FFFL 1-6 PDF

Conformal & Non-Conformal
Surfaces
Rolling
Journal element
Outer
ring
Sleeve Inner
ring
Figure 1.1 Conformal Surfaces. [From Figure 1.2 Nonconformal Surfaces. [From
Hamrock and Anderson (1983).] Hamrock and Anderson (1983).]
Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Hamrock, Schmid & Jacobson
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Hydrodynamic
Lubrication
wz
Minimum film thickness:

ub
! "1/2
ub
(hmin)HL
hmin wz
Conformal surfaces
pmax ~ 5 MPa
hmin = f(wz, ub, H0, Rx, Ry) > 1 Mm
No elastic effect
Figure 1.3 Characteristics of

hydrodynamic lubrication.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Pressure Development
wz
wz wz
wa
pa
ub
(a) (b)
ps
(c)
Figure 1.4 Mechanisms of pressure development for hydrodynamic

lubrication. (a) Slider bearing; (b) squeeze film bearing; (c) externally
pressurized bearing.}

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
wz wz
ub ub
hmin
hmin
Nonconformal surfaces (e.g., nitrile rubber
Nonconformal surfaces pmax ~ 1 MPa
High-elastic-modulus material (e.g., steel) hmin = f (wz, ub, H0, Rx, Ry, E') ~ 1 Mm
pmax ~ 1 GPa Elastic effects predominate
hmin = f(wz, ub, H0, Rx, Ry, E', X) > 0.1 Mm
Elastic and viscous effects both important
Figure 1.5 Characteristics Figure 1.6 Characteristics

of hard elastohydrodynamic of soft elastohydrodynamic
lubrication lubrication
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Regimes of Lubrication
Boundary film
Bulk lubricant
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.5 Film conditions of lubrication regimes. (a) Fluid film lubrication
- surfaces separated by a bulk lubricant film; (b) partial lubrication - both
bulk lubricant and boundary film play a role; (c) boundary lubrication -
performance depends entirely on boundary film.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Friction for Various Lubrication
Conditions
10
Unlubricated
1
Coefficient of friction, M
Boundary
Elasto-
10-1 hydrodynamic
10-2
Hydrodynamic
10-3
Figure 1.8 Bar diagram
showing friction coefficient for
various lubrication conditions.
10-4
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Wear Rates for Lubrication
Regimes
Seizure
Severe wear
Wear rate
Unlubricated
Hydrodynamic
Elastohydro-
Figure 1.9 Wear rates for dynamic
various lubrication regimes. Boundary
[From Beerbower (1972)].
0 Relative load
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Boundary Lubricants
Speed, cm/s Coecient of friction
0.017
Stearic acid, moles/1000 grams
0.126 0.078
Lauric acid, moles/1000 grams
| | |
Table 1.1 Fatty acids in oil
0.034 .131 .085 0.141 .116 0.109 as lubricants. [From
0.051
0.085
.132
.133
.088
.091
.145
|
.123
.126
.115
.120
Dorinson and Ludema
0.169 .135 .094 | .130 .126 (1985).]
0.254 | .095 | | |
Figure 1.10 Effect of chain 160 Transition temperature Molecular weight of lubricant
length on the effectiveness of a 0.4
0 100 200 300
80
Contact angle of methylene

70
boundary lubricant. (a) Critical
Temperature (C)
iodide on monolayer
Coefficient of friction
120
0.3 60
Stearic
Palmitic
temperature as a function of
Myristic
Contact angle 50
80
Lauric
0.2 Friction 40
Pelargonic
chain length [From Bowden and

Capric
30
40 0.1 20
Tabor (1950)]; (b) friction Melting point of acid 10
coefficient as a function of chain 0

8 10 12 14 16 18
0
4 8 12 16 20 24
0
28
length. [From Zisman (1959).]} Number of carbon atoms in fatty acid chain
(a)
Total number of carbon atoms in molecular chain
(b)

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Langmuir-Blodgett Films
0.5
Coefficient of friction
0.4
Number
of films 3 9
1
0.3
0.2
0.1 53
Figure 1.11 Effect of boundary

0 lubricant thickness on friction for
10 20 30 40 50
Langmuir-Blodgett films. [From
Bowden and Tabor (1950).]
Number of runs over same track

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Boundary Lubricant Mechanisms
Cohesion
H H
H H
HCH HCH
HCH HCH
H CH H CH
H CH H CH
H HCH
H HCH HCH HCH
CH
H CH H CH
H H CH H CH
H C HCH
CH H n-Hexadecane (Cetane) HCH HCH HCH
H
(C16H34) H H H CH
H CH
H H
C H CH H CH
H
C
H C HCH HCH
HCH Iron
CH H HCH
H
H
C H CH stearate
H CH H CH
C
H H CH
H
C H HCH
H
H
CH H HCH HCH HCH
H H
C 3 nm
C
H CH
H
H H CH H CH H CH
H
C HCH
H H
H
CH H C HCH HCH HCH
C
H
H H CH H CH
H CH
H H
H H CH
CH
CH H
C C
H
C
H HCH
CH H
C
H
HCH HCH HCH
C
H
H
CH H
H
H CH
H
H
C H CH H CH H CH
C
C
H
H
C HCH
H
CH H
H
H
HCH HCH
H
H
CH H HCH
H
C
C
H C
C
H CH H CH
H
H CH
H
H
H
H
H
C HCH
C
H H
H HCH HCH
CH H HCH
C
H
CH
C
CH H
H
H HCH
O C
C
H
Metal Oxide C O
H O Fe O Adhesion
H
C O
H
O C
de e O
H
H Fe
H al Oxi O e
F F e O
O O O Fe O Fe O
O O O O O F
t
H
e
Me Metal
Fe e e
O O FO F
Fe F
O F e O F Fe O Fe O Fe OFe O O
F Fe
Metal F e e e e O F e
O O F e Fe O F O
e O Fe O F O Fe O
Fe Fe O Fe O Fe
O O
Fe Iron oxide
Iron
Figure 1.12 Physisorption of of n-

hexadecane molecules to a metal surface. Figure 1.12 Chemisorption of
[From Ku (1970).] stearic acid to an iron-containing
surface to form iron stearate.
[From Ku (1970)]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Boundary Lubrication
Mechanisms (cont.)
S S S
S S 0.4
S S
S S S
S S
S Soap formed
S S S
S S S S S S SS S S
S S SSSS
S S S S Fe S Fe S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S Fe 0.2
S Fe Fe S Fe S Fe Fe S Fe S Fe S Fe Fe S Acid melts
S Fe S
Fe S S Fe S Fe S Fe Fe S
Fe Fe Fe S Fe S Fe S Fe Soap solidifies
S S S Fe S S Fe S
S Fe Fe S Fe S
Fe S S Fe Fe S Fe S Fe
Fe S Fe S S Fe S Fe
S Fe Fe S Fe
Fe
Fe Fe Fe 0
Fe 0 100 200
Fe Fe
Temperature (C)
Figure 1.14 Formation of sulfide

Figure 1.15 Thermal activation of a
layers on steel, an example of
boundary lubricant during the initial
boundary lubrication through chemical
thermal cycle.
reactions involving the substrate.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Stribeck Curve
1
Absence of
boundary
lubricants
Elastohydrodynamic
0.1
(non-conformal contacts only)
M
0.01
0.001 Boundary Mixed Hydrodynamic
5 10 20
HW
Hersey number,
p
Figure 1.16 A Stribeck curve, showing the effects of Hersey
number (hw/p) on friction coefficient.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Bearing Classification
Conformal fluid film bearings Rolling-element bearings
Nature of Liquid Gas Nature of

lubrication Oil Grease
lubrication
Mode of operation Hydrodynamic Squeeze Hydrostatic Hybrid Roller

Mode of operation Ball (including
needle)
Direction of load Journal Combined Thrust

Angular
Direction of load Thrust Radial
contact
Nature of load Steady Dynamic
Nature of load Steady Dynamic
Geometric form
(e.g. partial or Geometric form
complete journal
bearings)
Geometric form Single row Double row
Figure 2.1 Divisions of conformal

fluid film bearings. Figure 2.2 Divisions of
Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication rolling-element bearings.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Rubbing bearings
Shaft
Oil-impregnated porous metal bearings
Rolling-element bearings
Hydrodynamic oil film bearings Guide to Journal
107 diameter,
106
10 6
m (in.)
0.5 (20)
.5 (20
)
0.25
(10)
Bearings
105 Approximate
.25 ( .125
10) (5) solid-steel-shaft
0.125 (5) burst limit
105 .125
(5)
104
Typical maximum load, lbf
,05 (
2)
Typical maximum load, N
.05 (2)
,05 (
2)
104
.025 (1)
3 .025
10 (1)
.025
.0125 (1/2) (1)
103 .01
25
10 2 1
.006 ( /4) .012
5 ( 1/
( 1/2
) Figure 1.5 General guide
2 )
102
.00
6 (1
to journal bearing type.
.006 1 /4)
10
Approximate maximum
speed, rubbing bearings 0.05 (2)
( /4)
Except for rolling-element
.025 (1) bearings, curves are drawn
10 Approximate maximum
speed, rolling-element bearings
.006 (1/4)
for bearings with width
1 .0125 (1/2)
equal to diameter. A
1
4
medium-viscosity mineral oil
10-2 10-1 1 10 102 103 104 2 10
Frequency of rotation, rps is assumed for
hydrodynamic bearings.
1 10 102 103 104
Frequency of rotation, rpm
105 106 [From ESDU (1965).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Table 2.1: Advantages and limitations of journal bearings [(From ESDU 1965)]
Condition General com- Journal bearing type

ments
Rubbing Oil- Rolling-element Hydrodynamic Hydrostatic Self-acting Externally
bearings impregnated bearings fluid film bearings fluid film gas bear- pressurized
porous metal bearings ings gas bearings
bearings
High tem- Attention to Normally sat- Attention to Up to 100 C no Attention to oxidation Excellent Excellent
perature differential isfactory de- oxidation limitations; from 100 resistance of lubricant is
expansions and pending on resistance of to 250 C stabilized necessary
their effect material lubricant is bearings and special
on fits and necessary lubrication proce-
clearances is dures are probably
necessary required
Low tem- Attention to Lubricant may Below -30 C spe- Lubricant may Lubricant Excellent; thorough drying of
perature differential impose limita- cial lubricants are re- impose limitations; may impose gas is necessary
expansions tions; consider- quired; consideration consideration of limitations
and starting ation of start- of starting torque is starting torque is
torques is ing torque is necessary necessary
necessary necessary
External Attention to Normally satisfactory except May impose limita- Satisfactory Excellent Normally Excellent
vibration the possibility when peak of impact load ex- tions; consult manu- satisfactory
of fretting ceeds load-carrying capacity facturer
damage is nec-
essary (except
for hydrostatic
bearings)
Space re- Small radial extent Bearings of many Small radial extent but total Small Small radial
quirements different proportions; space requirement depends on radial extent, but
small axial extent the lubrication feed system extent total space
requirement
depends on
the gas feed
system
Dirt or dust Normally Sealing is important Satisfactory; filtration of lubri- Sealing im- Satisfactory
satisfactory; cant is important portant
sealing is
advantageous
Vacuum Excellent Lubricant may impose limitations Not Not appli-
normally cable when
applicable vacuum
has to be
maintained

