Marketing Intelligence & Planning

The effects of dogmatism and social class variables on consumer ethnocentrism in Malta
Albert Caruana
Article information:
To cite this document:
Albert Caruana, (1996),"The effects of dogmatism and social class variables on consumer ethnocentrism in Malta",
Marketing Intelligence & Planning, Vol. 14 Iss 4 pp. 39 - 44
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02634509610121569
Downloaded on: 28 December 2016, At: 11:05 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 22 other documents.
To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 1716 times since 2006*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
(2006),"Consumer ethnocentrism: an integrative review of its antecedents and consequences", International Marketing
Downloaded by UNIVERSIDADE DO MINHO At 11:05 28 December 2016 (PT)

Review, Vol. 23 Iss 2 pp. 146-172 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02651330610660065

(2004),"Consumer ethnocentrism and willingness to buy domestic products in a developing country
setting: testing moderating effects", Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 21 Iss 6 pp. 391-400 http://
dx.doi.org/10.1108/07363760410558663

Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:317839 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service
information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please
visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of
more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online
products and additional customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication
Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.

*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

 The effects of dogmatism and social class variables
on consumer ethnocentrism in Malta
Explores the effects of dog-
matism and social class
variables on consumer ethno-
centrism and formulates
hypotheses linking these
variables. Also considers the
effects of a number of classi-
Downloaded by UNIVERSIDADE DO MINHO At 11:05 28 December 2016 (PT)
ficatory variables on con-
sumer ethnocentrism.
Reports the findings from a
survey of consumers in Malta
which show not only that
dogmatism and age are posi-
tively related to consumer
ethnocentrism but also that
consumer ethnocentrism is
lower among consumers with
higher levels of education.
Discusses the implications of
these findings.
Marketing Intelligence &
Planning
14/4 [1996] 3944
MCB University Press
[ISSN 0263-4503]
Albert Caruana, Department of Marketing, University of Malta, and Emanuel
Magri, Mid-Med Bank Ltd, Valletta, Malta
Introduction
A product is a complex bundle of attributes in
which the consumer finds value. As products
become more complex and as uncertainty
about product attributes and performance
increases, consumers need for information
will also intensify. Given the higher number
of complex quality cues available, the impor-
tance of country-of-origin information is
likely to increase as it provides a brief sum-
mary of the actual attributes of a product. It is
one of the simpler cues that consumers can
use and understand without much effort and
enables them to make choices quickly
(Wright, 1975). In developed countries con-
sumers tend to evaluate imported products
with reference to those made in their own
countries. In developing countries the situa-
tion is often reversed and local products are
evaluated in the light of imported products.
This study explores the situation in the
rapidly developing economy of Malta.
For the purposes of this study consumer
ethnocentrism is seen as resulting from the
assessment made of the country-of-origin
information received about a product by
consumers over time. Human information
processing theory maintains that there are
limits to the ability of human beings to assim-
ilate and process information during any
period in time (c. f. Jacoby et al., 1974). The
huge array of information is dealt with
through a process of perceptual categoriza-
tion (c.f. Bruner, 1957). Individuals are seen to
form consistent impressions of objects early
in the categorization process and this is
swiftly accompanied by a drastic decline in
openness to new information. This feature is
built on the principle of cognitive economy
with response to one stimulus, in this case
country of origin, being extended to all fea-
tures of the product including its quality.
This research sets out to explore the degree
to which the personality trait of dogmatism
and the variables that determine social class
have an effect on consumer ethnocentrism in
Malta. A model and hypotheses are proposed
in which the level of consumer ethnocentrism
varies with social class and dogmatism.
Results are reported of a survey designed to
test these two main hypotheses and implica-
tions are drawn for local manufacturers and
overseas exporters wishing to include Malta
among their target markets.
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is a sociological concept first
introduced by Sumner (1906) that refers to a
tendency to regard the beliefs, standards, and
code of behaviour of ones own as superior to
those found in other societies. Ethnocentrism
often serves the socially useful function of
encouraging cohesion and solidarity among
group members but can also contribute to
attitudes of superiority, intolerance, and even
contempt for those with different customs
and ways of life (Booth, 1979; Levine and
Campbell, 1972; Wagley, 1993; Worchel and
Cooper, 1979).
Consumer ethnocentrism has become a
construct that is also important in marketing.
