MANUFACTURE OF MIXED

XYLENE
CAPACITY:
35 TONS PER DAY
A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of degree of BACHELOR OF
TECHNOLOGY in Chemical Engineering.
By
Karra Raja Ravi kiran Reddy
Roll No. 160110802042

Under guidance of
Mr.B.SREEDHAR RAO
Sr.Asst. Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering.

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

CHAITANYA BHARATHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to Osmania University, Accredited by NBA-AICTE)
Gandipet, Hyderabad 500 075
2014
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled MANUFACTURE OF MIXED

XYLENE submitted by KARRA RAJA RAVI KIRAN REDDY Roll
No.160110802042 in partial fulfillment of degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Chemical Engineering at Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of
Technology, affiliated to Osmania University, Hyderabad, is a bonafide
record of work carried out by me.

___________________________ ________________________
Student Date of
Submission

___________________________
_________________________

Project Guide Head of the

Department

________________________________________________________________________
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to our beloved head of chemical engineering

department, Dr .R.SREEDHAR RAO garu , Chaitanya Bharathi institute of technology
for this opportunity ,for this valuable suggestions and constant encouragement , which
has enabled me to complete this valuable project .

I express my heartfelt respect and regards to Mr. B.SREEDHAR RAO , Asst.Professor ,

Chemical engineering department , Chaitanya Bharathi institute of technology , for his
valuable suggestions and constant encouragement , which has enabled me to complete
this valuable project.

I would also like to thank the entire faculty of chemical engineering, support through
their instructions over the past four years.

I would love to thank all my friends who were a constant source of help, support and
encouragement throughout my project work.

Lastly, I would also express my gratitude, regards , love , and respect to my family for
their love , support and care.
 ABSTRACT

Xylene is a colorless, sweet smelling, highly flammable liquid. It occurs naturally in

petroleum and coal tar and is formed during forest fires and can be manmade.

Xylenes find varied uses in chemical industry. A mixture of para , meta and ortho xylenes
is used in the production of isopthalic acid and terepthalic acid which is used in the
manufacturing of polymers . Of all the xylene isomers para and ortho xylenes are
commercially the most important xylenes and have wide applications.

This project report deals with the brief introduction of xylene , properties of xylene , How
xylene can be prepared , the manufacturing process of the mixed xylene by
disproportionation and trans-alkylation of toluene and C9 aromatics ( 1,3,5 tri methyl
benzene ) , Safety measures to be taken while manufacturing and handling of xylene and
the economic evaluation of the plant.
 Table of contents

CONTENTS

CHAPTER - 1

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Uses of xylene

CHAPTER - 2

2.1. Demand and consumption of xylene

2.2. Major xylene producing companies in world

2.3. Major xylene producing companies in India

CHAPTER - 3

PROPERTIES

3.1. Physical properties of xylene

3.2. Chemical properties of xylene

3.3. Thermodynamic properties of xylene

CHAPTER - 4

4.1. Various methods for manufacturing of xylene

4.2. Selection of process

4.3. Reactions involved

4.4. Catalyst description

CHAPTER 5

5.1. Process flow sheet

5.2. Process description

CHAPTER 6

6.1. Material balance

6.2. Energy balance

CHAPTER 7

7.1. Design calculations

CHAPTER 8

8.1. Plant location

8.2. Plant layout

CHAPTER 9

9.1. Handling procedures.

9.2. Health hazards

CHAPTER 10

10.1. Pollution control

10.2. Economic Evaluation

Bibliography
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction :

Aromatics have a wide variety of applications in the petrochemical and chemical

industries. They are an important raw material for many intermediates of
commodity petrochemicals and valuable one chemicals, such as monomers for
polyesters, engineering plastics, intermediates for detergents, pharmaceuticals,
agricultural-products and explosives. Among them, benzene, toluene and xylenes
(BTX) are the three basic materials for most intermediates of aromatic derivatives.

Dialkylbenzenes, a subcategory of aromatics, include xylenes, diethylbenzene

(DEB) and dipropylbenzene(DPB), all of which may be derivable to valuable
performance chemicals. For example, xylenes are the key raw materials for
polyesters, plasticizers and engineering plastics, p-DEB is a high-valued desorbent
used in p-xylene adsorptive separation process whereas increasing applications of
diisopropylbenzene (DIPB) have been found, ranging from photo-developers,
antioxidants to engineering plastics . Process development in aromatic
interconversion is therefore an important research task with great industrial
demands.

Xylene- dimetyl benzene,dimethyl benzol,methyl toluene,xylol,xylole.

Xylene is a colorless, sweet smelling, highly flammable liquid. It occurs naturally in

petroleum and coal tar and is formed during forest fires and can be manmade.

The term xylene refers to a group of 3benzene derivatives which encompasses

ortho,meta and para-isomers of dimethyl benzene.
The o-isomer has the IUPAC name of 1,2-dimethyl benzene. The m-isomer has the
IUPAC name of 1,3-dimethyl benzene. And the p-isomer has the IUPAC name of
1,4-dimethyl benzene.

These isomers have the same chemical formula but different chemical structure.

M-XYLENE

O-XYLENE
 P-XYLENE

P-xylene is the most important of all isomers and has wide applications in
polyster industries.
O-xylene is a less expensive starting material for the production of pthalic
anhydride and offers a higher yield potential.
M-xylene is further reacted and processed to give isophtalic acid that finds its
final uses in polyster resins and alkyl resins.

USES OF XYLENE:

Xylenes find a variety of uses in chemical industry. A mixture of para, Meta and
ortho xylenes is used in the production of isopthalic acid and terepthalic acid. Of all
the xylene isomers , para and ortho xylenes are commercially the most important
xylenes and have wide variety of applications.

Xylene is widely used as a solvent in rubber industry, leather and printing

industries. Other applications of xylene include chemical intermediates, and high-
motor and aviaton gasoline blending agents. Xylene is also used in breathing
devices for administering artificial respiration because of its intoxicating properties.

COMMON USES:

Xylene is a raw material in the production of a monomer called terepthalic acid.

Terepthalic acid is used in the manufacture of polymers (naturally occurring or
synthetic compounds consisting of large molecules).It is a good cleaning agent for
silicon wafers and steel. It is also used to sterilize many substances. Xylene is used as
a feedstock in the production of petrol. It is also found in small quantities in gasoline
and jet fuel.
SOLVENT:

Xylene is one of the most copiously produced chemicals in the United States. It is
extensively used as a thinner and solvent in paints, varnishes, adhesives, and inks.

A xylene mixture can be used to thin lacquers (a black resinous substance used a
natural varnish) when slower drying is desired. Xylene is often used as a solvent in
pesticides products.

