEN, 1960)LEGEND SCALE. TOPSOIL OR FM. CLAY TILL HORIZ, I"= 3124' eee ee SAND & GRAVEL VERT. 1"= 11.76" SILT 5 MILES 9 th AVE.N McKINLEY AVE. — DEWDNEY AVE. COLLEGE AVE. ASSINIBOINE AVE. 29 th AVE. FICURE 4. STRATIGRAPHIC CROSS-SECTION ALONG OR NEAR ALBERT ST. - REGINA, N.S. LINE (FROM KOZICKI, 1970)LEGEND E55) TOPSOIL OR FM. clay TILL SAND & GRAVEL 5 MILES COURTNEY ST. CAMPBELL ST. PASQUA ST. ALBERT ST. WINNIPEG ST. PARK ST. FIGURE 5. STRATIGRAPHIC CROSS-SECTIO: ALONG OP WEAR FOURTH AVE. - REGINA, £.K. LINE (FROM KOZICKI, 1970)CLAY (Lacustrine) = Highly Plastic - Very Dark Grayish Brown = Dry and Stiff - Crumbly, Nuggetty Structure = Some Slickensides Starting at 5 ft. ST - Some silt laminations - 3 inch silt layer - White salts at 3 to 10 ft. - Nore intact - Larger nuggets = 3/4 inch to 1 inch = Thin clay and silt Laminatfons - more clayey + Silty and Crumbly CLAY - Stiff ~ Some fissures with Rust and Manganese Staining SuTE Layer - Light Brown | ~ Clay with sand and pebbles > Massive layers = Mottled. ‘SILT = Light Brown ! = Dry Crumbly = Low Plasticity SILT 4 = Light Brown - Pondry SANDY CLAY (THT) - Gravel at contact = Rust speck, soft, massive Sand = Light Grey Brown - Medium Grained. SANDY CLAY (Ti11) > Jointed, Rust staining - Dark Grey Brown fi CLAY (Shale) - Black, Highly Plastic. = Intact - Few hard shale chips in softer matrix. Very Dark Grey End of Hole ~ Ory FIGURE 6. TESTHOLE NO. 10 AT 646 WILLIAMS CRESCENT, REGINA. (FREDLUND, 1973)10 depth, the nuggets get larger, grading to a fissured, slickensided mass below approximately ten feet. TIT. CLASSIFICATION AND MINERALOGICAL PROPERTIES The present physical properties of a soil can be visualized in terms of its mineralogical and chemical composition, and subsequent changes due to its environment. This section describes the clay mineralogy and the physio-chemical properties of Regina soil along with typical classification properties. Table I presents results published by Fredlund (1967) from a sample at a depth of 15.6 feet at the site of the Saskatchewan Govern- ment Telephones Building on the northwest corner of College Avenue and Albert Street, Regina. Table II shows the result of classification and x-ray diffraction tests performed on samples from various depths ‘in Testhole #10 (see Figure 6, Fredlund, 1973). 111.1 Grain Size The classification test results obtained from Testhole #10 are typical of those generally encountered in the city of Regina. The upper portion of the profile contains an average of 59 percent clay sizes, 38 percent silt sizes and 3 percent sand sizes. 7 III,2 Atterberg Limits The liquid limit decreases slightly with depth with an overall average of 69 percent. (The liquid limit of Regina clay generally ranges between 60 and 80 percent). The average plastic limit is 26 percent. According to Casagrande's Plasticity chart, the soil classifiesu TABLE 1 SUMMARY OF CLASSIFICATION TESTS ON REGINA CLAY* TEST RESULT Specific Gravity 2.83 Atterberg Limits Liquid Limit 15.5% Plastic Limit 24,9 % Shrinkage Limit 13.1% Plasticity Index 50.6% Grain-size Distribution Sand Sizes 8 % Silt Sizes 41% Clay Sizes 51% Mineralogical Composition of Material less than 2 microns** Montmorillonite 17 % Mite 15% Kaolinite 8 % Exchange Capacity*** 31.7 me/100 gm (milliequivalents per 100 grams dry weight of soil), Exchangeable Cations Magnesium 15.3. me/100 gm Calcium 54.4 me/100 gm Potassium 0.59 me/100 gm Sodium 1.77 me/100 gm Tests were performed on a block sample from a depth of 15.6 feet at the Site of the Saskatchewan Government Telephone Building, College Avenue and Albert Street, Regina. X-ray Analysis performed by Alberta Research Council Exchange capacity analyses performed by the Soil Science Department, University of Alberta.TABLE IL CLASSIFICATION AND X-RAY DIFFRACTION TESTS FROM TESTHOLE NO. 10 Grain Sizes (%) Atterberg Limits X-ray Diffraction Tests Depth (Feet) Clay Silt Sand Liquid Plastic Shrinkage Montmorillonite Illite kaolinite Limit Limit Limit % % x % % 2 62 29 9 80.8 32.3 15.3 4 62 35 3 77.2 27.0 14.5 6 % 7 88.7 28.0 14.5 55 38 10 8 9 2h o 87.3 29.4 15.0 io 6534 1 7A 29.2 12.9 2 64 30 6 77.8 28.6 12.4 45 40 15 a Gop a2 0 82.6 26.6 11.9 z 16 6436 0 74 24.0 W6 3 18 5939 2 76.2 25.0 11.5 45 40 15 < 2 449 50 1 57.0 20.1 15.1 2 22 50S 5 65.4 25.5 12.4 8 240 4555 0 60.4 24.0 13.7 50 35 15 2 516 3 65.0 22.6 12.3 27.5 69.8 23.2 10.8 2 52 1 62.0 24.2 12.7 300 4449 7 55.2 22.1 13.3 45 45 10 5 32 3488 8 4.5 21.0 16.7 2 340222 3 29.9 16.1 18.9 35 37.0 16.3 1.3 45 40 15 2 O92 soo) 28 40.3 17.0 ma ce 405) 20.3823 40.6 16.5 1.4 SF 42370367 38.7 16.3 10-6 35 45 20 a13 as an inorganic clay of high plasticity. The activity of Regina clay (i.e. the ratio of the plastic index to the percent clay sizes) is approxinately 0.7, In accordance with Figure 7 (Willians, 1958), the soil has a ‘very high’ swell potential. The water content corresponding to the minimum volume a soil can attain through drying is defined as the shrinkage limit. The average shrinkage limit from Testhole #10 is 13 percent. The moderately low shrinkage limit demonstrates the wide range of water content. change over which the soil changes volume upon shrinking and swelling. Figure 8 shows the shrinkage curves for two samples of Regina clay initially Slurried above the liquid limit. III.3 Specific Gravity The specific gravity of Regina clay is relatively high, ranging from 2.79 to 2.83. 