It is used here in the same sense as used by
Shimp and Sharma (1987) and represents the
beliefs held by consumers about the appropri-
ateness, indeed morality, of purchasing for-
eign-made products. These authors devel-
oped an instrument, termed the CETSCALE
(Consumers Ethnocentric Tendencies) which
sought to measure consumer disposition in
purchasing US-made products versus those of
other countries. Consumers exhibit different
levels of ethnocentrism. On the one hand we
have ethnocentric consumers who feel
strongly about local products and see it as
their patriotic duty to support local manufac-
turers, believing that it is wrong to buy
imported products as this can cause unem-
ployment and harm to the local economy. On
the other hand, consumers who are non ethno-
centric do not exhibit such concerns and tend
to assess products on their own merits. How-
ever, in extreme cases of non-ethnocentrism it
may be that foreign products are being pre-
ferred simply because they are foreign.
Ethnocentrism and dogmatism
Personality traits include variables such as
innovativeness, dogmatism, risk taking, and
inner-outer directedness. Dogmatism refers
to a personality trait that views reality in
black and white. In the USA those exhibiting
[ 39 ]
 Albert Caruana and Emanuel
Magri
The effects of dogmatism and
social class variables on
consumer ethnocentrism in
Malta
Marketing Intelligence &
Planning
14/4 [1996] 3944
Downloaded by UNIVERSIDADE DO MINHO At 11:05 28 December 2016 (PT)
[ 40 ]
less dogmatism have been found to display a
more favourable attitude towards foreign
products (Anderson and Cunningham, 1972).
Shimp and Sharma (1987) report a statisti-
cally significant correlation of 0.40 between
ethnocentrism and dogmatism in their
crafted with pride study.
Consumer ethnocentrism and
social class
Social class may be defined as homogeneous
and relatively permanent divisions in a soci-
ety in which individuals and families sharing
similar values, interests and behaviour can
be categorized (Engel et al., 1993). Consumers
associate brands of products and services
with social classes and this affects what prod-
ucts they buy. Such decisions have a direct
impact on whether to buy foreign-made prod-
ucts as opposed to locally manufactured ones.
Social classes and status systems exist every-
where and Malta is no exception. Gilbert and
Kahl (1982) identify nine variables that have
emerged as most important in determining
social class. These include economic vari-
ables (occupation, income and wealth), inter-
action variables (personal prestige, associa-
tion and socialization) and political variables
(power, class consciousness, mobility). Nor-
mally occupation is the best indicator of
social class. The work one does is often a
reflection of ones education and affects ones
status, consumption and life style, as well as
type of family house and neighbourhood
choice. Using the Hollingshead two-factor
index to classify social class, Shimp and
Sharma (1987) report that in their Carolinas
study the upper lower class is the most eth-
nocentric followed by the lower middle class
and upper middle class.
Research indicates a number of other link-
ages with the individual variables relating to
social class. Thus, it has been found that the
acceptance of foreign products increases as
income rises (Anderson and Cunningham,
1972). However, in the same study, occupation
has not been found to have a significant influ-
ence. Similarly, education has been found to
influence the choices of foreign goods by con-
sumers and the higher their level of education
the higher is the tendency to rate foreign prod-
ucts more favourably (Anderson and Cunning-
ham, 1972; Dornoff et al., 1974; Schooler, 1971).
Ethnocentrism and gender, age and
status
The effect of gender on made-in label is mixed.
Schooler ( 1971 ) and Dornoff et al. (1974)
report that women have a more favourable
evaluation of products coming from abroad
than men while other studies find no effect
(Anderson and Cunningham, 1972). Shimp
and Sharma (1987) find that in their Carolinas
study the effect of age varies by social class
and only older working class individuals man-
ifest ethnocentric tendencies. Min Han (1988),
who carried out work in the USA, reports that
patriotic intensity has a statistically signifi-
cant relationship with age and sex.
Hypotheses
The literature review indicates that numer-
ous variables influence consumer ethnocen-
trism which, in turn, plays a mediating role
between these variables and the attitude of
consumers in buying foreign-made goods.
This research is specifically concerned with
testing the effects of:
1 dogmatism on consumer ethnocentrism.
In line with the findings of Shimp and
Sharma (1987) it is hypothesized that:
H1: The higher the level of dogmatism the
higher the level of consumer ethnocen-
trism.
2 social class on consumer ethnocentrism.
Since no adequate classification system
exists in Malta, the individual variables
often associated with class are taken sepa-
rately. On the basis of the literature
(Anderson and Cunningham 1972; Dornoff
et al., 1974; Schooler, 1971; Shimp and
Sharma, 1987) it is hypothesized that:
H2a:The higher the level of education the
lower the level of consumer ethnocen-
trism.
