Concrete Technology

S P Singh
PhD (Roorkee), PDF (UK)

Professor of Civil Engineering

Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology
Jalandhar 144 011
e spsingh@nitj.ac.in
m 98140 88475
www.nitj.ac.in/ce/spsingh
What is Portland Cement
Mixing
materials
Raw
materials Clinker Portland Cement

Portland cement is formed by grinding together clay-bearing

Gypsum and time-beating materials (usually clay and limestone) and is
heated to about 1450. At 650 the limestone separates into
CO2 and CaO. When the silica reaches the point of fusion, the
atoms are able to move about and the CaO combines with SiO2
and a small amount of Al2O3 and Fe2O3, forming Portland
cement clinker.
The clinker is then ground to a fine powder, and a small amount
of gypsum is added.
 Production and Composition
of Portland Cement

Limestone

Blending 1450
Grinding
Clay Raw material Clinker

Cement
Iron ore Gypsum
powder
Mixing
materials

Process to Produce Portland Cement

Mineral Compounds and Properties

Main Mineral Compounds of Portland

Cement Clinker include:
Tricalcium silicate
Dicalcium silicate
Tricalcium aluminate
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite
Properties of the compounds are shown in the
next slide.
Mineral Compounds of Portland Cement

Chemical structural
Compounds Abbreviation
formula

Tricalcium silicate 3CaOSiO2 C3S

Dicalcium silicate 2CaOSiO2 C2S

Tricalcium
3CaOAl2O3 C3A
aluminate

Tetracalcium
4CaOAl2O3Fe2O3 C4AF
aluminoferrite
 Back
Properties of Mineral Compounds
Tricalcium Dicalcium Tricalcium Tetracalcium
Mineral type
silicate silicate aluminates aluminoferrite
Abbreviation C3S C2S C3A C4AF
Content (%) 37-60 15-37 7-15 10-18
Hydration
fast slow fastest fast
speed
Hydration
much little most more
heat
early low
Strength high low low
later high
Anti-
good fine poor excellent
corrosion
Shrinkage middle better big small
Hydration Mechanism
When mixed with water,
Portland cement hydrates
and forms heat
3CaOSiO2+H2O CaO2SiO23H2O+Ca(OH)2

Tricalcium silicate hydrates rapidly and gives

earlier strength and earlier heat of hydration.
Tricalcium silicate is formed in a kiln when the
charge contains an abundance of lime, and hence the
greater amount of CaO in the reaction.
Hydration Mechanism

2CaOSiO2+H2O
3CaO2SiO23H2O+Ca(OH)2

Dicalcium silicate hydrates slowly and is

responsible for strength increase in concrete
at later ages. The heat of hydration is
liberated slowly.
More dicalcium silicate is formed when the
raw materials contain less lime.
Hydration Mechanism
Tricalcium aluminate hydrates rapidly
and liberates a large amount of heat.
If this reaction were not controlled,
concrete would set so rapidly (flash set)
that it could not be used in modern
construction.

3CaOAl2O3+H2O 3CaOAl2O36H2O
Hydration Mechanism

4CaOAl2O3Fe2O3+H2O
3CaOAl2O36H2O+CaOFe2O3H2O
The addition of iron or iron ore to the raw materials
lowers the percentage of tricalcium aluminate. The iron
reacts with the tricalcium aluminate, forming the tetra
calcium aluminoferrite.
This compound does not add significantly to the
properties of concrete, but does cause the charge in the
cement kiln to liquefy at lower temperature (lowers the
point of fusion), thus reducing the energy required in
cement manufacture.
Ways to avoid flash set

A small amount of gypsum (CaSO42H2O)

intergrounding with the cement clinker
retards the hydration reaction of
tricalcium aluminate.
 Mechanism of Modifying Setting
Time by Gypsum

The protecting layer is formed by wrapping up the

clinker by Calcium sulfoaluminate hydrate needle
crystal, hinders the entry of water, slows down
hydration and stops flash setting. Thus the
gypsum can modify the setting time.