111.4 Mineralogy Very little information has been published on the clay mineralogy or chemistry of Regina clay (Gardiner, 1965). Rice et al (1954) re- ported that x-ray diffraction tests indicated a strong montmorillonitic pattern for several lacustrine deposits in Saskatchewan. Even a small amount of montmorillonite has a significant influence on the behavior of a soil. The results presented in Table I and II indicate that Regina clay consists of approximately 53 percent montimorillonite, 35 percent illite and 12 percent kaolinite. The high montmoritlonite content will dominate the soil's behavior and therefore it can be referred to as a montmorillonitic clay.a O° uw ot a = < o Ww = ° =z = w °o 100 | VERY HIGH 50 100 CLAY FRACTION OF WHOLE SAMPLE FIGURE 7, CORRLLATION BETWECH SWELL POTEITIAL AND AUTIVITY (FROM WILLIAMS, 1958)SPECIFIC BULK VOLUME, cc PER 100g 140 N S oS oS 80 20 LIQUID LIMIT Saturation line PLASTIC LIMIT SHRINKAGE LIMIT po 0 20 40 60 80 100 WATER CONTENT, PER CENT FIGURE 8. SPECIFIC BULK VOLUME VERSUS WATER CONTENT FOR REGINA CLAY (FREDLUND, 1967)16 The montmorillonite clay mineral is commonly known to be potentially troublesome for its high swelling and compressibility characteristics and its low shear strength. The oxygen to oxygen bond between the individual layers comprising montmorillonite is extremely weak, allowing it to break down into very small particles (Figure 9). Numerous cations and layers of adsorbed water can occupy the space around individual particles. The application or removal of load either to the soil structure or the water phase produces significant volume changes as a result of expulsion or uptake of adsorbed water. IIL.5 Surface Chemistry The physcial properties of a montmorilionitic clay are also strongly influenced by the type of cations adsorbed to the surface of the clay. The results shown in Table I indicate that 75 percent of the available positions around the particle are occupied by calcium cations. Therefore, the soil can be termed a calcium montmorillonitic clay. It should be noted that the physical properties (in particular, the swelling properties) would be considerably more severe if sodium were the adsorbed cation. The classification and mineralogical data indicate that the poten- tial for swelling is the most important engineering problem likely to be encountered. The severity of the swelling problem is also affected by the past stress history, the present environment and future changes in loading and environment.W SILICA TETRAHEDRONS ALUMINA OCTAHEDRONS SILICA ‘TETRAHEDRONS SILICA TETRAHEDRONS Qorgens @ryrony's @ Abminum, ren, mognesiom Ocnd © Siicen, cccesionaly oluminum FIGURE 9. DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE STRUCTURE OF MONTMORILLONITE (FROM GRIM, 1962)18 IV STRESS VARIABLES CONTROLLING BEHAVIOR Soil mechanics came into prominence in the 1930's primarily as a result of Terzaghi's convincing evidence to support the effective stress concept. The concept indicated that for a saturated soil, the difference between the total stress (c) and the pore water pressure (u,) formed a stress variable (o', effective stress), which controlled the deformation, volume change and strength behavior of a soil (i.e. o' = a - u,). This concept has proven to be the key in formulating and analyzing problems in soil mechanics. Effective stress coupled with the physical soi? properties provides the basis for predictive engineering procedures. The success of the effective stress concept in describing the be- havior of saturated soils has led research workers into a search for a similar statement for unsaturated soils. During the last two decades, there have been numerous equations proposed in the literature; however, none have proven completely successful in practice. Fredlund (1973) used fundamental principles of continuum mechanics to demonstrate that two independent stress variables were required to describe the stress conditions in an unsaturated soil. The theoretically proposed stress variables were experimentally verified. Engineering analyses associated with unsaturated soils can best be handled in terms of the following stress variables: (oy) and (u, - uy) where o = total normal stress u, = pore air pressure u, 1 = pore water pressure19 The first stress variable (0 - u,) 1s termed the ‘net applied load’ and the second stress variable (u, - u,) is termed the ‘matric suction’. These two stress variables will be used to demonstrate the effect of stress history upon the physical properties of Regina clay. As well, future volume changes should be visualized in terms