SCALE EFFECTS IN MODELING HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

G. V. Vasil'chenko UDC 532.5.001.57

Hydraulic modeling is widely used for solving complex problems of hydraulic engineering
and investigation of various phenomena in fluid flows. By means of it it is possible to
solve problems when mathematical methods of phenomena have still not been formed completely;
it makes possible investigations of the detailed picture of flows and many phenomena and is
characterized by a relatively simple assignment of the uniqueness conditions of the solu-
tions, possibility of a prompt evaluation of the reaction of the investigated object to var-
ious effects, visualization of the investigated phenomena, etc.
Hydraulic modeling is based on the correspondence between the characteristics of the
prototype and model. Various forms of such correspondence are possible, but in hydraulic
modeling one usually uses the linear Xm = MxX p (MX is the scale of the quantity X, the sub-
script m pertains to the model and p to the prototype). Qualitatively identical phenomena
with a linear correspondence of the characteristics are called similar. Disturbance of the
linear correspondence between the characteristics of the model and prototype is called the
scale effect.
Hydraulic modeling is always approximately similar. In some cases this is due to the
impossibility of providing identity of the dimensionless number, i.e., the inadequacy of oc-
currence of all acting forces and factors in the flows of the model and prototype (different
degree of manifestation of fluid Viscosity and inertial forces, surface tension, air entrain-
ment, turbulence at the boundaries of the flow, etc.). In others this is due to the limited
possibilities of creating models of large size or performing the complex experimental mea-
surements.
Approximate modeling is possible owing to the existence of similarity regions with re-
spect to various parameters, i.e., complete independence or weak dependence of the process
(phenomenon) on a change in a particular parameter.
The need to obtain results of modeling with a required accuracy and at the same time to
depart from strict similarity of phenomena serves as the cause of the continuing perfection
of approximate modeling. It is not by chance that publications [i, 2, 4] appeared in recent
years, and the International Association of Hydraulic Research (IAHR) planned a series of
symposia on these problems. The first symposium on scale effects in modeling hydraulic
structures was held on September 3-7, 1984, at the Technical Academy of Esslingen under the
chairmanship of Prof. Kobus (FRG).
The main purpose of the symposium was to discuss practical and scientific aspects of us-
ing approximate modeling with consideration of scale effects for solving engineering prob-
lems and investigating various phenomena in fluid flows.
Three general lectures and 97 papers, discussed at seven technical sessions, were pre-
sented at the symposium.
The general lectures of R. Elder (USA), A. M. Prudovskii (USSR), and F. Nowak (Great
Britain) were devoted to general and particular problems of approximate modeling. The lec-
ture of A. M. Prudovskii contained also particular recommendations on Selecting the condi-
tions of approximate modeling and determining the regions of similarity of various cases of
fluid flow.
At the first three technical sessions 46 reports devoted to modeling of conduits and
steady and unsteady f l o w s w e r e examined.
The reports of E. Naudascher (FRG), P. A. Kolkman (Netherlands), P. Rang (India),
E. Sarginson (Great Britain), J. Knauss (FRG), G. D. Ransford (Canada), and others pointed
out that, with a decrease of the size of the models, the scale effects are due to forces of
viscosity and surface tension, noncorrespondence of the dimensions of separated flows and
boundary layers, and difference in the boundary conditions. As a consequence of smaller en-
Translated from Gidrotekhnicheskoe Stroltel'stvo, No. 7, pp. 54-56, July, 1985.

374 0018-8220/85/1907-0374509.50 9 1986 Plenum Publishing Corporation

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[ o J I I

~o125 I I."~ ." f ]~__~ ."