APPLICATIONS OF PARA- XYLENE:

It is colorless, volatile liquid. Para-xylene is a very important raw material in the

preparation of PET (polyethylene terepthalate) chips, which are extensively used in
packing industries, for example, for mineral water and carbonated soft drink bottles.

Para-xylene is also used in the manufacture of PTA (purified terepthalic acid),

which is a basic Petrochemical used in the textile industry for making polyster.

APPLICATIONS OF O-XYLENE:

Almost all o-xylene is used in the manufacture of pthalic anhydride which is

converted to plasticizers, alkyd and polyster resins.

APPLICATIONS OF M-XYLENE:

M-Xylene is the least important of the isomers will depend on the demand for their
respective end products.

World demand for xylenes is expected to grow at 3 % per year in the 1990.

The largest outlet for xylenes is a gasoline octane improves.

Chemical uses for the xylene isomers are in the plastics and fibre markets, each of
isomer having one major outlet.

USES IN HISTOLOGY:

Xylene is used in histology to clean tissue for preparation of paraffin wax. It is also
used to prepare very thin slice of tissues for microscopic examination by making
them hydrophobic (i.e. lacking affinity for water) so a cover slip can be used.

OTHER USES:
 The majority (more than 90 percent ) of mixed xylene isomers is used for blending into
petrol and gasoline, and the rest in different solvent applications for the printing
industry ,Pharmaceuticals , perfumes , fabricated items and pesticide formulations , to
name a few.
Xylene is also in the preparation of individual isomers, which are often used in making
certain types of plastics.

Precursor to other compounds:

Although conversion to terepthalic acid is the dominant chemical conversion, xylenes

are precursors to other chemical compounds. For instance chlorination of both methyl
groups gives the corresponding xylene dichlorides (bis(chloromethyl)benzenes)
whilst monobromination yields xylyl bromide, a tear gas -agent used in World war -I.
 CHAPTER -2
MARKET SURVEY
2.1. DEMAND AND CONSUMPTION OF MIXED XYLENES:

Global production and consumption of mixed xylenes in 2010 were

approximately 45.6 metric tons. Global capacity utilization was around 80% in
2010.

Xylene consumption is estimated to have increased by around 3.5 % in 2010, and

is expected to have average growth of 5.9 % per year from 2010 to 2014, and 5.3
% per year from 2013 to 2018. Operating rates are expected to drop to the high
70s in 2010-2013, gradually increased afterwards.

The three isomers of xylene- ortho,para and meta and ethyl benzene are known
collectively known as mixed xylenes . Para-xylene is the most valuable of the
three isomers accounted for around 83 % of global mixed xylenes consumption in
2010, followed by ortho-xylene with 9% of total consumption. Other xylenes
applications include meta-xylene ,solvent use , and gasoline blending.

The following pie chart shows world consumption of xylenes by end use :

3.5 1.2 3.6

9
p-xylene
o-xylene
solvent
m-xylene
others

82.7

WORLD CONSUMPTION OF MIXED XYLENES

2.2. MAJOR XYLENE PRODUCING COMPANIES IN WORLD :

1. Ashland, Inc (USA).

2. BP Petrochemicals ltd. (UK).

3. BP Petrochemicals (USA).

4. Braskem SA (BRAZIL).

5. CEPSA-cia.Espanola De Petroleum SA (Spain).

6. Chevron Phillips Chemical company LP (USA).

7. Chevron Phillips Chemical Peurto Rico Core (USA)

8. China Petroleum & Chemical corporation.(China)

9. Citgo Petroleum Corporation.(USA)

10. Daikin Industries Ltd.(Japan)

11. Petrochemical company(china)

12. DC AS Daqing Chemical Company Limited(south korea).

13. Deza Chemicals & Fiber Corp(Taiwan)

14. Esfahan petrochemical company

15. Exxon Mobil Corp.(USA)

16. Formosa(Czech republic).

17. Fushun Petrochemical company (china)

18. Gadiv petrochemical industries ltd(Israel)

19. Huntsman performance industries Ltd.(USA)

20. Imperial Oil Ltd.(Canada)

21. Indian Oil Co., (India)

22. Jilin Chemical Industrial Co., Ltd (China).

23. Jinling Petrochemical company

24. Jinxi Petrochemical Co., Ltd(India)

25. Jinzhou Petrochemical Co., Ltd(China)

MAJOR XYLENE PRODUCING COMPANIES IN INDIA

1.Indian petroleum corporation limited ,baroda.

2.Bongaigoan Refinery and Petrochemicals ltd., bongaigoan, assam.

3.Reliance Industries ltd.Patalaganga.

4.Buneesha chem. Pvt ltd.,Mumbai.

5.Gati solvochem.,Mumbai

6.KSR industries ,Bangalore

7.Mehta Petrochemicals Ltd., Mumbai.

8.Raghav chemicals , indore

9.Pure chemicals corporation , Chennai

10.Crystal Chemicals , Erode

11. V.V.Chemicals
 CHAPTER -3
PROPERTIES

Properties of xylene:

3.1. Physical properties:

Properties Mixed xylene o-xylene m-xylene p-xylene

Appearance Colorless liquid colorless liquid colorless liquid colorless liquid
Molecular CH CH CH CH
formula
Molecular 106.16 106.16 106.16 106.16
weight
Density at 20 864 880 860 861
C (kg/m3)
CAS number 133-20-7 95-47-6 108-38-3 106-42-3
3.2. Thermodynamic properties :

Property Mixed xylene o-xylene m-xylene p-xylene

Melting -47.4 -25 -48 13
point(c)
Boiling 138.5 144 139 138
point(c)
Viscosity at 6.8*10 8.12 *10 6.20*10 6.75 *10
20 c
Flash point (c) 30 17 25 25

3.3. Chemical properties:

The chemical properties differ from isomer to isomer.

Oxidation of xylenes gives pthalic acids and toulic acid.

M-xylene and P-xylene undergo nitration and reduction gives xylidines which are
used in making of dyes. xylenes are insoluble in water and soluble in non-polar
solvents such as aromatic hydrocarbon.
 CHAPTER -4

PROCESS SELECTION
 Process selection:

4.1. VARIOUS METHODS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF XYLENE:

Firstly xylene is produced by catalytic reforming of petroleum

By disproportionation and transalkylation toluene C9 aromatics.
By disproportionation of toluene.

