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Fourteenth Edition

APICS Dictionary
The essential supply chain reference
APICS Dictionary
FOURTEENTH EDITION

Editor
John H. Blackstone Jr., PhD, CFPIM, Jonahs Jonah
Department of Management
Terry College of Business
University of Georgia
APICS Dictionary

Fourteenth edition2013
Thirteenth edition2010
Twelfth edition2008
Eleventh edition2005
Tenth edition2002
Ninth edition1998
Eighth edition1995
Seventh edition1992
Sixth edition1987
Fifth edition1982
Fourth edition1980
Third edition1970
Second edition1966
First edition1963

Copyright 2013 by APICS

International Standard Book Number: 978-0-9882146-1-3

All rights reserved. No part of this publication covered by copy-


right herein may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any
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without written permission from the publisher.

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Acknowledgements

Thank you to the following volunteers for their careful review of


the APICS Dictionary, 14th edition.

Louise Beauchamp, CFPIM; Stephen N. Chapman, PhD, CFPIM;


Rick Donahoue, CPIM, CSCP; Ann K. Gatewood, CFPIM, CIRM,
CSCP; Rebecca B. Hallock, CPIM; Mark C. Hardison, CFPIM, CSCP;
William R. Leedale, CFPIM, CIRM, CSCP; Frank L. Montabon, PhD,
CPIM, CIRM, CSCP; Murray R. Olsen, CFPIM, CIRM; Anthony L.
Patti, PhD, CFPIM; Andrea M. Prudhomme, PhD, CPIM, CIRM,
CSCP; and Fran Scher.

The Institute of Industrial Engineers provided permission to in-


clude several definitions reprinted from the text Industrial Engi-
neering Terminology, revised edition, Copyright 1991, Institute of
Industrial Engineers, 3577 Parkway Lane, Suite 200, Norcross,
Georgia 30092.
The American Society of Quality provided permission to include
several terms from Karen Bemowskis The Quality Glossary,
published in the February 1992 issue of Quality Progress.
The Theory of Constraints International Certification Organization
provided permission to include several terms from the TOCICO
Dictionary.
The Spectrum Publishing Company provided permission to use
terms from the book, Synchronous Management, by Michael
Umble, CFPIM, and M.L. Srikanth.
The Association for Manufacturing Excellence provided the defini-
tion for kaizen blitz, which is trademarked.
The Supply Chain Council provided the definition for Supply Chain
Operations Reference model (SCOR), which is trademarked. For
the latest information about SCOR, visit the Supply Chain Coun-
cils website, supply-chain.org.
abandonment acceptance sampling

absorption costingAn approach to inventory valuation

A in which variable costs and a portion of fixed costs are


assigned to each unit of production. The fixed costs are
usually allocated to units of output on the basis of direct
abandonmentGiving up a route by a carrier. For exam-
labor hours, machine hours, or material costs. Syn: allo-
ple, a railroad.A
cation costing. See: activity-based costing.A
ABBAbbreviation for activity-based budgeting.A
ABCAbbreviation for activity-based cost accounting.A
ABC analysisSyn: ABC classification.A
accelerated depreciationA depreciation method involv-
ing high write-offs in the early years of an assets life
and lower write-offs later. This method lowers the value
A
of an asset faster than straight-line depreciation.A
ABC classificationThe classification of a group of items
in decreasing order of annual dollar volume (price mul- acceptThe receipt of an item as being complete and
tiplied by projected volume) or other criteria. This array sound.A
is then split into three classes, called A, B, and C. The A acceptable outgoing quality level (AOQL)A demarca-
group usually represents 10 percent to 20 percent by tion between the level of defects in a lot at which the lot
number of items and 50 percent to 70 percent by pro- will be accepted or rejected.A
jected dollar volume. The next grouping, B, usually
represents about 20 percent of the items and about 20 acceptable quality level (AQL)When a continuing se-
percent of the dollar volume. The C class contains 60 ries of lots is considered, a quality level that, for the
percent to 70 percent of the items and represents purposes of sampling inspection, is the limit of a satis-
about 10 percent to 30 percent of the dollar volume. factory process average.A
The ABC principle states that effort and money can be acceptable sampling planA specific plan that indicates
saved through applying looser controls to the low-dollar- the sampling sizes and the associated acceptance or
volume class items than will be applied to high-dollar- nonacceptance criteria to be used.A
volume class items. The ABC principle is applicable to
acceptance criteriaThose performance requirements
inventories, purchasing, sales, and so on. Syn: ABC
and conditions that must be reached before projects or
analysis, distribution by value. See: 80-20, Pareto anal-
products are accepted.A
ysis, Paretos law.A
ABC frequency of accessA warehouse location that is acceptance number1) A number used in acceptance
determined by both a products ABC classification and sampling as a cutoff at which the lot will be accepted or
rejected. For example, if x or more units are bad within
by the frequency with which it is removed or replaced.A
the sample, the lot will be rejected. 2) The value of the
ABC inventory controlAn inventory control approach test statistic that divides all possible values into accep-
based on the ABC classification.A tance and rejection regions.A
ABMAbbreviation for activity-based management.A acceptance planHow an organization determines
abnormal demandDemand in any period that is out- which product lots to accept or reject based on sam-
side the limits established by management policy. This ples. See: acceptance sampling.A
demand may come from a new customer or from exist- acceptance sampling1) The process of sampling a
ing customers whose own demand is increasing or de- portion of goods for inspection rather than examining
creasing. Care must be taken in evaluating the nature the entire lot. The entire lot may be accepted or rejected
of the demand: is it a volume change; is it a change in based on the sample even though the specific units in
product mix; or is it related to the timing of the order? the lot are better or worse than the sample. There are
See: outlier.A two types: attributes sampling and variables sampling.
ABPAbbreviation for activity-based planning.A In attributes sampling, the presence or absence of a
characteristic is noted in each of the units inspected. In
absentee policyThe policy that discusses allowed job
variables sampling, the numerical magnitude of a cha-
absences and the penalties from too many absences.A
racteristic is measured and recorded for each inspected
absentee rateA ratio comparing the number of unit; this type of sampling involves reference to a conti-
employee-days lost with the total number of available nuous scale of some kind. 2) A method of measuring
employee-days of employment during some base pe- random samples of lots or batches of products against
riod, usually one month.A predetermined standards.A

