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The Open Civil Engineering Journal, 2015, 9, (Suppl. 1, M 4) 249-259 249

Open Access
Circular Concrete-Filled Tubular Columns: State of the Art Oriented to
the Vulnerability Assessment

Rolando Chacn*

Departmento de Ingenieria de la Construccion, Calle Jordi Girona 1-3. Campus Nord UPC. Edificio C1-207. 08034.
Barcelona, Spain

Abstract: The vulnerability of framed structures has been analyzed until recently from two different perspectives: Struc-
tural and socio-economical. For the sake of assessing the former, indexes and objective measurements have been proposed
in the literature. These indexes include relatively accurate assessments of the strength, ductility, energy absorption, fire,
blast response and resilience of the elements in order to define a higher-level structural magnitude. Similar approaches are
performed with the latter when it comes to assessing damage, economical aspects, social and other important factors.
On the other hand, concrete-filled tubes (CFT) have proven structurally efficient due to their relatively high strength-to-
weight ratio. Considerably complete state-of-the-art reviews are available for these members when it comes to analyzing
their strength and overall or local buckling in static and/or dynamic responses. Reviews concerning important issues re-
lated to the structural vulnerability of those members are, however, scarce.
In this paper, a state-of-the art dealing with the behavior of concrete-filled tubes is presented. The novelty of such ap-
proach is to present research concerning CFT but, in this case, from a structural vulnerability perspective (not socio-
economical), that is to say, summarizing references concerning seismic response, fire resistance, impact response and
other main characteristics that are further used when defining the aforementioned indexes. Relevant numerical, experi-
mental and theoretical studies presented in recent years are pinpointed as well as potential research trends.

Keywords: CFT, composite structures, earthquake resistance, fire resistance, impact resistance, vulnerability assessment.

1. INTRODUCTION vulnerability indexes are generally obtained by weighing

The vulnerability of a system to any thread is a matter of
a major concern in humankind. Disasters, accidents, climate
change or financial crisis are only four of the numerous
threads that natural or artificial systems may undergo during
a lifetime. In the particular field of structural engineering, the
vulnerability of framed structures is defined as the likelihood
of encountering a severe global damage of the structure
(building, bridge, dam, platform, etc.) when one or several of
its members are threatened by a particular accidental situa-
tion. A structure is vulnerable if a relatively small damage
(in a single part or the whole structure) leads to dispropor-
tionately large consequences. The vulnerability of a framed
structure may be measured in terms of its physical response
towards those threats and in terms of its associated socioeco-
nomic damage. For both cases, authors have proposed objec-
tive quantities for measuring the vulnerability of the struc-
ture as a function of several parameters related to the struc-
tural members, ground, architectural design, maintenance of
the structure and natural environment. Currently available
vulnerability indexes encompass several of the aforemen-
tioned characteristics in a single value. When it comes to the
parameters associated with the structural members, the
*Address correspondence to this author at the Departmento de Ingenieria de
la Construccion, Calle Jordi Girona 1-3. Campus Nord UPC. Edificio C1-
207. 08034. Barcelona, Spain; Tel: 0034934017349;
E-mail: rolando.chacon@upc.edu
several of their structural characteristics such as ductility,
strength, fire resistance, energy absorption, impact and blast
resistance or others.
On the other hand, concrete-filled tubes (CFT) are widely
used as columns in civil engineering. CFT consist of a steel
tube with a concrete core casted inside. Several applications
of CFT (ranging from medium-to-tall buildings to bridge
construction) are available. Both circular and square CFT are
available in construction, being the former more resistant,
ductile and well understood but being the latter more popular
for framed structures due to ease of connections. CFT have
become popular in structural applications due to their earth-
quake-resistant properties and the relatively high strength-to-
weight ratio. The static behavior of CFT has been analyzed
and thousands of tests on CFT subjected to axial and flexural
loads have been gathered by researchers in the U.K [1] and
are nowadays available and continuously updated by re-
searchers from the University of Bradford under the supervi-
sion of Prof. D. Lam [2]. The vast majority of studies have
pointed out key beneficial aspects of CFT when subjected to
different types of loading. Their cross-sectional resistance is
systematically compared to the resistance of a pure steel or
pure concrete element. Consensus concerning this matter has
been achieved among researchers: the resistance of CFT is
quite higher than the addition of the resistances of each ma-
terial when considered separately. Relatively complete state-
of-the-art reports concerning the cross-sectional resistance of