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Table 2.1: Continued

ments
Rubbing Oil- Rolling-element bear- Hydrodynamic Hydrostatic Self-acting Externally
bearings impregnated ings fluid film bearings fluid film gas bear- pressurized
bearings
Simplicity Excellent Excellent with self- Self-contained Auxiliary Excellent Pressurized
of lubrica- contained grease or assemblies can high pres- supply of dry,
tion oil lubrication be used with sure is clean gas is
certain limits of necessary necessary
load, speed, and
diameter; beyond
this, oil circulation
is necessary
Availability Good to Excellent Good Not available
of standard excellent
parts depending on
type
Prevention lmproved Normally satisfactory, but attention to sealing is necessary. ex- Excellent
of con- performance cept where a process liquid can be used as a lubricant
tamination can be ob-
product tained by
and sur- allowing a
roundings processs
liquid to
lubricate and
cool the
bearing, but
wear debris
may impose
limitations
Frequent Excellent Good Excellent Good Excellent Poor Excellent
stop-starts
Frequent Generally good Generally good
change of
rotating
direction
Running Very low Depends on com- Cost of Nil Cost of gas
costs plexity of lubrica- lubricant supply has to
tion system supply be considered
has to be
considered

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Table 2.1: Concluded
ments
Rubbing Oil- Rolling-element Hydrodynamic Hydrostatic Self-acting Externally
bearings impregnated bearings fluid film bearings fluid film gas bear- pressurized
bearings
Wetness Attention to Normally Normally satis- Normally satisfac- Satisfactory Satisfactory
and humid- possibility satisfactory factory; sealing tory, but special
ity of metallic depending on advantageous attention to sealing
corrosion is material may be necessary
necessary
Radiation Satisfactory Lubricant may impose limitations Excellent
Low start- Not normally Satisfactory Good Satisfactory Excellent Satisfactory Excellent
ing torque recom-
mended
Low run-
ning torque
Accuracy of Poor Good Excellent Good Excellent
radial loca-
tion
Life Finite but predictable Theoretically infi- Theoretically Theoretically Theoretically
nite but affected by infinite infinite but infinite
filtration and num- affected by
ber of stops and filtration
starts and num-
ber of stops
and starts
Combination A thrust force must be provided Most types capable of A thrust face must be provided to carry the axial loads
of axial and to carry the axial loads dual duty
load-
carrying
capacity
Silent run- Good for Excellent Usually satisfactory; Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent
ning steady consult manufacturer except for except for
loading possible possible
pump noise compressor
noise

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Table 2.2: Advantages and limitations of thrust bearings. [From ESDU (1967).]
Condition General com- Thrust bearing type

ments
bearings
High tem- Attention to Normally Attention Up to 100 C no Attention to oxidation resis- Excellent
perature differential satisfactory to oxidation limitations; from 100 tance of lubricant is necessary
expansions and depending on resistance to 250 C stabilized
their effect material of lubricant bearings and special
upon axial necessary lubrication proce-
clearance is dures are probably
necessary required
Low tem- Attention to Lubricant may Below -30 C spe- Lubricant may Lubricant Excellent; thorough dry-
perature differential impose limita- cial lubricants are re- impose limitations; may im- ing of gas is necessary
expansions tions; consider- quired; consideration consideration of pose limita-
and starting ation of start- of starting torque is starting torque is tions
torques is ing torque is necessary necessary
necessary necessary
External Attention to Normally satisfactory except May impose limita- Satisfactory Excellent Normally Excellent
vibration the possibility when peak of impact load ex- tions; consult manu- satisfactory
of fretting ceeds load carrying capacity facturer
damage is nec-
essary (except
for hydrostatic
bearings)
Space re- Small radial extent Bearings of many dif- Small radial extent but total Small Small radial
quirements ferent proportions are space requirement depends on radial total space
available the lubrication feed system extent requirement
depends on
gas feed
system
Dirt or dust Normally satisfactory; seal- Sealing is important Satisfactory; filtration of lubri- Sealing im- Satisfactory
ing advantageous cant is important portant
Vacuum Excellent Lubricant may impose limitations Not nor- Not appli-
mally cable when
applicable vacuum
has to be
maintained

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Table 2.2: Continued.
Condition General com- Thrust bearing type

ments
bearings
Wetness Attention to Normally Normally satis- Normally satisfac- Satisfactory
and humid- possibility satisfactory factory; sealing tory, but special
ity of metallic depending on advantageous attention to sealing
corrosion is material is perhaps necessary
necessary
Radiation Satisfactory Lubricant may impose limitations Excellent
Low start- Not normally Satisfactory Good Satisfactory Excellent Satisfactory Excellent
ing torque recom-
mended
Low run- Satisfactory Excellent
ning torque
Accuracy of Good Excellent Good Excellent
radial loca-
tion
Life Finite but can be estimated Theoretically infi- Theoretically Theoretically Theoretically
nite but affected by infinite infinite but infinite
filtration and num- affected by
ber of stops and number of
starts stops and
starts
Combination A journal bearing surface Some types capable A journal bearing surface must be provided to carry the
of axial and must be provided to carry the of dual duty radial loads
load- radial loads
carrying
capacity
Silent run- Good for Excellent Usually satisfactory; Excellent Excellent, Excellent Excellent,
ning steady consult manufacturer except for except for
loading possible possible
pump noise compressor
noise
Simplicity Excellent Excellent with self- Self-contained Auxiliary Excellent Pressurized
of lubrica- contained grease lu- assemblies can high pres- supply of dry,
tion brication; with large be used with sure is clean gas is
sizes or high speeds, certain limits of necessary necessary
oil lubrication might load, speed, and
be necessary diameter; beyond
this, oil circulation
is necessary

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Table 2.2: Concluded.
Condition General Thrust bearing type
com-
ments
bearings
Availability of stan- Good to Excellent Good Poor
dard parts excellent
depending on
type
Prevention of con- Performance Normally satisfactory, but attention to sealing is necessary, except Excellent
tamination of prod- can be im- where a process liquid can be used as a lubricant
uct and surround- proved by
ings allowing a
process liquid
to lubricate
and cool the
bearing, but
wear debris
may impose
limitations
Tolerance to man- Good Satisfactory Poor Satisfactory Poor Satisfactory
ufacturing and as-
sembly inaccuracies
Type of Frequent Excellent Good Excellent Excellent
motion start-stops
Unidirec- Suitable
tional
Bidirec- Suitable Some types are Suitable Some types Suitable
tional suitable are suitable
Oscilla- Unsuitable Unsuitable
tory
Running costs Very low Depends on com- Cost of Nil Cost of gas
plexity of lubrica- lubricant supply has to
tion system supply be considered
has to be
considered

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Guide to Rubbing bearings
Oil-impregnated porous metal bearings
Rolling-element bearings
Hydrodynamic oil film bearings
107
Thrust 106
106
Diameter,
m (in.)
0.5 (20)
Approximate bursting
speed, steel disks
.25 (10)
Bearings 105
105
.125 (5)
Typical maximum load, lbf

104
.05 (2)
Typical maximum load, N

.025 (1)
104
Figure 2.4 General guide 103 .0125 (1/2)
to thrust bearing type. 103

Except for rolling-element 102 .125 (5) 0.006 (1/4)
.05 (2)
bearings, curves are drawn .025 (1)
102 .0125 (1/2)
for typical ratios of inside 10
.006 (1/4)
diameter to outside Approximate maximum

diameter. A medium- 10 Approximate maximum
speed, rubbing bearings
speed, rolling-element
bearings
1
viscosity mineral oil is
assumed for hydrodynamic 1
4
10-2 10-1 1 10 102 103 104 2 s 10
bearings. [From ESDU Frequency of rotation, rps
(1967).]
1 10 102 103 104 105 106
Frequency of rotation, rpm

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Surface Profiles
= + +
Actual surface profile Error of form Waviness Roughness
Figure 3.1 Geometric characteristics of solid surfaces [From Halling (1976).]
Stylus
Stylus
Profile Profile
Stylus
traverse Surface Surface
(a) (b)
Figure 3.2 Difficulty in interpreting

profilometer traces. (a) Surface profile; Figure 3.3 Error due to stylus radius.
(b) surface asperity.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Compressed Surface Profile
(a)
1:1
X Y
A B C D
Air
Metal
B' C'
Air A' D'
(b)
Metal
25 : 1 X' Y'
Figure 1.5 True (a) and compressed (b) profile. [From Thomas (1982).]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Atomic Force Microscope
Contact AFM cantilevers
Length = 450 Mm 450 Mm
Width = 40 Mm
Mirrored Thickness = 1-3 Mm
prism
Resonant frequency = 6-20 kHz
Diode laser Spring constant = 0.02-0.66 N/m
& lens
AFM signal
(A+B) - (C+D) 40 Mm
Mirror
B
A Tapping mode AFM cantilevers 125 Mm
FFM signal D
Length = 125 Mm
(A+C) - (B+D) C Width = 30 Mm
Cantilever Thickness = 3-5 Mm
Sample & substrate Resonant frequency = 250-400 kHz
Split-diode Spring constant = 17-64 N/m
photodetector
z 30 Mm
y
x xyz PZT Material: Etched single-crystal n-type silicon;
tube scanner resistivity = 0.01-0.02 ohm/cm
Tip shape: 10 nm radius of curvature, 35 interior angle
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.5 Schematic illustration of an atomic force microscope. (a)
Principle of operation for an AFM. (b) Typical cantilevers for use in an
atomic force microscope. [Source: Digital Instruments Corp.]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Devices for Surface Measurement
Device Resolution Vertical measurement Measurable
range or depth of eld area
Lateral Vertical At lowest At highest
Lowest Highest Lowest Highest resolution resolution
Stylus instru- (a) (a) 0.5 m 0.25 nm 500 m 0.25 m Depends on tra-
ment verse length; typi-
cally a few millime-
ters
Optical light 2.5 m 0.1 m (b) (b) 42 m 0.04 m Depends on magni-
microscope cation
Transmission 2.5 nm 0.5 nm (c) (c) 400 nm 80 nm Depends on magni-
electron mi- cation
croscope
Scanning 5 m 10 nm (d) (d) 1 mm 2 m Depends on magni-
electron mi- cation
croscope
a Not easily dened.
b Not applicable.
c Approximately the same as the lateral resolution.
d Not available.
Table 3.1 Summary of typical specifications of devices used for surface