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 1


accessibility activity

accessibility1) In transportation, the facility with which example, the Registrar Accreditation Board accredits
a carrier provides service from one point to another. 2) those organizations that register companies to the ISO
In warehousing, the ability to get to and within the point 9000 Series Standards.A
of storage easily.A
accumulation binA place, usually a physical location,
accessorial chargesA bill for services, such as inside used to accumulate all components that go into an as-
deliveries, which are made in addition to transportation sembly before the assembly is sent out to the assembly

A charges.A
accessoryA choice or feature added to the good or
floor. Syn: assembly bin.A
accuracyThe degree of freedom from error or the de-
service offered to the customer for customizing the end gree of conformity to a standard. Accuracy is different
product. An accessory enhances the capabilities of the from precision. For example, four-significant-digit num-
product but is not necessary for the basic function of bers are less precise than six-significant-digit numbers;
the product. In many companies, an accessory means however, a properly computed four-significant-digit
that the choice does not have to be specified before number might be more accurate than an improperly
shipment but can be added at a later date. In other computed six-significant-digit number.A
companies, this choice must be made before shipment.
acid testSyn: quick asset ratio.A
See: feature.A
acid test ratioSyn: quick asset ratio.A
accidental death and disability (AD&D)Insurance that
often is part of an employee benefit package, providing acknowledgmentA communication by a supplier to ad-
payment for either accidental death or disability.A vise a purchaser that a purchase order has been re-
ceived. It usually implies acceptance of the order by the
accident preventionThe application of basic scientific
supplier.A
and technical principlesincluding education and train-
ingfor the detection, analysis, and minimization of ha- acquisition costThe cost required to obtain one or
zards, with the objective of avoiding accidents.A more units of an item. It is order quantity times unit
cost. See: ordering cost.A
acclimatizationThe physiological, emotional, and be-
havioral adjustment to changes in the environment. action messageAn output of a system that identifies
Proper performance depends on adequate acclimatiza- the need for, and the type of action to be taken to cor-
tion to the workplace, including significant mechanical rect, a current or potential problem. Examples of action
features such as seat height and lighting. Heat, cold, messages in an MRP system include release order, re-
humidity, and light are important physiologically.A schedule in, reschedule out, and cancel. Syn: exception
message, action report.A
accountabilityBeing answerable for, but not necessari-
ly personally charged with, doing the work. action planA process to obtain results identified by
Accountability cannot be delegated, but it can be one or more objectives.A
shared.A
action reportSyn: action message.A
accountingThe function of maintaining, analyzing, and
activationPutting a resource to work.A
explaining the financial records and status of an
organization.A active data gatheringData gathered when a company
initiates conversation with the customer.A
account managerA manager who has direct responsi-
bility for a customers interest.A active inventoryThe raw materials, work in process,
and finished goods that will be used or sold within a
accounts payableThe value of goods and services ac-
given period.A
quired for which payment has not yet been made.A
active loadWork scheduled that may not be on hand.A
accounts receivableThe value of goods shipped or
services rendered to a customer on which payment has active tagA radio frequency identification tag that
not yet been received. Usually includes an allowance for broadcasts information and contains its own power
bad debts.A source. See: radio frequency identification (RFID).A
accreditationCertification by a recognized body of the activity1) In activity-based cost accounting, a task or
facilities, capability, objectivity, competence, and integr- activity, performed by or at a resource, required in pro-
ity of an agency, service, operational group, or individual ducing the organizations output of goods and services.
to provide the specific service or operation needed. For A resource may be a person, machine, or facility.

2 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


activity analysis activity-on-node network (AON)

Activities are grouped into pools by type of activity and requirements (for both financial and operational sys-
allocated to products. 2) In project management, an tems) based on future demand for products or services
element of work on a project. It usually has an antic- by specific customer needs. Demand for resources is
ipated duration, anticipated cost, and expected re- related to resource availability; capacity overages and
source requirements. Sometimes major activity is shortfalls are corrected. Activity-based budgeting de-
used for larger bodies of work.A rives from the outputs of ABP.A
activity analysisIn project management, the identifica-
tion and description of activities within an organization
for the purpose of activity-based costing.A
activity codeIn project management, a value that al-
lows filtering or ordering of activities in reports.A
activity definitionThe specific work to be performed
A
activity attributesMultiple features associated with that defines a project deliverable.A
each activity to be performed. These include predeces- activity dictionaryIn activity-based cost accounting, a
sor activities, successor activities, and resource set of standard definitions of activities including de-
requirements.A scriptions, business process, function source, cost driv-
activity-based budgeting (ABB)In activity-based cost ers, and other data important to activity-based
accounting, a budgeting process employing knowledge planning.A
of activities and driver relationships to predict workload activity driverIn activity-based cost accounting, a
and resource requirements in developing a business yardstick of demands placed on an activity by given cost
plan. Budgets show the predicted consumption and objects. Its purpose is to assign activity costs to cost
cost of resources using forecast workload as a basis. objects.A
The company can use performance to budget in eva-
activity durationThe planned difference between the
luating success in setting and pursuing strategic goals;
start and finish dates of a project activity.A
this activity is part of the activity-based planning
process.A activity identifierA unique alphanumeric code that dif-
ferentiates one project activity from other activities.A
activity-based cost accountingA cost accounting sys-
tem that accumulates costs based on activities per- activity levelA description of how reactive one activity
formed and then uses cost drivers to allocate these is to changes in the level of another activity or cost
costs to products or other bases, such as customers, object.A
markets, or projects. It is an attempt to allocate over- activity listA record of planned activities in a project,
head costs on a more realistic basis than direct labor or including an activity description and an activity
machine hours. Syn: activity-based costing, activity- identifier.A
based cost accounting. See: absorption costing.A
activity network diagramOne of the seven new tools of
activity-based costing (ABC)In activity-based cost ac- quality. A drawing including nodes that represent opera-
counting, a model, by time period, of resource costs tions to be performed and arrows representing prece-
created because of activities related to products or ser- dence relationships. This drawing represents all of the
vices or other items causing the activity to be carried activities to be finished to complete a project. Also
out. Syn: activity-based cost accounting, activity-based known as a critical path diagram or PERT chart.A
costing model.A
activity-on-arc networkSyn: activity-on-arrow network.A
activity-based costing systemA set of activity-based
activity-on-arrow network (AOA)A project management
cost accounting models that collectively define data on
network in which the passage of time, via activities,
an organizations resources, activities, drivers, objects,
takes place on the arrows. The start of an activity is
and measurements.A
represented by the tail of the arrow, while the comple-
activity-based management (ABM)The use of activity- tion of the activity is represented by the tip of the arrow.
based costing information about cost pools and drivers, The sequence of the arrows represents the sequence of
activity analysis, and business processes to identify activities. Arrows are connected by nodes, which are
business strategies; improve product design, manufac- usually circles. Syn: activity-on-arc network, arrow dia-
turing, and distribution; and remove waste from opera- gram method, event-on-arrow network.A
tions. See: activity-based cost accounting.A
activity-on-node network (AON)A project management
activity-based planning (ABP)In activity-based cost ac- network in which the passage of time, via activities,
counting, a continuing definition of activity and resource takes place on circles called nodes. Each node contains