Fig. i. Relative distributions of meanvelocities and standard de-

viations of fluctuations at the bottom of a two-dimensional flow
of the prototype and two of its models (i:!0 and 1:20) in the case
of making their bottom from sand with an average particle diameter
day = 0.2 m m: 1 and 2) prototype; 3and 4) model i:I0; 5 and 6)
model 1:20; i, 3, and 5) mean velocities; 2, 4, and 6) standard de-
viations of fluctuations.
trainment of air by the flows of models the depths of the water on them can be underesti-
mated.
Of interest are the reports containing evaluations of individual cases of modeling.
For example, H. Bernhart and F. Bakoves (FRG) showed that the capacity of a two-dimensional
model of a spillway (1:25, Fr = idem) is 34% higher than that of a three-dimensional (1:40).
B. Chen and M. Kuo (China) established that the standard deviations of pressure fluctuations
in pressure galleries according to the data of a model (1:60, Fr and S t numbers) are 30%
less than the prototype. A. Schervet (Switzerland), on the basis of comparing two models
(i:i0 and 1:50) of a dam of a soft molded design with the prototype, noted disturbance of
the similarity of pressure fluctuations hut preservation of similarity of discharges and ki-
nematics. Modeling was carried out with respect to the Froude and Cauchynumbers. The mate-
rial of the dam was modeled by rubber (modulus of elasticity E m = 1500 N/cm 2) with fulfill-
ment of the condition Em = MuEp, where M u is the velocity scale.
It was confirmed in a number of reports that modeling of pressure fluctuations in pres-
sure conduits should be performed with respect to the Re number, and in free flows with con-
sideration of the Fr and Re numbers. The phenomenon of cavitation was modeled with respect
to the Thoma number.
Noteworthy among the works devoted to modeling steady flows was the report of I. A.
Sherenkov (USSR), in which the problem of optimizing the selection of the scales of models
was touched on and solved.
Of interest are the reports on investigating the scale effects when modeling unsteady
flows. For example, the report of F. Vasco Costa (Portugal) contains suggestions on separat-
ing unsteady fluid flow into time intervals with modeling on the basis of either the Reynolds
or Froude numbers during these intervals. The report of L. Ya. Ainol and U. R. Liiv (USSR)
contained the theoretical solution of the problem of unsteady flow in pipes and an analysis
of the similarity and time-variability of turbulence characteristics.
Twenty-seven reports composed the topics of the fourth and fifth technical sessions on
problems of modeling aeration and air-water mixtures.
Thorough investigations of the mechanism of saturation of water flows by air (entry of
a jet into water, hydraulic jump, flow against obstacles) and its similarity were performed
by H. Kobus (FRG). The report of I. R. Wood (New Zealand) analyzed modeling of high-veloc-
ity flows with respect to the Fr, Re, We numbers. N. L. S. Pinto (Brazil) devoted main at-
tention to the role of turbulence in the mechanism of aeration. Modeling was performed with
consideration of the Fr, Eu, Re, We, and other numbers. It was established that for geomet-
ric scales of the models of more than ].:10-1:15 and Recr < Re, similarity is provided with
respect to the Fr number. The report of V. Sakuyi, T. Paul, and S. S ingh (India) gave a re-
lation between the scale effect of air entrainment by the flow and model scale log Nq =
0.0048 (i -- .IL/MLJ, where Nq qp/qm, q is the air flow rate.