topography measurement. [From Sherrington and Smith (1988)].
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Reference Lines
(a)
Mean or M System: Areas above

and below the horizontal line are
equal.
(b) Ten-point average: Use five
highest peaks and five lowest
valleys
Least Squares: Similar to M
System, but line can be inclined.
(c)
Figure 3.6 Comparison of three types of

reference line: (a) M system; (b) ten-point
average; (c) least squares.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Roughness Issues
Roughness measures:
1 N
Ra = |zi
N i=1
! "1/2
1 N 2
Rq = zi
N i=1
Rt = max(z) min(z)
Figure 3.7 Geometric profiles having same
values of arithmetic average. [From Halling
(1976).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Typical Roughness
Arithmetic average Ra
m in.
Processes
Sand casting; hot rolling 12.5-25 500-1000
Sawing 3.2-25 128-1000
Planing and shaping .8-25 32-1000
Forging 3.2-12.5 128-500
Drilling 1.6-6.3 64-250
Milling .8-6.3 32-250
Boring; turning .4-6.3 16-250
Broaching; reaming; cold rolling; drawing .8-3.2 32-128
Die casting .8-1.6 32-64
Grinding, coarse .4-1.6 16-64
Grinding, ne .1-.4 4-16
Honing .1-.8 4-32
Polishing .05-.4 2-16
Lapping .025-.4 1-16
Components
Gears 0.25-10 10-400
Plain bearings - journal (runner) .12-.5 5-20 Table 3.2 Typical arithmetic
Plain bearings - bearing (pad) .25-1.2 10-50 averages for various
Rolling bearings - rolling elements .025-.12 1-5
Rolling bearings - tracks .1-.3 4-12 processes and components.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Bearing Area Curve
tp(100)
Ln*
L1* L2* L
Figure 3.8 Surface profile tp(100)
showing bearing length.

[From Persson (1992).]
Figure 3.9 Abbot curves for two different

profiles. [From Persson (1992).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
All-Ordinate Distribution
Gaussian distribution:
1 (z z)2
=
exp
Z (2)1/2 2 2
Number
of points
Z1 Z2 Zi
Roughness measures:
Z L
Sample
interval All-ordinate Ra =
|z|dz
distribution L
histogram
!Z "1/2
Figure 3.10 Method of deriving all- L
ordinate distribution. [From Halling (1975).] Rq = z2dz

L

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Skewness and Kurtosis
Kurtosis,
B
>3
Skewness:
Z
1 3
= 3 z3dz

Rq
<3
Kurtosis:
Z
= 1 z4dz

R4q
Figure 3.11 Illustration of three different

kurtosis values. [From Halling (1975).]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Autocorrelation Parameter
Y(z) Y(z)
Autocorrelation:
Nk
1
k = 2 zizi+k Surface Surface
Rq (N k) i=1
Rk Rk
k$ k$
Autocorrelation function Autocorrelation function
(a) (b)
Figure 3.12 Two different surfaces and resulting

autocorrelation functions. (a) Periodicity profile;
(b) decay profile. [From Halling (1975).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Friction vs. Film Parameter
Boundary
Partial Elastohydrodynamic
Film parameter:
hmin
=! "1/2
Hydrodynamic
R2q,a + R2q,b
Friction coefficients:
1/h
HL 2
h
(1/h)
0 5 10 15 20
Film parameter, ,
1/h 1
Figure 3.13 Variation of friction coefficient EHL
constant h
with film parameter. [From Hamrock and
Dowson (1981).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Paraffins
Number of Name Formula Boiling Specic Physical
carbon point, gravity state at
atoms C NTPa
1 Methane CH4 -161.5 | Gas
2 Ethane C2 H 6 -88.3 | Gas
3 Propane C3 H 8 -44.5 | Gas
4 Butane C4 H10 -.5 | Gas
5 Pentane C5 H12 36.2 0.626 Liquid
6 Hexane C6 H14 69 .660 Liquid
7 Heptane C7 H16 98.4 .684 Liquid
8 Octane C8 H18 125.8 .704 Liquid Table 4.1 Straight-chain paraffins
9 Nonane C9 H20 150.6 .718 Liquid [From Pugh (1970)].
10 Decane C10 H22 174 .730 Liquid
a Normal temperature and pressure
Name Formula Sample of familiar member

Alkane or paran Cn H2n+2 Methane (CH4 )
Olen or alkene Cn H2n Ethylene (C2 H4 )
Table 4.2 Homologous series of Acetylene or alkyne Cn H2n2 Acetylene (C2 H2 )
Cycloparan or naphthene Cn H2n Cyclopentane (C5 H10 )
hydrocarbons. [From Hess (1981).] Aromatic Cn H2n6 Benzene (C6 H6 )

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Petroleum Products
Petroleum Boiling Point Number of carbon
product range, C atoms present
Natural gas < 32 1-4
Gasoline 40-200 4-12
Naptha (benzine) 50-200 7-12
Kerosine 175-275 12-15
Fuel oil 200-300 15-18
Lubricating oil > 300 16-20
Wax > 300 20-34
Asphalt Residue Large
Table 4.3 Petroleum products with boiling point

range and number of carbon atoms present.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Table 4.4: Formulas for straight-chain hydrocarbons and fatty acids. [From Pugh (1970)]
Number of Hydrocarbon Fatty acid

carbon atoms Formula Name Formula Chemical name Common
in molecule name
1 HCH3 or CH4 Methane HCO2 H Methanoic Formic
2 H(CH2 ) CH3 or C2 H6 Ethane CH3 CO2 H ethanoic Acetic
3 CH3 (CH2 ) CH3 Propane CH3 CH2 CO2 H Propanoic Propionic
4 CH3 (CH2 )2 CH3 Butane CH3 (CH2 )2 CO2 H Butanoic Butyric
6 CH3 (CH2 )4 CH3 Hexane CH3 (CH2 )4 CO2 H Hexanoic Caprioc
8
10
12
14
16
CH3 (CH2 )6 CH3
CH3 (CH2 )8 CH3
CH3 (CH2 )10 CH3
CH3 (CH2 )12 CH3
CH3 (CH2 )14 CH3
Octane
Decane
Dodecane
Tetradecane
Hexadecane
CH3 (CH2 )6 CO2 H
CH3 (CH2 )8 CO2 H
CH3 (CH2 )10 CO2 H
CH3 (CH2 )12 CO2 H
CH3 (CH2 )14 CO2 H
Octanoic
Decanoic
Dodecanoic
Tetradecanoic
Hexadecanoic
Caprylic
Capric
Lauric
Myristic
Palmitic
Lubricant
18 CH3 (CH2 )16 CH3 Octadecane CH3 (CH2 )16 CO2 H Octadecanoic Stearic
20 CH3 (CH2 )18 CH3 Eicosane CH3 (CH2 )18 CO2 H Eicosanoic Arachidic
Formulas
Table 4.5: Formulas for some unsaturated fatty acids. [Pugh (1970)]
Number of Common name Chemical name Formula

carbon atoms
in molecule
16 Palmitoleic Hexadec-9-enoic CH3 (CH2 )5 CH : CH (CH2 )7 CO2 H
18 Oleic Octadec-9-enoic CH3 (CH2 )7 CH : CH (CH2 )7 CO2 H
18 Ricinoleic 12-Hydroxyoctadec-9-enoic CH3 (CH2 )5 CH(OH)CH2 CH : CH (CH2 )7 CO2 H
18 Linoleic Octadeca-9:12-dienoic CH3 (CH2 )4 (CH : CHCH2 )2 (CH2 )6 CO2 H
18 Linolenic Octadeca-9:12:15-trienoic CH3 CH2 (CH : CHCH2 )3 (CH2 )6 CO2 H
20 Arachidonic Eicosa-5:8:11:14-tetraenoic CH3 (CH2 )4 (CH : CHCH2 )4 (CH2 )2 CO2 H

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Synthetic Lubricants
Table 4.6: Comparative rating of synthetic lubricants. [From Hatton (1973).]
Class Propertya
Viscosity- Liquid Low- Thermal Oxidative Hydro- Fire Lubri- Bulk Vola- Radiation Density
temperature range temperature stability stability lytic resist- cating modulus tility resistance
relationship properties stability ance ability
Petroleum oils G G G F F E L G A A H L
Superrefined E G G G F E L G A L H L
hydrocarbons
Synthetic G G G G F E L G A L H L
hydrocarbons
Organic esters G E G F F F L G A A A A
Polyglycols G G G F F G L G H A H H
Polyphenyl esters P G P E G E L G H A H H
Phosphate esters, G G G F G F H G H A L H
alkyl
Phosphate esters, F P P G G F H G H L L H
aryl
Silicate esters and E E E G F P L F A A L A
polysiloxanes
Silicones E E E G G G L P L L L A
Silanes G G G G F E L F A H L L
Halogenated G G F G G E H G H H L H
polyaryls
Fluorocarbons F G F G G F H P L A L H
Perfluoropolyglycols F G G G G G H G L A L H
a Ratings: E = excellent, G = good, F = fair, P = poor, H = high, L = low, A = average.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Poly-Alpha-Olefin (PAO)
+
BF3ROH
=
+
1-hexene (S) Star C18
+ BF3ROH
=
+
Figure 1.5 Poly-alpha- 1-hexene (HB) Highly Branched C18

olefin (PAO) structures. The
star orientation displays
+
superior lubrication n-C18 =
+
properties. [From Kioupis
and Maginn (1999).] 1-hexene (L) Linear C18