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 3


activity ratio advanced planning and scheduling (APS)

a number representing the estimated duration of the compared with demonstrated capacity (practical capaci-
activity it represents. Nodes are connected by arrows ty) or budgeted capacity.A
that give precedence relationships. Syn: event-on-node
AD&DAbbreviation for accidental death and
network, precedence diagram method.A
disability.A
activity ratioA financial ratio to determine how an or-
adaptable websiteIn e-commerce, a site that a visitor
ganizations resources perform relative to the revenue
can change to customize.A

A the resources produce. Activity ratios include inventory


turnover, receivables conversion period, fixed-asset
turnover, and return on assets.A
adaptive control1) The ability of a control system to
change its own parameters in response to a measured
change in operating conditions. 2) Machine control
activity resource estimatingEstimating the types and
units in which feeds and/or speeds are not fixed. The
amounts of resources that will be needed for various
control unit, working from feedback sensors, is able to
project activities.A
optimize favorable situations by automatically
activity sequencingThe process of defining and docu- increasing or decreasing the machining parameters.
menting dependencies among project activities.A This process ensures optimum tool life or surface finish
and/or machining costs or production rates.A
actual cost of work performedThe direct costs actually
incurred in, and the indirect costs applied to, accom- adaptive smoothingA form of exponential smoothing in
plishing work performed within a given time period. which the smoothing constant is automatically adjusted
These costs should reconcile with the contractors as a function of forecast error measurement.A
incurred-cost ledgers, which are regularly audited by the
adaptive websiteIn e-commerce, a site that records a
client.A
visitors behavior, uses artificial intelligence software to
actual costsThe labor, material, and associated over- learn this behavior, and chooses what to present to
head costs that are charged against a job as it moves the visitor based on this learning.A
through the production process.A
additive manufacturingSyn: 3D printing.A
actual cost systemA cost system that collects costs
additivesA special class of ingredients characterized
historically as they are applied to production and allo-
either by being used in minimal quantities or by being
cates indirect costs to products based on the specific
introduced into the processing cycle after the initial
costs and achieved volume of the products.A
stage.A
actual demandActual demand is composed of cus-
adjudicateTo hear and decide an issue under legal
tomer orders (and often allocations of items, ingre-
dispute.A
dients, or raw materials to production or distribution).
Actual demand nets against or consumes the fore- adjustable capacityCapacity, such as labor or tools,
cast, depending upon the rules chosen over a time hori- that can be changed in the short term.A
zon. For example, actual demand will totally replace administrative contracting officerA government em-
forecast inside the sold-out customer order backlog ho- ployee who ensures compliance with the terms and
rizon (often called the demand time fence) but will net conditions of contracts.A
against the forecast outside this horizon based on the
chosen forecast consumption rule.A advanced planning and scheduling (APS)Techniques
that deal with analysis and planning of logistics and
actual durationThe difference between the actual start manufacturing during short, intermediate, and long-
date of a project activity and the current date (if the ac- term time periods. APS describes any computer pro-
tivity is still in progress) or the difference between the gram that uses advanced mathematical algorithms or
actual start date of a project activity and the actual logic to perform optimization or simulation on finite ca-
completion date (if the activity is completed).A pacity scheduling, sourcing, capital planning, resource
actual finish dateIn project management, the date on planning, forecasting, demand management, and oth-
which an activity in a project was actually completed.A ers. These techniques simultaneously consider a range
of constraints and business rules to provide real-time
actual start dateIn project management, the date on
planning and scheduling, decision support, available-to-
which an activity in a project was actually started.A
promise, and capable-to-promise capabilities. APS often
actual volumeActual output expressed as a volume of generates and evaluates multiple scenarios.
capacity. It is used in the calculation of variances when Management then selects one scenario to use as the