1874-1495/15 2015 Bentham Open

250 The Open Civil Engineering Journal, 2015, Volume 9
t=plate thickness
D=outer diameter t
fck=concrete strength
fy=steel yield strength
D L
Fig. (1). Views of concrete-filled tubes. geometry and material properties.
CFT to static and dynamic loads are available [3, 4]. These
reports discuss topics ranging from the nonlinear behavior,
composite action, bond effects, hysteresis response and
overall/local buckling of columns with different length-to-
diameter and diameter-to-wall thickness ratios. The NSEL
report [4] includes an exhaustive review of analytical and
experimental studies concerning the cross-sectional and
overall buckling resistance of CFT as well as the seismic
response focused on connections. In addition, reviews con-
cerning the numerical modeling of CFT have also been pub-
lished [5]. This review presents a particular emphasis in the
potential use of relatively simplified beam models (fiber-
based or lumped-plasticity based) or alternatively, fully non-
linear 3D models which encompass confinement, bond ef-
fect, local/global buckling and other expected failure phe-
nomena.
In recent years, an increasing amount of papers and re-
search works concerning CFT has been published. These
research works include vast numerical studies with emphasis
in relatively new aspects over CFT such as fire resistance,
blast or impact loading, ductility or other aspects related to
new materials or geometries. As stated previously, those
aspects are fundamental when it comes to defining objective
measurements concerning the vulnerability of framed struc-
tures.
In this review, a state-of-the-art report concerning the
structural characteristics of CFT associated with vulnerabil-
ity is presented. The novelty of this research work is to pro-
vide newly available data and references related to the struc-
tural response of CFT but also, to organize these references
from a vulnerability point of view, emphasizing in three
separate aspects: seismic response, fire resistance and impact
loading.
The paper is organized in sections in which reviews con-
cerning the aforementioned topics are presented separately.
In addition, sections concerning the most studied topics such
as cross-sectional resistance, overall/local buckling, are
added for the sake of completeness and for the sake of updat-
ing some references. The studies presented herein are limited
to circular steel tubes with concrete casted inside. Other
geometries such as square, rectangular or elliptical sections
are not covered. Fig. (1) depicts the geometrical characteris-
tics of CFT as well as the nomenclature and geometrical
proportions used throughout the paper.
2. CROSS-SECTIONAL RESISTANCE OVERALL
AND LOCAL STABILITY
In pure compression, the mechanical basis that underpins
the cross-sectional resistance of CFT is the passive confine-
Rolando Chacn
ment provided by the steel tube to the concrete core. The
mechanical behavior of short stub CFT was first described in
[6, 7]. Ever since that, the basic principles have inspired re-
searchers in defining more refined quantitative predictions of
the cross-sectional resistance of CFT. Fig. (2) shows sche-
matically this basic mechanical principle. Considering that
both materials present a different Poisson coefficient, the
lateral expansion of both bodies differ when subjected to
stresses along the longitudinal direction.
In the initial stage of a hypothetical monotonically in-
creasing load applied concentrically on a CFT cross-section,
the steel tube expands faster in the radial direction than the
concrete core, i.e., the steel tube does not provide any re-
straint to the concrete body. Compressive hoop stresses are
formed in the steel tube and lateral tensile stresses in the
concrete core (Fig. 2 c<s). The lateral tension on the con-
crete generates micro cracking which affects the Poisson
coefficient and the overall stiffness of the body. At some
point, the lateral expansion of the concrete core catches up
the steel tube and the steel tube starts providing a lateral re-
straint (Fig. 2 c>s). The hoop stresses in the steel become
tensile and from this point onwards, the steel is subjected to
biaxial stresses (compressive and tensile) whereas the con-
crete core is subjected to tri-axial compressive stresses.
As previously stated, CFT provide a greater cross-
sectional resistance than if the contributions of steel and
concrete are calculated separately. This increase in capacity
is due to the considerable confinement effect given by the
steel tube to the concrete core. The passive confinement the
steel tube provides to the concrete core is a key aspect which
allows determining the cross-sectional capacity of the CFT.