H2b:The higher the level of income the
lower the level of consumer ethnocen-
trism.
H2c: Occupation has no effect on consumer
ethnocentrism.
H2d:The better the residence type the
lower the level of consumer ethnocen-
trism.
3 In addition it is also intended to look at the
effects of the classificatory variables of
age, gender and marital status on ethno-
centrism. On the basis of the literature
(Anderson and Cunningham, 1972; Dornoff
et al., 1974; Schooler, 1971) it is hypothe-
sized that:
H3a:The higher the age the higher the
level of consumer ethnocentrism.
H3b:Gender has no effect on consumer
ethnocentrism
H3c: Marital status has no effect on con-
sumer ethnocentrism.
Model
The hypotheses discussed above are depicted
in the model shown in Figure 1. It is envisaged
 Albert Caruana and Emanuel that dogmatism and social class are directly
Magri related to consumer ethnocentrism.
The effects of dogmatism and
social class variables on
consumer ethnocentrism in
Malta Research design
Marketing Intelligence & To be able to investigate the relationships a
Planning
research design was employed that involved
14/4 [1996] 3944
postal questionnaires sent to 350 respondents
chosen at random from the electoral register.
The final questionnaire was made up of 31
questions that consisted of measures for con-
sumer ethnocentrism, dogmatism, social
class and classificatory variables.
Figure 1
Downloaded by UNIVERSIDADE DO MINHO At 11:05 28 December 2016 (PT)
Model depicting relationships between constructs
Dogmatism (+ve)
Consumer
ethnocentrism
Social class:
Education (-ve)
Income (-ve)
Occupation (nil)
Residence (-ve)
The research instrument
Consumer ethnocentric tendencies were
measured using the CETSCALE developed by
Shimp and Sharma (1987). This instrument
consisted of 17 seven-point Likert-type scales
described by 1 = strongly disagree to
7 = strongly agree. Higher scores on this
scale indicate that respondents believe in the
appropriateness of purchasing locally made
products while lower scores indicate a higher
willingness to purchase products manufac-
tured in other countries. In their study, which
involved four samples, the authors report a
reliability alpha (Cronbach, 1951) of between
0.94 and 0.96. Test retest reliability carried
out with a five-week interval between admin-
istrations is reported for one of their samples
and indicated a correlation of 0.77. Evidence
for the scales convergent, discriminant and
nomological validity is also provided. Some
minor adjustments to the wording of some of
the items was made so as to relate it to local
circumstances. Dogmatism was measured
using the instrument developed by Bruning,
et al. (1985). This consisted of five six-point
Likert-type scales described by 1 = strongly
disagree to 6 = strongly agree. Higher
scores on this scale indicate that respondents
are very dogmatic whereas lower scores indi-
cate a higher willingness to admit error and
more openmindedness. In their study the
authors report a reliability alpha (Cronbach,
1951) of only 0.64 which is below the accepted
level of 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978). The scale was
therefore tried with a group of respondents to
determine its appropriateness and the num-
ber of scale points was increased from six to
seven, as this generally helps scale reliability
(Churchill and Peter, 1984).
The major problem in using social class as
a basis for marketing action is determining
the variables to use in differentiating one
class from another. Nowhere is this more so
than in Malta where there is a dearth of
empirical work in the area and no objective
criteria exist for distinguishing between the
different social classes. In the absence of clear
classificatory categories of social class, this
was measured by self-report-type questions
requesting details of occupation, education,
residence type, and income. Since asking
income details is often problematic, because
the right bracket may not be indicated, this
was supported by two other questions that
asked respondents about their ownership of
the number of domestic cars and of a summer
residence. Owning a summer residence is a
practice that is fairly widespread in Malta. In
addition, three other self-report questions
were added. These dealt with the age, marital
status and gender of respondents.
Survey of consumers
A mail survey was directed to the 350 persons
chosen at random from the electoral register
for Malta (excluding Gozo Maltas sister
island). The questionnaire was accompanied
by a letter describing the study and its pur-
poses, soliciting participation and assuring
respondents of anonymity. In this respect the
point was made that their names as respon-
dents were not required. A reply-paid enve-
lope for returning the completed question-
naire was also made available. By the cut-off
date, three weeks later, 131 usable responses
to the survey had been received, an effective
response rate of 35 per cent.
