UNIT-1

MICROBIOLOGY
Microbiology (, mīkros, "small"; bios, "life"; and -λογία, -logia) is the study of
microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms.[1] This
includes eukaryote such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes, which are bacteria and
archaea. Viruses, though not strictly classed as living organisms, are also studied.[2] In
short; microbiology refers to the study of life and organisms that are too small to be seen
with the naked eye.

Microbiology is a broad term which includes virology, mycology, parasitology,

bacteriology and other branches. A microbiologist is a specialist in microbiology.

HISTORY - History of Microbiology

A) First Observations

1. Robert Hooke: 1665, “cells”, cell theory (= all living things are composed of cells.)

2. Antoni van Leeuwenhoek: 1674-1723, first to see bacteria

 B) The Debate over Spontaneous Generation

1. Aristotle: an influential ancient Greek wrote about spontaneous generation {= non

living - > living}

2. Francesco Redi: covered meat didn’t develop maggots

3. John Needham: boil-sterilized broth, let it get contaminated, then thought he saw
spontaneous generation of microorganisms
 4. Lazzaro Spallanzani: sealed broth, then boiled it – didn’t observe microorganisms,

so no spontaneous generation

5. Rudolf Virchow: 1858, biogenesis {= living cells only come from living cells)

6. Louis Pasteur: 1861, long necked flask experiments convinced everyone that
biogenesis was true, led to the development of aseptic techniques {= those
 techniques that prevent contamination by microorganisms)

The Golden Age of Microbiology 1857- 1914

1. this period saw the discovery of the causes of many diseases, advances in the
understanding of immunity, advances in the understanding of microbial metabolism, etc.

2 because of these discoveries most of the 1900’s have been relatively free of plagues,

until now…

Great Discoveries of the Golden Age

1. fermentation {= sugar in fruit juices-> alcohol by Pasteur

2. pasteurization {= heating food just enough to kill most of the microorganisms in

it} by Pasteur

3. germ theory of disease {= microorganisms cause many diseases}

4. aseptic surgical techniques by Joseph Lister

5. the first proof that a bacterium {Bacillus anthracis} causes a disease {anthrax} by
Robert Koch which led to the development by him of koch’s Postulates {= logical
step to proving a microorganism causes a disease}
6. vaccination by Edward Jennr
 7. the first synthetic chemotherapys {= chemical drug treatments} also called “magic
bullets” by Paul Ehrlich

8. Antibiotics, specifically penicillin, was found to be produced by a mold growth on a

petri dish by Alexander Fleming

Modern Development:

1. increased understanding of the immune system

2. recombinant DNA technology {= techniques that allow the

manipulation of genes through their DNA}

BENEFITS OF MICRO-ORGANISMS

Many microbes are also responsible for many beneficial processes such as industrial
fermentation (e.g. the production of alcohol and dairy products), antibiotic production
and as vehicles for cloning in higher organisms such as plants. Scientists have also
exploited their knowledge of microbes to produce biotechnologically important enzymes
such as Taq polymerase, reporter genes for use in other genetic systems and novel
molecular biology techniques such as the yeast two-hybrid system.

Bacteria can be used for the industrial production of amino acids. Corynebacterium
glutamicum is one of the most important bacterial species with an annual production of
more than two million tons of amino acids, mainly L-glutamate and L-lysine.
A variety of biopolymers, such as polysaccharides, polyesters, and polyamides, are
produced by microorganisms. Microorganisms are used for the biosynthesis of xanthan,
alginate, cellulose, cyanophycin, poly(gamma-glutamic acid), levan, hyaluronic acid,
organic acids, oligosaccharides and polysaccharide, and polyhydroxyalkanoates.[14]

Microorganisms are beneficial for microbial biodegradation or bioremediation of

domestic, agricultural and industrial wastes and subsurface pollution in soils, sediments
and marine environments. The ability of each microorganism to degrade toxic waste
depends on the nature of each contaminant.

Recent research has suggested that microorganisms could be useful in the treatment of
cancer. Various strains of non-pathogenic clostridia can infiltrate and replicate within
solid tumors. Clostridial vectors can be safely administered and their potential to deliver
therapeutic proteins has been demonstrated in a variety of preclinical models

Types
The field of microbiology can be generally divided into several subdisciplines:

• Microbial physiology: The study of how the microbial cell functions

biochemically. Includes the study of microbial growth, microbial metabolism and
microbial cell structure.
• Microbial genetics: The study of how genes are organised and regulated in
microbes in relation to their cellular functions. Closely related to the field of
molecular biology.
• Medical microbiology: The study of the pathogenic microbes and the role of
microbes in human illness. Includes the study of microbial pathogenesis and
epidemiology and is related to the study of disease pathology and immunology.
• Veterinary microbiology: The study of the role in microbes in veterinary
medicine or animal taxonomy.
• Environmental microbiology: The study of the function and diversity of
microbes in their natural environments. Includes the study of microbial ecology,
microbially-mediated nutrient cycling, geomicrobiology, microbial diversity and
bioremediation. Characterisation of key bacterial habitats such as the rhizosphere
and phyllosphere, soil and groundwater ecosystems, open oceans or extreme
environments (extremophiles).
• Evolutionary microbiology: The study of the evolution of microbes. Includes the
study of bacterial systematics and taxonomy.
• Industrial microbiology: The exploitation of microbes for use in industrial
processes. Examples include industrial fermentation and wastewater treatment.
Closely linked to the biotechnology industry. This field also includes brewing, an
important application of microbiology.
• Aeromicrobiology: The study of airborne microorganisms.
• Food microbiology: The study of microorganisms causing food spoilage and
foodborne illness. Using microorganisms to produce foods, for example by
fermentation.
• Pharmaceutical microbiology: the study of microorganisms causing
pharmaceutical contamination and spoilage.
• Oral microbiology: the study of microorganisms of the mouth in particular those
causing caries and periodontal disease.