4 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


advanced planning system (APS) agility

official plan. The five main components of APS sys- and production planning (or for sales and operations
tems are (1) demand planning, (2) production planning, planning) purposes. See: product group forecast.A
(3) production scheduling, (4) distribution planning, and
aggregate inventoryThe inventory for any grouping of
(5) transportation planning.A
items or products involving multiple stockkeeping units.
advanced planning system (APS)Syn: advanced plan- See: base inventory level.A
ning and scheduling.A aggregate inventory managementEstablishing the
advanced production system (APS)Syn: advanced
planning and scheduling.A
overall level (dollar value) of inventory desired and im-
plementing controls to achieve this goal.A A
advance material requestOrdering materials before aggregate lead timeSyn: cumulative lead time.A
the release of the formal product design. This early re- aggregate planA plan that includes budgeted levels of
lease is required because of long lead times.A finished goods, inventory, production backlogs, and
advance ship notice (ASN)An electronic data inter- changes in the workforce to support the production
change (EDI) notification of shipment of product.A strategy. Aggregated information (e.g., product line,
family) rather than product information is used, hence
advertisingSponsored promotions that are nonper- the name aggregate plan.A
sonal in nature.A
aggregate planningA process to develop tactical plans
aestheticsA dimension of product quality that intends to support the organizations business plan. Aggregate
to appeal to the senses.A planning usually includes the development, analysis,
affidavitA sworn written statement.A and maintenance of plans for total sales, total produc-
tion, targeted inventory, and targeted customer backlog
affinity diagramA total quality management tool whe- for families of products. The production plan is the re-
reby employees working in silence generate ideas and sult of the aggregate planning process. Two approaches
later categorize these ideas.A to aggregate planning exist: (1) production planning and
affirmative actionA hiring policy that requires employ- (2) sales and operations planning. See: production
ers to analyze the workforce for underrepresentation of planning, sales and operations planning, sales plan.A
protected classes. It involves recruiting minorities and aggregate production plan (APP)A long-range plan that
members of protected classes, changing management is used to determine timing and quantity of total future
attitudes or prejudices toward them, removing discrimi- production for a family of products. Syn: long-term pro-
natory employment practices, and giving preferential duction plan.A
treatment to protected classes.A
aggregate reporting1) Reporting of process hours in
aftermarketA secondary market for parts and acces- general, allowing the system to assign the actual hours
sories used to repair or enhance an item.A to specific products run during the period based on
after-sale serviceSyn: field service.A standards. 2) Also known as gang reporting, the report-
ing of total labor hours.A
agency tariffRates for a variety of carriers published in
a single document.A aggregate unit of capacityCombined capacity unit of
measure when a variety of outputs exist.A
agentOne who acts on behalf of another (the principal)
aggregationThe concept that pooling random variables
in dealing with a third party. Examples include a sales
reduces the relative variance of the resulting aggre-
agent and a purchasing agent.A
gated variable. For example, the relative variance in
agglomerationHaving a common location with a varie- sales of all models of automobiles sold by a firm is less
ty of other companies.A than that for a single model.A
aggregate demandDemand that is grouped (e.g., all agile manufacturingThe ability to respond quickly to
sedans) for making forecasts or plans. See: aggregate unpredictable changes in customer needs by reconfigur-
forecast.A ing operations.A
aggregate forecastAn estimate of sales, often time- agilityThe ability to successfully manufacture and
phased, for a grouping of products or product families market a broad range of low-cost, high-quality products
produced by a facility or firm. Stated in terms of units, and services with short lead times and varying volumes
dollars, or both, the aggregate forecast is used for sales that provide enhanced value to customers through cus-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 5


AGVS analog

tomization. Agility merges the four distinctive compe- alternate feedstockA backup supply of an item that
tencies of cost, quality, dependability, and flexibility.A either acts as a substitute or is used with alternate
equipment.A
AGVSAbbreviation for automated guided vehicle
system.A alternate operationReplacement for a normal step in
AIAbbreviation for artificial intelligence.A the manufacturing process. Ant: primary operation.A
alternate partWhen a buyer can purchase similar

A
AIDCAbbreviation for automatic identification and data
capture.A products from different suppliers. This increases the
buyers power as the buyer does not have to rely on just
AISAbbreviation for automated information system.A one supplier.A
algorithmA prescribed set of well-defined rules or alternate routingA routing that is usually less preferred
processes for solving a problem in a finite number of than the primary routing but results in an identical item.
steps (e.g., the full statement of the arithmetic proce- Alternate routings may be maintained in the computer
dure for calculating the reorder point).A or off-line via manual methods, but the computer soft-
alliance developmentStrengthening the capabilities of ware must be able to accept alternate routings for spe-
a key supplier.A cific jobs.A
allocated itemIn an MRP system, an item for which a alternate work centerThe work center where an opera-
picking order has been released to the stockroom but tion is not normally performed but can be performed.
not yet sent from the stockroom.A Ant: primary work center.A
allocated materialSyn: reserved material.A American customer satisfaction indexA metric cos-
ponsored by the University of Michigan and the
allocation1) The classification of quantities of items
American Society for Quality that measures the satisfac-
that have been assigned to specific orders but have not
tion of U.S. customers with the goods and services
yet been released from the stockroom to production. It
available to them from both domestic and foreign
is an uncashed stockroom requisition. 2) A process
origins.A
used to distribute material in short supply. Syn: assign-
ment. See: reservation.A American National Standards Institute (ANSI)The par-
allocation costingSyn: absorption costing.A ent organization of the interindustry electronic inter-
change of the business transaction standard. This
allocative efficiencyThe use of resources to produce group is the clearinghouse on U.S. electronic data inter-
those goods and services most wanted by consumers.A change standards.A
allowable costA reasonable cost specifically permitted American Society for Quality (ASQ)Founded in 1946, a
under Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) not-for-profit educational organization with more than
requirements.A 100,000 individual and organizational members who
allowance1) In work measurement, a time value or are interested in quality improvement.A
percentage of time by which the normal time is in- American Standard Code for Information Interchange
creased, or the amount of nonproductive time applied, (ASCII)Standard seven-bit character code used by
to compensate for justifiable causes or policy require- computer manufacturers to represent 128 characters
ments that necessitate performance time not directly for information interchange among data processing sys-
measured for each element or task. Usually includes tems, communications systems, and other information
irregular elements, incentive opportunity on machine- system equipment. An eighth bit is added as a parity bit
controlled time, minor unavoidable delays, rest time to to check a string of ASCII characters for correct
overcome fatigue, and time for personal needs. 2) In transmission.A
assembly, the minimum clearance or maximum interfe-
rence distance between two adjacent objects.A amortizationThe process of recovering (via expensing)
a capital investment over a period of time. See: capital
allowed timeA normal time value increased by appro- recovery.A
priate allowances.A
analogAs applied to an electrical or computer system,
alpha factorSyn: smoothing constant.A
the capability of representing data in continuously vary-
alpha releaseAn extremely early version of a product ing physical phenomena (as in a voltmeter) and convert-
released to obtain feedback about its suitability.A ing them into numbers.A