375
 The reports on modeling air-water mixtures can be divided into two groups. The first
contains the reports devoted to an investigation of the flow of two-phase flows and regulari-
ties of their movement. These are the reports of S. Wigander (USA), D. Wand and L. Li
(China), A. Bin (Poland), K. Handel (Czechoslovakia), H. Falway (USA). The second group in-
cludes reports examining modeling of aeration devices in water treatment plants and siphon
outlets. In particular, the reports of I. Horwath and F. Nestmann (FRG) and S. lamanda and
R. Damian (Romania) were devoted to modeling aerators and aeration processes, and the re-
ports of V. D. Kernitskii (USSR) and B. Goldring (Great Britain) to models of siphon outlets.
On the basis of comparing two models (1:13.3 and 1:40) and the prototype, a 40% decrease of
head losses according to the model data and violation of the similarity of modeling the vac-
uum and siphon charging time were noted in the second of these reports.
Twenty-three reports on problems of modeling separated flows (wakes) and energy dissipa-
tion in a flow, from hydraulic jumps to waves in sea ports, were discussed at the last two
technical sessions of the symposium.
Thus, the report of A. Babb and Z. Mich (USA) explained the role of viscous and gravita-
tional forces during formation of wakes in flows, and the report of T. Taiokura and I. Kame-
moto (Japan) gave information on the standard of the Japanese Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers on modeling suction chambers of pumps and designs of suction pipes.
It follows from the reports of D. Wischer (Switzerland), R. Stir (Netherlands), J.
Sharp (India), and M. Hader (Singapore), devoted to modeling of the interaction of flows and
waves with obstacles, that modeling of processes with a large manifestation of scale effects
must be performed with consideration of the Fr and We numbers or Fr and MX; if this effect
is small, then it is permissible to use models with geometric Scales i:10-1:40 when modeling
with respect to the Fr number.
In the opinion of Ro Stiv (Netherlands), modeling Fr = idem when R e c r < Re provides geo-
metric and kinematic similarity of wave uprush on gentle slopes, but does not provide simi-
larity of the entrainment of air by the wave.
An analysis of the materials and discussions of the symposium permits making a certain
generalization.
Scale effects are not something incomprehensible, but in individual cases the concepts
"scale effect" and "scale defect" are confused. The latter is a consequence of incorrect
modeling of poor quality.
There is no unified method of determining the boundaries of similarity and reducing the
number of dimensionless parameters. In particular cases it is possible to obtain a solution
of these problems with the use of dimensional theory, normalized differential equations of
fluid motion, and systematization of the experiment. The transactions of the symposium con-
tain examples of using all these methods, but the method of scale series was most widely rep-
resented. We will illustrate this by way of several reports. For example, G. Gerbrecht and
W. Mertens (FRG) compared data on ice jams on the Elba River with models (1:66.7 and 1:133.3);
S. Pan and Y. Shao (China) investigated turbulence and aeration of flows under prototype con-
ditions and on five different-scale models (1:12, 1:15, 1:20, 1:30, and 1:40); P. Nagarkar
et al. (India) estimated the similarity of energy dissipation by dissipators on models of
four scales (1:26.6, 1:50, 1:80, and 1:200) with the prototype; H. Umerazzi et al. (Algeria)
used three models of wave uprush on a gentle shore and compared the data with the prototype
[4].
It is considered that for modeling conduits with respect to the Froude number when
Reer < Re the use of models without distortion of geometric similarity in scales 1:15-1:60
is acceptable. Rejection of distortion of the scales is usually due to large vertical veloc-
ities in similar structures. As a rule, on such models it is not necessary to maintain the
roughness scale and their surface is made smooth. In the case of violation of similarity of
air entrainment in lower pools of models of spillways underestimated values of the water
depths are possible.
At present there is no common opinion with regard to distortion of the geometric simi-
larity of flow models, but it is considered that the permissible value of distortion K =
Mp/M L in many respects depends on the three-dimensionality of the flow. When modeling natu-
ral and artificial channels the permissible value of K should not exceed 4-6. In the case
of flows approaching two-dimensional (flows on floodplains of rivers), increased distortions

376
are permissible. The characteristics of modeling floodplain flows and nonlinear conversion
of the model data to the prototype were examined at the symposium in report [4],
Since the success of modeling flows with distortion of geometric similarity in many re-
spects depends on the correct selection of the increased roughness, it is expedient to ca!~
attention to the possibility of using for these purposes the approximate relation % =
0.21Aul ~ between the local fluid friction coefficient and dispersion of the mean longitu-
dinal velocity on vertical Au~. Here
H
~t~ = (1/H~v 2) ~ ( ~ -- u~) 2 dr,
0

H is the depth of the flow, u v is the average velocity on the vertical, y is the ordinate.
An important problem deserving special consideration is modeling of currents at the
boundaries of flows [i]. Attention was devoted to this problem in many reports, and the re-
port of R. Keller (Australia) was devoted to a direct determination of the scale effects of
modeling turbulent and laminar boundary layers over smooth surfaces. According to his data,
when Fr = idem similarity of the characteristics of the boundary layers is violated. Such a
conclusion is obvious, since the parameters of boundary layers over hydraulically smooth sur-
faces are related to fluid viscosity. Less obvious are the causes of scale effects when mod-
eling boundary flows on rough surfaces~ The distribution of the characteristics of the
flows (velocities, normal and shear stresses, frequencies of their fluctuations, etc.) sub-
stantially differs here from those in the flow core [3]. For example, in a two-dimensional
flow with a flat permeable rough bottom (sand, gravel) the distribution of the mean longitu-
dinal velocity in the flow core is described by a logarithmic function
~ = 2,6u44 + In (y/8--0,655) ],
and in the bottom region 0 < y < 6 by a power function