This effect has been studied considerably. Broadly speaking,
it can be stated that the cross-sectional resistance Npl of a
CFT is given as the sum of the partial resistances of the con-
crete core and the steel tube (eq. (1)). In Eq. (1), and are
coefficients which modify the partial resistances Acfck (con-
crete) and Asfy (steel) for simulating the confinement effect
accordingly.
N pl = !Ac f ck + "As f y (1)
The passive confinement has been mostly studied in con-
centrically compressed CFT. Researchers have recently pro-
vided different alternatives for obtaining and as a func-
tion of the cross-sectional geometry [8-11], i.e., the diameter
D, the thickness of the tube t, and the nominal strengths of
the materials fck and fy. The definition of and has been
traditionally based upon a strong phenomenological insight
with additional empirical calibrations of some necessary
coefficients. It has been recognized that these coefficients are
Circular Concrete-Filled Tubular Columns. State of the Art Oriented
longitudinal
compressive hoop stress
cs
longitudinal
tensile hoop stress
cs
Fig. (2). Mechanical principle for the cross-sectional resistance (compression) [11].
strongly dependent on (eq. 2), which represents the ratio
between the partial contribution of the tube to the resistance
to the arithmetic sum of the partial resistances of the tube
and the core. This parameter is limited in EN1994 [12] for
CFT as shown in eq. 2.
As f y
!= 0, 2 " ! " 0,9
As f y + Ac f c'
More recently, in a previous work performed in [13], it is
statistically demonstrated that in short columns (no overall
buckling observed) the proportion L/D may also play a role
in the definition of Npl.
These proposals have been statistically and systemati-
cally evaluated in recent studies [14, 15] by comparing their
own experimental results with the corresponding theoretical
capacities and those included in structural codes. These
authors concluded that the ultimate load capacities predicted
by [8-11] lead to satisfactory results. Furthermore, compari-
sons between these proposals and 344 experimental tests
found in [1, 2] were performed in [13]. It was concluded that
the predictions given in [10, 11] provide better agreement
with tests among those studied. It is important to pinpoint
that in the experimental database used for drawing these
conclusions, the L/D and D/t ratios of the tests were chosen
in such a way that no local/overall buckling was expected to
occur as the primary failure mode. In a relatively recent work
[16], the load-bearing capacity of CFT is studied experimen-
tally, analytically and also from the structural codes perspec-
The Open Civil Engineering Journal, 2015, Volume 9 251
longitudinal
lateral tension
lateral tension
lateral tension
concrete core
differential element
longitudinal
confinement
confinement
confinement
concrete core
differential element
tive. Comparisons between relevant codes and experimen-
tal/numerical results are thoroughly performed. Numerical
and experimental studies related to this topic are continu-
ously refined with more models, predictions and details of
the formulations [16-18]. A comprehensive summary of sev-
eral design codes and the cross-sectional resistance of CFT is
provided in [19].
(2)
A considerable amount of other analytical predictions are
also available in [3, 4]. Since this paper is focused mainly on
new research concerning CFT and on the phenomena associ-
ated with its vulnerability, these expressions are not detailed
herein.
In pure bending, simplified rigid plastic approaches for
the cross-sectional resistance have been defined (see Fig. 3).
The steel tube is able to resist both compression and tension
whereas the concrete core provides a compression compo-
nent (no tension) with an unconfined resistance. Investiga-
tions dealing with the effect of the geometric proportions,
material properties and with proper survey of structural
codes are available for such cases [20-23].
Substantial structural demands are generally imposed on
column members in mid- to high-rise buildings. High axial-
bending interaction is expected in CFT that belongs to such
structures. For the sake of accounting for such interaction,
cross-sectional interaction diagrams allows plotting the in-
teraction diagram. In Fig. (4), point A (pure compression),
the resistance provided by codes usually includes a certain
level of confinement). This confinement is accounted for
252 The Open Civil Engineering Journal, 2015, Volume 9 Rolando Chacn

Concrete core Steel tube in

fy
fc
in compression compression
Fac Fcc
M M
Neutral line

dcc
dac
Central line
y

dat
Fat

Steel tube
in tension
fy

Fig. (3). Mechanical principle for the cross-sectional resistance (bending) [13].

