Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
G. RICHARD SCO-TT
University of Alaska, Fairbanks
1. The Human Dentition Given their role in chewing food, dental pathologies
II. Dental Phenetics and Phylogeny: Inferring History and patterns of tooth wear can indicate kinds of food
from Teeth eaten and other aspects of dietary behavior, including
111. The Environmental Interface: Teeth and Behavior food preparation techniques. Teeth can also exhibit
IV. Dental Indicators of Environmental Stress
incidental or intentional modifications, which reflect
patterns of cultural behavior. Finally, as the process
of tooth formation is highly canalized (i.e., buffered
from environmental perturbations), developmental
defects provide a general measure of environmental
GLOSSARY stress on a population. Researchers in several disci-
plines, including physical anthropology, archeology,
Antimere Corresponding teeth in the left and right sides of
paleontology, dentistry, genetics, embryology, and
a jaw (e.g., left and right upper first molars)
forensic science, conduct research that falls direct-
Carabelli's trait Morphological character derived from cin-
gulum of mesiolingual cusp of upper molars
ly or indirectly within the province of dental anthro-
pology.
Cingulum Bulge or shelf passing around the base of the
tooth crown
Cusp Pointed or rounded elevation on the occlusal (chew-
ing) surface of a tooth crown 1. THE HUMAN DENTITION
Isomere Corresponding teeth in the upper and lower jaws A. Terms and Concepts
(e.g., left upper and lower first molars)
Labret Ornament worn in and projecting from a hole(s) A tooth has two externally visible components, crown
pierced through the upper and lower lips and cheeks and root, and is made up of three distinct hard tissues,
Phenetics Classificatory method for adducing relationships enamel, dentine, and cementum, and one soft tissue,
among populations on the basis of phenotypic similarities the pulp, which provides the blood and nerve supply
Quadrant One half of the upper or lower dentition to the crown and root. Teeth are anchored in the
Shoveling Mesial and distal marginal ridges enclosing a bony alveoli of the upper and lower jaws by one or
central fossa on the lingual surface of the incisors more roots and the periodontal membrane. Terms of
orientation for teeth are mesial (toward the anatomi-
cal midline, or the point between the two central inci-
sors), distal (away from the midline); buccal (toward
DENTAL ANTHROPOLOGY IS A FIELD OF INQUIRY the cheek), labial (toward the lip), lingual (toward the
that utilizes information obtained from the teeth of tongue), and occlusal (the chewing surface of a tooth).
either skeletal or modern human populations to re- [See Dental and Oral Biology, Anatomy.]
solve anthropological problems. Given their nature The reptilian dentition is homodont (generallyuni-
and function, teeth are used to address several kinds of form, single-cusped, conical teeth for grasping food
questions. First, teeth exhibit variables with a strong objects) and polyphyodont (multiple generations of
hereditary component that are useful in assessing pop- teeth). By contrast, the mammalian dentition is heter-
ulation relationships and evolutionary dynamics. odont (four types of teeth, each performing different
I75
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN BIOLOGY. Secwd E d m . VOLUME 3 Copyright 0 1997 by Academlc Ress m any fmrrrerwd
All ng.hts of ~pmduct~on
I76 DENTAL ANTHROPOLOGY
sequence of developmental events, including crown under the broad headings of tooth size, crown and
and root formation, calcification, and eruption. As root morphology, hypodontia (missing teeth), hyper-
this genetically controlled sequence of events varies odontia (supernumerary teeth), and eruption se-
to only a limited extent among recent human popula- quence polymorphisms. As most historical analyses
tions, the principles of aging children by stages of focus on tooth size and morphology, this discussion
dental development can be applied to all human is limited to metric and morphologic variables.
groups. Before the age of 12 years, teeth are the best
and most readily available indicator of age. During
A. Tooth Size
adolescence, teeth provide a useful adjunct to patterns
of epiphyseal fusion in age determination. After the In studies of human tooth size variation (odontome-
permanent dentition is completed with the eruption trics), the measurements reported most commonly are
of the third molars (ca. 18 years of age), degree of maximum crown length [mesiodistal (MD) diameter]
crown wear and gradients of wear between the first, and maximum crown breadth [buccolingual (BL) di-
second, and third molars allow researchers to estimate ameter]. In some instances, measurements are re-
adult age by decade or within broader age categories ported for crown height and intercuspal distances,
(e.g., young, middle, and old adult). Because tooth but crown wear must be minimal or the landmarks
wear in adulthood has a strong cultural component, used for measurement are obliterated. Recently devel-
it is necessary to apply different standards to spatially oped techniques to measure the volume of individual
and temporally circumscribed populations. For ex- teeth are promising, but little comparative volumetric
ample, medieval Europeans exhibited much greater data are currently available.
