Classical music is art music produced or rooted in the traditions of Western mus

ic, including both liturgical (religious) and secular music. While a more accura
te term is also used to refer to the period from 1750 to 1820 (the Classical per
iod), this article is about the broad span of time from roughly the 11th century
to the present day, which includes the Classical period and various other perio
ds.[1] The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1550 and 1900
, which is known as the common-practice period. The major time divisions of West
ern art music are as follows:
the early music period, which includes
the Medieval (500 1400)
the Renaissance (1400 1600) eras
Baroque (1600 1750)
the common-practice period, which includes
Baroque (1600 1750)
Classical (1750 1820)
Romantic eras (1804 1910)
the 20th century (1901 2000) which includes
the modern (1890 1930) that overlaps from the late 19th-century,
the high modern (1950 1969)
contemporary (1945 or 1975 present) or postmodern (1930 present) eras
European art music is largely distinguished from many other non-European and som
e popular musical forms by its system of staff notation, in use since about the
16th century.[2] Western staff notation is used by composers to indicate to the
performer the pitches (e.g., melodies, basslines, chords), tempo, meter and rhyt
hms for a piece of music. This can leave less room for practices such as improvi
sation and ad libitum ornamentation, which are frequently heard in non-European
art music and in popular-music[3][4][5] styles such as jazz and blues. Another d
ifference is that whereas most popular styles adopt the song (strophic) form, cl
assical music has been noted for its development of highly sophisticated forms o
f instrumental music such as the concerto, symphony, sonata, and mixed vocal and
instrumental styles such as opera[6] which, since they are written down, can su
stain larger forms and attain a high level of complexity.[7]
The term "classical music" did not appear until the early 19th century, in an at
tempt to distinctly canonize the period from Johann Sebastian Bach to Beethoven
as a golden age.[8] The earliest reference to "classical music" recorded by the
Oxford English Dictionary is from about 1836.[1][9]
Contents [show]
Characteristics[edit]
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is article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be ch
allenged and removed. (July 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template me
ssage)
Given the wide range of styles in classical music, from Medieval plainchant sung
by monks to Classical and Romantic symphonies for orchestra from the 1700s and
1800s to avant-garde atonal compositions for solo piano from the 1900s, it is di
fficult to list characteristics that can be attributed to all works of that type
. However, there are characteristics that classical music contains that few or n
o other genres of music contain,[10] such as the use of a printed score and the
performance of very complex instrumental works (e.g., the fugue). As well, altho
ugh the symphony did not exist through the entire classical music period, from t
he mid-1700s to the 2000s the symphony ensemble and the works written for it have be
come a defining feature of classical music.
Literature[edit]
The key characteristic of classical music that distinguishes it from popular mus
ic and folk music is that the repertoire tends to be written down in musical not
ation, creating a musical part or score. This score typically determines details
of rhythm, pitch, and, where two or more musicians (whether singers or instrume
ntalists) are involved, how the various parts are coordinated. The written quali
ty of the music has enabled a high level of complexity within them: J.S. Bach's
fugues, for instance, achieve a remarkable marriage of boldly distinctive melodi
c lines weaving in counterpoint yet creating a coherent harmonic logic that woul
d be impossible in the heat of live improvisation.[7] The use of written notatio
n also preserves a record of the works and enables Classical musicians to perfor
m music from many centuries ago. Musical notation enables 2000s-era performers t
o sing a choral work from the 1300s Renaissance era or a 1700s Baroque concerto
with many of the features of the music (the melodies, lyrics, forms, and rhythms
) being reproduced.
That said, the score does not provide complete and exact instructions on how to
perform a historical work. Even if the tempo is written with an Italian instruct
ion (e.g., Allegro), we do not know exactly how fast the piece should be played.
As well, in the Baroque era, many works that were designed for basso continuo a
ccompaniment do not specify which instruments should play the accompaniment or e
xactly how the chordal instrument (harpsichord, lute, etc.) should play the chor
ds, which are not notated in the part (only a figured bass symbol beneath the ba
ss part is used to guide the chord-playing performer). The performer and the con
ductor have a range of options for musical expression and interpretation of a sc
ored piece, including the phrasing of melodies, the time taken during fermatas (
held notes) or pauses, and the use (or choice not to use) of effects such as vib
rato or glissando (these effects are possible on various stringed, brass and woo
dwind instruments and with the human voice).
Although Classical music in the 2000s has lost most of its tradition for musical
improvisation, from the Baroque era to the Romantic era, there are examples of
performers who could improvise in the style of their era. In the Baroque era, or
gan performers would improvise preludes, keyboard performers playing harpsichord
would improvise chords from the figured bass symbols beneath the bass notes of
the basso continuo part and both vocal and instrumental performers would improvi
se musical ornaments.[11] J.S. Bach was particularly noted for his complex impro
visations.[12] During the Classical era, the composer-performer Mozart was noted
for his ability to improvise melodies in different styles.[13] During the Class
ical era, some virtuoso soloists would improvise the cadenza sections of a conce
rto. During the Romantic era, Beethoven would improvise at the piano.[14] For mo
re information, see Improvisation.