of changes in the stress variables. V. EFFECT OF STRESS VARIABLE CHANGES ON VOLUME CHANGE PROPERTIES The present physical properties of Regina Clay are dependent upon the past stress influences since deposition. The geotechnical engineer must also be able to evaluate the present state of stress in the soil and determine suitable physical properties to predict future behavior. These aspects are considered under the following sub-headings: a) Stress History b) Present State of Stress and ¢) Future Deformation V.1 Stress History During the Pleistocene Epoch, the Regina clay sediments were de- posited in a glacial lake. Their water contents would have been near the liquid limit of the soil with the consolidating pressure being the buoyant weight of the overlying sediments (Figure 10). The water con- tents would plot as points on the virgin compression branch and remain as unique points as long as some water covered the surface of the sedi- ments. The drainage of glacial Lake Regina and the subsequent evaporation of all the free water over the lake sediments conmences a desiccation or drying of the underlying sediments. The water table is then drawn below the ground surface. The total stress on the sediments remainsTOTAL WATER EFFECTIVE, WATER LEVEL © STRESS (0 ) PRESSURE (Uw) STRESS (') WATER LEVEL @ LAKE REGINA ( SATURATED SEDIMENTS ) xa oN xb @ a Ke ‘ LOG (O- Uy) FIGURE 19, REPRESCYTATION OF STRE: SUBMERGED LAKE REGIA2 essentially constant, while the stress in the water phase is reduced. (It becomes negative above the water table). This gives rise to an increase in effective stress and the soil consolidates. Since the tension in the water phase acts in all three directions, there is the tendency for cracking and desaturation of the upper portion of the profile (Figure 1a). Grasses, trees and other plants also start to grow on the surface with the net effect of further drying the soil by applying a tension to the water phase. This is referred to as evapotranspiration. Most plants are capable of applying 10 to 20 atmospheres of tension to the water phase prior to reaching their wilting point. A high tension in the water phase (i.e. high matric suction) means that the soil has been dried and desiccated. This is reflected by an increase in the strength of the soil. The freezing of the soil also applies a high tension to the water. With time, the above processes produce a dry, heavily overconsoli- dated soil mass. These processes are also responsible for producing a system of fissures and joints which are reflected as a nuggetty macro- structure in the soil. This structure strongly influences the behavior of the soil. Year after year, the surface deposit is subjected to varying and changing environmental conditions. In response to these changes, the upper portion of the deposit swells and shrinks. This portion of the profile is referred to as the ‘active zone' (Hamilton, 1963). It is exponentially more active at ground surface, but may extend to depths in excess of 10 feet.22 EVAPORATION EVAPOTRANSPIRATION : ret Te SOME DESATURATION 2 r FISSURES xb SATURATION WATER PRESSURE © or 9 ‘OVERBURDEN W % LOADING / / Nel (IF SATURATED ) LOG (0 - Uw) \ (b) \ LOG ( Ug- Uw) LOG (0-Ug) fe) FIGURE 11, STRESS REPRESENTATION AFTER The UE SEDIMENTS ARE SUBJECTED TO EVAPORATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION23 As long as the soi? remains essentially saturated (i.e. S > 95%), the effects of the stress changes can be considered on a void ratio, (e), versus log effective stress, (o'), plot (Figure 11b). As the soil becomes further unsaturated, the void ratio changes must be con- sidered in terms of two stress variables (Figure 11c). Evaporation and evapotranspiration are depicted as movenents in the (u, - u,) plane, whereas loads applied to the soil structure are shown in the (o - u,) plane. Thus, wetting and drying due to environmental effects are visu- alized as changes along hysteresis loops in the matric suction plane (u, =u) The drying and desiccation of Regina clay over many seasons has greatly reduced its natural water content. At present, the natural water content is commonly close to the plastic limit for the soil. Testhole #10 (see Figure 6) was drilled in an open field area on July 28, 1970. The average water content in the upper five feet was 21.3%, from five to ten feet it was 26.0% and from 10 to 20 feet it was 23.9%. These water contents are al1 slightly below the plastic limit of the soil. Figure 12 shows the probable extreme ranges of water content for undisturbed Regina clay (Hamilton, 1969). Under extremely dry conditions, ‘the water content can drop to less than 10% and under extremely wet con- ditions, it can exceed 50% near ground surface. The low initial water content profile conmonly encountered in Regina clay indicates that the soil has the potential for considerable swelling if evaporation and evapotranspiration are cut off from the ground surface by a light engin- eering structure.MOISTURE