degrees and rates of crown wear than modern Euro- In human populations, there is a modest sex dimor-
peans, so tooth wear standards for modern Europe- phism in tooth dimensions. A comparison of individ-
ans would not be applicable to their medieval fore- ual crown diameters within a single population usu-
bearers. ally shows that male teeth are 2-6% larger than those
of females. This dimorphism is most pronounced in
canine dimensions. Because there is a slight but consis-
tent dimorphism in tooth size, workers generally pre-
It. DENTAL PHENETICS AND sent data separately for male and female tooth diam-
PHYLOGENY INFERRING HISTORY eters.
FROM TEETH In the human dentition, a high degree of dimen-
sional intercorrelation exists, i.e., the size of one tooth
Traditionally, physical anthropologists have been in- is not independent of the size of all other teeth. Corre-
terested in human population origins and relation- lation matrices among the 32 MD and BL diameters
ships. Historical questions can be posed on a broad (not including antimeres) show that interclass correla-
geographic scale (e.g., where did Native Americans tion coefficients vary from about 0.30 to 0.60 between
come from?; who are they most closely related to?; specific tooth dimensions. Principal component analy-
when did they arrive in the New World?) or have ses usually reveal that three to seven underlying com-
more regional focus (e.g., what is the relationship ponents account for 50-75% of the covariance
between peoples of the Jomon culture and modern among the 32 crown dimensions. Although different
Japanese and Ainu populations?). Many biological populations may not exhibit comparable component
traits have been employed to address such questions, loadings, some of the primary latent structures involve
including general morphology, body size, pigmenta- (1) general size; (2) anterior vs posterior teeth; (3)
tion, dermatoglyphic patterns, genetic markers of the MD vs BL diameters; and (4) premolars vs molars.
blood, mitochondria1 DNA, and metric and nonmet- Typically, component loadings for maxillary and
ric skeletal traits. Although variation in human tooth mandibular isomeres are similar. Although the exact
size and morphology has long been recognized, histor- significanceof the latent structures underlying the ma-
ical inferences based on teeth have been limited un- jor tooth size components remains unknown, they
til recently. probably reflect some aspect of the genetic programs
The derivation of historical relationships from den- that moderate tooth crown development.
tal data requires variables with a significant genetic In addition to interdimensional correlations, crown
component. Variables that meet this requirement fall diameters are also associated with other dental vari-
DENTAL ANTHROPOLOGY
I78
ables, including hypodontia, hyperodontia, and, to occlusal ridges (cf. Fig. 1, incisor shoveling; Fig. 2,
some extent, crown morphology. Within European deflecting wrinkle), cingular derivatives (cf. Fig. 1,
populations, large-toothed (megadont) individuals tuberculum dentale), and supernumerary cusps (cf.
are more likely to have supernumerary teeth, whereas Fig. 2, cusps 6 and 7). Morphological root traits are
small-toothed (microdont) individuals are more likely most often defined in terms of variation in root num-
to have missing teeth. There is also a detectable but ber; lower molars, for example, can exhibit one, two,
weak relationship between crown size and the expres- or three roots. For most crown and root traits mani-
sion of certain morphologic traits (e.g., the hypocone fested as presence-absence variables, presence expres-
and Carabellis trait of the upper molars). sions vary in degree from slight to pronounced.