Instrumentation and vocal practices[edit]
See also: Woodwind section, Brass section, String section, Percussion section, a
nd Keyboard section
The instruments currently used in most classical music were largely invented bef
ore the mid-19th century (often much earlier) and codified in the 18th and 19th
centuries. They consist of the instruments found in an orchestra or in a concert
band, together with several other solo instruments (such as the piano, harpsich
ord, and organ). The symphony orchestra is the most widely known medium for clas
sical music[15] and includes members of the string, woodwind, brass, and percuss
ion families of instruments. The concert band consists of members of the woodwin
d, brass, and percussion families. It generally has a larger variety and number
of woodwind and brass instruments than the orchestra but does not have a string
section. However, many concert bands use a double bass. The vocal practices chan
ged over the classical period, from the single line monophonic Gregorian chant d
one by monks in the Medieval period to the complex, polyphonic choral works of t
he Renaissance and subsequent periods, which used multiple independent vocal mel
odies at the same time.
Medieval music[edit]
Many of the instruments used to perform medieval music still exist, but in diffe
rent forms. Medieval instruments included the wood flute (which in the 21st cent
ury is made of metal), the recorder and plucked string instruments like the lute
. As well, early versions of the organ, fiddle (or vielle), and trombone (called
the sackbut) existed. Medieval instruments in Europe had most commonly been use
d singly, often self accompanied with a drone note, or occasionally in parts. Fr
om at least as early as the 13th century through the 15th century there was a di
vision of instruments into haut (loud, shrill, outdoor instruments) and bas (qui
eter, more intimate instruments).[16] During the earlier medieval period, the vo
cal music from the liturgical genre, predominantly Gregorian chant, was monophon
ic, using a single, unaccompanied vocal melody line.[17] Polyphonic vocal genres
, which used multiple independent vocal melodies, began to develop during the hi
gh medieval era, becoming prevalent by the later 13th and early 14th century.
Renaissance music[edit]
Many instruments originated during the Renaissance; others were variations of, o
r improvements upon, instruments that had existed previously. Some have survived
to the present day; others have disappeared, only to be recreated in order to p
erform music of the period on authentic instruments. As in the modern day, instr
uments may be classified as brass, strings, percussion, and woodwind. Brass inst
ruments in the Renaissance were traditionally played by professionals who were m
embers of Guilds and they included the slide trumpet, the wooden cornet, the val
veless trumpet and the sackbut. Stringed instruments included the viol, the harp
-like lyre, the hurdy-gurdy, the cittern and the lute. Keyboard instruments with
strings included the harpsichord and the virginal. Percussion instruments inclu
de the triangle, the Jew's harp, the tambourine, the bells, the rumble-pot, and
various kinds of drums. Woodwind instruments included the double reed shawm, the
reed pipe, the bagpipe, the transverse flute and the recorder. Vocal music in t
he Renaissance is noted for the flourishing of an increasingly elaborate polypho
nic style. The principal liturgical forms which endured throughout the entire Re
naissance period were masses and motets, with some other developments towards th
e end, especially as composers of sacred music began to adopt secular forms (suc
h as the madrigal) for their own designs. Towards the end of the period, the ear
ly dramatic precursors of opera such as monody, the madrigal comedy, and the int
ermedio are seen.
Baroque music[edit]
Baroque instruments included some instruments from the earlier periods (e.g., th
e hurdy-gurdy and recorder) and a number of new instruments (e.g, the cello, con
trabass and fortepiano). Some instruments from previous eras fell into disuse, s
uch as the shawm and the wooden cornet. The key Baroque instruments for strings
included the violin, viol, viola, viola d'amore, cello, contrabass, lute, theorb
o (which often played the basso continuo parts), mandolin, cittern, Baroque guit
ar, harp and hurdy-gurdy. Woodwinds included the Baroque flute, Baroque oboe, ra
ckett, recorder and the bassoon. Brass instruments included the cornett, natural
horn, Baroque trumpet, serpent and the trombone. Keyboard instruments included
the clavichord, tangent piano, the fortepiano (an early version of the piano), t
he harpsichord and the pipe organ. Percussion instruments included the timpani,
snare drum, tambourine and the castanets.
One major difference between Baroque music and the classical era that followed i
t is that the types of instruments used in ensembles were much less standardized
. Whereas a classical era string quartet consists almost exclusively of two viol
ins, a viola and a cello, a Baroque group accompanying a soloist or opera could
include one of several different types of keyboard instruments (e.g., pipe organ
, harpsichord, or clavichord), additional stringed chordal instruments (e.g., a
lute) and an unspecified number of bass instruments performing the basso continu
o bassline, including bowed strings, woodwinds and brass instruments (e.g., a ce
llo, contrabass, viol, bassoon, serpent, etc.).
Vocal developments in the Baroque era included the development of opera types su
ch as opera seria and opra comique, oratorios, cantatas and chorale.