3CaOAl2O36H2O+ H2O+CaSO42H2O
3CaOAl2O33CaSO431H2O
 Factors Influencing Setting and
Hardening of Portland Cement
Factors such as: fineness and types of cement, blend of gypsum,
age, temperature and humidity which influence setting and
hardening of Portland cement.

Fineness

Age Types

Factors
Blend of
Temperature
Gypsum
Humidity

Fig3.2.3 Factors influencing Setting and Hardening of Portland Cement

 Hydration of Cement
Anhydrous cement does not bind fine and coarse aggregates.
It acquires adhesive property only when mixed with water.

The chemical reaction that takes place between cement and water is called hydration of cement.

The chemistry of concrete is essentially the chemistry of reactions between cement and water.

Le Chatlier was the first to observe that the products of hydration of cement are chemically the same as the
products of hydration of the individual compounds under similar conditions.

The two calcium silicates are the main compounds in cement and the physical behaviour of cement during
hydration is similar to that of these two compounds alone.

The products of hydration of cement have a very low solubility in water as shown by the stability of hydrated
cement paste in contact with water.

The hydrated cement bonds firmly to the un-reacted cement, but the exact way in which this happens is not
known.

The rate of hydration decreases continuously and even after a long time, there remains an appreciable amount
of unhydrated cement.

It is believed that the product consisting of CaO.SiO2.H2O and Ca(OH)2 are formed during the hydration of
silicates. Ca(OH)2 is an unimportant product and CaO.SiO2.H2O is the significant product. This product is called
tobermorite gel. But commonly the product of hydration is called C-S-H gel. The gel consists of crystals and is
porous in nature. Its porosity is ti the extent of 28%.
 Heat of Hydration
The reaction of cement with water is exothermic
and liberates a considerable amount of heat heat
of hydration.

This can be demonstrated if a freshly mixed mass

of cement with water is put in flask and the
temperature is measured at regular intervals.

The study and control of heat of hydration is very

important particularly in the construction of dams
and other mass concrete structures.

Refer to Fig. 1.2 On mixing cement with water, a

rapid heat evolution, lasting for few minutes
occurs.

This is due to reaction of solution of aluminates

and sulphates. This heat evolution ceases quickly
due to the suppression of aluminates by gypsum.

The next peak formation is due to ettringite and

due the reaction of C3S.

The hydration product of C3A is Calcium

Aluminate Trisulphate called ettringite.
 Basic Properties of Cement Compounds
Different compounds hydrate at different rates and
liberate different quantities of heat.

Since retarders are added to control the flash

setting of C3A, the early heat of hydration is mainly
attributed to C3S.

The two silicates, namely, C3S and C2S, which

together constitute about 70 to 80% of the cement,
control the most of the strength giving properties.

Upon hydration, both C3S and C2S form the same

product called calcium silicate hydrate i.e. C3S2H3
and calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2.

C3S readily reacts with water and produces more

heat of hydration and early strength. A cement with
more C3S content, is better suited for cold weather
concreting.
C2S hydrates rather slowly and is responsible for the later strength of concrete. It produces less heat of hydration.
C3S and C2S need approximately 24 and 21% of water by weight respectively, for chemical reaction but C3S
liberates nearly three times as much calcium hydroxide on hydration as C2S.

C2S provides more resistance to chemical attack.

 Basic Properties of Cement Compounds
The amount of C3A present in most cements is
comparatively small but its behaviour and structural
relationship with other phases of cement make it of
interest.

The reaction of C3A with water is very violent and leads to

immediate stiffening of the paste known as flash set. To
prevent this, gypsum is added to the cement during
manufacturing stage.

The hydrated aluminates do not contribute any thing to

the strength. On the other hand, their presence is harmful
to the durability of concrete, particularly where concrete is
likely to be attacked by sulphates.