Although some morphological variables exhibit sig-
nificant sex differences (e.g., the canine distal acces-
B. Crown and Root Morphology
sory ridge), the majority of these traits show similar
Teeth exhibit two types of morphological variation. frequencies and class frequency distributions for
First, there is variation in the form of recurring struc- males and females. For this reason, population fre-
tures (e.g., labial curvature of the upper central inci- quencies are generally reported for combined data on
sors). However, most morphological crown and root males and females.
traits that have been operationally defined take the Crown morphology is characterized by high within-
form of presence-absence variables. That is, within field correlations in trait expression (cf. Fig. 1; incisor
a population, some individuals exhibit a particular shoveling on U11 and U12; tuberculum dentale on
structure while others do not. For tooth crowns, such UI1, UI2, UC). Shoveling, which can be expressed on
structures may be exhibited as accessory marginal or all four upper and four lower central incisors, should
FIGURE I Upper anterior teeth exhibiting shoveling (Shov.; mesial and distal lingual marginal ridges) and tuberculum dentale
(T.d.; cingular ridges and tubercles).
DENTAL ANTHROPOLOGY I79
FIGURE 2 Two left lower first molars: tooth A exhibits five major cusps plus a supernumerary cusp (cusp 6); tooth B exhibits an
occlusal ridge variant on the mesiolingualcusp (deflectingwrinkle) and a supernumerarycusp between the mesiolingualand distolingual
cusps (cusp 7). Orientation: m, mesial; d, distal; b, buccal; 1, lingual.
not be viewed as four or eight distinct traits. Rather, trate a general point. Carabellis trait, when present, is
it is a single trait that may be expressed on all teeth manifested on the mesiolingual cusp of the deciduous
of the upper and lower incisor districts. Although second molars and permanent molars. In Fig. 3, this
there are a few exceptions (e.g., Carabellis trait cingular trait is expressed to a moderate degree on
and the protostylid), different morphological traits the permanent first molars of all four twins. However,
usually show little or no correlation among them- in one set of twins (Bl-B2), there is almost perfect
selves. concordance in the form and expression of this trait,
while degree of expression differs between A1 and
C. Dental Genetics
A2.As M Z twins have the same genotype, such differ-
ences in expression are environmental in origin. In
Monozygotic (MZ) twins share identical genotypes, general, discordance between M Z twins for any dental
a fact widely exploited by geneticists interested in variable is attributable to environmental effects. The
determining the relative genetic and environmental differences in tooth structure and form between M Z
components of variance underlying the expression of twins may be caused by environmental factors similar
biological traits. Although there are complicating fac- to those that produce asymmetry between the left and
tors, such as common prenatal and postnatal environ- right sides of the dentition.
ments, traits with a strong genetic component should As a series of metric variables, the hereditary basis
show similar expressions between M Z twin pairs. The of human tooth size has been assessed through the
dentitions of identical twins, in fact, often show re- methodology of quantitative genetics. Workers who
markable parallels in crown size, the timing and se- have analyzed tooth size in twins and families estimate
quence of tooth eruption, general crown form, and that the heritability of crown dimensions is relatively
small morphological details. high (ca. 0.60-0.80). These estimates indicate a strong
Two matched M Z twin pairs, shown in Fig. 3, genetic component in the development of tooth size,
illustrate close similarity in tooth size, form, and mor- but environmental factors, including maternal effects,
phology. However, the expression of one morpho- also have some influence. Studies showing significant
logic feature in these twin pairs can be used to illus- differences in tooth size between generations also
D EN TAL AN TH R O PO L O G Y
I80
FIGURE 3 Right upper dentitions of two pairs of monozygotic twins; Carabellis trait (indicated by arrows) differs in degree of
expression between A twins ( A l , A2) but is identical between B twins ( B l , B2) on both the deciduous second molar and the permanent
first molar.
point to an environmental component in dental devel- presented in the form of class frequency distributions
opment. (i.e., the frequency of absence and each degree of trait
Considering the presence-absence nature of crown presence) or total trait frequencies.
and root traits, early workers thought these variables
might follow simple dominant-recessive patterns of
D. Tooth Size and Population History
inheritance. It now seems likely that morphologic
traits, like other threshold traits, have polygenic Teeth from many human populations, skeletal and
modes of inheritance similar to continuous variables. living, have been measured for mesiodistal and bucco-
That is, the genotypic distribution underlying trait lingual crown diameters. These basic tooth crown
expression is continuous (with multiple loci and/or dimensions are often broken down into two compo-
alleles), but there is an underlying scale (absence) and nents for between-group odontometric comparisons.
