Volume 5, Number 4
Olympiad Corner
The 41st International Mathematical
Olympiad, July 2000:
Time allowed: 4 hours 30 minutes
Each problem is worth 7 points.
Problem 1. Two circles Γ1 and Γ2
intersect at M and N. Let " be the
common tangent to Γ1 and Γ2 so that M
is closer to " than N is. Let " touches Γ1
at A and Γ2 at B. Let the line through M
parallel to " meets the circle Γ1 again at
C and the circle Γ2 at D. Lines CA and
DB meet at E; lines AN and CD meet at P;
lines BN and CD meet at Q. Show that EP
= EQ.
Problem 2. Let a, b, c be positive real
numbers such that abc = 1. Prove that
(a − 1 + 1 / b)(b − 1 + 1 / c)(c − 1 + 1 / a ) ≤ 1
Problem 3. Let n ≥ 2 be a positive
integer. Initially, there are n fleas on a
horizontal line, not all at the same point.
For a positive real number λ , define a
move as follows:
Choose any two fleas, at points A and B,
with A to the left of B; let the flea at A
jump to the point C on the line to the line
to the right of B with BC/AB = λ .
(continued on page 4)
Editors: 張 百 康 (CHEUNG Pak-Hong), Munsang College, HK
高 子 眉 (KO Tsz-Mei)
梁 達 榮 (LEUNG Tat-Wing), Appl. Math Dept, HKPU
李 健 賢 (LI Kin-Yin), Math Dept, HKUST
吳 鏡 波 (NG Keng-Po Roger), ITC, HKPU
Artist: 楊 秀 英 (YEUNG Sau-Ying Camille), MFA, CU
Acknowledgment: Thanks to Elina Chiu, MATH Dept,
HKUST for general assistance.
On-line: http://www.math.ust.hk/mathematical_excalibur/
The editors welcome contributions from all teachers and
students. With your submission, please include your name,
address, school, email, telephone and fax numbers (if
available). Electronic submissions, especially in MS Word,
are encouraged. The deadline for receiving material for the
next issue is December 10, 2000.
For individual subscription for the next five issues for the
01-02 academic year, send us five stamped self-addressed
envelopes. Send all correspondence to:
Dr. Kin-Yin Li
Department of Mathematics
Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Fax: 2358-1643
Email: makyli@ust.hk
September 2000 – November 2000
Jensen’s Inequality
Kin Y. Li
In comparing two similar expressions,  x + x2 +  + x n 
often they involve a common function. f 1 
 n 
To see which expression is greater, the
f ( x1 ) + f ( x 2 ) +  + f ( x n )
shape of the graph of the function on an ≤ .
interval is every important. A function f n
is said to be convex on an interval I if for For strictly convex functions, equality
holds if and only if x1 = x2 =  = x n .
any two points ( x1 , f( x1 )) and ( x 2 ,
Generalized Jensen’s Inequality. Let f
f( x 2 )) on the graph, the segment joining
be continuous and convex on an interval I.
these two points lie on or above the graph
If x1 , ..., x n are in I and 0 < t1 , t 2 , ..., t n <
of the function over [ x1 , x 2 ]. That is,
1 with t1 + t 2 +  + t n = 1 , then
f ((1 − t ) x1 + tx 2 ) ≤ (1 − t ) f ( x1 ) + tf ( x 2 )
f (t1 x1 + t 2 x 2 +  + t n x n )
for every t in [0, 1]. If f is continuous on I,
then it is equivalent to have ≤ t1 f ( x1 ) + t 2 f ( x 2 ) +  + t n f ( xn )
 x + x 2  f ( x1 ) + f ( x 2 ) (with the same equality condition for
f 1 ≤ strictly convex functions).