In these expressions: u, is the friction velocity; y, the ordinate read from the mid-
dle of the upper row of soil particles; 6, t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e b o t t o m l a y e r ; Ub, t h e a v e r -
age velocity at the flow boundary; u6, the velocity when y = ~; K r , a c o e f f i c i e n t . In the
case of sands K r ~ 5, if gravel 5 < K r < i0.
Various opinions exist concerning selection of the surface (plane) of reference y in
the case of a rough boundary. Most often its coincidence with the surface, where ~, = 0, is
implied. Such a case is possible, but not necessary~ First, the velocities are not equal
to zero on the permeable boundary and in the soil stratum adjacent to it. Second, for an ap-
proximate description of the distribution of ~, = f(y) various relations are used and the
selection of the reference y to some extent can be arbitrary.
In the velocity-squared zone the quantity 6 mainly depends on H/A (H/A = 15, 6 = 1.2A;
H/A = I00~ 6 = 2.3A; H/A = 500, 8 = 2.6A, A is the absolute height of the roughness projec-
tion), but the intensity of turbulence within the boundary layer remains practically con-
stant [5], and therefore when fulfilling the conditions H/A = idem, Recr < Re, Fr = idem sim-
ilarity of the mean and actual velocities is provided. However, measurements show that in
this case similarity of the frequency, skewness and kurtosis, and probability density of ve-
locity fluctuations is not provided [3].
Touch%ng upon modeling of erosion and similarity of the dynamic effect of a flow on the
material p~rticles of a boundary, we can note the following. Usually on models it is neces-
sary to take the size of the particles of the eroded material without fulfillment of geomet-
ric similarity toward large values. When modeling with respect to the Fr number this in-
volves violation of similarity of the quantities and their distributions in the boundary
laver-~. u, pM~ < Uem; 6~4H < ~ ; upM u < Um; ~ < ~pM~. The data in Fig. 1 showing ~t/u v =
f(y) and o**/Uv = f(y) for a level sand bottom in a two-dimensional flow of the prototype
(Hp = i00 cm, Uvp = 103.7 cm/sec) and two of its models (i:I0 and 1:20) with keeping Aav =
idem = 0.I cm in all three cases serve as partial confirmation of this.
As a consequence of the aforementioned causes the material particles of the model expe-
rience a greater horizontal effect of the flow in value (and duration of individual pulses)
compared with linear similarity, but smaller vertical effect as a result of a decrease of

377
the effect of mismatch of pressure fluctuations above and below the material particles,
which reduces the investigated scale effect.
Due to using on models easily erodible materials or an increase of the current veloci-
ties a different degree of the intensity of erosion of the material is achieved, but in this
case similarity of the transport of the bed load and formation of bed forms is not provided.
A greater similarity can be achieved if modeling is carried out with respect to the boundary-
layer turbulence parameter.
When modeling fluvial processes the bed forms (waves) exert the main hydraulic resis-
tance to the flow, the effect of the size of individual material particles on the resistance
decreases, but t h e role of similarity of the settling velocity of the particles and turbu-
lence in the entire mass of the flow increaseso
In conclusion we can note that the reports of the symposium containing various methods
of modeling and a description of the designs of individual hydraulic structures can also be
of interest for specialists of the USSR.

LITERATURE CITED
i. V. M. Lyatkher and A. M. Prudovskii, Hydraulic Modeling [in Russian], Energoatomizdat,
Moscow (1984).
2. J. Sharp, Hydraulic Modeling [Russian translation], Mir, Moscow (1984).
3. G. V. Vasiltchenko, "Consideration of turbulent flows in the bottom region in hydraulic
calculation," Gidrotekh. Stroit., No. 8 (1983).
4. H. Kobus (editor), Hydraulic Modelling, IAHR, German Association for Water Resources
and Land Improvement, Bull. 7 (1980).
5. H. Kobus (ed.), Symposium on Scale Effects in Modelling Hydraulic Structures, Tech-
nlsche Akademie Essllngen (1984).

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