Classical music[edit]
The term "classical music" has two meanings: the broader meaning includes all We
stern art music from the Medieval era to the 2000s, and the specific meaning ref
ers to the art music from the 1750s to the early 1830s the era of Mozart and Haydn
. This section is about the more specific meaning. Classical era musicians conti
nued to use many of instruments from the Baroque era, such as the cello, contrab
ass, recorder, trombone, timpani, fortepiano (the precursor to the modern piano)
and organ. While some Baroque instruments fell into disuse (e.g., the theorbo a
nd rackett), many Baroque instruments were changed into the versions that are st
ill in use today, such as the Baroque violin (which became the violin), the Baro
que oboe (which became the oboe) and the Baroque trumpet, which transitioned to
the regular valved trumpet. During the Classical era, the stringed instruments u
sed in orchestra and chamber music such as string quartets were standardized as
the four instruments which form the string section of the orchestra: the violin,
viola, cello and double bass. Baroque-era stringed instruments such as fretted,
bowed viols were phased out. Woodwinds included the basset clarinet, basset hor
n, clarinette d'amour, the Classical clarinet, the chalumeau, the flute, oboe an
d bassoon. Keyboard instruments included the clavichord and the fortepiano. Whil
e the harpsichord was still used in basso continuo accompaniment in the 1750s an
d 1760s, it fell out of use in the end of the century. Brass instruments include
d the buccin, the ophicleide (a replacement for the bass serpent, which was the
precursor of the tuba) and the natural horn.
The "standard complement" of double winds and brass in the orchestra from the fi
rst half of the 19th century is generally attributed to Beethoven. The exception
s to this are his Symphony No. 4, Violin Concerto, and Piano Concerto No. 4, whi
ch each specify a single flute. The composer's instrumentation usually included
paired flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, horns and trumpets. Beethoven careful
ly calculated the expansion of this particular timbral "palette" in Symphonies 3
, 5, 6, and 9 for an innovative effect. The third horn in the "Eroica" Symphony
arrives to provide not only some harmonic flexibility, but also the effect of "c
horal" brass in the Trio. Piccolo, contrabassoon, and trombones add to the trium
phal finale of his Symphony No. 5. A piccolo and a pair of trombones help delive
r "storm" and "sunshine" in the Sixth. The Ninth asks for a second pair of horns
, for reasons similar to the "Eroica" (four horns has since become standard); Be
ethoven's use of piccolo, contrabassoon, trombones, and untuned percussion plus ch
orus and vocal soloists in his finale, are his earliest suggestion that the timbra
l boundaries of symphony should be expanded. For several decades after he died,
symphonic instrumentation was faithful to Beethoven's well-established model, wi
th few exceptions.
Romantic music[edit]
In the Romantic era, the modern piano, with a more powerful, sustained tone and
a wider range took over from the more delicate-sounding fortepiano. In the orche
stra, the existing Classical instruments and sections were retained (string sect
ion, woodwinds, brass and percussion), but these sections were typically expande
d to make a fuller, bigger sound. For example, while a Baroque orchestra may hav
e had two double bass players, a Romantic orchestra could have as many as ten. "
As music grew more expressive, the standard orchestral palette just wasn't rich
enough for many Romantic composers." [18] New woodwind instruments were added, s
uch as the contrabassoon, bass clarinet and piccolo and new percussion instrumen
ts were added, including xylophones, snare drums, celestes (a bell-like keyboard
instrument), bells, and triangles,[18] large orchestral harps, and even wind ma
chines for sound effects. Saxophones appear in some scores from the late 19th ce
ntury onwards. While appearing only as featured solo instruments in some works,
for example Maurice Ravel's orchestration of Modest Mussorgsky's Pictures at an
Exhibition and Sergei Rachmaninoff's Symphonic Dances, the saxophone is included
in other works, such as Ravel's Bolro, Sergei Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet Suite
s 1 and 2 and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble. The eupho
nium is featured in a few late Romantic and 20th-century works, usually playing
parts marked "tenor tuba", including Gustav Holst's The Planets, and Richard Str
auss's Ein Heldenleben.
The Wagner tuba, a modified member of the horn family, appears in Richard Wagner
's cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen and several other works by Strauss, Bla Bartk, an
d others; it has a prominent role in Anton Bruckner's Symphony No. 7 in E Major.
[19] Cornets appear in Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's ballet Swan Lake, Claude Debus
sy's La Mer, and several orchestral works by Hector Berlioz. Unless these instru
ments are played by members doubling on another instrument (for example, a tromb
one player changing to euphonium for a certain passage), orchestras will use fre
elance musicians to augment their regular rosters.

The Dublin Philharmonic Orchestra performs Tchaikovsky's Fourth Symphony

Modern music[edit]
Modern music is a philosophical and aesthetic stance underlying the period of ch
ange and development in musical language that occurred from 1890 to 1930, a peri
od of diverse reactions in challenging and reinterpreting older categories of mu
sic, innovations that lead to new ways of organizing and approaching harmonic, m
elodic, sonic, and rhythmic aspects of music, and changes in aesthetic worldview
s in close relation to the larger identifiable period of modernism in the arts o
f the time. The operative word most associated with it is "innovation" (Metzer 2
009, 3). Its leading feature is a "linguistic plurality", which is to say that n
o single music genre ever assumed a dominant position (Morgan 1984, 443).
High modern music[edit]
High modern music was developed from 1930 to 1975. Electric instruments such as
the amplified electric guitar, the electric bass and the ondes Martenot appear o
ccasionally in the classical music of the 20th and 21st centuries. Both classica
l and popular musicians have experimented in recent decades with electronic inst
ruments such as the synthesizer, electric and digital techniques such as the use
of sampled or computer-generated sounds, and instruments from other cultures su
ch as the gamelan.