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Greases
Thickener Thickener Dropping Mechanical Maximum Relative
Type Content, Point Stability Temperature Costa
mass-% C C
Soap Thickeners
Lithium 12 HS 8-10 180-190 Good 120 2
Lithium complex 12-20 > 250 Good 150 3-4
Calcium, hydrated 7-12 80-100 Poor to good < 70 1
Calcium, 12 HS 7-12 140-150 Fair to good 110 2-3
(anhydrous)
Calcium complex 15-30 > 250 Poor to good 150 3-4
Sodium 8-10 150-170 Poor to fair 110-120 1
Sodium complex 10-20 > 250 Fair to good 150 3
Aluminum 8-10 90 Poor < 70 1
Aluminum 10-20 > 250 Good 150 3
complex
Barium 7-17 180 Fair to good
Barium complex 10-20 > 250 Good
Non-soap Thickeners
Claysb 7-12 | Poor to good 120 2-3
Silica, 7-12 | Fair to good 120 3
methylated b
Polyureac 7-12 > 230 Good 150 4

a Cost: 1 = low; 5 = high.
b Sensitive to pressure and thermal separation.
c Often in combination with soap complex.
Table 4.7 Typical characteristics of lubricating greases.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
103 SAE 70
Fluid
SAE 10
10-4
LB 550 X
LB 100 X Polypropylene glycol

derivatives
102
10-5
DC 500 A
Polymethyl siloxanes
(silicones)
Residuum
(specific
gravity, 0.968)
Viscosities
Fluorolube light grease
Di(n-butyl) sebacate
101 DC 200 E
Crude oil
Absolute viscosity, H, lbf s/in.2
Absolute viscosity, H, cP
10-6 (specific
gravity, 0.855) Halocarbons
Fluorolube FCD-331
Kerosene
Mercury
Gasoline
100 (specific
gravity, Water Navy
10-7 0.748) Symbol
Octane plus 23%
NaCl 2135
Gasoline Water
(specific
gravity, 0.680)
10-1
10-8
Super-heated steam 3000 psi
(14.7 psig)
Hydrogen
Air 1000 psi
Saturated steam Figure 4.2 Absolute

10-2
10-9
-50 0 100 200 300 400 500
viscosities of a number of
Temperature, tm, C
fluids for a wide range of
-50 0 100 200
Temperature, tm, F
400 600 800 1000 temperatures.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Viscosity of
1.0 x 10-8
.9
Ne
Gases
Ar
.8
O2
He Air
Absolute viscosity, H, reyn
.7
CO2
N2
.6 SO2
}
1500
1000
800
.5 600
500 H2O
400
200
.4 100
14.7 psi
.3
CH4
H2
.2
Figure 4.3 Viscosity of
common gases as a
.1 function of temperature.
-400 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Temperature F
[From Cameron (1976).]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Viscosity of Gases
Temperature Air Ar CO2 H2 O He Kr N2 Ne Xe
F R Absolute viscosity 109 , , lbfs/in.2 (reyn)
-280 180 1.07 1.27 0.74 | 1.45 | 1.05 2.12 |
-100 360 1.97 2.41 1.49 | 2.27 2.50 1.91 3.48 2.24
80 540 2.68 3.32 2.20 | 2.96 3.67 2.57 4.56 3.35
260 720 3.29 4.10 2.84 2.08 3.56 4.69 3.15 5.50 4.38
440 900 3.84 4.80 3.41 2.59 4.11 5.61 3.66 6.35 5.29
620 1080 4.34 5.44 3.93 3.12 4.62 6.46 4.14 7.16 6.15
800 1260 4.80 6.04 4.41 3.64 5.11 7.23 4.57 7.91 6.93
980 1440 5.24 6.59 4.86 4.17 5.56 7.95 4.99 8.64 7.67
1160 1620 5.64 7.11 5.29 4.69 6.00 8.65 5.39 9.31 8.36
1340 1800 6.05 7.60 5.70 5.20 6.43 9.30 5.75 9.96 9.03
1520 1980 6.44 8.09 6.09 5.70 6.84 9.92 6.13 10.60 9.66
1700 2160 6.80 8.55 6.45 6.19 7.23 10.52 6.49 11.19 10.26
2600 3060 8.55 11.82 8.14 8.41 9.05 13.26 8.14 14.00 13.00
Boiling temper-
ature, R | 147.2 | 67.2 7.9 219.2 139 48.7 298.4
Gas constant,
in.2 /(s2 R)
105 2.47 1.79 1.63 39.8 17.9 0.85 2.55 3.54 0.55
Table 4.8 Viscosity of various gases at 14.7 psia. [From Svehla (1962).]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Properties of Liquids & Gases
Liquid or gas Force Absolute Kinematic Specic Thermal
density viscosity, viscosity, heat, conductivity,
, , k , Cp , Kf ,
lbf s2 /in.4 lbf s/in.2 in.2 /s in./ F lbf/s F
(reyn)
Liquids
Carbon tetrachloride 1.48 104 1.41 107 9.52 104 1.87 103 2.4 102
Glycerine 1.18 104 1.21 104 1.06 5.4 103 3.54 102
Olive oil 8.49 105 1.22 105 1.44 101 4.4 103 2.10 102
Lubricating oil 8.02 105 4.44 105 5.54 4.7 103 1.83 102
Water 9.33 105 1.46 107 1.56 103 9.32 103 7.50 102
Gases
Air 1.15 107 2.62 109 2.28 102 2.24 103 3.22 103
Helium 1.61 108 2.85 109 1.77 101 1.17 103 2.4 102
Hydrogen 8.08 109 1.31 109 1.62 101 3.20 104 2.29 102
Nitrogen 1.12 107 2.56 109 2.28 102 2.32 103 3.11 103
Table 4.9 Some properties of common liquids and gases at 68F and 14.7
psia. [From Gross (1980).]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Emulsions
Typically 5% oil, 95%
water.
Water
Oil phase includes
Hydrophilic end
additives including
emulsifier.
Oil
Emulsifier stabilizes
emulsion and
Lipophilic end determines particle
Emulsifier size.
Outstanding cooling
Figure 4.4 An oil-in-water emulsion stabilized properties and
by an emulsifier. reasonable lubrication
effectiveness.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Newtonian Fluids

=
s f
A
u
u1
Shear stress, T
u2 h
viscosity, H
Absolute
h1
h2
Stationary plane
(a) (b)
Shear strain rate, s Shear strain rate, s
Figure 4.5 Properties of a Newtonian Figure 4.6 Physical illustration of

fluid. (a) Effect of viscosity on shear Newton's postulate, where f = friction
strain rate; (b) effect of shear stress on force, N; A = area, m2; u=velocity, m/s;
shear strain rate. h = film thickness, m.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Viscosity Conversion Factors
To convert To |
from | cP kgfs/m2 Ns/m2 lbfs/in.2
Multiply by |
cP 1 1.02 104 103 1.45 107
kgfs/m2 9.807 103 1 9.807 1.422 103
Ns/m2 103 1.02 101 1 1.45 104
lbfs/in.2 6.9 106 7.03 102 6.9 103 1
Table 4.10 Viscosity conversion factors.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Kinematic Viscosity
absolute viscosity N s/m2
Kinematic viscosity: k = = = 2 4
= m2
/s
density N s /m
Temper- Paranic base oil Napthenic base oil

ature Kinematic Absolute Viscosity Kinematic absolute Viscosity
tm , viscosity, viscosity, dierence, viscosity, viscosity, dierence,
C k , , , k , , ,
mm2 /s mPas percent mm2 /s mPas percent
0 287 253 13.4 1330 1245 6.8
20 78.4 68 15.3 218 201.0 8.5
40 30.2 25.8 17.1 60.5 55.0 10.0
60 14.7 12.33 19.2 23.6 21.2 11.3
80 8.33 6.91 20.5 11.6 16.2 13.7
100 5.3 4.32 22.7 6.66 5.80 14.8
120 3.65 2.93 24.6 4.27 3.66 16.7
150 2.33 1.83 27.3 2.53 2.12 19.3
Table 4.10 Divergence between kinematic and

absolute viscosity data with increasing temperature.
[From Klaman (1984).]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Viscosity Grades
ISO/ASTM AGMA SAE SAE
viscosity grades crankcase gear
oils oils
10,000
2000
6000 1500 250

1000 1000 8A
Saybolt universal viscosity (SUV) at 100 F, sec
4000
600 680 8
140
Kinematic viscosity at 40 C, cS
2000 460 7
400
320 6
1000 220 5 50 90
200
85 W
600 150 4 40
100 100 3 30
400
68 2 80 W
60 20 W
20
200 46 1
40
32 10 W 75 W
100 20 22
15 Figure 1.5 Viscosity grade

60 10 10 comparisons. [From Litt (1986).]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Viscosity-Pressure Effects
Fluid Temperature, tm , C
38 99 149 38 99 149
Absolute viscosity Kinematic viscosity
at p = 0, at p=0,
0 , k 105 ,
cP m2 /s
Advanced ester 25.3 4.75 2.06 2.58 0.51 0.23
Formulated advanced ester 27.6 4.96 2.15 2.82 .53 .24
Polyalkyl aromatic 25.5 4.08 1.80 3.0 .50 .23
Synthetic paranic oil (lot 3) 414 34.3 10.9 49.3 4.26 1.4
plus antiwear additive
plus antiwear additive
C-ether 29.5 4.67 2.20 2.5 .41 .20
Superrened naphthenic mineral oil 68.1 6.86 2.74 7.8 .82 .33
Synthetic hydrocarbon (traction uid) 34.3 3.53 1.62 3.72 .40 .19
Fluorinated polyether 181 20.2 6.68 9.66 1.15 .4
Table 4.12 Absolute and kinematic viscosities of fluids at atmospheric

pressure and three temperatures. [From Jones et al. (1975).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
1018
1016
3
3
Roelands & Barus
Equations
14
10
1012 2
Absolute viscosity, H, cP
1010
1
8
10
2
106
Barus Law:
1
104