4.2. Selection of process:

Method RAW OPERATI CATALY COST REMAR

MATERIA NG ST KS
LS CONDITI
ON
Catalytic Crude 498-524 C Platinum Comparitiv Supply is
reforming of petroleum Temp. combined ely high not
petroleum 0.3-2.5 with sufficient
MPa rhenium
pressure
Disproportiona Toluene 250-480(c) Zeolite Comparitiv xylene
tion and trans and C9 Temp. (containin ely less productio
alkylation aromatics 1-5 Mpa g Bio2) cost n is
pressure
highest
Disproportinati Toluene 300-480 ZSM-5 Comparativ Less
on of toluene (c) ely more productio
Temp., n of
1-4 MPa xylene
pressure

Investment per ton of Xylenes wil be least if sufficient quantity of

110 C- 140 C naptha is made available. However for large demand of xylenes,
especially for P-xylene ,disproportionation and transalkylation of toluene and C 9
aromatics generally becomes necessary. Hence large scale integrated BTX
complexes have become common internationally.
The present innovation relates to a process of the disproportionation and Trans
alkylation of toluene and heavy aromatic hydrocarbons of nine and more than
nine carbon atoms and also to a catalyst used in the process. It can be mainly used
to overcome the disadvantages of the known processes in the prior arts.
The said disadvantages include that the processing quantity of heavy aromatic
hydrocarbons is lower only the dealkylation and lightening are carried in the
known processes in prior arts resulting in a large amount of non aromatic light
 hydrocarbons and the stringent requirements on the composition of feedstock is
needed.

4.3. REACTIONS INVOLVED:

7CHCH + 4.33 C H (CH) 6CH (CH) + 6CH + 2CH

CH (CH) + 2CH CH + 2 CH

OVERALL REACTION:

7CHCH + 4.33 C H (CH) 5CH (CH) + 6CH + 2CH

NOTE: Due to uncertainty of reactions taking place in petro chemical

compounds we assumed reactions as mentioned above.
CATALYST DECRIPTION:

Zeolites were used to replace the traditional FriedelCraft catalysts, making the process
cleaner, less corrosive and more economic competitive. By using FriedelCraft catalysts,
solid and liquid wastes in ethyl benzene (EB) production of 390 000 tons/year
Were 500 and 800 tons/year, respectively. By using ZSM-5 catalyst, the wastes were
significantly reduced to 35 and 264 tons/year, respectively.

Owing to the recent development in catalytic chemistry of zeolites , a drastic

improvement in aromatic conversion process technology has been found. There has been
a growing research interest in both academic and industry. The results obtained from the
fundamental research in turn promote more innovation and development and hence
stimulate one-tuning of zeolite catalyst from the approach of molecular engineering level.
For example, several successful processes have been developed for the production of
para-dialkylbenzenes using zeolitic catalysts.

The present review is presented from the perspective of process technology of aromatic
interconversion along with fundamental research on shape selective catalysis. In
particular, the selection of a suitable zeolite for a process and the fundamentals of shape
Selective catalysis are intensively discussed. For application point of view, the interplay
of market demand and process technology development is reviewed and the development
of alkyl group transfer processes from the perspectives of overall economics of
Production complex is thoroughly discussed.

Zeolite structure

Zeolites are crystalline and porous materials with an open structure that consist of AlO4
and SiO4 tetrahedral units linked through oxygen atoms. Owing to their unique
properties in ion exchange and adsorption capacity and catalytic activity, zeolites have
been widely used as adsorbents, molecular sieving agents and catalysts for a variety of
different chemical reactions.

They have also been modified by isomorphous substitution of silicon and aluminum by
incorporating other atoms such as titanium, iron, gallium, boron, phosphorous, etc. in
the framework.

There are over 40 known natural zeolites and more than 150 synthetic zeolites have
been reported.
 The number of synthetic zeolites with new structure morphologies grows rapidly
with time. Based on the size of their pore opening, zeolites can be roughly divided
into five major categories, namely 8-, 10- and 12-membered oxygen ring systems,
dual pore systems and mesoporous systems. Their pore structures can be
characterized by crystallography, adsorption measurements and/or through diagnostic
reactions.

Zeolites with 10-membered oxygen rings normally possess a high siliceous

framework structure. They are of special interest in industrial applications. In fact,
they were the first family of zeolites that were synthesized with organic ammonium
salts. With pore openings close to the dimensions of many organic molecules, they are
particularly useful in shape selective catalysis. The 10-membered oxygen ring zeolites
also possess other important characteristic properties including high activity, high
tolerance to coking and high hydrothermal stability. Among the family of 10-
membered oxygen ring zeolites, the MFItype (ZSM-5) zeolite is probably the most
useful one. ZSM-5 zeolite has two types of channel systems of similar size, one with
a straight channel of pore opening 5.3_5.6 A and the other with a tortuous channel
of pore opening 5.1_5.5 A . Those intersecting channels are perpendicular to each
other, generating a three-dimensional framework. ZSM-5 zeolites with a wide range
of SiO2/Al2O3 ratio can easily be synthesized. High siliceous ZSM-5 zeolites are
more hydrophobic and hydrothermally stable compared to many other zeolites.
Although the first synthetic ZSM-5 zeolite was discovered more than two decades
ago new interesting applications are still emerging to this day. For example, its recent
applications in NOx reduction, especially in the exhaust of lean-burn engine, have
drawn much attention.

Among various zeolite catalysts, ZSM-5 zeolite has the greatest number of
industrial applications, covering from petrochemical production and refinery
processing to environmental treatment.

Although the 10-membered oxygen ring zeolites were found to possess remarkable
shape selectivity, catalysis of large molecules may require a zeolite catalyst with a
larger-pore opening. Typical 12-membered oxygen ring zeolites, such as faujasite-
type zeolites, normally have pore opening greater than ca. 5.5 A and hence are more
useful in catalytic applications with large molecules, for example in trimethylbenzene
(TMB) conversions. Faujasite (X or Y) zeolites can be synthesized using inorganic
salts and have been widely used in catalytic cracking since the 1960s. The framework
structures of zeolite Beta and ZSM-12 are shown in below Fig. respectively.

Zeolites with a dual pore system normally possess interconnecting pore channels
with two different pore opening sizes. Mordenite is a well-known dual pore zeolite
having a 12-membered oxygen ring channel with pore opening 6.5_7.0 A which is
interconnected to 8-membered oxygen ring channel with opening 2.6_5.7 A which
was found more recently, also possesses a dual pore system.
New zeolites being designed with larger pores and catalysts attached to the internal
surfaces.
5.3. DETAILED PROCESS DESCRIPTION:

A process for the disproportionation and transalkylation of toluene and heavy

aromatic hydrocarbons of nine carbon atoms compromise : Toluene and C9 aromatics
are used as the feed stock for the reason where in the ratio of toluene to C9 aromatics
is 95:5-5:95 by weight.