Hydration of C4AF is believed to form CaO-Fe2O3-H2O. A

hydrated calcium ferrite of the form C3FH6 is comparatively
more stable.

In the presence of gypsum, depending upon the concentrations of aluminate and sulphates in the solution, the
precipitating crystalline product is calcium aluminate trisulphate hydrate (C6S3H32) which is called ettringite.

Gypsum not only reacts with C3A, with C4AF it forms calcium sulphoferrite as well as calcium sulphoaluminate,
and its presence may accelerate hydration of silicates.
 Transition Zone, Hydrated Cement
It is important to study the structure of hydrated cement
paste.

Concrete is considered a two phase material paste

phase and aggregate phase.

Paste phase more important as it influences the various

properties of concrete as compared to aggregate phase.

Strength, permeability, durability, shrinkage, elastic

properties and creep are more influenced by the properties
of paste phase rather than aggregate phase.

At macro level the aggregate particles are dispersed in

cement paste matrix. However, at micro level the area in
the vicinity of large aggregate particles is called the
Transition Zone. This area represents the interfacial region
between the particles of coarse aggregates and hardened
cement paste.
The Transition Zone is generally a plane of weakness and has greater influence on the mechanical properties of
concrete.

Though Transition Zone is composed of same cement paste, the quality of paste there is poor as due to
bleeding, water accumulate below elongated and flaky aggregates. This reduces the bond between paste and
aggregates. Calcium hydroxide and ettringite are more in the Transition Zone weakness.
Types of Cement
Types of Cement
Types of Cements
Types of Cements
Types of Cements
Types of Cement
Ordinary Portland Cement
Commonly used Portland Cement in India is 33 grade (IS 269 1989), 43 grade (IS 8112 1989) and 53
grade (IS 12269 1987) having 28 days average compressive strength of 33 MPa, 43 MPa and 53 MPa
respectively.

All the three grade of cements are produced from the same materials and the higher strength is
achieved by increasing the content of C3S and by fine grinding of the clinker.

The fineness of 53 Grade cement determined by Blaines Air Permeability test is of the order of
350000 mm2/gm, the initial and final setting time being the same for all the grades.

It has been seen that the greater fineness of 43 and 53 grade cements increase workability of
concrete due to reduction of friction between aggregates.

In these days, the higher grade cements have become more popular and 33 grade cement is more or
less is obsolete.

The manufacture of OPC is decreasing day by day with the increase in the use of blended cements on
account of lower energy consumption, environmental pollution, economic and other aspects.

In western countries, the use of OPC has come down to about 40% of the total cement production.

In years to come, the production of OPC is going to further reduce, but it will remain an important
type for general construction.
Types of Cement
Rapid Hardening Cement (IS 8041 1990)
This cement is similar to OPC but with higher C3S content (lower C2S content) and finer grinding.
Higher fineness of cement provides greater surface area for action with water.

It gains strength more quickly than OPC though the final strength is only slightly higher.

Rapid hardening cement which develops higher rate of strength not to be confused with quick
setting cement which sets quickly.

Rapid hardening cement develops at the age of 3 days approximately same strength as by OPC at the
age of 7 days. It generate much higher heat of hydration during early period. Therefore, rapid
hardening cement should not be used in mass concrete.

Applications
In pre-fabricated concrete construction.

Where form work is required to be removed early for re-use elsewhere.

Road repair work.

In cold weather concrete the rapid rate of development of strength reduce the vulnerability of
concrete to frost damage.
Types of Cement
Sulphate Resisting Cement (IS 12330 1988)
OPC is susceptible to the attack of sulphates, in particular to the action of magnesium sulphate.

Sulphates react with free calcium hydroxide in set cement to form calcium sulphate and with calcium
aluminate, to form calcium sulphoaluminate the volume of which is about more than 200% of the
volume of the original aluminates. Therefore, the expansion within cement results in cracks and
disruption.