a visible scale (presence) associated with this distribu- First, there is a size component that centers on the
tion, with the two scales separated by the presence of absolute dimensions of the tooth crowns. The second
a physiological threshold. Genotypically, individuals component, shape, is a measure of among-tooth pro-
who fall below the threshold fail to express the trait, portionality. Between-group analyses of odontomet-
whereas those just beyond the threshold exhibit slight ric variation often utilize multivariate distance statis-
expressions. With increasing distance from the thresh- tics, which are designed to take into account both
old along the visible scale, there is an associated in- absolute dimensions and among-tooth proportions.
crease in degree of expression. In particular, the newly developed tooth crown appor-
Although complex segregation analysis suggests tionment method may prove to be a powerful method
that major gene effects may be associated with the for utilizing crown size to assess affinities among
expression of some dental morphological variables, human populations. However, for a general charac-
it is still not possible to reduce this variation to gene terization of tooth size variation, two synthetic vari-
frequencies. Currently, dental morphological data are ables can serve to illustrate dimensional and propor-
DENTAL ANTHROPOLOGY 181
tional variation among the major subdivisions of ber of samples used in the calculations. Moreover,
humankind. the distantly related yet small-toothed San and Saami
To summarize human tooth size variation on a populations also share small body size. The question
global scale, summed cross-sectional crown areas of of tooth size-body size scaling is an important avenue
upper and lower premolars and molars (excluding of inquiry that should be further explored in different
M3) were calculated for males from 75 recent skeletal geographic contexts.
and living samples representing 12 geographic regions Although absolute tooth dimensions provide useful
or population groupings. The derived means and information on relative population relationships,
ranges for posterior crown areas (see Fig. 4) show odontometric comparisons are even more discriminat-
four general divisions of humankind: (1)<700 mm2, ing when tooth shape is also taken into account. To
this small-toothed grouping includes two broad geo- illustrate how information on shape differs from that
graphic populations, India and the Middle East, and of size, the population variation of the incisor length
two relatively small groups from Europe (Saami) and index (UI1 MD diameterKJI2 MD diameter X 100)
South Africa (San); (2) 700-750 mm2, this grouping has been summarized on a global scale. A low index
includes Asian (East Asia, Southeast Asia) and Asian- indicates that the upper lateral incisor is broad relative
derived (Eskimo-Aleut,American Indian) populations to the upper central incisor, whereas a high index
and Europeans (including European-derived groups); signifies a relatively narrow lateral incisor.
(3) 750-800 mm2, this range includes sub-Saharan The means and ranges of the UIl/UI2 index, derived
Africans (excluding San) and Melanesians; and (4) from 105 samples, are shown in Fig. 5 for the same
>800 mm2, with a mean posterior tooth crown area 12 geographic areas (or populations) compared for
of 864.3 mm2and a range of 835.9-912.8 mm2,native overall crown dimensions. The worldwide sample
Australians fall well beyond any other regional popu- range for this index is 113.5-139.4, withgroup means
lation in tooth size. It should be noted that the limited between 119.3 and 130.0. Of the first five groups
range for three of the regional populations (San, with the lowest mean indices, four represent Asian
Saami, Melanesia) is due primarily to the small num- and Asian-derived groups (fiveif one includes Melane-
sians, but their historical status is less certain). At
the other extreme, Asiatic Indians, Middle Easterners,
and Europeans have the highest indices. Sub-Saharan
Africans, the San, and native Australians fall in the
middle of the global range.
When the major geographic subdivisions of hu-
mankind are analyzed on the basis of simple genetic
markers, population geneticists find that (1)Africans
are the most highly differentiated from all other re-
gional populations; (2) Asiatic Indians, Middle East-
erners, and Europeans form a coherent genographic
grouping; and (3) mainland Asian and Asian-derived
groups in the Americans and the Pacific cluster to-
gether at low to intermediate levels of differentiation.
Australians remain the most enigmatic population
from a genetic standpoint, with hints of distant histor-
ical ties to both Southeast Asia and Africa.