102
Roelands formula
ln = p
Barus formula 0
100
10-2
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 Roelands (isothermal):
Pressure, p, GPa
! "1(1+p/c p)Z1
Figure 4.8 Comparison of absolute viscosity
= =
obtained from Barus' and Roelands' formulas for a 0 0
wide range of pressure. Results are shown for three
different lubricants at 38C; oil 1 --- synthetic
paraffinic oil (lot 3); oil 2 --- superrefined napthenic
mineral oil; oil 3 --- synthetic hydrocarbon (traction
fluid).
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Fluid Designations
Fluid Manufacturer Designation
Advanced ester Shell Oil Co. Aeroshell turbine oil 555
(base oil)
Formulated advanced ester Shell Oil Co. Aeroshell turbine oil 555
(WRGL - 358)
Polyalkyl aromatic Continental Oil Co. DN-600
Synthetic paranic oil (lot 3) Mobil Oil Co. XRM 109-F3
Synthetic paranic oil (lot 4) Mobil Oil Co. XRM 109-F4
Synthetic paranic oil (lot 2) plus Mobil Oil Co. XRM 177-F2
antiwear additive
Synthetic paranic oil (lot 4) plus Mobil Oil Co. XRM 177-F4
antiwear additive
C-ether Superrened naphthenic Humble Oil and FN 2961
mineral oil Rening Co.
Synthetic hydrocarbon Monsanto Co. MCS-460
(taction uid)
Fluorinated polyether DuPont Co. PR 143 AB (lot 10)
Table 4.13 Fluids with manufacturer and manufacturers

designation. [From Jones et al. (1975).]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Pressure-Viscosity Coefficients
Fluid Temperature, tm , C
38 99 149
Pressure-viscosity coecient,
,
m2 /N
Advanced ester 1.28 108 0.987 108 0.851 108
Formulated advanced ester 1.37 108 1.00 108 .874 108
Polyalkyl aromatic 1.58 108 1.25 108 1.01 108
Synthetic paranic oil (lot 3) 1.77 108 1.51 108 1.09 108
Synthetic paranic oil (lot 4) 1.99 108 1.51 108 1.29 108
Synthetic paranic oil (lot 2) plus 1.81 108 1.37 108 1.13 108
antiwear additive
Synthetic paranic oil (lot 4) plus 1.96 108 1.55 108 1.25 108
antiwear additive
C-ether 1.80 108 .980 108 .795 108
Superrened naphthenic mineral oil 2.51 108 1.54 108 1.27 108
Synthetic hydrocarbon ( traction uid) 3.12 108 1.71 108 .939 108
Fluorinated polyether 4.17 108 3.24 108 3.02 108
Table 4.14 Pressure-viscosity coefficients for fluids at

three temperatures. [From Jones et al. (1975).]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Piezo-viscous and Thermo-
viscous Behavior
Temperature, oF
50 100 150 200 250
10 1 x 10-3
54
3 5 x 10-4
2
1
1 x 10-4
.5
.4 5 x 10-5
.3
.2
.1
Absolute viscosity, H, N-s/m2

1 x 10-5
Absolute viscosity, H, lbf s/in.2

.06
.04
5 x 10-6
.03
.02
SAE 70
.01
1 x 10-6
60
50
.005
Figure 4.9 Absolute viscosities .004
of SAE lubricating oils at 30
40
5 x 10-7
.003
atmospheric pressure. 20
10
.002
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication Temperature, oC
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Temp- Density Specic Kinematic Thermal Thermal
ature, , heat, viscosity conductivity diusivity,
Thermal tm
C
0
10
kg/m3
1276
1270
Cp ,
kJ/kg C
2.261
2.319
k = /,
m2 /s
Glycerin C3 H5 (OH)3
0.00831
.00300
Kf ,
W/m C
0.282
.284
t = Kf / Cp ,
m2 /s
0.983 107
.965 107
Properties of 20
30
40
0
1264
1258
1252
1130
2.386
2.445
2.512
.00118
.00050
.00022
Ethylene glycol C2 H4 (OH)2
2.294 57.53 106
.286
.286
.286
0.242
.947 107
.929 107
.914 107
0.934 107
19.18 106 .939 107
Liquids
20 1116 2.382 .249
40 1101 2.474 8.69 106 .256 .939 107
60 1087 2.562 4.75 10 6 .260 .932 107
80 1077 2.650 2.98 106 .261 .921 107
Engine oil (unused) a
0 899 1.796 0.00428 0.147 0.911 107

20 888 1.880 .00090 .145 .872 107
40 876 1.964 .00024 .144 .834 107
60 864 2.047 .839 104 .140 .800 107
80 852 2.131 .375104 .138 .769 107
100 840 2.219 .203 10 4 .137 .738 107
120 828 2.307 .124 104 .135 .710 107
140 816 2.395 .080 10 4 .133 .686 107
160 805 2.483 .056 104 .132 .663 107
Mercury (Hg)
0 13,628 0.1403 0.1240 106 8.20 42.99 107
20 13,579 .1394 .1140 106 8.69 46.06 107
50 13,505 .1386 .1040 106 9.40 50.22 107
100 13,384 .1373 .0928 10 6 10.51 57.16 107
150 13,264 .1365 .0853 106 11.49 63.54 107
200 13,144 .1570 .0802 10 6 12.34 69.08 107
Diester
30 910 1.93 | 0.151 0.860 107
Phosphate ester
30 1060 1.76 | 0.125 0.670 107
Table 4.16 Typical thermal 30 1000 1.97
Polyglycol
| 0.125 0.670 107
properties of some liquids. Polyphenylether
30 1180 1.80 | 0.132 0.621 107
[From Winer and Cheng Dimethyl silicone
30 970 1.42 | 0.142 1.03 107
(1980).] Chloro uorocarbon
30 1900 1.22 | 0.069 0.298 107
Fluorinated polyether
30 1870 0.96 | 0.093 0.518 107
Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication a The viscosity values should only be used if no other information on the particular
Hamrock, Schmid & Jacobson lubricant is available. The thermal properties (, Cp , Kf , t ) should be
representative of most mineral oils.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Viscosity-Shear Rate Effects
m
g ha
n t Bin
ta
la
Absolute viscosity, H
Shear stress, T
t ic
l as
Newtonian op
e u d
nian
o
Ps e wt ant
N lat
Ps Di
eu
do
pla
s ti
c
(a) (b)
Shear strain rate, s Shear strain rate, s
Figure 4.10 Characteristics of different fluids as a function of

shear rate. (a) Viscosity; (b) shear stress.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Viscosity Index
Viscosity
Saybolt universal viscosity, SUV, s
index
0
L
100 ! "
x
L x
V I% = L H 100
H
38 100
Temperature, C
100 210
Temperature, F
Figure 4.11 Graphical explanation of viscosity

index where L = low VI oil, x = unknown oil,
and H=high VI oil.)
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
SUV SUV at 38 C SUV SUV at 38 C SUV SUV at 38 C
at 100 C at 100 C at 100 C

Viscosity Index
x H L x H L x
H L
40 93 107 | | | | | |
41 109 137 81 810 1674 121 1643 3902
42 124 167 82 829 1721 122 1665 3966
43 140 197 83 849 1769 123 1688 4031
44 157 228 84 868 1817 124 1710 4097
Data
45 173 261 85 888 1865 125 1733 4163
46 189 291 86 907 1914 126 1756 4229

47 205 325 87 927 1964 127 1779 4296
48 222 356 88 947 2014 128 1802 4364
49 238 389 89 966 2064 129 1825 4430
50 255 422 90 986 2115 130 1848 4498
51 272 456 91 1006 2166 131 1871 4567

52 288 491 92 1026 2217 132 1894 4636
53 305 525 93 1046 2270 133 1918 4705
54 322 561 94 1066 2322 134 1941 4775
55 339 596 95 1087 2375 135 1965 4845
56 356 632 96 1107 2428 136 1988 4915

57 374 669 97 1128 2481 137 2012 4986
58 391 706 98 1148 2536 138 2036 5058
59 408 743 99 1168 2591 139 2060 5130
60 426 781 100 1189 2646 140 2084 5202
61 443 819 101 1210 2701 141 2108 5275

62 461 857 102 1231 2757 142 2132 5348
63 478 897 103 1252 2814 143 2156 5422
64 496 936 104 1273 2870 144 2180 5496
65 514 976 105 1294 2928 145 2205 5570
66 532 1016 106 1315 2985 146 2229 5645

67 550 1057 107 1337 3043 147 2254 5721
Table 4.17 Viscosity-index data to be 68
69
568
586
1098
1140
108
109
1358
1379
3102
3161
148
149
2278
2303
5796
5873
used in Eq. (4.18). [From: An 70 604 1182 110 1401 3220 150 2328 5949
abridgement from ASTM D567, 71

72
623
641
1225
1268
111
112
1422
1444
3280
3340
151
152
2353
2378
6026
6104
``Standard Method for Calculating 73
74
660
678
1311
1355
113
114
1466
1488
3400
3462
153
154
2403
2428
6182
6260
Viscosity Index''.] 75 697 1399 115 1510 3524 155 2453 6339
76 716 1444 116 1532 3585 156 2478 6418

77 734 1489 117 1554 3648 157 2503 6498
78 753 1534 118 1576 3711 158 2529 6578
79 772 1580 119 1598 3774 159 2554 6659
Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication 80 791 1627 120 1620 3838 160 2580 6740
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
VI Improver Molecules
Ethylene-propylene copolymer Ethylene-propylene-diene terpolymer
( CH2 CH2 )n (CH2 CH ) ( CH2 CH2 )n (CH2 CH ) (CH2 CH )
m m l
CH3 CH3 CH2
CH3 CH CH
Hydrogenated diene-styrene copolymer

Polymethacrylate copolymer
( CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 )n (CH2 CH )
m
CH3 CH3 CH3
( CH2 C )x ( CH2 C )y ( CH2 C )z

C O C O C O
or
O O O
( CH2 CH2 CH CH2 )n (CH2 CH )
m
(CH2)3 (CH2)11 (CH2)17
CH3
CH3 CH3 CH3
Figure 4.12 Summary of common viscosity index improver molecules.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Properties of Base Fluids
Base uid Kinematic viscosity Average
at 40 C, k , molecular
mm2 /s weight
Naphthenic distillate 26 300
Naphthenic ranate 23 320
Polypropylene glycol 1 175 2000
Polypropylene glycol 2 80 2000
Ditridecyl adipate 26 520
Poly alpha olen 450 500
TAble 4.18 Base fluids tested, with corresponding kinematic viscosity

and average molecular weight. [From Hamrock et al. (1987).]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
.18
Fluid Kinematic
viscosity
.16 at 40 C,
(mm)2/s
Compressibility .14 Naphthenic distillate

Polypropylene glycol 1
Ditridecyl adipate
26
175
26
.12
.10
.08
.06
Relative volume, -dvr/dp, GPa-1

.04
.02
.18
Naphthenic raffinate 23
Polypropylene glycol 2 80
Poly alpha olefin 450
.16
.14
.12
Figure 4.13 Effect of pressure on relative .10
volume for six base fluids. Constant .08

temperature of 20C assumed. [From
Hamrock et al. (1987).] .06
.04
Hamrock, Schmid & Jacobson .02
0 .4 .8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2 Pressure, GPa
Compressibility
.6
Data from Dowson-Higginson formula (eq. (4-20))

Naphthenic distillate (eqs. (4-21) and (4-22))
.5 Poly alpha olefin (eqs. (4-21) and (4-22))
Dimensionless density, R - 1
.4
.3
.2
.1
0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

Pressure, GPa
Figure 4.14 Effect of pressure on density. [From Hamrock et

al. (1987).]