6 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


analysis of variance (ANOVA) application-to-application

analysis of variance (ANOVA)A statistical analysis sys- ing sales, planned sales promotion programs, seasonal
tem that estimates what portion of variation in a de- fluctuations, plant shutdowns, and vacations.A
pendent variable is caused by variation in one or more
anticipation orderAn order placed before an item has
independent variables. It also produces a number used
been made available for delivery.A
to infer whether any or all of the independent-
dependent variable relationships have statistical signi- anti-dumping dutyAn imposed responsibility in which a
ficance (i.e., have not been caused by randomness in company sells imported goods at prices below what is
the data).A

analytic workplace designA design based on estab-


charged in their domestic market.A
any-quantity rateA situation in which no quantity dis-
A
lished biomechanical and behavioral concepts, includ- count is available for large shipments.A
ing the known operating characteristics of people. AOAAbbreviation for activity-on-arrow network.A
Produces a workplace situation well within the range of
human capacity and does not generally require modifi- AONAbbreviation for activity-on-node network.A
cation, improvement, or preliminary experimental AOQAbbreviation for average outgoing quality.A
mock-up.A
AOQL1) Abbreviation for average outgoing quality limit.
analyze phaseOne of the six sigma phases of quality. 2) Abbreviation for acceptable outgoing quality level.A
It consists of the following steps: (a) define performance
objective, (b) identify independent variables, and (c) APICSFounded in 1957 as the American Production
analyze sources of variability. See: design-measure- and Inventory Control Society, APICS The Association for
analyze-improve-control process.A Operations Management builds operations manage-
ment excellence in individuals and enterprises through
andonA sign board with signal lights used to make superior education and training, internationally recog-
workers and management aware of a quality, quality, or nized certifications, comprehensive resources, and a
process problem.A worldwide network of accomplished industry
annual inventory countSyn: physical inventory.A professionals.A

annualized contractA negotiated agreement with a APPAbbreviation for aggregate production plan.A
supplier for one year that sets pricing, helps ensure a apparent authorityAuthority perceived by a third party
continuous supply of material, and provides the supplier to flow from a principal to an ostensible agent when in
with estimated future requirements.A fact no agency relationship exists.A
annual percentage rateIn finance, the rate of interest appellantOne who appeals a court decision to higher
paid for a loan after compounding is considered. Syn: authority.A
effective interest rate.A
application packageA computer program or set of pro-
annual physical inventorySyn: physical inventory.A grams designed for a specific application (e.g., inventory
annuityA stream of fixed payments for a stipulated control, MRP).A
time, yearly or at other intervals.A application service provider (ASP)A firm that produces
ANOVAAcronym for analysis of variance.A outsourced services for clients.A

ANSIAcronym for American National Standards applications softwareA computer program or set of
Institute.A programs designed to assist in the performance of a
specific task, such as word processing, accounting, or
anticipated delay reportA report, normally issued by inventory management. See: application system.A
both manufacturing and purchasing to the material
application systemA set of programs of specific in-
planning function, regarding jobs or purchase orders
structions for processing activities needed to compute
that will not be completed on time. This report explains
specific tasks for computer users, as opposed to operat-
why the jobs or purchases are delayed and when they
ing systems that control the computers internal opera-
will be completed. This report is an essential ingredient
tions. Examples are payroll, spreadsheets, and word
of the closed-loop MRP system. It is normally a
processing programs. See: application software.A
handwritten report. Syn: delay report.A
application-to-applicationThe exchange of data be-
anticipation inventoriesAdditional inventory above ba-
tween computers without reentry of data.A
sic pipeline stock to cover projected trends of increas-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 7


appraisal assembly chart

appraisal1) An evaluation of employee performance. useful in identifying potential problems and improve-
2) In total quality management, the formal evaluation ment opportunities.A
and audit of quality.A
arrow diagram methodSyn: activity-on-arrow network.A
appraisal costsThose costs associated with the formal
evaluation and audit of quality in the firm. Typical costs artificial intelligence (AI)1) Computer programs that
include inspection, quality audits, testing, calibration, can learn and reason in a manner similar to humans.

A and checking time.A The problem is defined in terms of states and operators
to generate a search space that is examined for the
appreciation of a currencyAn increase in the buying
best solution. In contrast, conventional programming
power of a countrys currency in terms of other coun-
collects and processes data by algorithm or fixed step-
tries goods and services.A
by-step procedures. 2) An area in computer science that
approved vendor list (AVL)A list of parties that have attempts to develop AI computer programs.A
been approved by a company as its suppliers. This list
ASCAbbreviation for accredited standards
usually is based on product quality and financial stabili-
committee.A
ty of the firm.A
APRAbbreviation for annual percentage rate.A ASCIIAcronym for American Standard Code for
Information Interchange.A
APS1) Abbreviation for advanced planning and sche-
duling. 2) Abbreviation for advanced planning system.A ASNAbbreviation for advance ship notice.A

AQLAbbreviation for acceptable quality level.A ASPAbbreviation for application service provider.A
arbitrageRisk-free buying of an asset in one market ASQAbbreviation for American Society for Quality.A
and simultaneous selling of an identical asset at a profit
in another market.A ASQCAbbreviation for American Society for Quality
Control, now simply American Society for Quality (ASQ).A
arbitrationThe process by which an independent third
party is brought in to settle a dispute or to preserve the AS/RSAbbreviation for automated storage/retrieval
interest of two conflicting parties.A system.A
arithmetic meanSyn: mean.A assaysTests of the physical and chemical properties of
arrivalIn queuing theory, a unit that arrives for service, a sample.A
such as a person or part.A
assemble-to-orderA production environment where a
arrival dateThe date purchased material is due to ar- good or service can be assembled after receipt of a cus-
rive at the receiving site. The arrival date can be input, it tomers order. The key components (bulk, semi-finished,
can be equal to the current due date, or it can be calcu- intermediate, subassembly, fabricated, purchased,
lated from the ship date plus transit time. See: due packing, and so on) used in the assembly or finishing
date.A process are planned and usually stocked in anticipation
arrival rateIn queuing theory, the value or distribution of a customer order. Receipt of an order initiates as-
describing how often a person or thing arrives for sembly of the customized product. This strategy is use-
service.A ful where a large number of end products (based on the
selection of options and accessories) can be assembled
arrow1) In activity-on-arrow networks, the graphic from common components. Syn: finish-to-order. See:
presentation of an activity. The tail of the arrow make-to-order, make-to-stock.A
represents the start of the activity. The head of the ar-
row represents the finish. Unless a timescale is used, assemblyA group of subassemblies and/or parts that
the length of the arrow stem has no relation to the dura- are put together and that constitute a major subdivision
tion of the activity. Length and direction of the arrow are for the final product. An assembly may be an end item
usually a matter of convenience and clarity. 2) In or a component of a higher level assembly.A
activity-on-node networks, an arrow represents a prece-
assembly binSyn: accumulation bin.A
dence requirement.A
assembly chartOverview of a product containing as-
arrow diagramA technique to determine the relation-
sembly and subassembly operations, materials, and
ships and precedence of different activities and the
components.A
time estimate for project completion. The technique is