Solid sulphates do not attack the cement. However, sulphates in solution, permeate though the
hardened concrete and attack the calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium aluminates.

Portland cement with low C3A (< 5%) and C4AF contents is very effective against Sulphate attack.
Such a cement having high silicate content is called Sulphate Resisting Cement. IS Code limits the
total content of C4AF and C3A not more than 25%.

Applications
Concrete to be used in marine conditions.

Concrete to be used in foundations and basement, where soil is infested with sulphates.

Concrete to be used in the construction of sewage treatment works.

Concrete to be used for fabrication of pipes which are to buried sulphate bearing soils.
Types of Cement
Low Heat Cement (IS 12600 1989)
Formation of cracks in large body of concrete due to heat of hydration focused the attention to
produce this kind of cement which produces less heat or the same amount of heat at lower rate during
hydration process.

Cement having this property was developed in the USA during 1930 for use in mass concrete
applications such as dams, where temperature rise by heat of hydration can be excessively large.

Low heat cement is less reactive than OPC and is obtained by increasing the content of C2S and
reducing C3S and C3A. This results in slow development of strength and but the ultimate strength is
the same.

In any case, to ensure sufficient development of strength, the specific surface of cement must not be
less than 320000 mm2/gm. The initial setting time is greater than OPC.

As per Indian Standard, the heat of hydration of low het cement should be

7 Days not more than 65 calories per gm

28 Days not more than 75 calories per gm

Types of Cement
Portland Pozzolana Cement (IS 1489 1991)
Portland Pozzolana Cement is obtained by
intergrinding of OPC clinker with about 15 to 30%
of pozzolanic material.

A pozzolanic material is silicious or aluminious

material which in itself does not possess
cementitious property, but which in finely divided
form in the presence of water reacts with calcium
hydroxide to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties.

The pozzolanic materials generally use for the

manufacture of PPC are clay (IS 1489 Part 2 of
1991), fly ash (IS 1489 Part 1 of 1991).

The pozzolanic action is

Calcium Hydroxide + Fly Ash + Water =

C-S-H gel
Constituents of Concrete
Constituents of Concrete

Cement

Aggregates

Fine and Coarse Aggregates

Water
Aggregates
 Grading of Aggregates
Well graded aggregates
has sizes which fairly
evenly spans from finest to
coarsest.

Poorly graded aggregates

are characterized by small
variations in size. Hence
the particle packing will not
be there.

Gap graded aggregates

consist of coarse
aggregate particles that are
similar in size but
significantly different in
size from the fine
aggregates.
Aggregates
Aggregates are important constituents of concrete. They give volume to concrete, reduce
shrinkage and effect economy.

The aggregates occupy about 65 75% of the volume of concrete and hence they play important
role in the properties of concrete.

Earlier, it was thought that the aggregates are inert and it has been seen now that they may be
chemically active and exhibit chemical bond at the interface.

Concrete 2 phase material i.e. paste phase and aggregate phase.

Classification of Aggregates
Aggregates can be divided into 2
categories from the consideration
of size i.e. fine and coarse
aggregates.
Aggregates of size larger than
4.75 mm are called coarse
aggregates and less are called fine
aggregates.
Source of Aggregates
All the aggregates originate from rocks igneous, sedimentary and metamotphic rocks.

Igneous rocks are formed by the cooing of molten magma at the surface of the crest (trap
and basalt) or deep beneath the crest (granite).

Sedimentary rocks are formed originally below sea and subsequently lifted up.

Metamorphic rocks are originally either igneous or sedimentary which are subsequently
metamorphosed due to extreme heat or pressure.

Aggregates from Igneous rocks

Aggregates from Sedimentary rocks

Aggregates from Metamorphic rocks

Igneous rock are the most widely occurring rocks, the bulk of the concrete aggregates are
from these rocks.
Shape of Aggregates
Particle shape of aggregates influence the fresh concrete properties more than the hardened
concrete properties.