Contemporary classical music[edit]
Contemporary classical music is the period that came into prominence in the mid-
1970s. It includes different variations of modernist, postmodern, neoromantic, a
nd pluralist music.[20] However, the term may also be employed in a broader sens
e to refer to all post-1945 musical forms.[21]
Postmodern music[edit]
Postmodern music is a period of music that appeared at about the same time as ot
her types of contemporary classical music; i.e around 1975. It shares characteri
stics with postmodernist art that is, art that comes after and reacts against mode
rnism.
Many instruments that in the 2010s are associated with popular music filled impo
rtant roles in early classical music, such as bagpipes, vihuelas, hurdy-gurdies
(hand-cranked string instruments), and some woodwind instruments. On the other h
and, instruments such as the acoustic guitar, once associated mainly with popula
r music, gained prominence in classical music in the 19th and 20th centuries in
the form of the classical guitar. While equal temperament gradually accepted as
the dominant musical temperament during the 18th century, different historical t
emperaments are often used for music from earlier periods. For instance, music o
f the English Renaissance is often performed in meantone temperament. As well, w
hile professional orchestras and pop bands all around the world tune to an A fix
ed at 440 Hz in the 2010s, during the 17th and 18th century, there was a great v
ariety in the tuning pitch, as attested to in historical pipe organs that still
exist.
Performance[edit]
Youth concert band in performance
Performers who have studied classical music extensively are said to be "classica
lly trained". This training may be from private lessons from instrument or voice
teachers or from completion of a formal program offered by a Conservatory, coll
ege or university, such as a B.mus. or M.mus. degree (which includes individual
lessons from professors). In classical music, "...extensive formal music educati
on and training, often to postgraduate [Master's degree] level" is required.[22]
Performance of classical music repertoire requires a proficiency in sight-readin
g and ensemble playing, harmonic principles, strong ear training (to correct and
adjust pitches by ear), knowledge of performance practice (e.g., Baroque orname
ntation), and a familiarity with the style/musical idiom expected for a given co
mposer or musical work (e.g., a Brahms symphony or a Mozart concerto).
Some "popular" genre musicians have had significant classical training, such as
Billy Joel, Elton John, the Van Halen brothers, Randy Rhoads and Ritchie Blackmo
re. Moreover, formal training is not unique to the classical genre. Many rock an
d pop musicians have completed degrees in commercial music programs such as thos
e offered by the Berklee College of Music and many jazz musicians have completed
degrees in music from universities with jazz programs, such as the Manhattan Sc
hool of Music and McGill University.
Gender of performers[edit]
Main article: Women in music
Historically, major professional orchestras have been mostly or entirely compose
d of male musicians. Some of the earliest cases of women being hired in professi
onal orchestras was in the position of harpist. The Vienna Philharmonic, for exa
mple, did not accept women to permanent membership until 1997, far later than th
e other orchestras ranked among the world's top five by Gramophone in 2008.[23]
The last major orchestra to appoint a woman to a permanent position was the Berl
in Philharmonic.[24] As late as February 1996, the Vienna Philharmonic's princip
al flute, Dieter Flury, told Westdeutscher Rundfunk that accepting women would b
e "gambling with the emotional unity (emotionelle Geschlossenheit) that this org
anism currently has".[25] In April 1996, the orchestra's press secretary wrote t
hat "compensating for the expected leaves of absence" of maternity leave would b
e a problem.[26]
In 1997, the Vienna Philharmonic was "facing protests during a [US] tour" by the
National Organization for Women and the International Alliance for Women in Mus
ic. Finally, "after being held up to increasing ridicule even in socially conser
vative Austria, members of the orchestra gathered [on 28 February 1997] in an ex
traordinary meeting on the eve of their departure and agreed to admit a woman, A
nna Lelkes, as harpist."[27] As of 2013, the orchestra has six female members; o
ne of them, violinist Albena Danailova became one of the orchestra's concertmast
ers in 2008, the first woman to hold that position.[28] In 2012, women still mad
e up just 6% of the orchestra's membership. VPO president Clemens Hellsberg said
the VPO now uses completely screened blind auditions.[29]
In 2013, an article in Mother Jones stated that while "[m]any prestigious orches
tras have significant female membership women outnumber men in the New York Philha
rmonic's violin section and several renowned ensembles, including the National Sym
phony Orchestra, the Detroit Symphony, and the Minnesota Symphony, are led by wo
men violinists", the double bass, brass, and percussion sections of major orches
tras "...are still predominantly male."[30] A 2014 BBC article stated that the "
...introduction of 'blind' auditions, where a prospective instrumentalist perfor
ms behind a screen so that the judging panel can exercise no gender or racial pr
ejudice, has seen the gender balance of traditionally male-dominated symphony or
chestras gradually shift."[31]
Complexity[edit]
Works of classical repertoire often exhibit complexity in their use of orchestra
tion, counterpoint, harmony, musical development, rhythm, phrasing, texture, and
form. Whereas most popular styles are usually written in song forms, classical
music is noted for its development of highly sophisticated instrumental musical
forms,[6] like the concerto, symphony and sonata. Classical music is also noted
for its use of sophisticated vocal/instrumental forms, such as opera. In opera,
vocal soloists and choirs perform staged dramatic works with an orchestra provid
ing accompaniment. Longer instrumental works are often divided into self-contain
ed pieces, called movements, often with contrasting characters or moods. For ins
tance, symphonies written during the Classical period are usually divided into f
our movements: (1) an opening Allegro in sonata form, (2) a slow movement, (3) a
minuet or scherzo (in a triple meter, such as 3/4), and (4) a final Allegro. Th
ese movements can then be further broken down into a hierarchy of smaller units:
first sections, then periods, and finally phrases.