8 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


assembly lead time authentication key

assembly lead timeThe time that normally elapses be- personnel do not verify the delivery quantity. This tech-
tween the issuance of a work order to the assembly nique is used to eliminate invoices.A
floor and work completion.A
assuranceOne of the dimensions of service quality.
assembly lineAn assembly process in which equip- The ability of employees to inspire trust and
ment and work centers are laid out to follow the se- confidence.A
quence in which raw materials and parts are assured source of supplyA guaranteed supply source
assembled. See: line, production line.A

assembly orderA manufacturing order to an assembly


generally created by a contract.A
asynchronous processA condition with two related
A
department authorizing it to put components together processes run to finish independently of each other.A
into an assembly. See: blend order.A
A3 methodA means of compactly describing a busi-
assembly parts listAs used in the manufacturing ness process.A
process, a list of all parts (and subassemblies) that
make up a particular assembly. See: batch card, manu- ATPAbbreviation for available-to-promise.A
facturing order.A attachmentAn accessory that has to be physically at-
tached to the product. See: feature.A
assetsAn accounting/financial term (balance sheet
classification of accounts) representing the resources attractability efficiencyIn e-commerce, a measure of
owned by a company, whether tangible (cash, how well an organization persuades people who are
inventories) or intangible (patent, goodwill). Assets may aware of its website to actually use the site. See: con-
have a short-term time horizonsuch as cash, accounts version efficiency.A
receivable, and inventoryor a long-term value (such as
attractorIn information systems, a website that, over
equipment, land, and buildings). See: balance sheet,
time, continues to attract a large number of visitors.A
liabilities, owners equity.A
attribute1) Quality control value that is either a yes/no
asset valueThe adjusted purchase price of the asset value or is counted rather than being measured on a
plus any costs necessary to prepare the asset for use.A continuous scale. See: variable, attribute data. 2) A
assignable causeA source of variation in a process description of an item or service that specifies either a
that can be isolated, especially when its significantly presence or an absence, such as on-time versus
larger magnitude or different origin readily distinguishes late.A
it from random causes of variation. Syn: special cause. attribute dataGo/no-go information. The control charts
See: common causes, assignable variation.A based on attribute data include percent chart, number
assignable variationVariation made by one or more of affected units chart, count chart, count-per-unit chart,
causes that can be identified and removed. See: as- quality score chart, and demerit chart. See: attribute,
signable cause, common causes.A attribute inspection.A

assigned materialSyn: reserved material.A attribute inspectionInspection for a go/no-go decision


or yes/no decision or to count the number of defects on
assigneeOne who receives a transfer of contract rights a unit. See: attribute, attribute data.A
from a party to the contract.A
attrition factorThe budget fraction apportioned for re-
assignmentSyn: allocation.A placement personnel training because of projected per-
assignorOne who sells contract rights to a third sonnel losses (retirements, promotions, and
person.A terminations).A

associative forecastingUses one or more variables auditAn objective comparison of actions to policies
that are believed to affect demand in order to forecast and plans.A
future demand.A audit trailTracing the transactions affecting the con-
assortment warehousingA warehousing technique that tents or origin of a record.A
stores the goods close to the customer to ensure short authenticationIn information systems, the act of iden-
customer lead times.A tifying a person or confirming the source of a message.A
assumed receiptA receiving technique based on the authentication keyIn information systems, a key that
assumption that a shipment is as expected. Receiving ensures that data in an electronic business transaction

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 9


authorized deviation available-to-promise (ATP)

are not changed. It can also be used as a form of digital automatic reliefA set of inventory bookkeeping me-
signature.A thods that automatically adjusts computerized inventory
records based on a production transaction. Examples of
authorized deviationPermission for a supplier or the
automatic relief methods are backflushing, direct-
plant to manufacture an item that is not in conformance
deduct, and pre-deduct processing.A
with the applicable drawings or specifications.A
automatic reschedulingRescheduling done by the
autodiscriminationThe ability of a bar code reader to

A read several different types of symbols consecutively.A


automated assembly systemA system that produces
computer to automatically change due dates on sche-
duled receipts when it detects that due dates and need
dates are out of phase. Ant: manual rescheduling.A
completed products or assemblies without the contribu-
automationThe substitution of machine work for hu-
tion of direct labor.A
man physical and mental work, or the use of machines
automated clearinghouseA U.S. nationwide system for for work not otherwise able to be accomplished, entail-
electronic payments preferred by a myriad of banks, ing a less continuous interaction with humans than pre-
consumers, and corporations. This system can carry vious equipment used for similar tasks.A
payment information in a standardized, computer ac-
autonomationAutomated shutdown of a line, process,
cessible format.A
or machine upon detection of an abnormality or
automated flow lineA production line that has ma- defect.A
chines linked by automated parts transfer and handling autonomous work groupA production team that oper-
machines.A ates a highly focused segment of the production
automated guided vehicle system (AGVS)A transporta- process to an externally imposed schedule but with little
tion network that automatically routes one or more ma- external reporting, supervision, interference, or help.A
terial handling devices, such as carts or pallet trucks, auxiliary itemAn item required to support the opera-
and positions them at predetermined destinations with- tion of another item.A
out operator intervention.A
availabilityThe percentage of time that a worker or
automated information system (AIS)Computer hard- machine is capable of working. The formula is
ware and software configured to automate calculating, S B
computing, sequencing, storing, retrieving, displaying, availability 100%
S
communicating, or otherwise manipulating data and where S is the scheduled time and B is the downtime.A
textual material to provide information.A
available capacitySyn: capacity available.A
automated process controls systemA system that can available inventoryThe on-hand inventory balance mi-
measure the performance of a process, compare the nus allocations, reservations, backorders, and (usually)
result to predetermined standards, and then make ad- quantities held for quality problems. Often called begin-
justments to the process.A ning available balance. Syn: beginning available bal-
automated quality control inspection systemA system ance, net inventory.A
that employs machines to help inspect products for available timeThe number of hours a work center can
quality control.A be used, based on management decisions regarding
automated storage/retrieval system (AS/RS)A high- shift structure, extra shifts, regular overtime, obser-
density, rack inventory storage system with vehicles vance of weekends and public holidays, shutdowns, and
automatically loading and unloading the racks.A the like. See: capacity available, utilization.A