CONTENT, % (DRY WEIGHT BASIS) Qo 20 40 60 80 + DEPTH , FEET a ite) l2 FIGURE 12. PROBABLY EXTREME RANGES OF WATER CONTENT FOR UNDISTURBED REGINA CLAYS. (From Hamilton, 1969) (A) extremely dry conditions resulting from many years of exposure to 75°F and 20% relative humidity at the surface (Hypothetical); (B) extremely moist conditions resulting from many years of continuous surface flooding (Hypothe- tical); (C) actual soil moisture conditions after ten years of drying in an uncovered crawl space (0) actual soil moisture conditions after five years of heavy lawn watering.25 The degree of saturation in the upper three feet of an open field area commonly drops below 80%. It generally increases with depth to approximately 95% below a depth of five feet. V.2 Present State of Stress When the soil is sampled for laboratory testing purposes, the ‘insitu state of stress may be anywhere along either a drying or wetting portion of the stress-strain relationship. Figure 13 shows sampling taking place at the maximum point of drying to which the sample has been subjected. Figure 14 shows the sample having undergone a more complex stress history. The information desired by the geotechnical engineer, from the laboratory testing program is an assessment of: a) the insitu state of stress b) the preconsolidation pressure of the soi] c) the compressibility and/or swelling with respect to changes in net loading (i.e. 0 - u,) and the compressibility and/or swelling with respect to changes*in matric suction (i.e. u, - uy). A very demanding testing facility and program would be required to completely assess all the above variables. For this reason, it is necessary to develop a simpler and more rapid procedure to get the in- formation required for solving practical problems. The main simplification and assumption made is that there is a rela- tively fixed relationship between the stress-strain relationships along the net applied load axis and the matric suction axis. The ratio of the two stresses is designated by the Greek sympbol 'x' (o = u,) x. uy,EVAPORATION OR EVAPOTRANSPIRATION TENSION APPLIED TO THE WATER PHASE NET LOAD APPLIED TO THE SOIL STRUCTURE LOADING SURFACE (0 -Uado OVERBURDEN PRESSURE l a (Ug - Uw)o fe-— MATRIC SUCTION LOG (0 -Ua) LOG (Ug- Uy) FIGURE 13, STRESS STATE WHEN SAMPLING A SOIL OM THE DRYING SURFACE27 LOG (Ug - Uw) Ua- Unto MATRIC SUCTION LOG (0 -Ug) FIGURE 14. STRESS STATE WHEN SOIL HAS UNDERGONE A COMPLEX STRESS HISTORY CAUSED BY DRYING AND WETTING.28 For a saturated soil, 'x' is approximately equal to 1.0. With decreasing degrees of saturation, the ‘x' value decreases. The rela- tionship for several soils is shown in Figure 15 (Bishop and Henkel, 1962). If 'x' is a continuous function of degree of saturation, then the compressibility and swelling modulii must also bear the same re- lationship on the (c - u,) and (u, - u,) axes. With this assumption in mind, it is possible to use a laboratory testing procedure that eliminates the meniscii pressures in the soil sample (i.e. matric suction) and considers only the net applied loading. The test procedure most cormonly used in western Canada for evalu- ating the volume change properties of swelling soils is termed a 'con- stant volume oedometer test' (Noble, 1966). In this procedure, the sample is subjected to a token load and inmersed in water. As the sam- ple tends to swell, the applied load is increased to maintain the volume of the sample constant. After the swelling tendency has been completely satisfied, the sample is further loaded and unloaded in the conventional manner. This test procedure is a simplified simulation of the real field situation. Two corrections must be applied to the test results prior to their interpretation. They are: a) a correction for the compressibility of the oedometer apparatus (Fredlund, 1969), and b) a correction for the effect of sample disturbance Since overconsolidated, swelling soils have a relatively Tow com- Pressiblity, the compressibility of the apparatus significantly affects the evaluation of insitu stresses and the slope of the compression and rebound curves. To overcome this problem, the compressibility of the apparatus should be measured with a steel plug substituted for the soil sample. The measured deflections should be subtracted from the deflec- tions measured when testing the soil (Figure 16).29 (a) (b) © Moraine ® Boulder clay 0-2] J) © Boulder cay ® Clay -shale olf | 20 40 60 80 foo Degree of saturation S -% FIGURE 15 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PARAMETER x AND THE DEGREE OF SATURATION FOR (a) A COHESIONLESS SILT AND (b) TYPICAL COMPACTED SOILS. (FROM BISHOP AND HENKEL, 1962)volo RATIO eo 3o CASAGRANDE’S erection foe CONSTRUCTION COMPRESSIBILITY OF APPARATUS Los (0 -Uq) FIGURE 16. INTERPRETATION OF THE ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSTANT VOLUME TEST31 Sampling of a soil always increases the compressibility of the soil structure and does not permit the lab sample to return to its