Results
Descriptive statistics
The CETSCALE and the dogmatism scale
items were summed and descriptive statistics
showed means of 56.80 (SD 26.95) and 18.20 (SD
7.27) out of maximum possible scores of 119
and 35 respectively. Normal probability (P-P)
plots were obtained and the Kolmogorov-
Smirnov test was applied. These indicated
[ 41 ]
 Albert Caruana and Emanuel
Magri
The effects of dogmatism and
social class variables on
consumer ethnocentrism in
Malta
Marketing Intelligence &
Planning
14/4 [1996] 3944
Downloaded by UNIVERSIDADE DO MINHO At 11:05 28 December 2016 (PT)
that the data were a sample from a normal
population. The mean score for the
CETSCALE is low when compared with the
results reported by Shimp and Sharma (1987)
who report means for four American cities of:
68.58 (Detroit); 61.28 (Carolinas M); 57.84 (Den-
ver M) and 56.62 (Los Angeles). The social
class and other classificatory variables also
exhibited acceptable distributions.
Reliability, dimensionality and validity
The CETSCALE reliability in terms of coeffi-
cient alpha (Cronbach, 1951 ) and standard-
ized alpha is high at 0.96 for both, while that
for dogmatism at 0.75 for both is also greater
than 0.7 and therefore acceptable (Nunnally,
1978). These results indicate that the instru-
the regression analysis between these two
constructs (Equation 1 in Table II) confirms a
significant relationship. Dogmatism explains
13.7 per cent of the variation in ethnocen-
trism. Therefore H1, which holds that the
higher the level of dogmatism the higher the
level of consumer ethnocentrism, is
confirmed. Correlation of dogmatism with
age indicates no significant relationship (r =
0.045: p = 0.609).
Ethnocentrism and social class variables
The regression analysis between the variables
of social class and consumer ethnocentrism
confirms a significant negative relationship
between the education dimension of social

class and consumer ethnocentrism. This was

ments are a reliable index of consumer ethno- found to explain 10.6 per cent of the variation
centrism and dogmatism. To check the (Equation 2 in Table II). Therefore, H2a, which
dimensionality and discriminant validity of holds that the higher the level of education the
the scales, principal components factor analy- lower the level of consumer ethnocentrism,
sis followed by a varimax rotation was per- was confirmed. The similar relationship with
formed for the dogmatism and the income (H2b) and residence types (H2d) were
CETSCALE. The two factors that result not confirmed. H2c, which hypothesized no
account for 58.4 of the variance. The clear relationship to occupation, was confirmed.
loading patterns shown in Table I confirm the
unidimensionality of the two scales and offer Ethnocentrism and the other classificatory
support for both nomological and discrimi- variables
nant validity (Carman, 1990). In the case of the classificatory variable of age
the correlation with ethnocentrism indicated
Ethnocentrism vs dogmatism a significant positive relationship of 0.261 (p =
At 0. 38 the correlation between dogmatism 0.003). The regression analysis between the
and ethnocentrism confirms a significant classificatory variables of age, gender and
positive linear relationship (p = 0.000) while status with consumer ethnocentrism
explains 5.0 per cent of the variance (Equa-
Table I tion 3 in Table II). These results confirm
Results of factor analysis of the CETSCALE and hypothesis H3a, that the higher the age the
dogmatism scales higher the level of ethnocentrism. They also
confirm H3b and H3c, that gender and marital
Item CETSCALE Dogmatism
status do not appear to have an effect on con-
Q1 0.706 0.210 sumer ethnocentrism.
Q2 0.695 0.301
Q3 0.598 0.375 All variables against ethnocentrism
Q4 0.709 0.351 The stepwise regression of all variables with
Q5 0.797 0.038 consumer ethnocentrism confirms that dog-
Q6 0.814 0.168 matism, together with education and age, are
Q7 0.828 0.158 the only three significant variables and these
Q8 0.759 0.314 together explain 23.5 per cent of the variance
Q9 0.670 0.148 (Equation 4 in Table II).