 2  2
Jensen’s inequality is proved by doing a
for every x1 , x 2 in I. If furthermore f is
forward induction to get the cases n = 2 k ,
differentiable, then it is equivalent to have
then a backward induction to get case n –
a nondecreasing derivative. Also, f is
strictly convex on I if f is convex on I and 1 from case n by taking x n to be the
equality holds in the inequalities above arithmetic mean of x1 , x 2 , …, x n−1 . For
only when x1 = x 2 . We say a function g the generalized Jensen’s inequality, the
is concave on an interval I if the case all t i ’s are rational is proved by
function –g is convex on I. Similarly, g is taking common denominator and the other
strictly concave on I if –g is strictly cases are obtained by using continuity of
convex on I. the function and the density of rational
The following are examples of strictly numbers.
convex functions on intervals: There are similar inequalities for concave
x p on [0, ∞ ) for p > 1, and strictly concave functions by
reversing the inequality signs.
x p on (0, ∞ ) for p < 0,
Example 1. For a triangle ABC, show that
a x on ( −∞ , ∞ ) for a > 1, 3 3
sin A + sin B + sin C ≤ and
π 2
tan x on [0, ) .
2 determine when equality holds.
The following are examples of strictly Solution. Since f (x) = sin x is strictly
concave functions on intervals: concave on [0, π ], so
x p on [0, ∞ ) for 0 < p < 1, sin A + sin B + sin C
log a x on (0, ∞ ) for a > 1, = f ( A) + f ( B) + f (C )
cos x on [ −π / 2, π / 2 ],  A+ B+C 
≤ 3f  
sin x on [0, π ].  3 
The most important inequalities  A+ B+C 
con-cerning these functions are the = 3 sin  
following.  3 
Jensen’s Inequality. If f is convex on an 3 3
interval I and x1 , x2 , ..., xn are in I, then = .
2
 Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 5, No. 4, Sep 00 – Nov 00 Page 2

Equality holds if and only if A = B = C = then S s ≤ S t . Equality holds if and only Since f (x) = e x is strictly convex on
π /3, i.e. ∆ABC is equilateral. if a1 = a 2 =  = a n . ( −∞ , ∞ ), by the generalized Jensen’s
Example 2. If a, b, c > 0 and Remarks. S1 is the arithmetic mean (AM) inequality,
a + b + c = 1, and S −1 is the harmonic mean (HM) and x1i / p y1i / q = f (t1 ln xi + t 2 ln yi )
then find the minimum of S 2 is the root-mean-square (RMS) of a1 , x y
10 10 10 ≤ t1 f (ln xi ) + t 2 f (ln yi ) = i + i .
 1  1  1 a 2 , , a n . Taking limits, it can be shown p q
a +  + b +  + c +  . that S + ∞ is the maximum (MAX), S 0 is
 a   b   c Adding these for i = 1, …, n, we get
the geometric mean (GM) and S − ∞ is the n | ai || bi | n
Solution. Note 0 < a, b, c < 1. Let f (x) = ∑ xi1 / p yi1 / q
minimum (MIN) of a1 , a 2 , , a n . ∑ 1/ p 1/ q
10 i =1 A B i =1
 1
=  x +  on I = (0, 1), then f is strictly Solution. In the cases 0 < s < t or s < 0 < t, 1 n 1 n
 x we can apply Jensen’s inequality to f(x) = ≤ ∑ xi + ∑ yi = 1 .
convex on I because its second derivative p i =1 q i =1
x t / s . In the case s < t < 0, we let bi =
8 2 9 Therefore,
 1  1   1  2 
90 x +  1 −  + 10 x +    1/ ai and apply the case 0 < -t < -s. The
2
n
∑ | ai || bi | ≤ A
1/ p 1/ q
 x  x   x   x3  other cases can be obtained by taking limit B
is positive on I. By Jensen’s inequality, i =1
of the cases proved.
1/ p 1/ q
1010 a+b+c
Example 5. Show that for x, y , z > 0,  n   n 
=3f  =  ∑ | ai | p   ∑ | bi |q  .
9  3  x +y +z
5 5 5
 i =1   i =1 
3
≤ f (a ) + f (b) + f (c) x2 y2 z2 Example 7. If a, b, c, d > 0 and
≤ x5 + y5 + z5 .