Geographic variation in absolute tooth dimensions
and the UIl/UI2 index broadly parallel the relation-
ships indicated by measures of genetic distance. East
Asians, Southeast Asians, American Indians, and the
Eskimo-Aleut clustered for both tooth size and the
incisor length index. Europeans clustered with Asiatic
FIGURE 4 Global variation in cross-sectional crown areas of Indians and Middle Easterners for the incisor length
male upper and lower premolars and molars (excluding third
molars). Vertical bars denote means, and horizontal lines show index, although tooth size is somewhat larger in Eu-
ranges within geographicregions. K, number of samples used in cal- rope. The Saami, with exceptionally small teeth, fall
culations. between European and Asian groups for the incisor
DENTAL ANTHROPOLOGY
I82
Inciaor bnath Indox (Il I ratio x 1001: World Moans and Ranoer
crease in tooth size over the past 12,000 years. Fre-
Pegional Population K
Eddnw-~
quently, this decrease in tooth size parallels the origins
and development of agriculture. Some workers have
Mtanesia 2 explained this trend in terms of natural selection (ei-
Americanlndian 9
ther reduced selection and concomitant reduction in
tooth mass or positive selection for smaller and mor-
EastAsia 27 phologically simpler teeth), but environmental factors
SourheastAsia 7 may also play a role. Some domestic animals of the
early Neolithic also tend to have smaller teeth than
SubSaharanAftica 9
their wild ancestors. The correlates of sedentism (in-
San (8ushmen) 2 creased population density, endemic and epidemic dis-
eases, between group warfare and other forms of gen-
Austmfia 8
eral stress), along with the development of new food
rni(LaPp) 3 preparation techniques and the greater reliance on
plant domesticates, may have produced a similar ef-
hdia 15
fect in the domestication of human populations.
Mwle East 8 [See Evolution, Human.]
Europe 11
-
FIGURE 5 Global variation in incisor length index. Vertical bars E. Dental Morphology and
represent means, and horizontal lines show ranges within geo- Population History
graphic regions. K, number of samples used in calculations.
Although human populations exhibit a great deal of
within- and between-group variation in the frequen-
cies of various crown and root traits, this fact was
length index as they do for many other genetic and not fully exploited in studies of population relation-
biological variables. Australians, who reflect a world ships and origins until recently. This can be attributed
extreme for tooth size, are in the middle of the range to (1) improved and expanded standards of observa-
for the incisor length index, more closely aligned with tion increasing intra- and interobserver reliability in
African than with European or Asian groups. Africans scoring morphologic trait expression; ( 2 ) the ready
are, however, less distinctive odontometrically than availability of computers and statistical packages for
they are genetically. Based on this summary, they calculating biological distance measures and per-
show more dental similarity to Melanesia and Austra- forming cluster and components analysis; and (3) the
lia than to either Europe or Asia. demonstration that tooth morphology is useful in as-
In general, when both tooth size and shape are sessing population relationships at levels of differenti-
taken into account, odontometric data provide a use- ation below the major geographic race.
ful tool for assessing population relationships. Of The utility of dental morphology in resolving ques-
course, this discussion focused on the distributions of tions of population history is well illustrated by a
sample means for some of the major subdivisions of problem that has concerned anthropologists for de-
humankind. There is still some debate among re- cades: the question of Native American origins. Many
searchers on the discriminatory power of odonto- years ago, A. HrdliZka argued that American Indians
metric data when comparisons are made among were most closely related to Asian populations; one
closely related populations. Improved analytical biological feature used to support this position was
methods (e.g., tooth crown apportionment) and re- incisor shoveling (Fig. 6 ) . Asians and Native Ameri-
finements in measuring tooth mass (e.g., volumetri- cans expressed this trait in high frequencies and often
cally) should ultimately increase resolution in studies pronounced degrees, whereas Europeans and Africans
of tooth size microdifferentiation. were characterized by lower frequencies and slight
In addition to addressing questions of population degrees of trait expression. Genetic markers and other
affinities, tooth size variation has also been used to biological traits eventually vindicated this position;
assess temporal trends in recent human evolution. In the similarity between Asians and Native Americans
many different parts of the world, temporally divided in shoveling was an indication of homology, not anal-
D E N T A L ANTHROPOLOGY I83