insitu state of stress at its insitu void ratio. Casagrande (1936) proposed an empirical construction on the laboratory curve to account for the effect of sample disturbance. This construction should be done on the consolidation curve that has been corrected for compres- sibility. The resulting value obtained is equal to the sum of the net applied load and the matric suction if the soil is near saturation. At lower degrees of saturation, the laboratory matric suction value {obtained from the net loading plane), should be divided by 'x' to obtain the insitu matric suction value. (uy - Wiab ‘a7 Wield ~ x (u The above procedure provides an indication of the insitu state of stress of the soil. In the past, the term ‘swelling pressure’ has been used to designate the insitu stress. It was taken as equal to the sum of the overburden pressure and the matric suction (Fredlund, 1969). However, the swelling pressure was generally obtained from a “constant volume oedometer test’ where no correction was applied for the effect of sample disturbance. As a result, the matric suction of the soil was under-estimated. Another procedure used to evaluate the ‘swelling pressure’ is the “free swell oedometer test’ (Fredlund, 1969). In this test procedure, the sample is initially allowed to swell freely with only a token load applied. The load required to bring the sample back to its original void ratio is defined as the ‘swelling pressure’. The procedure has limitations in that hysteresis has been incorporated into the prediction of the insitu state of stress.32 Gilchrist (1963) compared the ‘constant volume’ and ‘free swell’ nethods of determining the swelling pressure for samples of statically compacted Regina clay (Figure 17). Although no corrections were applied by Gilchrist (oc cit), the author has taken the liberty to apply a correction to account for sample disturbance. In so doing, the values of ‘swelling pressure’ are significantly increased. Also shown in Figure 17 are the ‘swelling pressure’ results obtained on artificially desiccated Regina clay samples tested by Lu (1969). Corrections are applied for the compressibility of apparatus and sample disturbance. When these corrections are applied to the test results, the ‘swelling pressure’ values are in close agreement with the virgin compression branch obtained from the compression of slurried Regina clay samples (see Figure 20 shown later). This agreement lends credence to the above procedure for estimating the insitu state of stress. An indication of the preconsolidation pressure of the soil can be obtained either from a knowledge of the location of the virgin compression branch or by Schmertman's empirical construction (Schmert- man, 1955). The compressibility and swelling modulii with respect to net applied load, (o - u,), can be taken off the corrected or reconstructed labora- tory curve. The corresponding modulii with respect to matric suction changes can be approximated as [x+(1ab modulii)] with respect to changes in net applied load. V.3 Future Deformat fons The theoretical prediction of future ground movements requires a knowledge of: a) the initial insitu state of stress (i.e. (o - uy) and (u, - u,)) b) the compressibility and swelling moduli, and c) the final state of stress (Fredlund, 1975)RATIO voip 09 08 o7 0.6 os! TY - T T T | FREE SWELL CONSTANT VOLUME TESTS CORRECTED FoR _| TESTS (F.S.) COMPRESSIBILITY AND SAMPLE DISTURBANCE | constanr \ VOLUME a cess ev * VIRGIN COMPRESSION BRANCH L 4 \ 7 LU_ (1969) ARTIFICIALLY 4 DESICCATED CLAY (CORRECTED ) al al 0.01 0.1 10 10 100 SWELLING PRESSURE (KG. cM? FIGURE 17. THE RELATIONSHIP OF VOID RATIO AND SWELLING PRESSURE DETERMINED BY THREE METHODS (REGINA CLAY)The evaluation of the initial stress state and the modulii of deformation have already been presented. In order to compute the final state of stress corresponding to several years after construc- tion, an assumption must be made with respect to the final water pressure profile. Two assumptions are applicable to the Regina region. First, it can be assumed that the soil will eventually becone saturated and the water pressures are zero with respect to depth. Second, it can be assumed that the water table will come to ground surface (locally) and the water pressures are hydrostatic with respect to depth. The effects of excavation, replacement with a relatively inert material (eg. gravel), loadings, etc., can all be taken into account by using the appropriate modulif for loading and unloading, and the initial and final stress states. VI. SHEAR STRENGTH Generally, shear strength is not a serious problem with respect to foundations placed on swelling clays. However, the shear strength is of considerable interest with respect to slope stability. The stress strain curve for Regina clay is typical for a heavily overconsol idated clay (Figure 18). The deviator stress increases rapidly, peaking at a relatively low strain. It then decreases, levelling off at @ considerably lower value