automatic identification and data capture (AIDC)A set available-to-promise (ATP)The uncommitted portion of
of technologies that collect data about objects and then a companys inventory and planned production main-
send these data to a computer without human interven- tained in the master schedule to support customer-
tion. Examples include radio frequency wireless devices order promising. The ATP quantity is the uncommitted
and terminals, bar code scanners, and smart cards.A inventory balance in the first period and is normally cal-
culated for each period in which an MPS receipt is
automatic identification system (AIS)A system that can
scheduled. In the first period, ATP includes on-hand in-
use various means, including bar code scanning and
ventory less customer orders that are due and overdue.
radio frequencies, to sense and load data in a
Three methods of calculation are used: discrete ATP,
computer.A
cumulative ATP with look-ahead, and cumulative ATP

10 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


available work backorder

without look-ahead. See: discrete available-to-promise, average variable costThe ratio of total variable costs
cumulative available-to-promise.A over units produced.A
available workWork that is actually in a department AVLAbbreviation for approved vendor list.A
ready to be worked on as opposed to scheduled work
avoidable costA cost associated with an activity that
that may not yet be physically on hand. Syn: live load.A
would not be incurred if the activity was not performed
average chartA control chart in which the subgroup (e.g., telephone cost associated with vendor support).A
average, X-bar, is used to evaluate the stability of the
process level. Syn: X-bar chart.A
avoidable delayThe delay controlled by a worker and
therefore not allowed in the job standard.A
B
average collection periodSyn: receivables conversion
award auditsSite visits associated with award pro-
period.A
grams such as the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality
average cost per unitThe estimated total cost, includ- Award or similar state-sponsored award programs.A
ing allocated overhead, to produce a batch of goods di-
awareness efficiencyIn e-commerce, a measurement
vided by the total number of units produced.A
of how well an organization informs people who have
average cost systemIn cost accounting, a method of access to the web that the organizations website
inventory valuation for accounting purposes. A weighted exists.A
average (based on quantity) of item cost is used to de-
termine the cost of goods sold (income statement) and
inventory valuation (balance sheet). Average cost pro-
vides a valuation between last-in, first-out and first-in,
B
first-out methods. See: first in, first out; last in, first BACAcronym for budget at completion.B
out.A backflushA method of inventory bookkeeping where
average fixed costThe total fixed cost divided by units the book (computer) inventory of components is auto-
produced. This value declines as output increases.A matically reduced by the computer after completion of
activity on the components upper-level parent item
average forecast error1) The arithmetic mean of the
based on what should have been used as specified on
forecast errors. 2) The exponentially smoothed forecast
the bill of material and allocation records. This ap-
error. See: bias, forecast error.A
proach has the disadvantage of a built-in differential
average inventoryOne-half the average lot size plus between the book record and what is physically in
the safety stock, when demand and lot sizes are ex- stock. Syn: explode-to-deduct, post-deduct inventory
pected to be relatively uniform over time. The average transaction processing. See: pre-deduct inventory
can be calculated as an average of several inventory transaction processing.B
observations taken over several historical time periods;
backflush costingThe application of costs based on
for example, 12-month ending inventories may be aver-
the output of a process. Backflush costing is usually as-
aged. When demand and lot sizes are not uniform, the
sociated with repetitive manufacturing environments.B
stock level versus time can be graphed to determine
the average.A backhaulingThe process of a transportation vehicle
returning from the original destination point to the point
average outgoing quality (AOQ)The expected average
of origin. The 1980 Motor Carrier Act deregulated inter-
quality level of outgoing product for a given value of in-
state commercial trucking and thereby allowed carriers
coming product quality.A
to contract for the return trip. The backhaul can be with
average outgoing quality limit (AOQL)The maximum a full, partial, or empty load. An empty backhaul is
average outgoing quality over all possible levels of in- called deadheading. See: deadhead.B
coming quality for a given acceptance sampling plan
backlogAll the customer orders received but not yet
and disposal specification.A
shipped. Sometimes referred to as open orders or the
average payment periodThe average time between order board. See: order backlog, past due order.B
receipt of materials and payment for those materials.A
backorderAn unfilled customer order or commitment.
average total costThe ratio of total costs (the sum of A backorder is an immediate (or past due) demand
total fixed costs and total variable costs) over units against an item whose inventory is insufficient to satisfy
produced.A the demand. See: stockout.B

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 11


back room bar code

back roomIn service operations, the part of the opera- lanced scorecard might include customer perspective,
tion that is completed without direct customer contact. business process perspective, financial perspective,
Many service operations contain both back room and and innovation and learning perspectives. It formally
front room operations. See: front room.B connects overall objectives, strategies, and measure-
ments. Each dimension has goals and measurements.B
backroom costsIndirect costs for operations that do
not add direct value to a product and may or may not be balance-of-stores recordA double-entry record system