from relatively recent migrants to the Japanese archi- Crown wear, which occurs on both the chewing
pelago. surfaces of the teeth (occlusal wear) and at the contact
In addition to assessing broad patterns of historical points between adjacent teeth (approximal wear), is
relationships, dental morphology has also been used generated by the combined action of attrition and
to measure microdifferentiation among local popula- abrasion. The process of attrition results from direct
tions within circumscribed geographic regions (e.g., tooth-on-tooth contact. Within- and between-group
Middle East, Solomon Islands, Yanomama, American variation in attrition may reflect the nature of food-
Southwest). At these levels of divergence, trait fre- stuffs being consumed (how much chewing is required
quency differences and the associated measures of for particular foods), the amount of energy brought
biological distance are relatively small. Still, popula- to bear between the upper and lower teeth by the
tion relationships indicated by dental morphology muscles of mastication, the thickness and quality of
show close correspondance to those suggested by sim- crown enamel, and the nonmasticatory grinding of
ple genetic markers, other biological systems, and lan- ones teeth (e.g., bruxism). Abrasion, the second com-
guage. ponent of wear, is caused by the introduction of for-
As dentally based biological distance estimates eign material (e.g., grit) into the foods being con-
among closely related populations are small when sumed. Abrasive elements may be inherent in foods
compared with distances between groups with a more (e.g., silicate phytoliths in plants, grit in shellfish),
remote common ancestry, it may be possible to esti- incidentally generated by certain food preparation
mate times of divergence from these values. Turner techniques (e.g., a fine grit is added to the flour when
demonstrated the potential of this approach in a com- seeds are processed by grinding stones), or introduced
parison of dental distances among 85 samples with a accidentally into foods by external sources (e.g., wind-
primary focus on Asian and Asian-derived groups. borne silt, sand).
For the most part, there is close agreement between In all human groups, crown wear is produced by
dentally derived times of divergence and independent both attrition and abrasion. Regarding general subsis-
estimates from archeology, geology, and linguistics. tence levels, it appears that crown wear in earlier
Further development of this method, labeled dento- agricultural groups had a significant abrasive compo-
chronology appears warranted in light of current in- nent because of the reliance on stone-ground grains
terest surrounding the origins and dispersal of modern and the greater amounts of windborne grit due to
Homo sapiens. lands cleared for farming. Because meat is less abra-
sive than plant foods, crown wear in hunter-gatherer
groups may have a relatively higher attrition compo-
nent than in agricultural groups, due in part to a
Ill. THE ENVIRONMENTAL more powerful chewing musculature. However, the
INTERFACE: TEETH AND BEHAVIOR potential for introduced abrasive elements in the diet
is present in all human populations, regardless of sub-
Once a tooth crown is fully developed, enamel and sistence level. Both early hunter-gatherer and agricul-
dentine are subject only to physicochemical changes. tural populations are characterized by rapid rates and
Interest here is with alterations of the tooth crown, pronounced degrees of crown wear, although the rela-
which indirectly reflect four classes of human behav- tive contributions of attrition and abrasion to this
ior: (1) dietary, (2) implemental, (3) incidental cul- wear was probably highly variable (Fig. 7). It has
tural, and (4) intentional cultural. been suggested that angle of crown wear, rather than
absolute degree of wear, may distinguish groups prac-
ticing different subsistence economies, i.e., agricultur-
A. Dietary Behavior alists seem to exhibit a steeper angle of wear on the
Since the early 1980s, isotope and trace element analy- posterior teeth in contrast to the flatter wear plane of
ses of bone collagen and apatite have been widely hunter-gatherers.
used to infer general characteristics of the diet of ear- As many factors are involved in crown wear, it is
lier human populations. Inferring dietary constituents difficult to generalize from comparisons among dis-
and their relative proportions is also a goal of those tantly related populations residing in contrasting envi-
who study the natural processes that result in the ronmental settings. The most fruitful lines of study
cumulative loss of enamel and dentine from the occlu- are those that focus on closely related populations
sal surfaces of the teeth, referred to as crown wear. from similar environments or involve temporal com-
DE NT A L A N T H R O P O L O G Y
I85
FIGURE 7 Pronounced crown wear in the upper dentition of a medieval Norwegian from St. Gregorys Church, Trondheim,Norway.