referred to as the ‘residual shear strength’. The stress variables used to describe stress history and the pre- sent state of stress in an unsaturated soil can also be used to describe the shear strength of a soil. The Mohr diagram becomes a three-dimensional plot with each of the two stress variables represented along orthogonal36 AVIN WHIOTY YO FAYNI NIVULS-SSIMIS TYIIdAL “BL 3uN9T4 (%) — NIVHLS HLONSYLS TWNOIS3H HLONBHLS = AV3d SS3HLS YOLVIAIC (f0-'o)36 horizontal axes (Figure 19). The graph shows that strength increases as the matric suction increases. The lowest strength corresponds to the plane where the matric suction goes to zero. ‘A common occurrence in cuts or fills of swelling soils is their reduction in strength with time. At the time of compaction, the clay has a high matric suction if it is compacted at or below the optimum water content. Correspondingly, it has a high strength and will stand at steep slopes. With time, the soil generally becomes saturated and the matric suction reduces towards zero. There is a corresponding re- duction in strength and if the gravitational forces are too large. the slope fails. VIT, TYPICAL VALUES FOR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Several research programs have been conducted at the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, on the physical properties of Regina clay. Typical results have been extracted to depict the: a) compressibility properties b) swelling properties, and c) shear strength properties of Regina clay The sources of data are the following M.Sc. theses: Gilchrist, H.G. (1963), "A Study of Volume Change of a Highly Plastic Clay". Fredlund, D.G. (1964), "Compariaon of Soil Suetion and One~ Dimensional Consolidation Characteristics of a Highly Plastic Clay”. Lu, Yi Ming (1969), "Suet? Properties of Desiecated Regina Clay". Widger, A. (1975), "Evaluation of the Shear Strength of Uneatur- ated Soils", (In Print).PLANE OF ZERO MATRIC SUCTION ue a i. SHEAR STRENGTH FIGURE 19, MOHR ENVELOPE FOR UNSATURATED OR DESICCATED REGINA CLAY38 VIT.1 Compress ibility Properties When Regina clay is remolded at a water content near the liquid limit, the soil exhibits a relatively high compressibility. Figure 20 shows the compressibility with respect to one-dimenstonal consolidation im an oedometer (Fredlund, 1964). The classification properties of the soil are shown in Table I. The compressive index on the virgin compres- sion branch is approximately 0.8. Increasing amounts of preconsolidation greatly reduce the compressibility of the soil. Figure 21 shows the compressibility results when a suction (or tension) is applied to the water phase. The compressibility on the virgin compression branch is very similar to that for one-dimensional consolidation. The recom- pression branches are slightly more curved due to the consolidation being three-dimensional in the suction test. As Tong as the samples remain essentially saturated, the compressibility with respect to net loading of the soil structure is similar to the compressibility with respect to applying a tension to the water phase (i.e. x = 1.0). Gilchrist (1963) performed oedometer tests on statically compacted samples of Regina clay. The samples were allowed to swell against varying surcharge loads. The classification tests on the soil indicated a liquid limit of 76%, a plastic limit of 30% and a shrinkage limit of 15%, Figure 22 shows the results for samples prepared at an initial void ratio of approximately 0.67. The average compressive index is 0.23. Figures 23 and 24 show similar compression curves for samples prepared at average initial void ratios of 0.79 and 0.94, respectively. The corresponding conpressive indices are 0.28 and 0.30.WATER CONTENT, PER CENT 39 we T 90 o Note: Numbers in brackets refer to (0.062) + preconsolidation pressure in kg/cm? 80 - OS ne (0.50) e— . al + sok 40 sok 1 1 ms 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 EFFECTIVE PRESSURE, kgicm? FIGURE 20. EFFECTIVE PRESSURE VERSUS WATER CONTENT FOR REMOLDED REGINA CLAY (ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION TESTS).WATER CONTENT, PER CENT 40 T T Note: Numbers in brackets refer to preconsolidation pressure in kg/cm? (0.062) « #0 4 oS (0,25) +. 70 a (0,50) 7 —., (2.0) ga sof (4.0) oe 40 30 i L 0.01 0.1 1.0 SOIL SUCTION, kg/em? FIGURE 21, SOIL SUCTION VERSUS WATER CONTENT FOR REMOLDED REGINA CLAYVOID RATIO APPLIED LOAD (KG./C FIGURE 22. OEDOMETER TESTS ON COMPACTED REGINA CLAY (e, = 0. (FROM GILCHRIST, 1963) 67) 100voID RATIO le ‘0.01 0.1 t 0 100 APPLIED LOAD (KG. /CM™) FIGURE 23. OEDOMETER TESTS ON COMPACTED REGINA CLAY (e, (FROM GILCHRIST, 1963) 0.79) aVOID RATIO 74 ©. 