Compresin

A
Compression Npl,Rd

C
,1
=0
e /d

E
Bending Mpl,Rd
Fig. (4). Cross-sectional interaction diagram for a CFT [13].

when the load eccentricity is rather low. When the load ec-
centricities are high, the confinement is not taken into ac-
count and the cross-sectional resistance is obtained by sim-
ply using nominal strengths and geometry oh the CFT via
equilibrium equation in a rigid plastic response. Experimen-
tal and numerical works dealing with such interactions are
also available [24, 25].
On the other hand, overall and local instability of CFT
have been studied in last decades. Broadly speaking, the
former case depends upon the length-to-diameter L/D ratio
whereas the latter, upon diameter-to-thickness ratio D/t of
the steel tube (the material properties and the load eccentric-
ity also play a considerable role).
The overall buckling of CFT has been studied since the
sixties. Based on experimental results, the effect of the slen-
derness, eccentricity of the load and the type of steel were
systematically studied [26, 27]. The authors pinpointed that
for slender columns with high eccentricity ratio, the effect of
confinement was negligible whereas for columns with medium
slenderness with concentric load, the confinement was higher.
The elastic buckling of composite members has been
theoretically approached by defining an equivalent stiffness
Circular Concrete-Filled Tubular Columns. State of the Art Oriented
(EI)eq which accounts for the presence of two different ma-
terials. The transformation is performed under the assump-
tion that materials remain elastic until instability occurs.
Hundreds of publications concerning this topic are available.
One of the greatest databases concerning slender CFT is
maintained by Prof. Hajjar and co-workers from Northeast-
ern University under the name of Composite Members
Wiki [4, 28]. This wiki is accessible to contributors world-
wide for additions and changes. Together with the available
tests collected in [1, 2], the publicly available databases con-
cerning CFT are remarkable.
On the other hand, local buckling in CFT has been stud-
ied to a lesser extent. It is understood that CFT columns sub-
jected to bending and/or compressive loads might be prone
to local buckling when the D/t ratio of the steel tube is high.
The critical buckling loads of the plates belonging to CFT
may condition the cross-sectional capacity of the members.
The critical buckling mode associated with local instability
of a steel plate of a CFT might be labeled as outwards buck-
ling since the steel plate is not able to develop inwards
waves. Few information concerning mathematical develop-
ments or eigenvalue analyses of such phenomenon are avail-
able in the literature [29, 30]. The cross-sectional resistance
of CFT has been traditionally decoupled from the local buck-
ling phenomenon by limiting the D/t ratio of the tube to cer-
tain values. Numerical studies performed in [31], pinpoint
that the post-buckling strength of CFT is greater than what
has traditionally provided in guidelines. Design formulae
based upon the direct strength method (DSM) and account-
ing for this post-buckling reserve were provided in [32].
These formulae do not require the computation of the effec-
tive area of the plate and are derived empirically from a se-
ries of experimental tests. Major contributions concerning
the field of local buckling have been performed in Australia
by Prof. Uy and co-workers. This research group also in-
cludes works related to square and rectangular CFT as well
as to a wide variety of structural materials [33]. Fig. (5) dis-
plays numerical simulations of typical failure due to local
buckling in purely compressed or subjected to bending
members.
Local buckling
Local buckling
Fig. (5). Local buckling observed in CFT. Pure compression and
pure bending [31].
Recent studies concerning strength of stocky and/or slen-
der CFT are focused in the usage of new materials such as
non-compact slender CFT stainless steel CFT [34] or ellipti-
cal hollow sections [35]
3. SEISMIC RESPONSE
The seismic response of CFT has been widely studied for
square/rectangular cross-sections [36-38]. Frames are easier
The Open Civil Engineering Journal, 2015, Volume 9 253
to assemble with square/rectangular sections than with circu-
lar CFT but conversely these members provide increased
local buckling, reduced confinement and lesser ductility.
Circular CFT sections need complex arrangements over the
beam-to-column connections (Fig. 6).
The main aspects that have been investigated in the seis-
mic response of CFT circular are related to:
Seismic behavior of beam-to-column connections.
Local buckling, tensile fracture and cracking under cy-
clic loading.
The first of the aforementioned points has been widely
studied for different structural types. A wide range of beam-
CFT column connections have been studied over the past
several decades. An example of a bolted connection for CFT
