DNA

CLIP
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 DNA
located in the
nucleus
Function: Carry
genetic material
Many People
contributed to
the discovery of
DNA.

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 People Who Discovered DNA
1928 Frederick Griffith
- DNA = carrier of genetic
info
1944 Avery Genes =
composed of DNA
1952 Hershey and
Chase genetic material =
DNA, not protein
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 People Who Discovered DNA
1952 Rosalind Franklin
DNA = twisted
1952 Edwin Chargraff -
#A = #T; #C = #G;
Chargraffs Rule
1953 Watson and Crick
Discovered structure of
DNA we know today

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Shape of DNA
1. Double Helix.
-Twisted ladder or
spiral staircase
2. Two stranded
3. Held together by
hydrogen bonds
4. Made of four
Nucleotides

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Structure of DNA
Remember:
DNA is a
nucleic
acid.

Nucleic
acids are
made of
nucleotides

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 Nucleotides
DNA = long chain
of nucleotides
4 that make up
DNA
Have 3 parts: a
sugar molecule
(deoxyribose), a
phosphate group,
and a
nitrogenous base
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 4
Nitrogenous
Bases

Adenine
Guanine
Cytosine
Thymine

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Sides of
the
Ladder
are made
up of
sugar and
phosphate.

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Adenine always pairs with Thymine
Cytosine always pairs with Guanine

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Would
Thymine
be able
to pair
up with
Guanine?

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 DNA
Replication
Before mitosis,
the DNA must be
replicated (Copied)
exactly.
Each strand can
be used to make
the other strand.
Many enzymes are
involved. 15
 Chromosome
Structure

DNA is packed very tightly

as chromosomes in the
nucleus.
Human nucleus has 1 meter
of DNA!
Smallest human
chromosome has 30 million
base pairs.
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 Chromosome
Structure

A chromosome has
DNA and protein-
chromatin.
Tiny sections of
DNA are called
genes

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Steps: Semi-conservative replication

1. parent/original
strands are
unwound with the
help of DNA
helicases
(enzymes).

Replication Bubble

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Steps:

2. DNA
polymerase
attached
new
nucleotides
to the
parent
strands

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DNA replication website

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How a protein is
made
Transcription
Translation

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DNA codes for all of the
cell proteins.

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Overview:
DNA is located in the Nucleus
Proteins are made on the ribosomes.
DNA makes a copy (send a message) called mRNA

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 Two Steps of Protein Synthesis
1. Transcription 2. Translation

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Transcription
a copy of the DNA is madethe copy is
called messenger RNA or mRNA.
The mRNA takes the code to the
ribosome.

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 DNA vs. RNA
Double Single
Stranded Stranded
AGTC AGUC
Deoxyribose Ribose
NEVER! YES!

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 DNA Transcription
During transcription the DNA unzipped and
RNA nucleotide are paired up with the
DNA bases.
Website

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 Once the mRNA copy is made, it can
go to the ribosome to be translated.

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 Remember
.Proteins
are made
out of
amino
acids.
There are
20
different
amino
acids.
3 bases
code for
each amino
acid =
codon.
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 How you
figure out
which codon is
coding for
which amino
acid

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 Once the mRNA
gets to the
ribosome, the
protein can be
assembled.

Transfer RNA
brings the amino
acids to the
ribosome.
Website
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 The three letter code on the mRNA is
called a codon.
The three letter code on the tRNA that is
matched up with the mRNA is called an
anticodon.

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Review Clip

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Mutations

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 Mutations
A sudden change in the genetic
code is called a mutation.
Most mutations have little or no
effect on the organism.
Mutations can be spontaneous or
may be caused by environmental
factors called mutagens.
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 Mutations in DNA usually occur through one of
three processes:
1- DNA damage from environmental agents such as ultraviolet
light (sunshine) or nuclear radiation
Certain chemicals called mutagens
2- Errors that occur when a cell replicates its DNA in
preparation for cell division.

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Types of
Mutations

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 Point
mutation
-a simple change
in a single base
of the gene
sequence
- 3 Types:
1. Point
2. Insertion
3. Deletion
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Frame-shift Mutations
Original:
In a frame-shift
mutation, one or more THE CAT ATE THE RAT
bases are deleted or Deletion:
inserted, the equivalent THE CAT ATE THE RAT
of adding or removing
THE CTA TET HER AT
letters in a sentence.
Insertion

THE CAT ATE THE RAT

THE CAT ATT ETH ERA T

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 Chromosomal Mutations
Mutations can occur that involve whole or
partial chromosomes
Non-disjunction homologous chromosomes
dont separate during meiosis a gamete ends
up with an extra chromosome (ex. Downs
syndrome)
Crossing Over parts of homologous
chromosomes are swapped during meiosis

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 Results of DNA Mutations

The results of mutations can be

Helpful
They can result in a helpful trait such as better
camoflage
Neutral CLIP
If the mutation does not cause a change in
amino acid sequence, or the replaces 1 amino
acid with one that is similar, the protein will still
function the same.
Harmful
A large change in the amino acid sequence51 can
make a protein that does not function at all.
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 Which of the following
is the correct base-
pairing rule for DNA?
A A-U; C-G
B A-G; T-C
C A-T; G-C
D A-C; T-G
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 DNA
TECHNOLOGY

genetic recombination.

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 DNA Fingerprinting
Determining the sequence of bases in
DNA for comparisons
How they identify criminals and do
paternity tests (i.e. Who is my Babys
Daddy?)

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 How DNA Fingerprinting works:
Scientist cut up DNA into pieces using enzymes
Then load the pieces into a gel.
Electricity is run through the gel.
The pieces of DNA move to the other end of the gel.
Smaller pieces move farther.

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Who doesnt belong?

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 Recombinant DNA

is a form of artificial DNA where

DNA combined that would not
normally be combined.
They cut, splice together, and
insert the modified DNA molecules
from different species into bacteria
or another type of cell that rapidly
replicates and divides.
The cells copy the foreign DNA
right along with their own DNA.
Example: goldfish have genes for
fluorescent proteins that have been
inserted
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Genetic Engineering
the manipulation of an organisms
genes
applications in medicine and the
environment, industry, and
agriculture.
Sheep are used in the production
of alpha-1 antitrypsin, which is
used in the treatment of
emphysema.
Goats are also producing the CFTR
protein used in the treatment of
cystic fibrosis.
Crops are being devised that have
natural insect repellants
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 Genetic Engineering
Example:
In the plant world, the buds of cotton
plants are vulnerable to worm
attacks. The buds of a modified
cotton plant resist these worms,
resulting in increased cotton
production.
These gene insertions are
ecologically safer than pesticides.
They affect only the targeted pest.

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Clip
Scientists today have developed genetically
altered bacteria.
Among them are strains of bacteria that
eat up oil spills
manufacture alcohol and other
chemicals
process minerals.
There is concern about possible risks to the
environment and the general population as
genetically engineered bacteria are
introduced.

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 Cloning
Occurs when the DNA from an adult is inserted into
the fertilized egg of the organism.
Results in an offspring that is genetically identical
to the parent.
The DNA in the egg must be removed before the
new DNA is inserted.
Has been used in animals and plants, hopes for the
future to allow for the cloning of organs.

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