 1
10
 1
10
 1
10 yz zx xy c 2 + d 2 = (a 2 + b 2 ) 3 ,
= a +  + b +  + c +  .
 a   b   c then show that
Solution. Let a = x ,b= y,c= z,
So the minimum is 1010 / 39 , attained a3 b3
then the inequality becomes + ≥ 1.
when a = b = c = 1/3. c d
a13 + b13 + c13
Example 3. Prove that AM-GM a10 + b10 + c10 ≤ . Solution 1. Let
abc
in-equality, which states that if a1 ,
By the power mean inequality, x1 = a 3 / c , x2 = b 3 / d ,
a 2 , …, a n ≥ 0 , then
a13 + b13 + c13 = 3S13
13
y1 = ac , y 2 = bd .
a1 + a 2 +  + a n
≥ n a1a 2  a n .
n = 10
3S13 3
S13 ≥ 3S10
10
S 03 By the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality,
Solution. If one of the ai ’s is 0, then the (
= a10 + b10 + c10 abc . )  a3 b3 

 c
+ (ac + bd )

right side is 0 and the inequality is clear.  d 
If a1 , a 2 , …, a n > 0 , then since f (x) =
log x is strictly concave on (0, ∞ ), by
Example 6. Prove Hölder’s inequality,
1 1
which states that if p, q > 1 satisfy +
( )(
= x12 + x22 y12 + y 22 )
Jensen’s inequality, p q ≥ ( x1 y1 + x2 y 2 ) 2
 a + a 2 +  + an  = 1 and a1 , …, a n , b1 , …, bn are real
log 1  = (a 2 + b 2 ) 2
 n  (or complex) numbers, then
1 1
log a1 + log a 2 +  + log a n  n pp n q q = (a 2 + b 2 )(c 2 + d 2 )
≥ n
n ∑ ai bi ≤  ∑ ai   ∑ bi  .
  
≥ ac + bd .
(
= log n a1a 2  a n . ) i =1  i =1   i =1 
(The case p = q = 2 is the Cauchy-Schwarz Cancelling ac + bd on both sides, we get
Exponentiating both sides, we get the the desired inequality.
inequality.)
AM-GM inequality. Solution 2. Let
Solution. Let
Remarks. If we use the generalized p p x = (a 3 / c) 2 / 3 , y = (b 3 / d ) 2 / 3 .
Jensen’s inequality instead, we can get the A = a1 +  + an .
weighted AM-GM inequality. It states p q By the p = 3, q = 3/2 case of Hölder’s
that if a1 , …, a n > 0 and 0 < t1 , …, t n B = b1 +  + bn .
inequality,
< 1 satisfying t1 + + t n = 1, then t1 a1 If A or B is 0, then either all ai ’s or all
a 2 + b2
t bi ’s are 0, which will make both sides of
+ + t n a n ≥ a11  a nt n with equality if = (c 2 / 3 ) x + ( d 2 / 3 ) y
the inequality 0.
and only if all ai ’s are equal.
So we need only consider the case A ≠ 0 ≤ (c 2 + d 2 )1 / 3 ( x 3 / 2 + y 3 / 2 ) 2 / 3
Example 4. Prove the power mean and B ≠ 0. Let t1 = 1/p and t 2 = 1/q,
inequality, which states that for a1 , then 0 < t1 , t 2 < 1 and t1 + t 2 = 1. Let Cancelling a 2 + b 2 = (c 2 + d 2 )1 / 3 on
a 2 , …, a n > 0 and s < t, if p q both sides, we get 1 ≤ x 3/ 2
+y 3/ 2
=
1/ r
xi = ai / A and yi = bi / B , then
 a r + a 2r +  + a nr  x1 +  + xn = 1, y1 +  + y n = 1 . ( a / c ) + (b / d ) .
3 3
Sr =  1  ,
 n 
 
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 5, No. 4, Sep 00 – Nov 00
Problem Corner
We welcome readers to submit solutions
to the problems posed below for
publication consideration. Solutions
should be preceeded by the solver’s
name, home address and school
affiliation. Please send submissions to
Dr. Kin Y. Li, Department of
Mathematics, Hong Kong University of
Science & Technology, Clear Water Bay,
Kowloon. The deadline for submitting
solutions is December 10, 2000.
Problem 111. Is it possible to place 100
solid balls in space so that no two of them
have a common interior point, and each
of them touches at least one-third of the
others? (Source: 1997 Czech-Slovak
Match)
Problem 112. Find all positive integers
(x, n) such that x n + 2 n + 1 is divisor of
x n +1 + 2 n +1 + 1. (Source: 1998 Romanian
Math Olympiad)
Problem 113. Let a, b, c > 0 and abc ≤
1. Prove that
a b c
+ + ≥ a + b + c.
c a b
(Hint: Consider the case abc = 1 first.)