The weight hourly space velocity is 0.8-8.0 / hr ;the reaction temperature is 300-500
c; In the presence of hydrogen, the reaction pressure is 1 5 MPa and the molar ratio
of hydrogen to hydrocarbon is 1-10; the catalyst for the molar ratio of hydrogen to
hydrocarbon is 1-10; the catalyst for disproportionation and transkylation of toluene
and C9 aromatics compromises by weight:

1)20-90 parts of hydrogen-form zeolite having Sio/Alo molar ratio 10-50, and
the following components supported on the zeolite.
2)0.05 -10 parts of molybdenum oxide.
3)0-10 parts of at least one metal oxide selected from a group consisting of oxide
Of nickel or bismuth;
4)0-10 parts of at least one metal oxide selected from oxide of lanthanum, silver
or rhenium.
5)10-60 parts of aluminium oxide as adhesive.

Initially toluene and C9 aromatics are at room temperature in liquid state. The feed
is compressed in a compressor upto 30 atm.Then, they are heated in the heating
furnace to obtain the raction temperature i.e, 350 c using natural gas as a fuel.

The reaction is an exothermic reaction and the evolved heat is absorbed by the
cooling water provided in the jacket of the reactor.

The products leaving the reactor will be at 350 c enters into a heat exchanger
where the products will be cooled to 308 c and the reactants will heated to 80c.
The products will send to the cooling condenser where the products temperature will
be reduced to 40 c, using cooling water as a coolant. The cooled products will enter
in to the condensate drum where the gases and liquids get separated. The gaseous
products contain hydrogen and methane where the liquid product contains mixed
xylene, benzene, and heavy araomatics.

The liquid mixture will send to the light end tower where benzene will get separated
and collected as a top product. The bottom product containing mixed xylene and
heavy aromatics will send to the xylene splitter, where, the mixed xylene gets
separated and collected as top product. The bottom product heavy aromatics will
also be collected.
 CHAPTER 6
MATERIAL & ENERGY
BALANCE
MATERIAL BALANCE:

Basis: 35 tons/day of xylene.

From stoichiometry:

7CHCH + 4.33 C H (CH) 5CH (CH) + 6CH + 2CH +CH

Molecular weights of compounds :

COMPOUND NAME MOLECULAR WEIGHT

Xylene 106.16

Toulene 92

Methane 16

Benzene 78

Overall material balance:

INPUT (kg/hr) OUTPUT (kg/hr)

Toluene 1771.9 Xyelene 1458.33
Trimethyl benzene 1430.6178 Benzene 1287.735
Hydrogen 160 Heavy aromatics 368.684
Methane 88.0445
Hydrogen 160
TOTAL 3362.5178 3362.793
 Basis : 30 tons per day of xylene

Assumption of 100% conversion

5 moles of xylene 7 moles of toluene

13.757 moles of xylene ???

This implies toulene required =19.259 moles/hr =1771.9kg/hr

5 moles of xylene 4.33 moles of trimethyl benzene

13.757 moles of xylene ???

this implies trimethyl benzene required = 11.921 moles per hour=1430.61 kg/hr

5 moles of xylene 6 moles of benzene

13.757 moles of xylene ???

This implies that amount of benzene =16.509 moles/hr= 1287.735kg/hr

 5 moles of xylene 2 moles of methane

13.757 moles of xylene ????

This implies amount of methane =5.503 moles/hr= 88.044kg/hr

5 moles of xylene 1 mole of heavy aromatics

13.757 moles of xylene ???

this implies that amounts of heavy aromatics = 2.7514 moles/hr = 368.694 kg/hr

INPUT (kg/hr) OUTPUT (kg/hr)

Toluene 1771.9 Xyelene 1458.33
Trimethyl benzene 1430.6178 Benzene 1287.735
Hydrogen 160 Heavy aromatics 368.684
Methane 88.044
Hydrogen
TOTAL 3362.5178 3362.793

MATERIAL BALANCE OVER CONDENSATE DRUM:

INPUT (kg/hr) OUTPUT (kg/hr)

Xylene 1458.33 Methane (top) 88.044
Benzene 1287.735 Hydrogen (top) 160
Heavy aromatics 368.684 Xylene (bottom) 1458.33
Methane 88.044 Benzene (bottom) 1287.735
Hydrogen 160 Heavy aromatics 368.684

TOTAL 3362.793 3362.793

MATERIAL BALANCE OVER LIGHT END TOWER:

 INPUT (kg/hr) OUTPUT (kg/hr)
Xylene 1458.33 Benzene(top) 1287.735
Benzene 1287.735 Xylene (bottom) 1458.33
Heavy aromatics 368.684 Heavy aromatics 368.684
TOTAL 3114.749 3114.749

MATERIAL BALANCE OVER XYLENE SPLITTER:

INPU (kg/hr) OUTPUT (kg/hr)

T
Xyelene 1458.33 Xylene (top) 1458.33
Heavy 368.684 Heavy aromatics 368.684
aromatics (bottom)
TOTAL 1827.014 1827.014

NOTE: All calculations are done in kg/hr.

ENERGY BALANCE:

Data required:

Cp = a+bT+cT+dT

Where Cp = liquid heat capacity. Kj/Kmol.k

T = Absolute Temperature, k

A b* 10 c* 10^6 d* 10^9
Benzene -7.2733 770.541 -1648.18 1897.94
Toluene 1.8083 812.223 -1512.67 1630.001
Trimethyl 1.1409 831.139 -1450.05 1350.24
benzene
Xylene 22.0553 811.839 -1366.7 1442.16

Standard heat of formation data:

Component Heat of formation (kj/mole)

Benzene -49.04
Toluene 50.17
Xylene 18.03
Trimethyl benzene -15.9
CH -29.0
CH -74.8

OVER HEATING FURNACE:

1) Temperature of raw materials increases from 80 C to 350 C.

FORMULA: Q = mcpmdT

Where Cpm = xi Cpmi

= 0.533(Cp of toluene ) + 0.446 (Cp of C9 A)

 dT = (350-80)= 270C

Q= 236906.356 kcal

2) This heat energy is given by natural gas & its calorific value is 13000 Kcal/m3

1 m natural gas 13000 kcal of energy

?? 236906.356 kcal of energy

Natural gas required = 18.223 m

Energy balance over reactor

7CHCH + 4.33 C H (CH) 5CH (CH) + 6CH + 2CH +CH

It is exothermic reaction. So heat released absorbed by cooling water in the jacket.

Heat of reaction at 25 C = -437.107* 10 kcal.

Cooling water in jacket of reactor enters at 25 C and heated upto 85 C

Q = mcpmdT

Cp of water at 25 C = 1.0056 kcal/kg .k ; dT = 60 K

m= 7244.55 kgs of cooling water required in jacket.