001 0.01 0.1 1 APPLIED LOAD (KG. 7M?) FIGURE 24. OEDOMETER TESTS ON COMPACTED REGINA CLAY (e, = 0.94) (From Gilchrist, 1963) ey44 Lu (1969) artificially desiccated samples of Regina clay and then performed one-dimensional, constant volume oedoneter tests (Figure 25). The classification properties are the same as those shown in Table I. The initial volume-weight relationships and swelling pressures are given in Table III. TABLE IIT CONSTANT VOLUME OEDOMETER TESTS ON ARTIFICIALLY DESICCATED REGINA CLAY (From Lu, 1969) Initial Conditions Swelling Pressure (kg/cn*) Sample Water Votd Degree of Constant Corrected for Content Saturation No. (4) Ratio (8) Volume * Sample Disturbance 05 16.75 0.512 91.8 2.0 52.0 D6 26.55 0.750 99.1 8.0 21.0 07 29.46 0.847 97.3 7.0 10.5 Ds 34.62 1.030 93.1 2.0 4.1 * Corrected for compressibility of apparatus only. The high swelling pressures (i.e. 4 to 52 kg/en*) are indicative of the high tensions that can éxist in the water phase. The average compressive index for loading above the preconsolidation pressure is 0.44. The insitu Regina clay has a moderate compressibility due to its Jong history of preconsolidation by evaporation and desiccation. Set- tlement is not generally a serious problem at loadings less than the preconsolidation pressure.VOID RATIO. Ot ' 10 100 APPLIED LOAD ( KG./CM?) FIGURE 25, OEDOMETER TESTS ON ARTIFICIALLY DESICCATED REGINA CLAY (FROM LU, 1969)46 VII.2 Swelling Properties Regina clay will generally swell upon wetting, even under relatively high surcharge loadings. The oedometer results presented in Figures 22, 23, and 24 (Gilchrist, 1963) showed the amount of swell experienced for various surcharge loads and initial void ratios. The swelling indices are 0.17, 0.15 and 0.13 for initial void ratios of 0.67, 0.79 and 0.94, respectively. These results can be replotted in terms of percent volume change, initial water content and surcharge loading (Figure 26). The plot readily depicts the benefits of even a small surcharge on re- ducing the amount of swell. The results of both compacted and undis- turbed tests indicate similar swell curves. The swelling index, C., on the artificially desiccated samples of Regina clay prepared by Lu (1969), ranged from 0.12 to 0.15. VII.3 Shear Strength Properties Several sets of triaxial tests with pore pressure measurements have been performed on compacted Regina clay for the Department of Highways, Government of Saskatchewan. Figures 27 and 28 show the residual total and effective stress Mohr envelopes obtained on samples compacted at 100% standard AASHO. The samples were backpressured in an attempt to produce saturation. It should be noted that backpressuring the samples over a short period of time is not likely to produce as serious a situation as extensive soaking of the soil. Table IV sum- marizes the shear strength parameters.VOLUME CHANGE - PERCENT 24 22 re cS & 2g LeGeN T S°NYT | [pr remouroeo specimens 246 wae BAGESL 7 = unoistunseo tt i34.1__| Note: wl 37a) NUMBERS DENOTE INITIAL 8 AALS water conten 33.0, | i D i 27 w 70 PANES es 232] a 13 | a5 lane 3 1 BN, eeqy > Near aa 0.1 0.2 03 04 05 06 07 O8 ae IRCHARGE LOAD — KG./ SQ. 223) lee a0 259/57 lez Ry {32 Ise iste 1.0 2.0 3.0 40 FIGURE 26. SURCHARGE LOAD — KG/SQ. CM. VOLUME CHANGE VERSUS SURCHARGE LOAD FROM EXPERIMENTAL DATA (FROM NOBLE, 1966)SHEAR STRESS TOTAL STRENGTH | ENVELOPE FOR R-23 BASED ON 12% STRAIN | G+l08 Cw 4Spsi 10 20 30) ‘40 a) 60 70 90 100 NORMAL STRESS (PSI) FIGURE 27. MOHR ENVELOPE FOR TOTAL RESIDUAL STRENGTH (R-23, Department of Highways)STRESS SHEAR FIGURE 28. "EFFECTIVE “STRENGTH ~“EliveLoPE "FoR a-23 BASED ON 12% STRAIN Ons C-25psi NORMAL STRESS (PS!) MOHR ENVELOPE FOR EFFECTIVE RESIDUAL STRENGTH (R-23, Department of Highways) oyTABLE IV SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS OF REGINA CLAY (100% Standard AASHO) Series R-23, Trans Canada Highway Bypass Stress Conditions Cohesion (PSI) Angle of Internal Friction (Degrees) Total Stresses at ° 12% Strain aa 10. Effective Stresses at 7 12% Strain 15. Widger (1975) has conducted a more detailed investigation of the shear strength of the Regina Clay fill at the Belle Plaine overpass between Regina and Moose Jaw. The results (Figures 29, 30 and 31) in dicate that samples that have had a long time to saturate and soften exhibit reduced shear strength parameters. Some of the results from an extensive triaxial testing program are presented in Tabie V. The Mohr envelopes tend to be bilinear with the steepest portion corres- ponding to the lower confining pressure. The triaxial test has the limitation that high strains produce large distortions in the sample and make the conputation of the cross- sectional area difficult. This problem is overcome by using direct shear tests where samples may be sheared several inches along a distinct plane. These tests yield a more accurate evaluation of the residual shear strength parameters. Figure 32 shows the shear strength parameters obtained from direct shear tests on undisturbed, softened, block samples. ‘The best-fit Nohr envelope for the residual shear strength shows a co-Shear Stress (psi eo 8 2 8 6 ° i: Peak Effective Strength a0 40 so Normal Stress (psi) 10 20 FIGURE 29. MOHR ENVELOPE FOR PEAK EFFECTIVE STRENGTH (BELLE PLAINE OVERPASS) 60 79 80 100(psi) Shear Stress FIGURE 30. “"* Total