Problem 114. (Proposed by Mohammed
Aassila, Universite Louis Pasteur,
Strasbourg, France) An infinite
chessboard is given, with n black squares
and the remainder white. Let the
collection of black squares be denoted by
G0. At each moment t = 1, 2, 3, …, a
simultaneous change of colour takes
place throughout the board according to
the following rule: every square gets the
colour that dominates in the three square
configuration consisting of the square
itself, the square above and the square to
the right. New collections of black
squares G1, G2, G3, … are so formed.
Prove that Gn is empty.
Problem 115. (Proposed by Mohammed
Aassila, Universite Louis Pasteur,
Strasbourg, France) Find the locus of the
points P in the plane of an equilateral
triangle ABC for which the triangle
formed with lengths PA, PB and PC has
constant area.
Page 3
***************** abc = 1, we get
Solutions b+c c+a a+b
+ + ≥
***************** a b c
 bc
Problem 106. Find all positive integer ca ab 
2 + +
ordered pairs (a, b) such that  a b c 

gcd( a, b) + lcm(a, b) = a + b + 6 ,
 ca ab   ab bc 
where gcd stands for greatest common = + + + +
 b c   c a 
divisor (or highest common factor) and 
lcm stands for least common multiple.
Solution. CHAN An Jack and LAW Siu
 bc ca 

 a
+ ≥2 a + b + c ≥
b 
( )

Lun Jack (Mei Kei College, Form 6),
CHAN Chin Fei (STFA Leung Kau Kui a + b + c + 36 abc = a + b + c + 3.
College), CHAO Khek Lun Harold (St.
Paul’s College, Form 6), CHAU Suk Ling Solution 2. CHAN Kin Hang Andy
(Queen Elizabeth School, Form 6), (Bishop Hall Jubliee School, Form 7),
CHENG Man Chuen (Tsuen Wan CHAO Khek Lun Harold (St. Paul’s
Government Secondary School, Form 7), College, Form 6), CHAU Suk Ling
FUNG Wing Kiu Ricky (La Salle College),
HUNG Chung Hei (Pui Ching Middle (Queen Elizabeth School, Form 6),
School, Form 5), KO Man Ho (Wah Yan CHENG Kei Tsi (La Salle College, Form
College, Kowloon, Form 7), LAM Shek 6), CHENG Man Chuen (Tsuen Wan
Ming Sherman (La Salle College, Form 5), Government Secondary School, Form 7),
LAW Ka Ho (HKU, Year 1), LEE Kevin LAW Ka Ho (HKU, Year 1) and
(La Salle College), LEUNG Wai Ying LEUNG Wai Ying (Queen Elizabeth
(Queen Elizabeth School, Form 6), MAK School, Form 6).
Hoi Kwan Calvin (La Salle College), OR
Kin (SKH Bishop Mok Sau Tseng Without loss of generality, assume
Secondary School), POON Wing Sze
Jessica (STFA Leung Kau Kui College, a ≥ b ≥ c . Then 1 / a ≤ 1 / b ≤ 1 / c .
Form 7), TANG Sheung Kon (STFA By the rearrangement inequality,
Leung Kau Kui College, Form 6), TONG b
+
c
+
a
≥
a
+
b
+
c
= a+ b+ c
Chin Fung (SKH Lam Woo Memorial a b c a b c
Secondary School, Form 6), WONG Wing
Hong (La Salle College, Form 3) and Also, by the AM-GM inequality,
YEUNG Kai Shing (La Salle College, c
+
a
+
b
≥ 3.