Energy balance over heat exchanger:

Heat lost by the body = Heat gained by the cold body.

mCpdT(of products from reactor) = mCpdT(reactants)

That implies, output products temperature from heat exchanger, T = 308 C

Energy balance over condenser:

1. At condenser heat removed , Q = 938276.86 kcal

2. From Q equation we get m= 15550.862 kg.
 CHAPTER - 7

EQUIPMENT DESIGN

Design of packed bed reactor

Inlet to the reactor:

Component Mass ( kg /hr ) Volume ( m )
Toluene 1518.552 28.126
Tri methyl benzene 1225.2 17.398

Outlet to the reactor:

Component Mass ( kg /hr ) Volume ( m )

Xylene 1250 20.091
Benzene 1103.54 24.095
Heavy aromatics 315 4.0046
Methane 75.45 8.0348

Volume of the reactor is taken as approximately twice the volume of outlet products
volume.

Therefore, volume of reactor = 110 m

Volume of reactor = volume of cylindrical shell + volume of dished ends

For the reactor (L / D ) = 2.8 ( assumed )

Where, L = length of reactor vessel

Di = inner diameter of vessel

110 = (/4)*(2.8)*Di

Therefore, L= 10318 m and Di = 3685 mm

Material of construction:

Stainless steel has been chosen as the, material of construction for reactor.
It is highly corrosion resistant
It is low in cost and maintenance cost is low
It is resistant to chemical attack

Shell design:
Thickness of shell = ts = P Di / (2 fJ P)

P = design pressure = working pressure + 5 % of working pressure = 3.3429 N/mm

f = permissible stress for stainless steel

= 112.3 N/mm

J = welding joint efficiency

= 0.85

Therefore, thickness of shell = 65.67 mm

Outer diameter of column = D0 = Di + 2ts + corrosion allowance

(Since corrosion allowance for stainless steel = 0.1 mm i.e, negligible )

Therefore, D0 = 3816.34 mm

Head design:

The top head is designed as a hemispherical head.

Thickness of head = th = P D /( 4f J )

= 32.262 mm

Gasket design:

Gasket material is chosen as corrugated metal (soft aluminium ) because reaction

temperature is 350 C

Gasket factor = m = 2.5

Minimum design seating stress (y) = 20 N/mm

Minimum gasket width (N) = 10mm

G0/Gi = [ Y- mP / Y P(m+1)] ^

(G0/Gi ) = 1.1843

Let us take, inner diameter of gasket = 10 mm more than outer diameter of column

Gi = 3816.34 +10 = 3826.34 mm

Outer diameter of gasket = G0 = 3826.34 *1.1843 = 4531.534 mm

Basic gasket seating = b0 = N/2 = 5 mm

Effective seating width of gasket = b1= 0.5 * ( b0) ^

b1 = 1.118 mm

b = ( G0 - Gi) / 2 = 352.597 mm

Bolt load:

Load due to initial gasket load reaction = W m1 = bGy

G = diameter at location of gasket load = Gi +b = 4178.937 mm

Wm1 = (352.597 ) (4178.937) (20) = 92.5345 MN

Total operating load = W0= H+Hp

H= load due to design pressure = ( /4)GP = 45.8273 MN

Hp = load to keep joint tight under operation = m GP (2b) = 77.333 MN

W0 = H+Hp = 123.160MN

Since, W m1 < W0 , controlling load = 123.16 MN

Cross section of bolt = Am0 = W0 / fa

fa = maximum allowable stress for carbon steel = 63.857 MN/m

Therefore, Am1= 1.9286 m

Minimum area per bolt = 6529.9 mm

Number of bolts = 1928600 / 6529.9 = 296 bolts

Jacket design:

Mass of cooling water used = 6250 kg/hr

Volumetric flow rate of water = 6.250 m / hr

 (/4)(Dj - Di)L = 6.250

Where Dj = diameter of jacket

Therefore, Dj = 3.9156 m

Foundation design

Bracket design:

For vessels having upto 5 m diameter, we use 6 brackets for the vessel.

Maximum total compressive load on support = P

P = 4 Pw(H-F)/nDb +W/n

In the above equation, first term represents wind load and second term represents vessel
load.

Since vessel is indoors, wind load is neglected.

Therefore, P = W/n

Here, n = number of brackets = 6

W = total weight of vessel and contents

Weight of stainless steel reactor = 10000 kg

Weight of contents = 3000 kg

Total weight e = 13000N

Therefore, P = W/n = 13000/6 = 2166.66 N

Maximum total compressive load = 2166.66 N

Base plate design:

The material of construction is concrete.

Average pressure on plate = Pav= P/aB

Here, a= width of plate = 1.5 m

B = length of plate = 1.5 m

Pav = 2166.66 /(1.5*1.5) =962.96 N/m

Thickness of plate = T1

f = 0.5 * Pav * B * / T 1 [a^4/(a^4 +B^4)]

f = permissible stress for concrete = 1 N /mm

Substituting the other values, we get

Thickness of plate = 0.046 m

Packed bed design:

The catalyst zeolite is used as the packing material. It is a crystalline solid and it is
assumed that it occupies half the volume of the reactor.

Therefore, volume of packing = 55 m

(/4)DiH = 55

Where H = height of packed bed

Therefore, H= 19.0131 m

Nozzle design

Mass flow rate of toluene = 1518. 552 kg/hr

Volumetric flow rate of toluene (Q) = 4.8658 *10 m /s

Let velocity of flow (v) = 1 m/s .

Q = Av

Cross sectional area of nozzle = 4.8658 *10 m

(/4)d = 0

Diameter of nozzle = 2.4896 cm

Nozzle Reinforcement:

Maximum horizontal distance = 2 dn = 4.9792 cm

Maximum vertical distance = 3.5 (ts+2.5th) = 512.137 mm

Compensation provided for nozzle = 2.5 ts = 164.175 mm

Area for which compensation is required = A = d * ts = 1634.92 mm

Bottom dished end:

The bottom dished end is elliptical in shape

Thickness of shell = PRcM / f J

M = [ 3 + (Rc / R k) ^ ] / 4 = 0.81

Therefore, thickness of shell = 6.89 mm

 PLANT LOCATION
PLANT LAYOUT

8.1. Plant location and site selection:

The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project, and
scope for future expansion. Many factors must be considered when selecting a suitable
site. For majority of cases, primary reasons for plant location study are to find a suitable
site at which a plan can produce highest on invested capital. The natures of the process
of product often narrow the potential site selection to a relatively few possible area.
If the plant is not located in the most economically favorable position, competitive
advantages of the process , so carefully engineered during research phases , can be
wiped out without careful thought , which must be considered for optimum plant
 location , the plant may even be in orderable. Eventually a new site was chosen, which
rectified but not without pain, stain and additional expenditure of funds. Some of the
important factors, that are to be considered in this location of this plant area.

Raw materials:

The availability and price of suitable raw materials will often determine the site location.
Plants producing bulk chemicals are best located close to the source of the major
material: where it is also close to the marketing area. In most chemical operations low
delivered cost of raw materials must be weighed up against other operating costs.
Physical distance is not only the factor in source of raw materials for purchase price and
buying expense base point processing, reserving stock and reliability of supply also are
the factors.