Residual Strength 20 60 40 Normal Stress (psi) MOHR ENVELOPE FOR TOTAL RESIDUAL STRENGTH (BELLE PLAINE OVERPASS) 80 100Shear Siress (psi) 8 FIGURE 31. Effective Residual Strength 1 | 4 | | 40 60 Normal Stress (psi) MOHR ENVELOPE FOR EFFECTIVE RESIDUAL STRENGTH (BELLE PLAINE OVERPASS) 80 esSHEAR STRESS (PSI) SHEAR STRESS (PSI) PEAK STRENGTHS (TOTAL STRESS ) - 1 1 1 1 n 15 20 2 30 NORMAL STRESS (PSI) oF 3 RESIOUAL STRENGTH (TOTAL STRESS) NORMAL STRESS (PSI) FIGURE 32, DIRECT SHEAR TEST RESULTS ON SOFTENED REGINA CLAY AT BELLE PLAINE 955 hesion intercept of 0.75 psi (108 PSF) and an angle of internal friction of 7.5 degrees. These results show that Regina clay has low shear strength parameters when allowed access to water. TABLE V SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS FOR SATURATED SOFTENED REGINA CLAY (Belle Plaine) Stress Conditions Stress Range Cohesion —_Angle of Internal (PSI) (PSI) Friction (Degrees) Peak, Effective < 40 0.0 20.0 Stress 10 to 80 1.0 15.5 Residual, Total < 40 0.0 11.0 Stress 20 to 100 2.0 5.5 Residual, Effective < 40 0.0 13.0 Stress 10 to 80 2.0 1.5 VIII SUMMARY Regina clay can be classified as a highly plastic, inorganic, calcium montmorillonitic clay. Its swelling potential is ‘very high’. The severity of the swelling problem is aggravated by the relatively dry conditions in the Regina area. The net result is a soil that is generally desiccated and dry in its present state. The prediction of the behavior of the clay in the future (i.e. after construction) depends upon an evaluation of the present state of stress and of the physical properties of the soil. The state of stress can be visualized in terms of the net applied load to the soil56 structure (o - u,) and the matric suction or tension in the water phase (u, - uy). The physical properties are the compressibility and swelling modulif with respect to each stress variable, for volume change problems, and the cohesion and angles of internal friction for shear strength problems. The geotechnical engineer must use the soils information in a predictive sense in order to be aware of the consequences of various design alternatives on a project.87 IX, LIST OF REFERENCES Acton, 0.F., J.S. Clayton, J.G. Ellis, E.A. Christiansen, W.0. Kupsch (1960), "Phyeiographic Division of Saskatehewan”, Map No. 1, Saskatchewan Research Council, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Christiansen, E.A. (1961), "Geology and Growd-Water Resources of the Regina Area, Saskatchewan", Saskatchewan Research Council, Geology Division, Report No. 2. Ellis, J.G., D.F. Acton and J.S. Clayton (1965), "The Soils of the Regina Map dea, Saskatchewan Institute of Pedology, Extension Publi- cation 176, Extension Division, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon. Fredlund, 0.G. (1967), "Comparison of Soil Suction and One-Dimensional Conaolidation Characteristics of a Highly Plastic Clay”, Technical Paper No. 245, Division of Building Research, Ottawa. Frediund, 0.6. (1969), "Coneolidometer Test Procedural Factors Affecting Swett Properties", Proceedings of the Second International Con- ference on Expansive Clays, College Station, Texas. Fredlund, D.G. (1973), "Volume Change Behavior of Unsaturated Soils", Ph.D. Thesis, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta. Fredlund, D.G. (1975), "Prediction of Heave in Unsaturated Soile", Fifth Regional Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Conference, Bangalore, India. Gardiner, R.T. (1965), "Mineralogical and Chemical Composition of Some Praihde Claye, A Literature feviow", Technical Paper No. 201, Division of Building Research, Ottawa. Gilchrist, H.G. (1963), "A Study of Volume Change of a Highly Plastic Clay”, M.Sc. Thesis, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon. Grim, R.E. (1953), "Clay Mineralogy", McGraw-Hill Book Co. Ltd. 384 p. Hamilton, J.J. (1963), "Volwne Changes in Undisturbed Clay Profiles of Weetem Canada”, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Volume I, No. 1, September. Hamilton, J.J. (1969), "Effects of Exvironment on the Performance of Shallow Foudationa”, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Volume VI, lo. 1. Lu, Yi Ming (1969), "SueZt Properties of Destccated Regina Clay", M.Sc. Thesis, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon.58 Noble, C.A. (1966), "Swelling Measurements and Prediction of Heave for a Lacuetrine Clay", Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Volume IIT, No. 1, February. Rice, H.M., S.A. Forman and L.M. Patry (1959), "A Study of Some Profiles from Major Soil Zones in Saskatchewan and Alberta", Canadian Yournal’ Soil Science, Volume 39, pp. 165-177. Schmertmann, J.H. (1955), "The Undisturbed Consolidation of Clay", Transactions ASCE, Volume 120, p. 1207. Williams, A.A.B. (1958), "Discussion on J.E.B. Jenning's and K. Knight's paper: The Prediction of Total Heave from the Double Qedometer Teat", Transactions of South African Institute Civil Engineers, Volume 8, No. 6, June.