Form 4). a b c
Let m = gcd(a, b), then a = mx and b = my Adding these two inequalities, we get the
with gcd(x, y) = 1. In that case, lcm(a, b) = desired inequality.
mxy. So the equation becomes m + mxy = Generalization: Professor Murray S.
mx + my + 6. This is equivalent to m(x – Klamkin (University of Alberta, Canada)
1)(y – 1) = 6. Taking all possible positive sent in a solution, which proved a
integer factorizations of 6 and requiring
stronger inequality and later generalized
gcd(x, y) = 1, we have (m, x, y) = (1, 2, 7),
it to n variables. He made the
(1, 7, 2), (1, 3, 4), (1, 4, 3), (3, 2, 3) and (3,
3, 2). Then (a, b) = (2, 7), (7, 2), (3, 4), (4, sub-stitutions x1 = ax2 = b , ,
3), (6, 9) and (9, 6). Each of these is easily x3 = c to get rid of square roots and let
checked to be a solution. Sm = x1m + x2m + x3m so that the inequality
Other recommended solvers: CHAN Kin became
Hang Andy (Bishop Hall Jubilee School, x22 + x32 x32 + x12 x12 + x22
Form 7) and CHENG Kei Tsi Daniel (La + + ≥ S1 + 3.
Salle College, Form 6). x1 x2 x3
By the AM-GM inequality, S m ≥
Problem 107. For a, b, c > 0, if abc = 1,
then show that 33 x1m x2m x3m = 3. Since S 2 / 3 ≥ ( S1 / 3) 2
b+c c+a a+b
+ + ≥ a + b + c + 3. ≥ S1 / 3 by the power mean inequality,
a b c we would get a stronger inequality by
Solution 1. CHAN Hiu Fai Philip replacing S1 + 3 by 2S2. Rearranging
(STFA Leung Kau Kui College, Form 7), terms, this stronger inequality could be
LAW Ka Ho (HKU, Year 1) and TSUI rewritten as S2(S-1 – 3) ≥ S1 – S2. Now
Ka Ho Willie (Hoi Ping Chamber of
Commerce Secondary School, Form 7). the left side is nonnegative, but the right
side is nonpositive. So the stronger
By the AM-GM inequality and the fact inequality is true. If we replace 3 by n
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 5, No. 4, Sep 00 – Nov 00
and assume x1  xn = 1, then as above,
we will get S m ( S1− m − n) ≥ S1 − S m by
the AM-GM and power mean
inequalities. Expanding and regrouping
terms, we get the stronger inequality in n
variables, namely
n S m − xim
∑ ≥ (n − 1) S m .
i =1 xim −1
Other recommended solvers: CHAN
Chin Fei (STFA Leung Kau Kui College),
LAM Shek Ming Sherman (La Salle
College, Form 5), LAW Hiu Fai (Wah Yan
College, Kowloon, Form 7), LEE Kevin
(La Salle College, Form 5), MAK Hoi
Kwan Calvin (La Salle College), OR Kin
(SKH Bishop Mok Sau Tseng Secondary
School) and YEUNG Kai Shing (La Salle
College, Form 4).
Problem 108. Circles C1 and C2 with
centers O1 and O2 (respectively) meet at
points A, B. The radii O1B and O2B
intersect C1 and C2 at F and E. The line
parallel to EF through B meets C1 and C2
at M and N, respectively. Prove that MN =
AE + AF. (Source: 17th Iranian
Mathematical Olympiad)
Solution. YEUNG Kai Shing (La Salle
College, Form 4).
As the case F = E = B would make the
problem nonsensible, the radius O1B of C1
can only intersect C2, say at F. Then the
radius O2B of C2 intersect C1 at E. Since
∆ EO1B and ∆ FO2B are isosceles,
∠EO1F = 180$ − 2∠FBE = ∠EO2 F .
Thus, E, O2, O1, F are concyclic. Then
∠AEB = (360$ − ∠AO1B) / 2 = 180$
- ∠O2O1F = ∠O2 EF = ∠EBM . So
arcAMB = arcMAE. Subtracting minor
arcAM from both sides, we get minor
arcMB = minor arcAE. So MB = AE.
Similarly, NB = AF. Then MN = MB +
NB = AE + AF.
Other recommended solvers: Chan Kin
Hang Andy (Bishop Hall Jubilee School,
Form 7), CHAU Suk Ling (Queen
Elizabeth School, Form 6) and LEUNG
Wai Ying (Queen Elizabeth School, Form
6).