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Limiting Shear Stress
1.4
Perfectly plastic
Newtonian
1.2 (linear viscous)
Viscoplastic
Dimensionless shear stress, A = T/TL
1.0
.8 3A = sinh-1 (3B)
(assume TL = 3TE)
A = 1 - e-B
.6 A = tanh B
.4
.2
0 1 2 3 4 5
Dimensionless shear strain rate, B = Hs/TL
Figure 4.15 Comparison of rheological models for isothermal

conditions.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Non-Newtonian Rheology
1.2
F
G 1.0
F
E
1.0 E
D
Dimensionless effective viscosity,He / H

C D
Dimensionless shear stress T/TL
0.8
I C
0.8
I
B A
0.6
H
0.6
A: Linear (n = 1) A B
B: Circular (n = 2) 0.4 H
C: General (n = 4)
0.4
D: General (n = 10)
E: Viscoplastic
G: Eyring ( tL = tL/3) 0.2
0.2 H: Bair and Winer
I: Gecim and Winer
0
0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Dimensionless shear stress T/TL
Dimensionless shear strain rate (H/TL) !u/!z
(b)
(a)
Figure 4.16 Non-Newtonian rheological models represented by (a)

effect of shear strain rate on dimensionless shear stress and (b) effect of
dimensionless shear stress on dimensionless effective viscosity. [From
Myllerup et al. (1993).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Effective Viscosity
Dimensionless eective
Fluid model Shear strain rate s viscosity e /

Newtonian 1

Eyring (1936) E
sinh
(sinh model) E E sinh ( /E )
Bair and Winer (1979) L
ln (1 )1
(ln model) ln (1 )
Gecim and Winer (1980) L
tanh1
(tanh1 model) tanh1
Iivonen and Hamrock (1989) L h 1
i
(1 ) 1 1
(straight-line model)
Elsharkawy and Hamrock (1991)
[1 ( )n ]1/n ) n ] 1 /n
[1 (
(general model)
Lee and Hamrock (1990a) h i1/2
(circular model) 1 () 2
(1 )1/2

Figure 4.16 Non-Newtonian rheological models represented by (a)

effect of shear strain rate on dimensionless shear stress and (b) effect of
dimensionless shear stress on dimensionless effective viscosity. [From
Myllerup et al. (1993).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Conformal Bearing Materials
Table 5.1: Properties and characteristics of various conformal bearing metals [From Clauser (1948)]
Bearing metal Brinell hardness number Load-carrying capacity Maximum Fatigue Antiseizure Conformability
Room 149 C (300 F) MPa psi operating strengtha propertya and
temperature temperature embeddability a
C F
Tin-base babbitt 20-30 6-12 5.5-10.4 800-1500 149 300 3 1 1

Lead-base babbitt 15-20 6-12 5.5-8.3 800-1200 149 300 3 1 1
Alkali-hardened lead 22-26 11-17 8.3-10.4 1200-1500 260 500 3 1 1
Cadmium base 30-40 15 10.4-13.8 1500-2000 260 500 3 1 1
Copper lead 20-30 20-23 10.4-17.2 1500-2500 177 350 2 2 2
Tin bronze 60-80 60-70 > 27.6 > 4000 260+ 500+ 1 3 3
Lead bronze 40-70 40-60 20.7-31.1 3000-4500 232-260 450-500 1 3 3
Phosphor bronze 75-100 65-100 >27.6 > 4000 260+ 500+ 1 3 3
Aluminum alloy 45-50 40-45 >27.6 > 4000 107-149 225-300 2 2 3
Silver (overplated) 25 25 >27.6 > 4000 260+ 500+ 1 2 3
Copper-nickel matrix 10 7 13.8 2000 177 350 2 1 2
Trimetal and plated (b) (b) >27.6 > 4000 107-149 225-300 2 1 2
Grid type (b) (b) >27.6 > 4000 107-149 225-300 2 1 2
Thin babbitt overlay,
0.051-0.178 mm
(0.002-0.007 in. (b) (b) 13.8 2000 149 300 2 1 2
Conventional babbitt
overlays, 0.51 mm
(0.0020 in.) (b) (b) 10.4 1500 149 300 2 1 2
a This is an arbitrary scale with 1 being the highest rating.
b Approximately the same as the babbitts.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
White Metal Bearing Alloys
Table 5.2: Composition and physical properties of white metal bearing alloysa [From ASTM B23-83.
Reprinted by permission of the American Society for Testing and Materials.]
Alloy Tin Antimony Lead Copper Arsenic Specific Tin Antimony Lead Copper 20 C (68 F) 100 C (212 F)
numberb Specified nominal composition of alloys, gravityc Composition of alloys tested, Yield pointd
percent percent MPa psi MPa psi
1 91.0 4.5 4.5 7.34 90.9 4.52 None 4.56 30.3 4400 18.3 2650
2 89.0 7.5 3.5 7.39 89.2 7.4 0.03 3.1 42.0 6100 20.6 3000
3 84.0 8.0 8.0 7.46 83.4 8.2 .03 8.3 45.5 6600 21.7 3150
7 10.0 15.0 Remainder .45 9.73 10.0 14.5 75.0 .11 24.5 3550 11.0 1600
8 5.0 15.0 Remainder .45 10.04 5.2 14.9 79.4 .14 23.4 3400 12.1 1750
15 1.0 16.0 Remainder 1.0 10.05
Alloy
20 C (68 F)
100 C (212 F)
20 C (68 F)
100 C (212 F)
20 C
100 C Melting Temperature Proper
number b Johnsons apparent elastic Ultimate strength in compression f
(68 F)
(212 F) point of complete pouring
limite Brinell harnessg liquefaction temperature
MPa psi MPa psi MPa psi MPa psi MPa psi C F C F C F
1 16.9 2450 7.2 1050 88.6 12,850 47.9 6950 8.0 17.0 223 433 371 700 441 825
2 23.1 3350 7.6 1100 102.7 14,900 60.0 8700 12.0 24.5 241 466 354 669 424 795
3 36.9 5350 9.0 1300 121.3 17,600 68.3 9900 14.5 27.0 240 464 422 792 491 915
7 17.2 2500 9.3 1350 107.9 15,650 42.4 6150 10.5 22.5 240 464 268 514 338 620
8 18.3 2650 8.3 1200 107.6 15,600 42.4 6150 9.5 20.0 237 459 272 522 341 645
15 13.0 21.0 248 479 281 538 350 662
a Compression test specimens were cylinders 1.5 in. (38 mm) in length and 0.5 in. (13 mm) in diameter, machined from chill castings 2 in. (51 mm) in length and
0.75 in (19 mm) in diameter. The Brinell tests were made on the bottom of parallel machined specimens cast in a mold 2 in. (51 mm) in diameter and 0.0625 in.
(16 mm) deep at room temperature
b Data not available on alloys 11 and 13.
c The specific gravity multiplied by 0.0361 equals the mass density in pounds per cubic inch.
d The values for yield point were taken from stress-strain curves at a deformation of 0.125 percent of gage length.
e Johnsons apparent elastic limit is taken as the unit stress at the point where the slope of the tangent to the curve is two-thirds its slope at the origin.
f The ultimate strength values were taken as the unit load necessary to produce a deformation of 25 percent of the specimen length.
g These values are the average Brinell number of three impressions on each alloy, using a 10-mm (0.39-in) ball and a 500-kg (1102.3 lb) load applied for 30 s.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Alloys in General Use
Table 5.3: Chemical composition of alloys in more general use. [From ASTM B23-83. Reprinted by permis-
sion of the American Society for Testing and Materials.]
Element Alloy numbera,b

Tin base Lead base
1 2 3 11 7 8 13 15
Chemical composition, percent
Tin 90.0-92.0 88.0-90.0 83.0-85.0 86.0-89.0 9.3-10.7 4.5-5.5 5.5-6.5 0.8-1.2
Antimony 4.0-5.0 7.0-8.0 7.5-8.5 6.0-7.5 14.0-16.0 14.0-16.0 9.5-10.5 14.5-17.5
Lead .35 .35 .35 .50 Remainderc Remainder Remainder Remainder
Copper 4.0-5.0 3.0-4.0 7.5-8.5 5.0-6.5 .50 .50 .50 .6
Iron .08 .08 .08 .08 .10 .10 .10 .10
Arsenic .10 .10 .10 .10 .30-.60 .30-.60 .25 .8-1.4
Bismuth .08 .08 .08 .08 .10 .10 .10 .10
Zinc .005 .005 .005 .005 .005 .005 .005 .005
Aluminum .005 .005 .005 .005 .005 .005 .005 .005
Cadmium .05 .05 .05 .05 .05 .05 .05 .05
Total named 99.80 99.80 99.80 99.80
elements,
minimum
a
All values not given as ranges are maximum values unless shown otherwise.
b
Alloy 9 was discontinued in 1946 and 4,5,6,10,11,12,16, and 19 were discontinued in 1959. A new number 11,
similar to SAE grade 11, was added in 1966.
c
To be determined by difference.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Bronze & Copper Bearing Alloys
Table 5.4: Typical bronze and copper alloy bearing materials [From Booser (1966)]
Designation Material Cu Sn Pb Zn Fe Al Brinell Tensile Maximum Maximum

Nominal composition, hardness strength operating load
percent number MPa ksi temperature MPa ksi
BNH C F
SAE 480 Copper lead 65 35 25 55.2 8 177 350 13.8 2

AMS 4840 High-lead tin bronze 70 5 25 48 172.5 25 204+ 400+ 20.7+ 3+
SAE 67 Semiplastic bronze 78 6 16 55 207.0 30 232 450 20.7+ 3+
SAE 40 Leaded red brass 85 5 5 5 60 241.5 35 232 450 24.2 3.5
SAE 660 Bronze 83 7 7 3 60 241.5 35 232+ 450+ 27.6 4
SAE 64 Phosphor bronze 80 10 10 63 241.5 35 232+ 450+ 27.6 4
SAE 62 Gunmetal 88 10 2 65 310.5 45 260+ 500+ 27.6 4
SAE 620 Navy G 88 8 4 68 276.0 40 260 500 27.6+ 4+
SAE 63 Leaded gunmetal 88 10 2 70 276.0 45 260 500 27.6+ 4+
ASTM B148- Aluminum bronze 85 4 11 195 621.0 90 260+ 500+ 31.1+ 4.5+
52-9c

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Non-Metallic Bearing Materials
Material Load-carrying Maximum Maximum P V limita
capacity temperature
C F
speed Table 5.5 Limits of application of
MPa psi m/s ft/min
Carbon graphite 4.1 600 399 750 12.7 2500 15 103 nonmetallic bearing materials. [Revised
15103
Phenolics
Nylon
41.4
6.9
6000
1000
93
93
200
200
12.7
5.1
2500
1000 3103 from O'Connor et al. (1968)].
PTFE (Te on) 3.4 500 260 500 .51 100 1103
Reinforced PTFE 17.2 2500 260 500 5.1 1000 10103
PTFE fabric 414.0 60,000 260 500 .25 50 25103
Polycarbonate (Lexan) 6.9 1000 104 220 5.1 1000 3103
Acetal resin (Delrin) 6.9 1000 82 180 5.1 1000 3103
Rubber .34 50 66 150 7.6 1500 15103
Wood 13.8 2000 66 150 10.2 2000 15103
a P = load (psi); V = surface speed (ft/min).
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5.1 Phenolic laminate bearings. (a) Phenolic Phenolic