The relative roles of attrition and abrasion in producing wear in this individual cannot be discerned.
parisons among groups living in a circumscribed lo- teria. Fats and proteins do not promote carious le-
cale. As this approach controls for some of the vari- sions. [See Dental Caries.]
ables contributing to crown wear (e.g., craniofacial As the emergence of food production (domestica-
morphology, tooth size, plant and animal resources), tion of plants and animals) did not occur until the
measurements of degree, rate, and angle of wear can Holocene, an economy based on hunting and gather-
reveal significant differences and/or changes in re- ing wild foods characterized the first several million
source utilization and diet. years of human evolution. As the constituents of a
In addition to crown wear, certain dental patholo- hunter-gatherer diet did not generally promote the
gies can be utilized to make inferences about dietary formation of carious lesions, these groups are charac-
and other cultural behavior. Dental caries in particu- terized by low caries frequencies. In fact, populations
lar is useful for addressing dietary differences and/ of the far north subsisting on high protein-high fat
or changes among and within groups. Although the diets often had no caries at all.
etiology of caries involves a complex interplay among Despite the positive effects associated with the rise
the oral microbiota, dietary elements, dental micro- of agriculture in the Old and New Worlds, it also had
structure, and saliva, the study of earlier human popu- its adverse consequences. With an increased reliance
lations indicates that diet played a critical role in the on plant foods and food preparation techniques,
formation of carious lesions. When the term diet is which broke down complex carbohydrates into sim-
used in the context of caries, specific reference should pler sugars, caries rates increased. But, despite the fact
be to carbohydrate consumption, in particular the that carious lesions increased in earlier agricultural
ingestion of simple sugars (e.g., sucrose, glucose, fruc- populations, this increase was modest compared with
tose), which serve as the substrate for acidogenic bac- the extremely high caries rates in modern populations.
I86 DENTAL ANTHROPOLOGY
B. lmplemental Behavior
Modern technology provides us with a tool for almost
any mechanical task. Lacking such advantages, earlier
human populations with relatively simple tool kits
were often forced to rely on their own biological
equipment. This is particularly true for teeth, which
can serve functionally as pliers, vises, strippers, grav-
ers, etc. In this sense, teeth can literally be used as a
third hand with unique properties. While the use of
teeth as tools is most commonly associated with popu-
lations of the far north, particularly Eskimos, this
FIGURE 8 St. Lawrence Island Eskimo female using anterior
behavior is not limited in either time or space. Hu-
teeth to soften and crimp walrus or bearded seal hide for mukluk
mans throughout history have taken advantage of the sole. [Used with permission from the Denver Museum of Natural
strength, form, and ready availability of their teeth History, photo archives, BA21-419K; all rights reserved.]
to perform a variety of functions from carding wool
to holding bobby pins.
Teeth do not record all instances of tool use, but
they can reflect repetitive behaviors and traumatic along the margins of stone tools. Although chipping
episodes. In many hunter-gatherer populations, for can be caused by such things as grit accidentally intro-
example, the anterior teeth were used for skinworking duced into food, it is frequently attributed to using
(Fig. 8). The ultimate effect of this usage was to gener- the teeth as tools, especially among Eskimos.
ate a distinctive pattern of labial rounding especially
evident on the anterior teeth (Fig. 9). When manipula-
C. Incidental Cultural Behavior
tion centered on the manufacture of thread-like items
from sinew or grasses, the pattern generated on the Several patterned behaviors, which do not reflect ei-
anterior teeth would take the form of notches or ther implemental use or intentional modification,
grooves rather than uniform surface wear. leave an imprint on teeth. One such behavior is pipe
In addition to patterns of uniform wear generated smoking. Habitual pipe smokers commonly hold a
by attrition and abrasion, enamel and dentine can pipe on either or both sides of the mouth in the region
also be removed through traumatic fracturing. This of the left or right canines. Pipes with highly abrasive
process, called dental chipping, occurs when teeth clay stems are among the worst offenders for generat-
are subjected to forces that exceed their load-bearing ing deep ovate notches that extend over several teeth.
capacity. Commonly, such chipping takes the form A more hygienic habit, the use of probes, or tooth-
of small enamel flakes removed around the margins picks, to remove food debris lodged between the teeth,
of the teeth, much like the pressure-chipping evident may leave grooves on the interstitial surfaces of the
DENTAL ANTHROPOLOGY
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FIGURE 9 Upper dentition of prehistoric Alaskan Eskimo. Incisors lost antemortem, but canines and premolars
exhibit distinct pattern of labial rounding indicative of implemental use (e.g., skin-working).