History[edit]
Periods and eras of
Western classical music
Early
Medieval c. 500 1400
Renaissance c. 1400 1600
Common practice
Baroque c. 1600 1750
Classical c. 1730 1820
Romantic c. 1780 1910
Impressionist c. 1875 1925
Modern and contemporary
Modern High modern
c. 1890 1975
20th century (1900 2000)
Contemporary Postmodern
c. 1975 present
21st century (2000 present)
v t e
Main article: History of music
The major time divisions of classical music up to 1900 are the early music perio
d, which includes Medieval (500 1400) and Renaissance (1400 1600) eras, and the Comm
on practice period, which includes the Baroque (1600 1750), Classical (1750 1830) an
d Romantic (1804 1910) eras. Since 1900, classical periods have been reckoned more
by calendar century than by particular stylistic movements that have become fra
gmented and difficult to define. The 20th century calendar period (1901 2000) incl
udes most of the early modern musical era (1890 1930), the entire high modern (mid
20th-century), and the first 25 years of the contemporary or postmodern musical
era (1975 current). The 21st century has so far been characterized by a continuat
ion of the contemporary/postmodern musical era.
The dates are generalizations, since the periods and eras overlap and the catego
ries are somewhat arbitrary, to the point that some authorities reverse terminol
ogies and refer to a common practice "era" comprising baroque, classical, and ro
mantic "periods".[32] For example, the use of counterpoint and fugue, which is c
onsidered characteristic of the Baroque era (or period), was continued by Haydn,
who is classified as typical of the Classical era. Beethoven, who is often desc
ribed as a founder of the Romantic era, and Brahms, who is classified as Romanti
c, also used counterpoint and fugue, but other characteristics of their music de
fine their era.
The prefix neo is used to describe a 20th-century or contemporary composition wr
itten in the style of an earlier era, such as Classical or Romantic. Stravinsky'
s Pulcinella, for example, is a neoclassical composition because it is stylistic
ally similar to works of the Classical era.
Roots[edit]
Main article: Ancient music
Burgh (2006), suggests that the roots of Western classical music ultimately lie
in ancient Egyptian art music via cheironomy and the ancient Egyptian orchestra,
which dates to 2695 BC.[33] The development of individual tones and scales was
made by ancient Greeks such as Aristoxenus and Pythagoras.[34] Pythagoras create
d a tuning system and helped to codify musical notation. Ancient Greek instrumen
ts such as the aulos (a reed instrument) and the lyre (a stringed instrument sim
ilar to a small harp) eventually led to the modern-day instruments of a classica
l orchestra.[35] The antecedent to the early period was the era of ancient music
before the fall of the Roman Empire (476 AD). Very little music survives from t
his time, most of it from ancient Greece.
Early period[edit]
Main articles: Medieval music and Renaissance music
See also: List of Medieval composers and List of Renaissance composers
Musician playing the vielle (fourteenth-century Medieval manuscript)
The Medieval period includes music from after the fall of Rome to about 1400. Mo
nophonic chant, also called plainsong or Gregorian chant, was the dominant form
until about 1100.[36] Polyphonic (multi-voiced) music developed from monophonic
chant throughout the late Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, including the mo
re complex voicings of motets. The Renaissance era was from 1400 to 1600. It was
characterized by greater use of instrumentation, multiple interweaving melodic
lines, and the use of the first bass instruments. Social dancing became more wid
espread, so musical forms appropriate to accompanying dance began to standardize
. It is in this time that the notation of music on a staff and other elements of
musical notation began to take shape.[37] This invention made possible the sepa
ration of the composition of a piece of music from its transmission; without wri
tten music, transmission was oral, and subject to change every time it was trans
mitted. With a musical score, a work of music could be performed without the com
poser's presence.[36] The invention of the movable-type printing press in the 15
th century had far-reaching consequences on the preservation and transmission of
music.[38]

Johannes Ockeghem, Kyrie "Au travail suis," excerpt

Typical stringed instruments of the early period include the harp, lute, vielle,
and psaltery, while wind instruments included the flute family (including recor
der), shawm (an early member of the oboe family), trumpet, and the bagpipes. Sim
ple pipe organs existed, but were largely confined to churches, although there w
ere portable varieties.[39] Later in the period, early versions of keyboard inst
ruments like the clavichord and harpsichord began to appear. Stringed instrument
s such as the viol had emerged by the 16th century, as had a wider variety of br
ass and reed instruments. Printing enabled the standardization of descriptions a
nd specifications of instruments, as well as instruction in their use.[40]
Common practice period[edit]
The common practice period is when many of the ideas that make up western classi
cal music took shape, standardized, or were codified. It began with the Baroque
era, running from roughly 1600 to the middle of the 18th century. The Classical
era followed, ending roughly around 1820. The Romantic era ran through the 19th
century, ending about 1910.