Page 4
Problem 109. Show that there exists an can be cut down. Now let the trees be at
increasing sequence a1, a2, a3, … of (x, y), where x, y = 0, 1, 2, …, 99. If we
positive integers such that for every cut down the 2500 trees at (x, y) with
nonnegative integer k, the sequence k + a1, both x and y even, then the condition will
be satisfied. To see this, consider the
k + a2, k + a3, … contains only finitely
stumps at (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) with x1, y1,
many prime numbers. (Source: 1997
x2, y2 even. The cases x1 = x2 or y1 = y2
Math Olympiad of Czech and Slovak
are clear. Otherwise, write (y2 – y1)/(x2 –
Republics) x1) = m/n in lowest term. Then either m
Solution. CHAU Suk Ling (Queen or n is odd and so the tree at (x1 + m, y1 +
Elizabeth School, Form 6), CHENG Kei
n) will be between (x1, y1) and (x2, y2).
Tsi (La Salle College, Form 6), CHENG
Man Chuen (Tsuen Wan Government Other recommended solvers: NG Chok
Ming Lewis (STFA Leung Kau Kui
Secondary School, Form 7), LAM Shek
College, Form 7).
Ming Sherman (La Salle College, Form
5), LAW Hiu Fai (Wah Yan College,
Kowloon, Form 7), LAW Ka Ho (HKU,
Year 1) and YEUNG Kai Shing (La Salle
Olympiad Corner
College, Form 4).
(continued from page 1)
Let an = n! + 2. Then for every
non-negative integer k, if n ≥ k + 2, then k
Problem 3. (cont’d)
Determine all values of λ such that, for
+ an is divisible by k + 2 and is greater than
any point M on the line and any initial
k + 2, hence not prime.
position of the n fleas, there is a finite
Other commended solvers: CHAN Kin sequence of moves that will take all the
Hang Andy (Bishop Hall Jubliee School,
Form 7), KO Man Ho (Wah Yan College, fleas to positions to the right of M.
Form 7), LEE Kevin (La Salle College, Problem 4. A magician has one hundred
Form 5) and LEUNG Wai Ying (Queen cards numbered 1 to 100. He puts them
Elizabeth School, Form 6). into three boxes, a red one, a white one a
blue one, so that each contains at least
Problem 110. In a park, 1000 trees have
one card.
been placed in a square lattice.
A member of the audience selects two of
Determine the maximum number of trees
the three boxes, chooses one card from
that can be cut down so that from any each and announces the sum of the
stump, you cannot see any other stump. numbers on the chosen cards. Given this
(Assume the trees have negligible radius sum, the magician identifies the box from
compared to the distance between which no card has been chosen.
adjacent trees.) (Source: 1997 German How many ways are there to put all the
Mathematical Olympiad) cards into the boxes so that this trick
always works? (Two ways are considered
Solution. CHAN Kin Hang Andy
(Bishop Hall Jubliee School, Form 7), different if at least one card is put into a
CHAO Khek Lun Harold (St. Paul’s different box.)
College, Form 6), Chau Suk Ling (Queen Problem 5. Determine whether or not
Elizabeth School, Form 6), CHENG Kei there exists a positive integer n such that
Tsi (La Salle College, Form 6), CHENG
Man Chuen (Tsuen Wan Government n is divisible by exactly 2000 different
Secondary School, Form 7), FUNG Wing prime numbers, and 2 n + 1 is divisible by
Kiu Ricky (La Salle College), LAM n.
Shek Ming Sherman (La Salle College, Problem 6. Let AH1, BH2, CH3, be the
Form 5), LAW Ka Ho (HKU, Year 1), altitudes of an acute-angled triangle ABC.
LEE Kevin (La Salle College, Form 5), The incircle of the triangle ABC touches
LEUNG Wai Ying (Queen Elizabeth
the sides BC, CA, AB at T1, T2, T3,
School, Form 6), LYN Kwong To and
KO Man Ho (Wah Yan College, respectively. Let the lines " 1 , " 2 , " 3 be
Kowloon, Form 7), POON Wing Sze the reflections of the lines H2H3, H3H1,
Jessica (STFA Leung Kau Kui College, H1H2 in the lines T2T3, T3T1, T1T2,
Form 7) and YEUNG Kai Shing (La respectively.
Salle College, Form 4). Prove that " 1 , " 2 , " 3 determine a
In every 2 × 2 subsquare, only one tree triangle whose vertices lie on the incircle
can be cut. So a maximum of 2500 trees of the triangle ABC.