FIGURE I I Labret facet on the lower right canine of a prehistoric Alaskan Eskimo. Arrow points to distal margin of facet, which
extends from crown-root junction to occlusal surface.
pointed teeth. Incising tools can be used to engrave of this phenomenon. In addition, events that disrupt
patterned lines on the labial surfaces of the anterior crown and root formation may also mirror episodes
teeth, or small holes can be drilled to serve as settings of environmentally induced stress. Although the
for precious metals (e.g., gold) or gemstones (e.g., course of dental development is, to a large extent,
jade, turquoise). Precious metals can also be inlayed stable and predictable in terms of matrix formation,
as bands on the labial surface or around the entire calcification, and eruption, the dentition is not im-
crown. In addition to modifications in form, entire mune from external influences. This is apparent in
teeth can be removed tramatically through the prac- size asymmetry between antimeres and micro- and
tice of ablation. macrostructural defects in the enamel and dentine.
The reasons for dental mutilation may be idiosyn- Antimeres exhibit mirror imagery because dental
cratic or culturally prescribed. In the first instance, development is moderated by a common genetic con-
individuals may choose to modify their teeth to trol system for the teeth in the two sides of the jaw.
achieve a desired cosmetic effect (e.g., to enhance When differences are evident among antimeres in size,
beauty or fierceness). On the other hand, some popu- morphology, and number, they are environmental in
lations require some form of dental mutilation as a origin. At one time, the varying levels of fluctuating
symbol of group membership. In some cases, mutila- asymmetry in tooth size among different populations
tion is involved in rites of passage, especially those were thought to provide some indication of relative
rites involving a transition in status (e.g., adolescence levels of environmental stress. Although the logic of
to adulthood, unmarried to married). An interesting the argument remains sound, methodological prob-
and not yet fully exploited anthropological usage of lems pertaining to measurement error and small sam-
dental mutilation would be to assess the diffusion of ple size have recently curtailed the use of dental asym-
specific practices from one region to another. metry as a relative measure of stress.
As dental asymmetry appears to have certain limita-
tions as a broad scale indicator of comparative stress
IV. DENTAL INDICATORS OF levels, dental anthropologists have shifted their atten-
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS tion to the analysis of irregularities in the tooth crown
that arise during amelogenesis (enamel formation)
Anthropologists have long sought methods to esti- and dentinogenesis (dentine formation). The most
mate relative levels of environmental stress on earlier readily observed manifestation of such growth irregu-
human populations. Growth arrest lines in long bones larities is linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH),which takes
(i.e., Harris or transverse lines) provide one measure the form of horizontal circumferential bands and/or
DENTAL ANTHROPOLOGY
I89
FIGURE I 2 Pronounced linear enamel hypoplasia on anterior teeth of prehistoric St. Lawrence Island Eskimo.
Three distinct bands can be observed on right central incisor, while four bands are visible on left lateral incisor.
pits on the tooth crown (Fig. 12). LEH can be ob- patterns of stress, a common phenomenon in earlier
served on any tooth, although it is more common and populations. The numbers of bands and their degree
pronounced on the anterior teeth. Experimental and of expression may also provide insights into the differ-
clinical evidence shows that a wide range of phenome- ential treatment of male and female children or differ-
non can disrupt amelogenesis and stimulate hypoplas- ences in status within a population. Further experi-
tic banding/pitting. However, the key stimulus in ear- mental and comparative work on surface irregularities
lier human populations probably involved some and dental histological indicators of growth distur-
combination of nutritional deficiency and disease bance (e.g., Wilson bands) provide a promising ave-
morbidity. nue of research for scholars interested in discerning
Because matrix formation and calcification for spe- differential stress levels among and within earlier hu-
cific teeth occur during predictable time intervals, it man populations.
is possible to estimate the ages at which specific LEH
bands developed and the approximate duration of a
particular episode of stress. For this reason, enamel BIBLlOGRAPHY
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in some early agricultural groups in North America, Pleistocene. Evolution 41, 705-720.
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old age category, possibly marking the shift from bridge.
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I90
Kieser, J. A. (1991). Human Adult Odontometrics. Cambridge and dentition: Development disturbances. I n The Analysis of
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