Tubular bearing; (b) circumferentially laminated staves liner
bearing; (c) axially laminated bearing; (d) stave

bearing; (e) molded bearing. [From Kaufman
(1980).]
Hamrock, Schmid & Jacobson (d) (e)
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2

Phenolic Bearing Applications
Table 5.6: Typical applications of laminated phenolic bearings [From Kaufman (1980)].
Bearing Typea Size range Fabric weight Resin Lubricant Diametral clearanceb Principal reasons for using lam-
application mm in. g/m oz/yd mm in. inated phenolic bearing material
Roll neck (e) 76-762 3-30 466-1552 15-50 40-60 Water or 0-13 0-0.5 Longer life, power savings due to
emulsion lower friction, lower-cost water lu-
brication, greater cleanliness of
operation, better holding of gage
due to less water.
Ship, stern (d) 76-660 3-26 248 8 60 Water 0.001/mm 0.001/in. Longer life, greater ease of
tube diameter diameter handling and installing, higher
over 127 mm over 5 in. load-carrying capacity particu-
larly with impact loads, lower
Rudder, pintle (a), (d) 76-660 3-26 93-248 3-8 55-60 Grease or 0.001/mm 0.001/in. friction, greater corrosion and de-
water diameter diameter cay resistance, lower journal wear,
over 127 mm over 5 in. greater local availability
Small craft, (c) 13-76 .5-3 248 8 60 Water .127 .005
stern tube
Centrifugal (a),(b),(c) 13-102 .5-4 93-248 3-8 60 Pumped .127 .005 Longer life, better lubrication with
pump liquid pumped liquid (water, gasoline,
chemical solutions, etc.)
Water wheel, (d) 102-610 4-24 248 8 60 Water .127 .005 Longer life, lower friction, no de-
turbine, guide cay, less journal wear
bearing
Ball mill (a),(e) 381-1219 15-49 202-466 6.5-15 55-60 Water or .381-.762 .015-0.30 Longer life, higher load-carrying
emulsion capacity, lower friction, lower
of water lubricant cost
and grease
Aircraft, (a) 51-381 2-12 93 3 60 Oil 0.001/mm 0.001/in. Lighter weight, satisfactory
landing gear diameter diameter dimensional stability and load-
over 127 mm over 5 in. carrying capacity
Railway, Molded cone 202 6.5 53 Grease Longer life, lower noise and
bolster cup vibration transmission

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Bearing Surfaces
Bearing material Backing material
Lining
material
(a) (b)
Graphite filling Bronze

Carbon-graphite filler
(c) (d)
Figure 5.2 Different forms of bearing surfaces. (a) Solid bearing; (b)
lined bearing; (c) filled bearing; (d) shrink-fit bearing.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Bearing Steels
Table 5.7: Typical compositions of selected bearing steels [From Bamberger et al. (1980)]
Designation C P S Mn Si Cr V W Mo Co Cb Ni
(max) (max)
Alloying element, wt %
SAE 52100a 1.00 0.025 0.025 0.35 0.30 1.45
MHTb 1.03 .025 .025 .35 .35 1.50
AISI M-1 .80 .030 .030 .30 .30 4.00 1.00 1.50 8.00
AISI M-2a .83 .030 .030 .30 .30 3.85 1.90 6.15 5.00
AISI M-10 .85 .030 .030 .25 .30 4.00 2.00 8.00
AISI M-50a .80 .030 .030 .30 .25 4.00 1.00 4.25 0
T-1 (18-4-1)a .70 .030 .030 .30 .25 4.00 1.00 18.0
T15 1.52 .010 .004 .26 .25 4.70 4.90 12.5 .20 5.10
440Ca 1.03 .018 .014 .48 .41 17.30 .14 .50
AMS 5749 1.15 .012 .004 .50 .30 14.50 1.20 4.00 2
Vasco Matrix II .53 .014 .013 .12 .21 4.13 1.08 1.40 4.80 7.81 0.10
CRB-7 1.10 .016 .003 .43 .31 14.00 1.03 2.02 0.32
AISI 9310c .10 .006 .001 .54 .28 1.18 .11 3.15
Decrease in hardness, Rc, points

CBS 600c .19 .007 .014 .61 1.05 1.50 .94 .18 4 High-speed
CBS 1000Mc .14 .018 .019 .48 .43 1.12 4.77 2.94 tool steels
Vasco X-2c .14 .011 .011 .24 .94 4.76 .45 1.40 1.40 .03 .10
a Balance, iron.
b Also contains 1.36% Al.
c Carburizing grades.
6
CBS 1000
Vasco X-2
10
Figure 5.3 Hot hardness of CBS 1000, CBS
1000M, Vasco X-2, and high-speed tool steels. 12 CBS 1000M
[From Anderson and Zaretsky (1975).]

14
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Material temperature, K
200 400 600 800 1000
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2 Material temperature, F
Density
Material Density,
kg/m3 lbm/in3
Metals:
Aluminum and its alloysa 2.7 103 0.097
Aluminum tin 3.1 103 .11
Babbitt, lead-based white metal 10.110 3 .36
Babbitt, tin-based white metal 7.4 10 3 .27
Brasses 8.6 103 .31 Metals Polymers Ceramics
Bronze, aluminum 7.5 10 3 .27 104
Lead
Bronze, leaded 8.9 10 3 .32 Copper
Bronze, phosphor (cast)b 8.7 103 .31 Steels
Bronze, porous 6.4 10 3 .23 Cast iron
Copper 8.9 10 3 .32 Zinc alloys
Copper lead 9.5 103 .34 Sintered iron
Iron, cast 7.4 10 3 .27
Iron, porous 6.1 10 3 .22
Iron, wrought 7.8 10 3 .28
Magnesium alloys 1.8 103 .065
Density, R, kg/m3
Steelsc 7.8 103 .28 Alumina
Zinc alloys 6.7 10 3 .24
Polymers: Aluminum-tin Silicon nitride
Silicon carbide
Acetal (polyformaldehyde) 1.4 103 .051 Aluminum
Nylons (polyamides) 1.14 10 3 .041
Polyethylene, high quality .95103 .034
Phenol, formaldehyde 1.3 10 3 .047
Rubber, natural d 1.0 10 3 .036 Magnesium
Graphite
Rubber, silicone 1.8 103 .065 Silicone rubber
Ceramics:
Alumina (Al2 O3 ) 3.9 103 .14 Acetal
Phenol formal-
Graphite, high strength 1.7 103 .061 dehyde
Silicon carbide (SiC) 2.9 103 .10 Nylon
Silicon nitride (Si3 N4 ) 3.210 3 .12 Natural rubber
a Structural alloys. 103 Polyethylene
b Bar stock typically 8.8 103 kg/m3 (0.30 lbm/in.3 )
c Excluding \refractory" steels. 8 x 102
d \Mechanical" rubber
Table 5.8 Densities of various metals, Figure 5.4 Illustration of density for
polymers, and ceramics at room temperature various metals, polymers, and ceramics
(20C; 68F) [From ESDU (1984).] at room temperature (20C; 68F). [From
Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication ESDU (1984).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Elastic Modulus
Metals Polymers Ceramics
1012 Table 5.9: Modulus of elasticity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at
room temperature (20 C; 68 F) [From ESDU (1984).]
Carbides
Alumina
Steels Material Modulus of elasticity, E
1011
} Cast iron
Brass, bronze
GPa Mlbf/in.2
Aluminum Metals:
Zinc alloys Aluminum 62 9.0
Magnesium alloys Aluminum alloysa 70 10.2
Babbits Graphite
Aluminum tin 63 9.1
Babbitt, lead-based white metal 29 4.2
1010 Babbitt, tin-based white metal 52 7.5
Brasses 100 14.5
Phenol formal-
Modulus of elasticity, E, Pa
dehyde Bronze, aluminum 117 17.0

Acetal
Bronze, leaded 97 14.1
Nylon Bronze, phosphor 110 16.0
109 Bronze, porous 60 8.7
Polyethylene Copper 124 18.0
Iron, gray cast 109 15.8
Iron, malleable cast 170 24.7
Iron, spheroidal graphite b 159 23.1
Iron, porous 80 11.6
108
Iron, wrought 170 24.7
Magnesium alloys 41 5.9
Steel, low alloys 196 28.4
Steel, medium and high alloys 200 29.0
Steel, stainless c 193 28.0
107 Steel, high speed 212 30.7
Zinc alloysd 50 7.3
Natural rubber Polymers:
Acetal (polyformaldehyde) 2.7 .39
Nylons (polyamides) 1.9 .28
106 Polyethylene, high density .9 .13
Phenol formaldehydee 7.0 1.02
Rubber, naturalf .004 .0006
Figure 5.5 Modulus of elasticity for Ceramics:
Alumina (Al2 O3 ) 390 56.6
various metals, polymers, and Graphite
Cemented carbides
27
450
3.9
65.3
ceramics at room temperature (20 Silicon carbide (SiC)
Silicon nitride (Si3 N4 )
450
314
65.3
45.5
C; 68F) [From ESDU (1984).]

a Structural alloys.
b For bearings.
c Precipitation-hardened alloys up to 211 GPa (30 lbf/in.2 ).
d Some alloys up to 96 GPa (14 lbf/in.2 ).
Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication e Filled.
Hamrock, Schmid & Jacobson f 25-Percent-carbon-black \mechanical" rubber.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2

Material Poissons
Poissons Ratio
ratio,

Metals:
Aluminum and its alloys 0.33
Aluminum tin
Babbitt, lead-based white metal
Babbitt, tin-based white metal
Brasses .33
Bronze .33
Bronze, porous .22
Copper .33
Iron, cast .26
Iron, porous .20
Iron, wrought .30
Magnesium alloys .33
Steels .30
Zinc alloysd .27
Polymers:
Acetal (polyformaldehyde)
Nylons (polyamides) .40
Polyethylene, high density .35
Phenol formaldehydee
Rubber .50
Ceramics:
Alumina (Al2 O3 ) .28 Table 5.10 Poisson's ratio for various metals,
Graphite, high strength
Cemented carbides