Q10 0.831 0.161
Q11 0.819 0.109
Q12 0.695 0.011 Discussion
Q13 0.796 0.146
Q14 0.790 0.026 In their 1987 work, Shimp and Sharma (1987)
Q15 0.780 0.017 emphasized the need for further applications
Q16 0.671 0.115 of the CETSCALE outside the USA. This study
Q17 0.771 0.226 in the rapidly developing economy of Malta
Q18 0.356 0.620 was embarked on in this light. Indeed there is
Q19 0.268 0.577 no more fundamental requirement in science
Q20 0.025 0.692 than that of replicability of findings (Epstein,
Q21 0.030 0.769 1980). Research is not only a creative process,
Q22 0.036 0.764 it is a discipline. Some concertos are best
understood by being played more than once
[ 42 ]
 Albert Caruana and Emanuel
Magri
The effects of dogmatism and
social class variables on
consumer ethnocentrism in
Malta
Marketing Intelligence &
Planning
14/4 [1996] 3944
Downloaded by UNIVERSIDADE DO MINHO At 11:05 28 December 2016 (PT)
(Easley et al., 1994). The concept of consumer
ethnocentrism can improve our understand-
ing of how consumers compare foreign-made
products with those manufactured domesti-
cally. It also helps us to identify which charac-
teristics have a direct bearing on the levels of
consumer ethnocentrism. The main findings
of this study are: first, the CETSCALE is a
reliable instrument that has been successfully
tested in Malta; second, of all the social class
variables considered, it has been found that
non-ethnocentric consumers tend to be better
educated; third, the results show that con-
sumer ethnocentrism tendencies are higher
among older age groups; and finally, dogma-
tism has been found to have a direct effect on
consumer ethnocentric tendencies. Under-
survey indicate that, rightly or wrongly,
respondents perceive local manufacturers as
caring only about making substantial profits
in the shortest time possible. However, some
comments also offer hope to local manufactur-
ers for many respondents have indicated a
willingness to change, stating that, if the qual-
ity of the product ameliorates, they would
prefer to buy the local product. It is impor-
tant, however, that any improvements consid-
ered by local manufacturers must not be cos-
metic but real. Thus an advertising campaign
on its own is unlikely to be successful, and
more fundamental changes may be required
involving improvements in the quality of local
products. Unless quality controls and stan-
dards are implemented, local firms will con-

standing is the first step in the development of tinue to fight a losing battle and many may
meaningful actions for successful policy eventually have to give way to foreign com-
implications. Although caution is advisable petitors. This is likely to be felt more if and
when interpreting and extrapolating statisti- when Malta joins the European Union. The
cal results, the findings in this research allow results also indicate that local manufacturers
for some preliminary conclusions. of products targeted at the educated segment
The reliability of the CETSCALE for Malta and at younger people are probably not well
confirms that this instrument can be used by advised to use nationalistic appeals in their
local companies in the study of consumer communications and they must ensure that
ethnocentric tendencies towards their partic- their products truly offer value. The dogmatic
ular products. The mean score obtained on individual is unlikely to be a successful target
the CETSCALE of 56.80 is comparable with for any media campaign by manufacturers
that reported by Shimp and Sharma (1987) for aiming to improve their image with local
Los Angeles. However, this perception does consumers. Dogmatic individuals do not
not simply mirror a non-ethnocentric con- change their perceptions easily as they essen-
sumer who chooses between products on their tially see the world in black and white. The
own merits. It is likely that it also reflects absence of a significant correlation between
Maltas long years as a colony and the percep- dogmatism and age confirms that dogmatic
tion perhaps that foreign is better. The many individuals occur across age groups.
comments written next to the answers for the With a population of just over 350,000 and
imports of goods and services during 1995
amounting to some 2 billion sterling, Malta
is better known as a tourist destination.
Table II
Although it is a rather small market, the
Estimated coefficients from regression of consumer ethnocentrism with
findings of this study highlight the opportu-
variables
nity that exists for overseas firms that wish to
Estimated coefficient include Malta among their target markets.
Variable Equation 1 Equation 2 Equation 3 Equation 4 The levels of consumer ethnocentrism
Dogmatism 1.396*** 1.302*** reported confirm that their products are
Occupation 2.586 generally likely to face positive attitudes and
Education 10.892** 8.213* easy acceptance.
Although this research tried to arrive at
Residence 5.264
some conclusions representative of the gen-
Summer residence 9.523
eral public, certain limitations are existent
Income 1.567
relating to the relatively small sample and the
Cars 6.158
possibility of non-response bias that exists
Age 0.581* 0.450**
with postal questionnaires. The study does
Gender 2.432
not include opinions of respondents from
Status 2.116
Gozo as these were specifically excluded.
Intercept 31.475 77.736 32.265 37.734
Since it is generally believed that the atti-
F Statistic 21.643*** 3.589** 3.271* 14.327***
tudes and beliefs of Gozitans are somewhat
R2 0.144 0.148 0.072 0.253
different this aspect must be borne in mind.