Baroque music[edit]
Main article: Baroque music
See also: List of Baroque composers
Baroque instruments including hurdy-gurdy, harpsichord, bass viol, lute, violin,
and baroque guitar
Baroque music is characterized by the use of complex tonal counterpoint and the
use of a basso continuo, a continuous bass line. Music became more complex in co
mparison with the songs of earlier periods.[15] The beginnings of the sonata for
m took shape in the canzona, as did a more formalized notion of theme and variat
ions. The tonalities of major and minor as means for managing dissonance and chr
omaticism in music took full shape.[41]
During the Baroque era, keyboard music played on the harpsichord and pipe organ
became increasingly popular, and the violin family of stringed instruments took
the form generally seen today. Opera as a staged musical drama began to differen
tiate itself from earlier musical and dramatic forms, and vocal forms like the c
antata and oratorio became more common.[42] Vocalists began adding embellishment
s to melodies.[15] Instrumental ensembles began to distinguish and standardize b
y size, giving rise to the early orchestra for larger ensembles, with chamber mu
sic being written for smaller groups of instruments where parts are played by in
dividual (instead of massed) instruments. The concerto as a vehicle for solo per
formance accompanied by an orchestra became widespread, although the relationshi
p between soloist and orchestra was relatively simple.
The theories surrounding equal temperament began to be put in wider practice, es
pecially as it enabled a wider range of chromatic possibilities in hard-to-tune
keyboard instruments. Although Bach did not use equal temperament, as a modern p
iano is generally tuned, changes in the temperaments from the meantone system, c
ommon at the time, to various temperaments that made modulation between all keys
musically acceptable, made possible Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier.[43]
Classical era (or period) music[edit]
Main article: Classical period (music)
See also: List of Classical-era composers
Joseph Haydn (1732 1809) c. 1770
The Classical era, from about 1750 to 1820, established many of the norms of com
position, presentation, and style, and was also when the piano became the predom
inant keyboard instrument. The basic forces required for an orchestra became som
ewhat standardized (although they would grow as the potential of a wider array o
f instruments was developed in the following centuries). Chamber music grew to i
nclude ensembles with as many as 8 to 10 performers for serenades. Opera continu
ed to develop, with regional styles in Italy, France, and German-speaking lands.
The opera buffa, a form of comic opera, rose in popularity. The symphony came i
nto its own as a musical form, and the concerto was developed as a vehicle for d
isplays of virtuoso playing skill. Orchestras no longer required a harpsichord (
which had been part of the traditional continuo in the Baroque style), and were
often led by the lead violinist (now called the concertmaster).[44]
Wind instruments became more refined in the Classical era. While double reeded i
nstruments like the oboe and bassoon became somewhat standardized in the Baroque
, the clarinet family of single reeds was not widely used until Mozart expanded
its role in orchestral, chamber, and concerto settings.
Romantic era music[edit]
Main article: Romantic music
See also: List of Romantic-era composers
The music of the Romantic era, from roughly the first decade of the 19th century
to the early 20th century, was characterized by increased attention to an exten
ded melodic line, as well as expressive and emotional elements, paralleling roma
nticism in other art forms. Musical forms began to break from the Classical era
forms (even as those were being codified), with free-form pieces like nocturnes,
fantasias, and preludes being written where accepted ideas about the exposition
and development of themes were ignored or minimized.[45] The music became more
chromatic, dissonant, and tonally colorful, with tensions (with respect to accep
ted norms of the older forms) about key signatures increasing.[46] The art song
(or Lied) came to maturity in this era, as did the epic scales of grand opera, u
ltimately transcended by Richard Wagner's Ring cycle.[47]
In the 19th century, musical institutions emerged from the control of wealthy pa
trons, as composers and musicians could construct lives independent of the nobil
ity. Increasing interest in music by the growing middle classes throughout weste
rn Europe spurred the creation of organizations for the teaching, performance, a
nd preservation of music. The piano, which achieved its modern construction in t
his era (in part due to industrial advances in metallurgy) became widely popular
with the middle class, whose demands for the instrument spurred a large number
of piano builders. Many symphony orchestras date their founding to this era.[46]
Some musicians and composers were the stars of the day; some, like Franz Liszt
and Niccol Paganini, fulfilled both roles.[48]
The family of instruments used, especially in orchestras, grew. A wider array of
percussion instruments began to appear. Brass instruments took on larger roles,
as the introduction of rotary valves made it possible for them to play a wider
range of notes. The size of the orchestra (typically around 40 in the Classical
era) grew to be over 100.[46] Gustav Mahler's 1906 Symphony No. 8, for example,
has been performed with over 150 instrumentalists and choirs of over 400.