Transport:

The transport of materials and products to and from the plant will be an overriding
consideration in site selection.

If practicable a site should be selected that is close to at least two major forms of
transport: road rail, water way (canal or river), or a sea port. Road transport is being
increasingly used, and is suitably for the long-distance transport of bulk chemicals.

Air transport is convenient and efficient for the movement of personnel and essential and
supplies and the proximity of the site to a major airport should be considered.

Availability of labor:

Labor will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation .Skilled construction
workers will usually be brought in from outside the site area, but there should be an
adequate pool of unskilled labor locally; and labor suitable for training to operate the
plant. Skilled tradesmen will have to be considered when assisting the availability and
suitability of the local labor for recruitment and training.

Utilities (services):

Chemical processes invariably require large quantities of water for cooling and general
process use, and the plant must be located near a source of water of suitable quantity.
Process water may be drawn from a river, from wells, or purchased from a local authority.

At some sites the cooling water required can be taken from a river or lake, or from the
sea; at other locations cooling towers will be needed.
The chemical engineering industries are the largest users of electric power equipment
among the industries today. Power for a chemical industry is primarily from local water
and oil these fuel supply the most flexible and economic

A competitively priced fuel must be available on site for steam and power generation.

Environmental impact, effluent disposal:

All the industrial process produce waste products and full consideration must be given to
the difficulties and cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will
be covered by local regulations, and the appropriate authorities must be consulted during
the initial site survey to determine the standards that must be met.

An environmental impact assessment should be made for each new project, or major
modification or addition to an existing process.

Local community considerations:

The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a
significant additional risk to the community.

On a new site, the local community must be able to provide adequate facilities for the
plant personnel: schools, banks, housing, and recreational and cultural facilities.

Land (site consideration):

Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant and for future expansion.
The land should ideally be flat, well drained and have suitable load bearing
characteristics. A full site evaluation should be made to determine the need for piling or
other special foundations.

Climate:

Adverse climatic conditions at a site will increase costs. Abnormally low temperatures
will require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment pipe
runs. Stronger structures will be needed at locations subject to the high winds (cyclone
/hurricane areas) or earthquakes.

Political and strategic considerations:

Capital grants, tax concessions and other inducements are often given by governments to
direct new investment to preferred locations; such as high unemployment. The
availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site selection.

8.2. Plant lay out:

The economic constructions and efficient operation of a process unit will depend on how
well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is laid out.

The principal factors to be considered are:

 1. Economic considerations: construction and operating costs

2. The process of requirements.

3. Convenience of operation.

4. Convenience of maintenance.

5. Safety.

6. Future expansion.

7. Modular construction

Costs:

The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest
run of connecting pipe between equipment, and the least amount of structural steel work
.However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and
maintenance.

Process requirement:

An example of the need to take into account process considerations is the need to
elevate the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a
pump or the operating head for a thermosyphon reboiler.

Operation:

Equipment that need to have frequent operator attention should be located convenient
to the control room .valves , sample points and instruments should be located at
convenient positions and heights .Sufficient working space and headroom must be
provided to allow easy access to equipment

Maintenance:

Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for
cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or
 packing should be located on the outside of buildings. Equipment that requires
dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be place
under cover.

Safety:

Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the
effects of an explosion.

At least two escape routes for operators must be needed from each level in process
buildings.

Plant expansion:

Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future
expansion of the process.

Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and service pipes over-sized to
allow for future requirements.

Modular construction:

In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant
manufacturers site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel,
piping and instrumentation .The modules are then transported to the plant site, by
road or sea.

The advantages of modular construction:

1. Improved quality control.

2. Reduced construction cost.
3. Less need for skilled labor on site.
4. Less need for skilled labor on site.

Some of the disadvantages are;

1. Higher design costs.

2. More structural steel works.
3. More flanged connections

General considerations:
Open, structural steel work, buildings are normally used for process equipment
closed buildings are only used for process operations that require protection from the
weather.

The arrangement of the major items of equipments will usually follow the sequence
given on the process flow-sheet: with the columns and vessels arranged in rows and
the auxiliary equipment, such as heat exchangers and pumps, positioned along the
outside.
 HANDLING
PROCEDURES
HEALTH HAZARDS
9.1. HANDLING PROCEDURES

Acute/Chronic Hazards:

This compound is a local irritant.

Minimum protective clothing: not available

Recommended Glove Materials:

The following gloves show the best resistance permission testing .It is recommended
that two different gloves types be used for best protection.

However, if this chemical makes direct contact with your glove, or if a tear, puncture or
hole develops, remove them at once.

Suggested Gloves: VITON, PVA.

Recommended Respirator:

When working with this chemical where a NIOSH approved full fale positive pressure
supplied air respirator or a self contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)

Storage Precautions:

You should store this material in a refrigerator away from oxidizers .store away from
source of ignition.

Spills and Leakage:

If you should spill this chemical use absorbent paper to pick up all liquid spill
material. Your contaminated clothing and absorbent paper should be sealed in a vapor
tight plastic bag eventual disposal. Solvent wash all contaminated surface with
acetone followed by strong soap water solution. Do not re-enter the contaminated area
until the safety officer or other responsible person as verified that the area has been
properly cleaned.

Disposal and Waste Treatment:

You should dispose of all waste and contaminated material as associated with these
chemicals as specified by existing local, state and federal regulation concerning
hazardous waste disposal. It is suggested that you contaminated material should be
destroyed by incineration in a special high temperature (>2000 degree F), chemical
incinerator facility.
HEALTH HAZARDS:

Commercial or mixed xylene usually contains about 40-65% m-xylene and up

to 20% each of o-xylene and p-xylene and ethylbenzene. Xylenes are released
into the atmosphere as fugitive emissions from industrial sources, from auto
exhaust, and through volatilization from their use as solvents. Acute (short-
term) inhalation exposure to mixed xylenes in humans results in irritation of the
eyes, nose, and throat, gastrointestinal effects, eye irritation, and neurological
effects. Chronic (long-term) inhalation exposure of humans to mixed xylenes
results primarily in central nervous system (CNS) effects, such as headache,
dizziness, fatigue, tremors, and in coordination; respiratory, cardiovascular, and
kidney effects have also been reported. EPA has classified mixed xylenes as a
Group D, not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity.