Adjusted R2 0.137 0.106 0.050 0.235
There is the possibility of specification error
Significance at * p < 0.05 as other variables, such as patriotism, may
Significance at ** p < 0.01 have an effect on ethnocentrism and these
Significance at *** p < 0.005 have not been considered. Moreover, some
[ 43 ]
 Albert Caruana and Emanuel
Magri
The effects of dogmatism and
social class variables on
consumer ethnocentrism in
Malta
Marketing Intelligence &
Planning
14/4 [1996] 3944
Downloaded by UNIVERSIDADE DO MINHO At 11:05 28 December 2016 (PT)
[ 44 ]
respondents may have been biased in their
replies, especially if the questionnaire was
completed in groups such as the case of a
family. Notwithstanding that all replies were
anonymous, another possible source of error
could result from respondents reluctance to
reveal their true income; whether they owned
a summer residence and more than one car.
Another limitation of the survey was that
respondents seemed to have wanted to
explain their true feelings, perceptions and
beliefs rather than just tick the point on the
scale that they believed most matched their
opinion. In fact there were many respondents
who voluntarily added valuable comments. If
the questionnaire had specifically asked for
respondents comments it is likely that some
useful qualitative data could have been
obtained in a more systematic manner.
Future research could consider a number of
issues. The process by which consumer ethno-
centric tendencies are socialized is particu-
larly worth examining. The influence on early
childhood socialization of consumer ethno-
centric values by socioeconomic and demo-
graphic factors needs to be further consid-
ered. Besides the variables used within this
study, the effect of such other variables as
patriotism, advertising, and pricing can also
be examined. Other research could investi-
gate the effect on consumers perceptions of
products manufactured locally through sub-
sidiaries of foreign companies registered and
operating in Malta as opposed to the same
product imported directly from abroad. Would
the made in Malta label in such instances
still carry the same perception as that of
locally owned manufacturing companies? Is
consumer ethnocentrism the same for differ-
ent product categories or does it vary between
say beer and shoes? Finally, there is a crying
need to develop operational definitions for
class structure in Malta that would allow the
development and identification of empirically
based clusters that describe and quantify the
local social class categories.
References
Anderson, W.T. and Cunningham, W.H. (1972),
Gauging foreign product promotion, Jour-
nal of Advertising Research, Vol. 12 No. 1,
February, pp. 29-34.
Booth, K. (1979), Strategy and Ethnocentrism,
Croom Helm, London.
Bruner, J.S. (1957), On perceptual readiness,
Psychological Review, Vol. 64, pp. 123-52.
Bruning, E.R., Kovacic, M.L. and Oberdick, L.E.
(1985), Segmentation analysis of domestic
airline passengers markets, Journal of the
Academy of Marketing Sciences, Vol. 13, Win-
ter, pp. 76-81.
Carman, J.M. (1990), Consumer perceptions of
service quality: an assessment of the
SERVQUAL dimensions, Journal of
Retailing, Vol. 66 No. 1, Spring, pp. 33-55.
Churchill, G.A. Jr and Peter, J.P. (1984), Research
design effects on the reliability of rating
scales: a meta analysis, Journal of Marketing
Research, Vol. XXI, November, pp. 360-75.
Cronbach, L.J. (1951), Response sets and test
validity, Educational and Psychological
Measurement, Vol. 6, Fall, pp. 475-94.
Dornoff, R.J., Tankertsley, C .B. and White, G.P.
(1974), Consumers perceptions of imports,
Akron Business and Economic Review, Vol. 5,
Summer, pp. 26-29.
Easley, R.W., Madden, C.S. and Dunn, M.G. (1994),
A review and extension of the role of replica-
tion in Achrol, R. and Mitchell, A. (Eds),
Enhancing Knowledge Development in Market-
ing, American Marketing Association,
Chicago, IL, Vol. 5, p. 205.
Engel J.F., Blackwell R.D. and Miniard P.W. (1993),
Consumer Behaviour, Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich,Fort Worth, TX.
Epstein, S. (1980), cited in Easley, R.W., Madden,
C.S. and Dunn M.G. (1994), A review and
extension of the role of replication in Achrol,
R. and Mitchell, A. (Eds), Enhancing Knowl-
edge Development in Marketing, Vol. 5, Ameri-
can marketing Association, Chicago, IL, p.
205.
Gilbert, D. and Kahl, J.A. (1982), The American
Class Structure: A New Synthesis, Wadsworth,
Belmont, CA.
Jacoby, J., Speller, D.E. and Kohn, C.A. (1974),
Brand choice behaviour as a function of
information load, Journal of Market
Research, Vol. XI, February, pp. 63-9.