Depending upon the particle shape, the aggregates can be classified as rounded, irregular,
angular or flaky.
Shape of Aggregates
Rounded Aggregates: give minimum ratio of surface area to volume and thus require minimum
cement paste to make good concrete. The interlocking between the particles is less and
development of bond is poor. These aggregates are not suitable for making high strength
concrete.

Irregular Aggregates: require more cement paste for workability. The interlocking between
particles is better than that of rounded aggregates. Inadequate for high strength concrete.

Angular Aggregates: the interlocking between the particles is good and provide good bond.
These aggregates require more cement paste to make workable concrete of high strength than that
required by rounded aggregates. These aggregates are suitable for high strength concrete.

Flaky and Elongated Aggregates: called flaky when its least dimension (thickness) is less than
3/5th of its mean dimension. The mean dimension of the aggregate is the average of the sieve sizes
through the particles pass and are retained respectively. The aggregate is said to be elongated
when its greatest dimension (length) is greater than 9/5th of its mean dimension.

The angularity of aggregates affects the workability which depends upon interlocking of particles.
The elongated and flaky particles adversely affect the durability of concrete as they tend to be
oriented in one plane with water and air voids forming underneath.
Shape of Aggregates
The angularity of the aggregates
can be estimated from the proportion
of voids in sample compacted as per
IS 2386 (Part 1) 1963. The
elongation index of an aggregate is
the percentage by weight of particles
present in it whose greatest
dimension (length) is greater than
9/5th of their mean dimension.

The flakiness index is the

percentage by weight of particles
having least dimension (thickness)
less than 3/5th of their mean
dimension.

Based on the surface

characteristics, IS 383 1970
classifies aggregates as glassy,
smooth, granular, porous etc.
The shape and surface texture of the aggregates influence the workability of fresh concrete and strength of
hardened concrete, particularly of high strength concrete.
Aggregates Unit Weight
The aggregates can be classified based on their unit
weight as normal weight, heavy weight and light
weight aggregates.
Normal weight aggregates sand and gravel,
crushed rock such as granite, basalt, quartz,
sandstone and limestone having specific gravities
between 2.5 and 2.7 produce concrete with unit weight
ranging from 23 to 26 kN/m3 and compressive strength
at 28 days of 15 to 40 MPa called normal weight
aggregates.
Heavy weight aggregates such as baryte (sg 4 6),
hematite (sg 4.9 5.3). Concrete having unit weight of
30 57 kN/m3 can be produced by using heavy weight
aggregates.
Light weight aggregates having unit weight of 12
Shape and Size of the Aggregates
kN/m3 can be used to manufacture concrete for
reduction in self weight of the structure.
These aggregates can be either natural such as
diotomite, pumice, volcanic cinder or manufactured
such as fly ash or blast furnace slag.
Testing of Aggregates
The properties and performance of concrete are to a large extent are dependent on characteristics
of aggregates.

The aggregates to be used in concrete must be clean, hard, properly shaped and well graded. The
aggregates should not contain any deleterious material which may case physical or chemical
changes, such as cracking, swelling, softening.

Strength of Aggregates The strength of concrete can not exceed the strength of aggregates
contained in it.

The strength of aggregates can be measured by 1) Aggregate crushing value test 2) Aggregate
impact value test 3) Ten percent fines value.

The aggregate impact value test, which measures the toughness of aggregate, is conducted in
accordance with IS 2386 Part IV 1963.

The aggregate crushing value test, which measures the hardness of aggregates, is also conducted
in accordance with IS 2386 Part IV 1963.

The 01% fine value test is also conducted in accordance with IS 2386 Part IV 1963.
Bulking of Fine Aggregates
Grading of Aggregates
Grading of Aggregates
Grading of Aggregates
Concrete let 's make the best of it.

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