Sources and Potential Exposure

Mixed xylenes are distributed throughout the environment; they have been
detected in air, rainwater, soils, surface water, sediments, drinking water, and
aquatic organisms.
Xylenes are released into the atmosphere as fugitive emissions from
industrial sources, from auto exhaust, and through volatilization from their use
as solvents.
Ambient air concentrations of mixed xylenes in urban areas of the United
States range from 0.003 to 0.38 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3).
Mixed xylenes have also been detected at low levels in indoor air; xylenes
have been widely used in home use products such as synthetic fragrances and
paints. One study reported concentrations of m- and p-xylene ranging from
0.010 to 0.047 mg/m3.
Levels of mixed xylenes in drinking water have been reported to range from
0.2 to 9.9 micrograms per liter (g/L), with mean concentrations of less than 2
g/L.
Occupational exposure to mixed xylenes may occur at workplaces where
mixed xylenes are produced and used as industrial solvents.
Xylene exposure may be to any of the three isomers or to mixtures of the
isomers.
9.2. Health Hazard Information

Acute Effects:

Human and animal data show that all xylene isomers or xylene mixtures
produce similar effects, although specific isomers may not be equally potent in
producing the effects.
Acute inhalation exposure to mixed xylenes in humans has been associated
with dyspnea and irritation of the nose and throat; gastrointestinal effects such
as nausea, vomiting, and gastric discomfort; mild transient eye irritation; and
neurological effects such as impaired short-term memory, impaired reaction
time, performance decrements in numerical ability, and alterations in
equilibrium and body balance.
Acute dermal exposure in humans results in transient skin irritation and
dryness and scaling of the skin.
Acute inhalation exposure to a mixture of toluene and xylenes resulted in
more than additive respiratory and neurological toxicity in humans and
animals.
Acute animal studies have reported respiratory, cardiovascular, CNS, liver,
and kidney effects from inhalation exposure to mixed xylenes.
Acute animal tests in rats and mice have shown mixed xylenes to have
low to moderate toxicity from inhalation exposure and moderate toxicity
from oral exposure.

Chronic Effects (Non cancer):

Chronic exposure of humans to mixed xylenes, as seen in occupational

settings, has resulted primarily in neurological effects such as headache,
dizziness, fatigue, tremors, in coordination, anxiety, impaired short-term
memory, and inability to concentrate. Labored breathing, impaired pulmonary
function, increased heart palpitation, severe chest pain, abnormal EKG, and
possible effects on the kidneys have also been reported. (1,2)
Mixed xylenes have not been extensively tested for chronic effects, although
animal studies show effects on the liver and CNS from inhalation and oral
exposures and effects on the kidneys from oral exposure to mixed xylenes. (1)
The Reference Dose (RfD) for mixed xylenes is 2 milligrams per kilogram
body weight per day (mg/kg/d) based on hyperactivity, decreased body weight,
and increased mortality in rats, and the provisional RfD for m- and o-xylenes is
 also 2 mg/kg/d. EPA has not established an RfD for p-xylene. The RfD is an
estimate (with uncertainty spanning perhaps an order of magnitude) of a daily
oral exposure to the human population (including sensitive subgroups) that is
likely to be without appreciable risk of deleterious noncancer effects during a
lifetime. It is not a direct estimator of risk but rather a reference point to gauge
the potential effects. At exposures increasingly greater than the RfD, the
potential for adverse health effects increases. Lifetime exposure above the
RfD does not imply that an adverse health effect would necessarily occur. The
provisional RfDs are values that have had some form of Agency review, but do
not appear on IRIS.
EPA has medium confidence in the study on which the RfD was based
because it was a well-designed study in which adequately sized groups of two
species were tested over a substantial portion of their lifespan, comprehensive
histology was performed, and a no-observed-adverse-effect level was defined;
but clinical chemistries, blood enzymes, and urinalysis were not performed;
medium confidence in the database because although supporting data exist for
mice, and teratogenicity and fetotoxicity data are available with positive results
at high oral doses, a lowest-observed-adverse-effect level for chronic oral
exposure has not been defined; and, consequently, medium confidence in
the RfD
EPA has not established a Reference Concentration (RfC) for mixed xylenes
or any isomers.
ATSDR has calculated a chronic inhalation minimal risk level (MRL) of 0.4
mg/m3 (0.1 parts per million [ppm]) for mixed xylenes based on neurological
effects in occupationally exposed workers. The MRL is an estimate of the daily
human exposure to a hazardous substance that is likely to be without
appreciable risk of adverse noncancer health effects over a specified duration of
exposure.

Reproductive/Developmental Effects:
Several human studies examined exposure to organic solvents (including
mixed xylenes) and developmental effects. An increased potential for
spontaneous abortions among the wives of occupationally exposed men was
reported. However, no conclusions can be drawn from these studies because
they all involved concurrent exposure to multiple chemicals.
Mixed xylenes have been shown to produce developmental effects, such as
an increased incidence of skeletal variations in fetuses, delayed ossification,
fetal resorptions, and decreased fetal body weight in animals via inhalation
exposure. Some studies observed maternal toxicity as well.
Cancer Risk:
No information is available on the carcinogenic effects of mixed xylenes in
humans.
An increase in tumors was not reported in rats or mice exposed to mixed
xylenes via gavage (experimentally placing the chemical in the stomach).
Other animal studies have reported equivocal results.
EPA has classified mixed xylenes as a Group D, not classifiable as to human
carcinogenicity.

Physical Properties

m-, o-, and p-Xylene are the three isomers of xylene; commercial or mixed
xylene usually contains about 40-65% m-xylene and up to 20% each
of o- and p-xylene and ethylbenzene.
Mixed xylenes are colorless liquids that are practically insoluble in water and
have a sweet odor.
The odor threshold for m-xylene is 1.1 ppm.
The chemical formula for mixed xylenes is C8H10, and the molecular weight
is 106.16 g/mol.
The vapor pressure for mixed xylenes is 6.72 mm Hg at 21 C, and the log
octanol/water partition coefficient (log Kow) is 3.123.20.

Conversion Factors:

To convert concentrations in air (at 25 C) from ppm to mg/m 3: mg/m3 = (ppm)

(molecular weight of the compound)/(24.45). For xylenes: 1 ppm = 4.34 mg/m 3. To
convert concentrations in air from g/m3 to mg/m3: mg/m3= (g/m3) (1 mg/1,000 g).

Assessing Personal Exposure

Exposure to mixed xylenes may be determined by measuring the breakdown

products of mixed xylenes in the urine or by measuring levels of xylene in
blood or exhaled breath.
Health Data from Inhalation Exposure:
ACGIH STEL--American Conference of Governmental and Industrial Hygienists' short-
term exposure limit; 15-min time-weighted-average exposure that should not be exceeded
at any time during a workday even if the 8-h time-weighted-average is within the
threshold limit value.

ACGIH TLV--ACGIH's threshold limit value expressed as a time-weighted average; the

concentration of a substance to which most workers can be exposed without adverse
effects.