Levine, R. and Campbell, D.T. (1972), Ethnocen-
trism: Theories of Conflict, Ethnic Attitudes,
and Group Behavior, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, NY.
Min Han, C. (1988), The role of consumer patrio-
tism in the choice of domestic versus foreign
products, Journal of Advertising Research,
Vol. 28, June/July, pp. 25-32.
Nunnally, J.C. (1978), Psychometric Theory, 2nd ed,
McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
Schooler, R.D. (1971), Bias phenomena attendant
to the marketing of foreign goods in the US,
Journal of International Business Studies,
Spring, pp. 71-80.
Shimp, T.A. and Sharma, S. (1987), Consumer
ethnocentrism validation of the CETSCALE
construction and validation of the
CETSCALE, Journal of Marketing Research,
Vol. XXIV, August, pp. 280-89.
Sumner, G. A. (1906), Folkways, Ginn Custom
Publishers, New York, NY.
Wagley, C. (1993), Ethnocentrism, Grolier Publish-
ers, London.
Worchel, S. and Cooper J. (1979), Understanding
Social Psychology, Dorsey Press, Homewood,
IL.
Wright, P. (1975), Consumer choice strategies:
simplifying vs optimizing, Journal of Market
Research, Vol. XII, February, pp. 60- 67.
 This article has been cited by:

1. Rudolf R. Sinkovics, Ruey-Jer Bryan Jean and Daekwan Kim Sven Feurer Institute of Information Systems and Marketing
(IISM), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe, Germany Elisa Baumbach Department of Marketing, University
of Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany Arch G. Woodside Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA . 2016. Applying
configurational theory to build a typology of ethnocentric consumers. International Marketing Review 33:3, 351-375.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
2. Isaac Cheah, Ian Phau. 2015. Conceptualising consumer economic nationalistic tendencies: scale development and validation.
The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research 25:3, 313-331. [CrossRef]
3. Pilar Fernndez-Ferrn Economa Financiera II, Universidad del Pas Vasco, UPV/EHU, Vitoria, Spain Beln Bande-Vilela
Organizacin de Empresas y Comercializacin, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, Spain Jill Gabrielle Klein
Department of Marketing, Melbourne Business School, Carlton, VIC, Australia M. Luisa del Ro-Arajo Organizacin de
Empresas y Comercializacin, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain . 2015. Consumer
ethnocentrism and consumer animosity: antecedents and consequences. International Journal of Emerging Markets 10:1, 73-88.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
4. Zuhal Cilingir, Cigdem Basfirinci. 2014. The Impact of Consumer Ethnocentrism, Product Involvement, and Product
Knowledge on Country of Origin Effects: An Empirical Analysis on Turkish Consumers Product Evaluation. Journal of
International Consumer Marketing 26:4, 284-310. [CrossRef]
5. Jos Felipe Jimnez-Guerrero, Juan Carlos Gzquez-Abad, Emilia del Carmen Linares-Agera. 2014. Using standard
Downloaded by UNIVERSIDADE DO MINHO At 11:05 28 December 2016 (PT)

CETSCALE and other adapted versions of the scale for measuring consumers ethnocentric tendencies: An analysis of
dimensionality. BRQ Business Research Quarterly 17:3, 174-190. [CrossRef]
6. Tamgid Ahmed Chowdhury, Masud Ibn Rahman. 2014. Conceptualizing Consumer Ethnocentrism in a Developing Country:
Validity and Applicability of CETSCALE in Bangladesh. Journal of Asia-Pacific Business 15:1, 27-53. [CrossRef]
7. Chris Pentz, Nic S. Terblanche, Christo Boshoff. 2013. Measuring Consumer Ethnocentrism in a Developing Context: An
Assessment of the Reliability, Validity and Dimensionality of the CETSCALE. Journal of Transnational Management 18:3,
204-218. [CrossRef]
8. Matea Mati. 2013. The Impact of Demographic and Socio-Psychological Factors on Consumers Ethnocentric Tendencies
in Croatia. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraivanja 26:3, 1-14. [CrossRef]
9. Kyuhyun Lee, . 2012. Causes of Consumer Ethnocentrism and Its Effects on Attitude and Behavior of Chinese Young
Generation. The e-Business Studies 13:4, 29-51. [CrossRef]
10. Xiaogang Bi, Sailesh Gunessee, Robert Hoffmann, Wendy Hui, Jeremy Larner, Qing-Ping Ma, Frauke Mattison Thompson.
2012. Chinese consumer ethnocentrism: A field experiment. Journal of Consumer Behaviour 11:3, 252-263. [CrossRef]
11. Nathalie SpielmannReims Management School, Reims, France Barry BabinDepartment of Marketing & Analysis, Louisiana
Tech University, Ruston, Louisiana, USA. 2011. Testing congruency effects between origin and producer for wines.