European cultural ideas and institutions began to follow colonial expansion into
other parts of the world. There was also a rise, especially toward the end of t
he era, of nationalism in music (echoing, in some cases, political sentiments of
the time), as composers such as Edvard Grieg, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, and Anto
nn Dvork echoed traditional music of their homelands in their compositions.[49]
20th and 21st centuries[edit]
Main articles: 20th-century classical music and 21st-century classical music
Modern, high modern, and post modern or contemporary music[edit]
Igor Stravinsky, by Pablo Picasso, collaborators on Pulcinella (1920)
Main articles: Modernism (music), Postmodern music, and Contemporary classical m
usic
See also: High modernism, List of 20th-century classical composers, and List of
21st-century classical composers
Encompassing a wide variety of post-Romantic styles composed through the year 20
00, 20th century classical music includes late romantic, modern, high-modern, an
d postmodern styles of composition. Modernism (1890 1930) marked an era when many
composers rejected certain values of the common practice period, such as traditi
onal tonality, melody, instrumentation, and structure. The high-modern era saw t
he emergence of neo-classical and serial music. A few authorities have claimed h
igh-modernism as the beginning of postmodern music from about 1930.[50][51] Othe
rs have more or less equated postmodern music with the "contemporary music" comp
osed from the late 20th century through to the early 21st century.[52][53]
Women in classical music[edit]
See also: Women in classical music
Almost all of the composers who are described in music textbooks on classical mu
sic and whose works are widely performed as part of the standard concert reperto
ire are male composers, even though there has been a large number of women compo
sers throughout the classical music period. Musicologist Marcia Citron has asked
"[w]hy is music composed by women so marginal to the standard 'classical' reper
toire?"[54] Citron "examines the practices and attitudes that have led to the ex
clusion of women composers from the received 'canon' of performed musical works.
" She argues that in the 1800s, women composers typically wrote art songs for pe
rformance in small recitals rather than symphonies intended for performance with
an orchestra in a large hall, with the latter works being seen as the most impo
rtant genre for composers; since women composers did not write many symphonies,
they were deemed to be not notable as composers.[54] In the "...Concise Oxford H
istory of Music, Clara S[c]humann is one of the only [sic] female composers ment
ioned."[55] Abbey Philips states that "[d]uring the 20th century the women who w
ere composing/playing gained far less attention than their male counterparts."[5
5]
Timeline of composers[edit]
See also: List of classical music composers by era
Significance of written notation[edit]
Modernist view of the significance of the score[edit]
The modernist views hold that classical music is considered primarily a written
musical tradition, preserved in music notation, as opposed to being transmitted
orally, by rote, or by recordings of particular performances.[citation needed] W
hile there are differences between particular performances of a classical work,
a piece of classical music is generally held to transcend any interpretation of
it. The use of musical notation is an effective method for transmitting classica
l music, since the written music contains the technical instructions for perform
ing the work.
The written score, however, does not usually contain explicit instructions as to
how to interpret the piece in terms of production or performance, apart from di
rections for dynamics, tempo and expression (to a certain extent). This is left
to the discretion of the performers, who are guided by their personal experience
and musical education, their knowledge of the work's idiom, their personal arti
stic tastes, and the accumulated body of historic performance practices.
Criticism of the modernist view[edit]
Some critics express the opinion that it is only from the mid-19th century, and
especially in the 20th century, that the score began to hold such a high signifi
cance. Previously, improvisation (in preludes, cadenzas and ornaments), rhythmic
flexibility (e.g., tempo rubato), improvisatory deviation from the score and or
al tradition of playing was integral to the style. Yet in the 20th century, this
oral tradition and passing on of stylistic features within classical music disa
ppeared. Instead, musicians tend to use just the score to play music. Yet, even
with the score providing the key elements of the music, there is considerable co
ntroversy about how to perform the works. Some of this controversy relates to th
e fact that this score-centric approach has led to performances that emphasize m
etrically strict block-rhythms (just as the music is notated in the score).
Some quotes that highlight this criticism of modernist overvaluing of the score:
"... one of the most stubborn modern misconceptions concerning baroque music is
that a metronomic regularity was intended" (Baroque Interpretation in Grove 5th
edition by Robert Donington)
"The history of this particular idea is littered with dead ends and failed proje
cts. It is high time these misconceptions are addressed with academic rigour."[c
larification needed] History of Metaphysics by Andrew Pyle
"Too many teachers, conditioned to 20th Century ideas, teach Bach and other Baro
que music exactly the wrong way. This leads to what musicologist Sol Babitz call
s 'sewing machine Bach'."[clarification needed][56]
"... tendency to look alike, sound alike and think alike. The conservatories are
at fault and they have been at fault for many years now. Any sensitive musician
going around the World has noted the same thing. The conservatories, from Mosco
w and Leningrad to Juilliard, Curtis and Indiana, are producing a standardized p
roduct.
[...] clarity, undeviating rhythm, easy technique, 'musicianship'. I put the wor
d musicianship in quotes, because as often as not, it is a false kind of musicia
nship a musicianship that sees the tree and not the forest, that takes care of t
he detail but ignores the big picture; a musicianship that is tied to the printe
d note rather than to emotional meaning of a piece.