in seismic areas is described in [39]. A convenient connec-
tion involves an attachment of the steel beam to the skin of
the steel tube for simple connections. Researchers, however,
have pointed out that welding the beam to the steel tube (di-
rectly) should not be used in typical moment-resisting
frames. The tube walls may undergo severe distortions and
thus, the formation of plastic hinges is questionable. One
recent publication describing experimentally the behavior of
several connections presents up-to-date references concern-
ing this topic [40]. In addition, the database provided in [28]
also includes a continuously updating collection of refer-
ences and tests for different geometries and materials. Re-
search related to seismic resistance of beam-to-columns con-
nections in CFT has been primarily analytic-experimental
[41, 42]. Numerical studies dealing with this topic are also
abundant [43, 44]. In addition, circular CFT may also be
used as diagonal braces due to their excellence performance
in energy absorption. In this case, in principle, the loss of
such members is at some point desirable. Recent experimen-
tal research shows the seismic behavior of such components
[45] which are displayed schematically in Fig. (7).
Fig. (6). CFT beam-to-column directly welded connection [44].
The second point has been widely studied in Japan by
Prof. Goto and co-workers and considerably dealt with in
world congresses related to earthquake engineering. [46-49].
The behavior of CFT, especially the damage propagation
associated with accumulated plastic strain due to local buck-
ling and tensile strains is largely described analytically and
experimentally. These studies include subjecting framed
structures assembled with CFT (via numerical models) to
reported ground motions such as El-Centro, Taft, Kobe and
254 The Open Civil Engineering Journal, 2015, Volume 9
Beam
Column
Gusset plate
CFT-Brace
Fig. (7). CFT-brace. Main components in a beam-to-column con-
nection.
others. One interesting proposal found in [47] is the formula-
tion of the accumulated damage as a decoupled function of
the accumulated plastic strain due to tensile stresses added to
the plastic stresses due to local buckling when the loads are
reversed. The formulation includes several explicit expres-
sions. Fig. (8) displays details of the experimental tests
(damage due to cracking and local buckling) of CFT under
cyclic loading. More recently, numerical models dealing
with the hysteretic behavior of CFT with large sections have
been provided [49], in which the material modeling (con-
crete) is based upon damage plasticity with additional im-
plementation of a crack opening formulation. Finally, though
not directly related to seismic response, research works re-
lated to ductility demand on circular CFT subjected to lateral
displacement and axial loading is available [50].
4. FIRE RESISTANCE
Fire is one of the potential threats that structures assem-
bled with CFT columns may undergo. The fire resistance of
the structural elements is a major verification that must be
performed during the design process of a building. In the
particular case of columns, the members are generally slen-
der and subjected to a combination of axial and bending
loads. Thus, these elements are prone to overall buckling.
Depending on several factors related to the future use and
Fig. (8). Cracking (left) and local buckling (right) in CFT due to cyclic loading [48].
Rolando Chacn
characteristics of the building to be designed, the required
fire resistance time (the main parameter) ranges from 30 to
180 minutes. This time accounts for all combustible contents
within the building including furnishings, equipment, as well
as combustible construction components. Tipically, most of
the fire load in building results from contents are introduced
once the construction is completed.
The resistance of CFT to fire has been tackled by re-
searchers from a wide range of approaches i.e., analytical,
empirical, experimental and numerical. The basis underpin-
ning the resistance of CFT subjected to fire is a coupled
thermo-mechanic phenomenon between two separated bod-
ies with different thermo-mechanic characteristics. Account
must be taken for a nonlinear contact between the steel tube
and the concrete core that may potentially undergo different
phenomena such as cracking, yielding, overall/local buckling
with a heavy component of heat transfer and conductivity.
The evolution of the strength of the different components of
a CFT column is decreasingly abrupt with time (Fig. 9).
Research concerning the fire resistance of CFT gained
popularity in the beginning of the eighties with experimental
tests at CIDECT [51, 52], in Japan [53, 54] and in Canada
[55, 56]. Ever since that, researchers in Canada and Japan
have proposed theoretical formulae and design methods
aimed at predicting the reduced capacity of CFT as a func-
tion of the fire loading (and thus, the time associated with the