.19
polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20
Silicon carbide (SiC) .19 C; 68F) [From ESDU (1984).]}
Silicon nitride (Si3 N4 ) .26
a Structural alloys.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Thermal Expansion Coefficient 2 x 10-4
Table 5.11: Linear thermal expansion coecient for various metals, polymers
and ceramics applied over temperature range 20 to 200 (68 to 392 ) [From
ESDU (1984)]
}
Polyethylene
Material Linear thermal expansion 10-4 Silicone rubber
coecient, a
Natural rubber
m/mK in./in. F Acetal, nylon
Metals:
Aluminum 23 12.8 Nitrile rubber
Aluminum alloysa 24 13.3
Aluminum tin 24 13.3
Babbitt, lead-based white metal 20 11
Linear thermal expansion coefficient, a, 1/K

Babbitt, tin-based white metal 23 13
Brasses 19 10.6 Phenol formal-
Bronzes 18 10.0 Zinc dehyde
Copper 18 10.0 Magnesium
Copper lead 18 10.0 Aluminum
Iron, cast 11 6.1 Brass, copper
Iron, porous 12 6.7 Most bronzes
Iron, wrought 12 6.7
Magnesium alloys 27 15 Babbits
Steel, alloyb 11 6.1 Steel
Steel, stainless 17 9.5 10-5 Leaded bronze
Steel, high speed 11 6.1 Cast irons
Zinc alloys 27 15
Polymers: Sintered iron
Thermoplasticsc 60-100 35-56
Thermosetsd 10-80 6-44
}
Acetal (polyformaldehyde) 90 50 Alumina
Nylons (polyamides) 100 56 Silicon carbide
Polyethylene, high density 126 70
Phenol formaldehydee 25-40 14-22 Silicon nitride
Rubber, naturalf 80-120 44-67
Graphite
Rubber, nitrileg 34 62
Rubber, silicone 57 103
Ceramics:
Alumina (Al2 O3 )h 5.0 2.8
Graphite, high strength 4.5 .8-2.2
Silicon carbide (SiC) 4.3 2.4
Silicon nitride (Si3 N4 ) 3.2 1.8
a Structural alloys. 10-6
b Cast alloys can be up to 15m/m K.
c Typical bearing materials.
d 25m/mK to 80m/mK when reinforced.
Figure 5.6 Illustration of thermal
e Mineral lled.
f Fillers can reduce coecients. expansion coefficient for various metals,
polymers, and ceramics applied over
g Varies with composition.
h 0 to 200 C.
Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication temperature range 20 to 200C (68 to

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2 392F). [From ESDU (1984).]
Thermal Conductivity
Table 5.12: Thermal conductivity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics Metals Polymers Ceramics
3 x 102
Material Thermal conductivity 2 Aluminum

W/m K Btu/ft hr F Copper
Metals: Brass
Aluminum 209 120 Magnesium alloys
102
Aluminum alloys, castinga 146 84
Aluminum alloys, silicon b 170 98
Graphite
Aluminum alloys, wroughtc 151 87 Cast iron
Aluminum tin 180 100
Bronze
Babbitt, lead-based white metal 24 14
Steel
Babbitt, tin-based white metal 56 32
Brassesa 120 69 Alumina
Bronze, aluminuma 50 29 Stainless steel
Thermal conductivity, Kf, W/m K

Bronze, leaded 47 27
Bronze, phosphor (cast) d 50 29
Bronze, porous 30 17 10
Silicon carbide
Coppere 170 98
Copper lead 30 17
Iron, gray cast 50 29
Iron, spheroidal graphite 30 17
Iron, porous 28 16
Iron, wrought 70 40
Magnesium alloys 110 64
Steel, low alloyc 35 20
Steel, medium alloy 30 17 Natural rubber
Steel, stainlessf 15 8.7
Zinc alloys 110 64 1
Polymers:
Acetal (polyformaldehyde) .24 .14
Nylons (polyamides) .25 .14 Polyethylene
Polyethylene, high density .5 .29
Rubber, natural 1.6 .92
Ceramics: Acetal, nylon
Alumina (Al2 O3 )g 25 14
Graphite, high strength 125 72
Silicon carbide (SiC) 15 8.6
a At 100 C.
10-1
b At 100 C ( 150 W/m K at 25 C.)
c 20 to 100 C.
d Bar stock typically 69 W/m K.
e Typically 22 W/m K at 200 C.
f Typically 12 W/m K at 400 C.
Figure 5.7 Illustration of thermal
conductivity for various metals,
Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication polymers, and ceramics. [From
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2 ESDU (1984).]
Specific Heat Capacity
2.0
Natural rubber
Table 5.13: Specic heat capacity for various metals, polymers and ceramics at
room temperature (20 ; 68 F) [From ESDU (1984).]
1.8
Material Specic heat capacity, Cp
kJ/kg K Btu/lb F
Metals: 1.6
Aluminum and its alloys 0.9 0.22
Aluminum tin .96 .23
Babbitt, lead-based white metal .15 .036 Thermoplastics
Specific heat capacity, Cp, kJ/kg K

1.4
Babbitt, tin-based white metal .21 .05
Brasses .39 .093
Bronzes, .38 .091
Copper a .38 .091 1.2
Copper lead .32 .076
Iron, cast .42 .10
Iron, porous .46 .11 1.0
Iron, wrought .46 .11
Magnesium
Magnesium alloys 1.0 .24 Aluminum
Steels b .45 .11
.8 Graphite
Zinc alloys .4 .096
Polymers: Carbides, alumina
Thermoplastics 1.4 .33
Rubber, natural 2.0 .48 .6
Ceramics:
Graphite .8 .2 Steel
Cast iron
Cemented carbides .7 .17 .4 Copper
a Aluminum bronzes up to 0.48 kJ/kg K (0.12 Btu/lb F).
b Rising to 0.55 kJ/kg K (0.13 Btu/lb F) at 200 C (392 F).
.2
Figure 5.8 Illustration of specific

heat capacity for various metals,
polymers, and ceramics at room
Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication temperature (20C; 68F). [From
Hamrock, Schmid & Jacobson ESDU (1984).]
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Concentric Journal Bearing
2Pr
ua
Na ua ua
r h=c
Figure 6.2 Developed journal and

bearing surfaces for a concentric
Figure 6.1 Concentric Journal Bearing. journal bearing.
Petrovs Equation:
420r3bNa 20r3b
tq = f r = =
c c

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Navier-Stokes Equation
z
Txz
Tyz Txy
Sx Cartesian Coordinates:
! 2 2 2
"
Sy Tyx Du p u u u 0 a
= Xa + 0 2
+ 2+ 2 +
Dt x x y z 3 x
x
! 2 2 2
"
Dv p v v v 0 a
y
= Ya + 0 2
+ 2+ 2 +
Dt y x y z 3 y
! 2 "
Figure 6.3 Stresses on two Dw p 2
w w w 2
0 a
surfaces of a fluid element. = Za + 0 2
+ 2+ 2 +
Dt z x y z 3 z

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
1 !(Rw)
Rw + dz
z 2 !z
Elemental
Continuity
Equation
volume
Rw
1 !(Ru) 1 !(Ru)
Ru - dx Ru Ru + dx
2 !x 2 !x
dz
dx ua
z
h
1 !(Rw)
Rw - dz
2 !z x
x
At rest
Figure 6.4 Velocities and densities for mass

Figure 6.5 Flow between parallel
flow balance through a flux volume element in
flat plates.
two dimensions.
u v w
Continuity Equation: + + =0
x y z

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Couette & Poiseuille Flow
ua ua = 0
h h
z z
At rest At rest
(a) (b)
Figure 6.6 (a) Couette and (b) Poiseuille velocity profiles.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Velocity Profiles
u = ua
h
z
u=0
dp dp dp dp
>0 >0 <0 <0
dx dx dx dx
( )
du
dz z = 0
<0
( )
du
dz z = 0
=0
( )
du
dz z = 0
>0
( )
du
dz z = 0
>0
( )
du
dz z = h
>0
( dudz ) z = h >0
( dudz ) z = h <0
( )
du
dz z = h
=0
Figure 6.7 Some interesting velocity profiles.

ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Flow Examples
z
r a
vz z x
3
0 gh
u q! =
Figure 6.8 Flow in a circular pipe. 30
a4 d p
q=
80 dz
Figure 6.9 Flow down a vertical

plane.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2
Viscosimeters
ht tq c 3tq
k,0 = = Bt 0 = 0 =
Aq 2ro2ri!a 2R3
pa
0.1 cm
(0.04 in.)
10 cm W, rad/sec
ht (4.00 in.)
12 cm dr
pi (4.75 in.) r
Cone
A
lt
240 rpm
p=0
2a
Figure 6.10 Important

Figure 6.10 Rotational Figure 6.10 Cone-and-plane
features of a capillary
circular viscometer. viscometer.
viscometer.
ISBN No. 0-8247-5371-2

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Conformal & Non-Conformal

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Minimum film thickness:

Figure 1.3 Characteristics of

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Figure 1.4 Mechanisms of pressure development for hydrodynamic

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Figure 1.5 Characteristics Figure 1.6 Characteristics

(a) (b) (c)

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Contact angle of methylene

chain length [From Bowden and

coefficient as a function of chain 0

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Figure 1.11 Effect of boundary

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Figure 1.12 Physisorption of of n-

Figure 1.14 Formation of sulfide

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

0.001 Boundary Mixed Hydrodynamic

Nature of Liquid Gas Nature of

Mode of operation Hydrodynamic Squeeze Hydrostatic Hybrid Roller

Direction of load Journal Combined Thrust

Nature of load Steady Dynamic

Nature of load Steady Dynamic

Figure 2.1 Divisions of conformal

Condition General com- Journal bearing type

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Condition General com- Journal bearing type

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Condition General com- Thrust bearing type

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Condition General com- Thrust bearing type

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Typical maximum load, lbf

Typical maximum load, N

Figure 2.4 General guide 103 .0125 (1/2)

to thrust bearing type. 103

diameter to outside Approximate maximum

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Actual surface profile Error of form Waviness Roughness

Figure 3.1 Geometric characteristics of solid surfaces [From Halling (1976).]

Figure 3.2 Difficulty in interpreting

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Table 3.1 Summary of typical specifications of devices used for surface

Mean or M System: Areas above

Figure 3.6 Comparison of three types of

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Figure 3.8 Surface profile tp(100)

showing bearing length.

Figure 3.9 Abbot curves for two different

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Figure 3.11 Illustration of three different

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Figure 3.12 Two different surfaces and resulting

Name Formula Sample of familiar member

Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication

Table 4.3 Petroleum products with boiling point

Temper- Paranic base oil Napthenic base oil