The fact remains that there is a dreadful uniformity today and also an appalling
lack of knowledge about the culture and performance traditions of the past." ("
Music Schools Turning out Robots?"[56] by Harold C. Schonberg)
Improvisation[edit]
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Improvisation once played an important role in classical music. A remnant of thi
s improvisatory tradition in classical music can be heard in the cadenza, a pass
age found mostly in concertos and solo works, designed to allow skilled performe
rs to exhibit their virtuoso skills on the instrument. Traditionally this was im
provised by the performer; however, it is often written for (or occasionally by)
the performer beforehand. Improvisation is also an important aspect in authenti
c performances of operas of Baroque era and of bel canto (especially operas of V
incenzo Bellini), and is best exemplified by the da capo aria, a form by which f
amous singers typically perform variations of the thematic matter of the aria in
the recapitulation section ('B section' / the 'da capo' part). An example is Be
verly Sills' complex, albeit pre-written, variation of Da tempeste il legno infr
anto from Hndel's Giulio Cesare.[citation needed]
Its written transmission, along with the veneration bestowed on certain classica
l works, has led to the expectation that performers will play a work in a way th
at realizes in detail the original intentions of the composer. During the 19th c
entury the details that composers put in their scores generally increased. Yet t
he opposite trend admiration of performers for new "interpretations" of the compos
er's work can be seen, and it is not unknown for a composer to praise a performer
for achieving a better realization of the original intent than the composer was
able to imagine. Thus, classical performers often achieve high reputations for t
heir musicianship, even if they do not compose themselves. Generally however, it
is the composers who are remembered more than the performers.
The primacy of the composer's written score has also led, today, to a relatively
minor role played by improvisation in classical music, in sharp contrast to the
practice of musicians who lived during the baroque, classical and romantic era.
Improvisation in classical music performance was common during both the Baroque
and early romantic eras, yet lessened strongly during the second half of the 19
th and in the 20th centuries. During the classical era, Mozart and Beethoven oft
en improvised the cadenzas to their piano concertos (and thereby encouraged othe
rs to do so), but they also provided written cadenzas for use by other soloists.
In opera, the practice of singing strictly by the score, i.e. come scritto, was
famously propagated by soprano Maria Callas, who called this practice 'straitja
cketing' and implied that it allows the intention of the composer to be understo
od better, especially during studying the music for the first time.
Relationship to other music traditions[edit]
Popular music[edit]
Classical music has often incorporated elements or material from popular music o
f the composer's time. Examples include occasional music such as Brahms' use of
student drinking songs in his Academic Festival Overture, genres exemplified by
Kurt Weill's The Threepenny Opera, and the influence of jazz on early- and mid-2
0th-century composers including Maurice Ravel, exemplified by the movement entit
led "Blues" in his sonata for violin and piano.[57] Certain postmodern, minimali
st and postminimalist classical composers acknowledge a debt to popular music.[5
8]
Numerous examples show influence in the opposite direction, including popular so
ngs based on classical music, the use to which Pachelbel's Canon has been put si
nce the 1970s, and the musical crossover phenomenon, where classical musicians h
ave achieved success in the popular music arena.[59] In heavy metal, a number of
lead guitarists (playing electric guitar) modeled their playing styles on Baroq
ue or Classical era instrumental music, including Ritchie Blackmore and Randy Rh
oads.
Folk music[edit]
Composers of classical music have often made use of folk music (music created by
musicians who are commonly not classically trained, often from a purely oral tr
adition). Some composers, like Dvork and Smetana,[60] have used folk themes to im
part a nationalist flavor to their work, while others like Bartk have used specif
ic themes lifted whole from their folk-music origins.[61]
Commercialization[edit]
Certain staples of classical music are often used commercially (either in advert
ising or in movie soundtracks). In television commercials, several passages have
become clichd, particularly the opening of Richard Strauss' Also sprach Zarathus
tra (made famous in the film 2001: A Space Odyssey) and the opening section "O F
ortuna" of Carl Orff's Carmina Burana, often used in the horror genre; other exa
mples include the Dies Irae from the Verdi Requiem, Edvard Grieg's In the Hall o
f the Mountain King from Peer Gynt, the opening bars of Beethoven's Symphony No.
5, Wagner's Ride of the Valkyries from Die Walkre, Rimsky-Korsakov's Flight of t
he Bumblebee, and excerpts of Aaron Copland's Rodeo.[citation needed] Several wo
rks from the Golden Age of Animation matched the action to classical music. Nota
ble examples are Walt Disney's Fantasia, Tom and Jerry's Johann Mouse, and Warne
r Bros.' Rabbit of Seville and What's Opera, Doc?.
Similarly, movies and television often revert to standard, clichd excerpts of cla
ssical music to convey refinement or opulence: some of the most-often heard piec
es in this category include Bachs Cello Suite No. 1, Mozart's Eine kleine Nachtmu
sik, Vivaldi's Four Seasons, Mussorgsky's Night on Bald Mountain (as orchestrate
d by Rimsky-Korsakov), and Rossini's William Tell Overture. The same passages ar
e often used by telephone call centres to induce a sense of calm in customers wa
iting in a queue.[citation needed] Shawn Vancour argues that the commercializati
on of classical music in the early 20th century may have harmed the music indust
ry through inadequate representation.[62]
Public domain[edit]