design fire) and naturally, the CFT itself [57-59].
Nowadays, the structural North American standards are
based on the approaches performed by Kodur and his co-
workers [60-62]. This approach consists of a single design
equation which includes the main parameters affecting the
phenomenon.
In China, Han and his co-workers [63-67] have contrib-
uted enormously to the development of rules, theoretical
formulae and design expressions concerning unprotected
CFT subjected to fire loading under axial-bending loads. The
Chinese design rules establish an equation to calculate the
thickness of the required external fire protection for achiev-
ing a certain level of fire loading (i.e., duration of the fire).
In Europe, the fire resistance of CFT columns has been
studied by several research groups theoretically, experimen-
tally and numerically. Three methods are available in Euro-
pean Standards [68]: i) design based upon tabulated data ii)
simplified calculations, iii) advances and sophisticated
methods.
Circular Concrete-Filled Tubular Columns. State of the Art Oriented
i) The first approach is limited to a small number of cases
and provides minimum cross-sectional dimensions that a
CFT must have for the sake of achieving a standardized
level of performance. Authors such as Rush [69] in his
reviews of the methods for the calculating the fire resis-
tance of CFT pinpoints the potential level of unsafety
the usage of such tables may lead to.
ii) Clearly depicted in [70] by Espins et al., the second
approach has been widely studied by researchers such as
Wang and his co-workers [71-73] as well as many re-
searchers in Europe. [74-76]. The method consists of
applying reduction coefficient to the mechanical proper-
ties of the concrete and steel assembling the CFT as a
function of the fire loading and thus, using similar veri-
fications as for the case of the resistance of the members
(cross-sectional and buckling verifications).
iii) Advanced calculations are based upon the usage of fi-
nite-elements models that include a proper coupling be-
tween the thermal and mechanical phenomenon of CFT
subjected to fire. The level of accuracy of the predic-
tions of such models is uncontested. This type of model-
ing has traditionally been limited to researchers [77, 78].
However, due to the increasing computing capacity and
versatility of the available user-friendly Software.
Research dealing with CFT, new materials and new
structural types is continuously updated [79-82]. Newly
available user-friendly numerical models able to couple such
intrincate phenomena are powerful tools for refining the
hitherto performed studies.
rj (%)
100
Reinforcing bars
Concrete core
Steel hollow section
Time
Fig. (9). Evolution of the strength of the different components of a
CFT when subjected to fire [70].
5. IMPACT LOADING
The general problem of impact is considerably complex.
Impact loading involves several aspects related to non-
linearity such as large displacements, material non-linearity,
instability, post-buckling strength, friction and material be-
havior under high strain rates. The physics of impact in-
volves conservation of energy and momentum. In design, the
requirement is to provide proof that the structure remains
substantially intact, even though damaged. A certain toler-
ance of Local plastic deformation is permitted, provided the
overall response is nearly elastic. The dynamic response of a
The Open Civil Engineering Journal, 2015, Volume 9 255
rigid-perfectly-plastic clamped beam under transverse impact
loading has been examined extensively [83]. In addition, it is
well understood that steel is a strain-rate sensitive material,
and for such materials it is well known that the plastic flow
stress increases with strain rate. Circular and rectangular
hollow sections (CHS and RHS respectively) have been ana-
lyzed profusely [84, 85] in particular with applications re-
lated to the oil and energy industries [86] (due to the usage
of pipelines and offshore engineering). Research concerning
the vulnerability assessment of concrete columns subjected
to impact loading is also available [87]. Research dealing
with CFT in construction is, however, less abundant in last
decades. Impact loading may be due to traffic and in con-
struction, is generally assumed as transversal to the mem-
bers. For the sake of accounting for this type of loading,
structural codes provide guidance for calculating equivalent
static forces on a structure in an impact event.
The vast majority of studies concerning CFT under im-
pact loading are experimental. Several experimental tech-
niques are employed for measuring key characteristics con-
cerning impact loading. One of the most popular tests is
called Drop Hammer Rig, consisting of a controlled weight
that impacts the specimen to be tested whose potential en-
ergy is precisely known in advance. Other techniques such as
gas guns and the split Hopkinson bar are also used. The for-