LC50 (Lethal Concentration50)--A calculated concentration of a chemical in air to which

exposure for a specific length of time is expected to cause death in 50% of a defined
experimental animal population.

LOAEL-- Lowest observed adverse effect level.

NIOSH IDLH -- National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health's immediately

dangerous to life or health concentration; NIOSH recommended exposure limit to ensure
that a worker can escape from an exposure condition that is likely to cause death or
immediate or delayed permanent adverse health effects or prevent escape from the
environment.

NIOSH REL--NIOSH's recommended exposure limit; NIOSH-recommended exposure

limit for an 8- or 10-h time-weighted-average exposure and/or ceiling.

NIOSH STEL--NIOSH's recommended short-term exposure limit; a 15-minute TWA

exposure which should not be exceeded at any time during a workday.

OSHA PEL--Occupational Safety and Health Administration's permissible exposure

limit expressed as a time-weighted average; the concentration of a substance to which
most workers can be exposed without adverse effect averaged over a normal 8-h workday
or a 40-h workweek.

The health and regulatory values cited in this factsheet were obtained in December 1999.
Health numbers are toxicological numbers from animal testing or risk assessment values
developed by EPA. Regulatory numbers are values that have been incorporated in
Government regulations, while advisory numbers are nonregulatory values provided by
the Government or other groups as advice. OSHA numbers are regulatory, whereas
NIOSH and ACGIH numbers are advisory. This LOAEL is from the critical study used
as the basis for the ATSDR chronic inhalation MRL.
PLANT ECONOMICS
10.1 Pollution control:

In the manufacture of mixed xylene from toluene the two sources of pollution is,

1. Gas discharged from stack which contains traces of methane, carbon

monoxide, carbon dioxide.
2. The wash water from distillation column, and leakage water from pipes.

Air pollution:

By using 50 m stack, methane has not been noticed on ground at any point in the plant
and fall out of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, is very low .The only concern
immediate of the plant were local weather conditions do not permit the use of high
stacks for reasons of problem of atmosphere pollution may be solved by catalytic
combustion of off gases.

Water pollution:
Water pollution from wash water of the two columns chiefly contains benzene, mixed
xylene and other aromatics compounds besides tarry substances. Recovery of these
adds to economics of the plant and also restricts the water pollution problem. The
waste water may be treated with lime to precipitate the greater part of its organic
content in the form of insoluble calcium salts .Treated water after suitable decanting
may be sent to conventional treating plants before discharge.
10.2. Economic evaluation:

Capacity of the plant = 35 tons /day.

Im assuming that my plant works for 300 days per year.

Capacity per year =35 *300*1000=105 *10^5 kg/hr.

Gross sales = 105*10^5 (358.796) + 921692*458.61 = Rs. 8019*10^6

Turnover ratio: Gross annual sales / total fixed capital

Let the turnover ratio be 1

That implies gross sales = Total fixed capital

TOTAL FIXED CAPITAL (TFC) = Rs. 8019 *10 ^6

Working capital = 5% TFC = Rs. 40095 * 10^ 4

Direct cost:

Purchased equipment cost = 22 % TFC = Rs. 176418 * 10^4

Equipment installation cost = 8% TFC = Rs. 64152 *10^ 4

Instrumentation & control cost = 5 % TFC = Rs. 40095 *10^ 4

Piping cost = 9 % TFC = Rs. 72121 * 10^4

Electrical cost = 4 % TFC = Rs. 32076 *10 ^4

Building cost = 8 % TFC = Rs.64152 *10 ^4

Yard improvement cost = 3 %TFC = Rs.24057 * 10 ^4

Land cost = 1% TFC = Rs. 8019 *10^4

TOTAL COST = Rs. 5613.3 *10 ^6

INDIRECT COST:

Engineering supervision cost = 10 % TFC = Rs. 8019 * 10 ^ 4

Constant expenses = 8 % TFC = Rs.64152 *10^4

Contracting fee = 4 % TFC = Rs.32072 *10 ^4

Contingencies = 8% TFC = Rs.64152 *10 ^4

TOTAL INDIRECT COST = Rs. 2405.7 * 10^6

Total production cost:

A) Direct production cost :

Raw materials = 28 % T = 0.28

Operating labor = 10 % T = 0.1 T

Direct supervisory & = 1%T = 0.01 T

Clerical labor

Utilities = 10 % T = 0.1 T

Maintenance & repairs = 5%T = 0.5 T

Operating supplies = 1 % TFC = 0.01 T

Patents & legalities = 2 % TFC = 0.02 T

B) Fixed charges
1. Depreciation = 10 % of equipment & installation + 2% of building cost

= 0.1 * (176418 + 64152) * 10 ^4 +0.02 *(64152 *10 ^4)

= Rs.25340.04 *10^4
 2. Local taxes = 2 % TFC = 0.02 * ( 8019 * 10 ^ 6) = Rs. 16038 *10 ^4

3. Insurances = 0.5 % TFC = Rs .4009.5 * 10^ 4

Fixed charges = Rs.45387.54 * 10^4

C) Plant overhead costs = 10 % T = 0.1 T

D) General expenses

1. Administrative cost = 5%T = 0.05 T

2. Distributing and selling costs = 8%T = 0.08 T

3. Research & development = 2%T = 0.02 T

4. Financing (interest ) = 5%T = 0.05 T

Total cost = direct production cost + fixed charges + plant overhead cost +
General expenses

T = 0.81 T + 93501.54 * 10^4

T = Rs.492113.368 *10 ^4

Gross profit = total sales total production cost

= 8019 *10 ^6 - 492113.368 *10^4

= Rs.309786.63 * 10 ^4

Taxes = Estimated as 40 % gross profit

= 0.4 * (309786.63 *10 ^4)

 = Rs.123914.652 *10 ^4

Net profit = Gross profit Taxes

= (309786.63 123914.652) *10 ^4

No. of years to get back the fixed capital investment = Fixed capital / Net profit

= 4.314 years.

Pay out time = Total investment / gross profit

= 8019 * 10 ^4 / 309786.63 * 10^4

= 2.5 years.

Total capital investment = TFC + working capital + fixed charges

= 8019 * 10 ^ 4 +40095 * 10^ 4 +45387.54 *10^4

= Rs.887382.54* 10^4

Rate of return = net profit / total capital investment * 100

= 185971.978 * 10 ^4 / 887382.54 *10 ^4 * 100

= 20.946 %

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Unit operations of chemical engineering, McCabe and smith harriott.

 Chemical Engineering Design , Coulson and Richardson
Process Equipment design , M V joshi.
Hand book of chemical engineers by perry.
Mass transfer operations , Robert E.treybal.
Plant design and economics for chemical engineers Max peters and Klaus
D.Timmerhaus
Elements of Fuels and furnaces ,O.p.gupta
Engineering chemistry , Jain and Jain