International Journal of Wine Business Research 23:4, 338-354. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
12. Alexander JosiassenDepartment of Marketing, Copenhagen Business School, Copenhagen, Denmark A. George
AssafIsenberg School of Management, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA Ingo O. KarpenSchool of
Economics, Finance and Marketing, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia. 2011. Consumer ethnocentrism and willingness
to buy. International Marketing Review 28:6, 627-646. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
13. Nicolas Hamelin, Meriam Ellouzi, Andrew Canterbury. 2011. Consumer Ethnocentrism and Country-of-Origin Effects in
the Moroccan Market. Journal of Global Marketing 24:3, 228-244. [CrossRef]
14. Ashok RanchhodMICA, Ahmedabad, India Clin GuruGSCM Montpellier Business School, Montpellier, France Ebi
MarandiUniversity of West of England, Bristol, UK. 2011. Brand names and global positioning. Marketing Intelligence &
Planning 29:4, 353-365. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
15. B. Zafer ErdoganFaculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Bilecik University, Bilecik, Turkey Cevahir
UzkurtFaculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Eskisehir, Turkey. 2010. Effects
of ethnocentric tendency on consumers' perception of product attitudes for foreign and domestic products. Cross Cultural
Management: An International Journal 17:4, 393-406. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
16. Saeb F. Al Ganideh, Galeb A. El RefaeSocio- psychological variables as antecedents to consumer ethnocentrism: A fuzzy logic
based analysis study 1-6. [CrossRef]
17. Murat Hakan AltintaFaculty of Economics and Administrative Science, Department of Business, luda University, Bursa,
Turkey Tuncer TokolFaculty of Economics and Administrative Science, Department of Business, luda University, Bursa,
Turkey. 2007. Cultural openness and consumer ethnocentrism: an empirical analysis of Turkish consumers. Marketing
Intelligence & Planning 25:4, 308-325. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
18. Kojo Saffu, John Walker. 2006. An Assessment of the CETSCALE in a Developing Country. Journal of African Business
7:1-2, 167-181. [CrossRef]
 19. Kojo Saffu, John Walker. 2006. The Country-of-Origin Effect and Consumer Attitudes to Buy Local Campaign. Journal
of African Business 7:1-2, 183-199. [CrossRef]
20. HaminChristian University of Duta Wacana, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Greg ElliottDepartment of Business, Macquarie
University, NSW, Australia. 2006. A lessdeveloped country perspective of consumer ethnocentrism and country of origin
effects: Indonesian evidence. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics 18:2, 79-92. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
21. Mahesh N. ShankarmaheshCollege of Business Administration, University of Missouri St Louis, St Louis, Missouri, USA.
2006. Consumer ethnocentrism: an integrative review of its antecedents and consequences. International Marketing Review
23:2, 146-172. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
22. Aron OCassSchool of Business, The University of Newcastle, AustraliaKenny LimAretae Interactive Ltd., Singapore. 2002.
Understanding the younger Singaporean consumers views of western and eastern brands. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing
and Logistics 14:4, 54-79. [Abstract] [PDF]
23. Aron O'Cass, Kenny Lim. 2002. Toward understanding the young consumer's brand associations and ethnocentrism in the
lion's port. Psychology and Marketing 19:9, 759-775. [CrossRef]
24. Albert Caruana, Saviour Chircop. 2002. The Dark Side of Globalization and Liberalization: Helplessness, Alienation and
Ethnocentrism Among Small Business Owners and Managers. Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing 9:4, 63-74.
[CrossRef]
25. Patricia HuddlestonPatricia Huddleston is an Associate Professors at Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan,
USA. Linda K. GoodLinda K. Good is an Associate Professors at Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan,
Downloaded by UNIVERSIDADE DO MINHO At 11:05 28 December 2016 (PT)

USA. Leslie StoelLeslie Stoel is Assistant Professor at The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA.. 2001. Consumer
ethnocentrism, product necessity and Polish consumers perceptions of quality. International Journal of Retail & Distribution
Management 29:5, 236-246. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
26. Weisheng Chiu, Jung-Sup Bae, Doyeon WonThe Influence of Sports Fan Ethnocentrism on Major League Baseball Game
Viewing Behavior: 114-129. [CrossRef]