mer corresponds to a light-gas gun in which the piston is
powered by a chemical reaction. The working fluid is usually
helium or hydrogen. As the pressure builds up to the desired
level, the disk tears open, allowing the high-pressured gas to
pass into the barrel. The maximum amount of energy avail-
able when the projectile begins moving is ensured. The latter
technique is based upon stress propagation within a bar
(wave-based). The specimen is placed between of two bars
(the incident and the transmitted bars, respectively). At the
end of the former, a stress wave is created (thus propagating
through the bar toward the specimen). This wave is deemed
as being the incident wave. Once reaching the specimen, the
wave splits into two smaller ones. Among these generated
waves, the transmitted wave, travels through the specimen
and into the transmitted bar, causing plastic strain in the
specimen. The other wave (namely, the reflected wave), is
literally reflected away from the specimen and travels back
down the incident bar.
As far as known by the author, studies dealing with im-
pact loading in CFT aimed at buildings and construction
started during last decade [88]. Shan et al. provided test re-
sults on CFT subjected to impact loading by using a gas gun.
The main objective was to apply axial impact on CFST stub
columns. Results showed that the axial strength of CFST
specimens increases under impact load.
Active research concerning impact loading in CFT has
been performed by Xiao et al. [89]. These researchers per-
formed tests on CFST stub columns but in this case, with a
split Hopkinson pressure bar. Simplified computation meth-
ods for the axial strength of the member were derived from
the obtained test results. Sequentially, Xiao and Shen [90]
performed research concerning the axial impact behavior of
CFST columns with drop hammer tests. The main objective
was to determine the influence of impact energy. One com-
prehensive methodology for deriving analytical formulae
from experimentally obtained results was presented in [91,
256 The Open Civil Engineering Journal, 2015, Volume 9
92] with emphasis in noncircular CFT. Other recent works
concerning square CFT subjected to impact loading include
experiments and analytical solutions [93]. On the other hand,
additional testing in circular CFT was performed in [94] as
well as in [95], in which a summary of hitherto performed
tests worldwide is presented comprehensively in tables.
Moreover, a new generation of numerical simulations
concerning CFT is starting [96, 97]. As numerical methods
become more robust and the computing capacity is no longer
an issue, the high nonlinearity involved in the impact loading
phenomena (buckling, crushing, high strain rate, dynamic
effects etc) may be studied in a more detailed and accurate
fashion.
6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH
TRENDS
In this paper, an up-to-date review of the earlier work re-
lated to the structural behavior of concrete-filled circular
steel tubes (CFT) is presented. The main focus of this review
is to include recent research related to accidental loading
namely, seismic events, fire or impact loading. These studies
are of the utmost importance for researchers dealing with the
structural vulnerability of structures assembled with CFT. In
addition, the review includes up-to-date references concern-
ing the static behavior of these members.
The review includes a vast amount of references in an at-
tempt to condense the research works that has nowadays
been used in structural codes as well as new methods. It is
worth pointing out that several universities deploy continu-
ously updating websites/wikis in which tests, references and
major studies concerning CFT are collected. It is worth
pointing out that among the three main topics depicted
throughout the paper, impact loading has been studied to a
lesser extent.
Research concerning coupled phenomena such as impact
at high temperatures [98], impact loading in CFT with new
materials [99, 100] or bonding after fire conditions of CFT
[101, 102] open new trends that may contribute to the field
and consequently, may provide greater insight concerning
the depicted phenomena. Numerical methods dealing with
impact, high strain rate and particularly high nonlinearity
may be developed to a greater extent and thus, further insight
on this topic may provide a more accurate assessment of the
structural vulnerability of CFT. Advanced applications and
further developments of CFT are a continuous source of re-
search [103].
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors confirm that this article content has no con-
flict of interest.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Declared none.
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Received: October 14, 2014 Revised: October 20, 2014 Accepted: November 28, 2014

Rolando Chacn; Licensee Bentham Open.

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