B necessary to support its production.B


back schedulingA technique for calculating operation
start dates and due dates. The schedule is computed
that shows the balance of inventory items on hand and
the balances of items on order and available for future
orders. Where a reserve system of materials control is
used, the balance of material on reserve is also
starting with the due date for the order and working
shown.B
backward to determine the required start date and/or
due dates for each operation. Syn: backward balance of tradeA plus or minus amount found by
scheduling. Ant: forward scheduling.B comparing a countrys exports of merchandise to its
imports.B
backsourcingCompany processes that, previously
handled externally, have been reassigned internally.B balance sheetA financial statement showing the re-
sources owned, the debts owed, and the owners share
backup/restoreThe procedure of making backup
of a company at a given point in time. See: funds flow
copies of computer files or disks and, in case of loss of
statement, income statement.B
or damage to the original, using the backups to restore
the files or disks. In such a case, the only work lost is balancing operationsIn repetitive just-in-time produc-
that done since the backup was made.B tion, matching actual output cycle times of all opera-
tions to the demand or use for parts as required by final
backup supportAn alternate location or maintainer
assembly and, eventually, as required by the market.B
that can provide the same service response or support
as the primary location or maintainer.B balancing the lineIn repetitive manufacturing, regulat-
ing the assignments given to each workstation in order
backward integrationThe process of buying or owning
to ensure that all tasks at each workstation on the line
elements of the production cycle and channel of distri-
are done in as close to the same time as possible.B
bution back toward raw material suppliers. See: vertical
integration.B Baldrige AwardSyn: Malcolm Baldrige National Quality
Award.B
backward passIn the critical path method of project
planning, working from the finish node backward Baldrige liteA state or company quality award program
through the network logic to the start node to determine modeled after the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality
the various late start dates and late finish dates. See: Award but with a simplified application process.B
critical path method, forward pass.B
Baldrige-qualifiedA designation claimed by companies
backward schedulingSyn: back scheduling.B that have been granted a site visit by the Malcolm
Baldrige National Quality Award examiners.B
bad-debt loan ratioIn financial management, the frac-
tion of accounts receivable that is never recovered.B balkingWhen customers will not join a queue when
they learn how long it is. See: reneging.B
balance1) The act of evenly distributing the work ele-
ments between the two hands performing an operation. bandwidthIn telecommunications, a measurement of
2) The state of having approximately equal working how much data can be moved along a communications
times among the various operations in a process, or the channel per unit of time, usually measured in bits per
stations on an assembly line. See: balance delay.B second.B
balance delay1) The idle time of one hand in an oper- bannerIn e-commerce, a portion of a web page that
ation caused by uneven workload balancing. 2) The idle contains advertising or the name of a website. The ban-
time of one or more operations in a series caused by ner usually contains a hypertext connection to a web
uneven workload balancing. See: balance, lost time page of the company doing the advertising.B
factor.B
bar codeA series of alternating bars and spaces
balanced scorecardA list of financial and operational printed or stamped on parts, containers, labels, or other
measurements used to evaluate organizational or media, representing encoded information that can be
supply chain performance. The dimensions of the ba- read by electronic readers. A bar code is used to facili-

12 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


bar coding batch card

tate timely and accurate input of data to a computer than the average. For forecasting purposes, the base
system.B series is superimposed upon the average demand and
trend in demand for the item in question. Syn: base in-
bar codingA method of encoding data using bar code
dex. See: seasonal index, seasonality.B
for fast and accurate readability.B
bar graphA graphical method of displaying data by base stock systemA method of inventory control that
grouping observations into specific clusters.B includes, as special cases, most of the systems in prac-

barrier to entryFactors that prevent companies from


entering into a particular market, such as high initial
tice. In this system, when an order is received for any
item, it is used as a picking ticket, and duplicate copies,
called replenishment orders, are sent back to all stages
B
investment in equipment.B of production to initiate replenishment of stocks.
baseband coaxA coaxial cable offering a single chan- Positive or negative orders, called base stock orders,
nel for text, voice, or video transmission.B are also used from time to time to adjust the level of the
base stock of each item. In actual practice, replenish-
base demandThe percentage of a companys demand
ment orders are usually accumulated when they are is-
that derives from continuing contracts and/or existing
sued and are released at regular intervals.B
customers. Because this demand is well known and
recurring, it becomes the basis of managements plans. basic producerA manufacturer that uses natural re-
Syn: baseload demand.B sources to produce materials for other manufacturing. A
base indexSyn: base series.B typical example is a steel company that processes iron
ore and produces steel ingots; other examples are
base inventory levelThe inventory level made up of companies that make wood pulp, glass, and rubber.B
aggregate lot-size inventory plus the aggregate safety
stock inventory. It does not take into account the antici- basic seven tools of quality (B7)Tools that help organi-
pation inventory that will result from the production zations understand their processes to improve them.
plan. The base inventory level should be known before The tools are the cause-and-effect diagram (also known
the production plan is made. Syn: basic stock. See: ag- as the fishbone diagram or the Ishikawa diagram),
gregate inventory.B check sheet, flowchart, histogram, Pareto chart, control
chart, and scatter diagram. Syn: seven tools of quality.
baselineIn project management, the approved time-
See: seven new tools of quality.B
phased plan for the schedule or cost of a piece of work,
including approved changes.B basic stockSyn: base inventory level.B
baseline measuresA set of measurements (or metrics) batch1) A quantity scheduled to be produced or in
that seeks to establish the current or starting level of production. See: process batch, transfer batch. 2) For
performance of a process, function, product, firm, and discrete products, the batch is planned to be the stan-
so on. Baseline measures are usually established be- dard batch quantity, but during production, the stan-
fore implementing improvement activities and dard batch quantity may be broken into smaller lots.
programs.B See: lot. 3) In nondiscrete products, the batch is a
baseload demandSyn: base demand.B quantity that is planned to be produced in a given time
period based on a formula or recipe that often is devel-
base point pricingA type of geographic pricing policy oped to produce a given number of end items. 4) A type
where customers order from designated shipping points of manufacturing process used to produce items with
without freight charges if they are located within a spe- similar designs and that may cover a wide range of or-
cified distance from the base point. Customers outside der volumes. Typically, items ordered are of a repeat
area boundaries pay base price plus transportation nature, and production may be for a specific customer
costs from the nearest base point.B order or for stock replenishment. See: project
base seriesA standard succession of values of manufacturing.B
demand-over-time data used in forecasting seasonal
batch bill of materialsA recipe or formula in which the
items. This series of factors is usually based on the rela-
statement of quantity per is based on the standard
tive level of demand during the corresponding period of
batch quantity of the parent. Syn: batch formula.B
previous years. The average value of the base series
over a seasonal cycle will be 1.0. A figure higher than batch cardA document used in the process industries
1.0 indicates that the demand for that period is more to authorize and control the production of a quantity of
than the average; a figure less than 1.0 indicates less material. Batch cards usually contain quantities and lot

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 13


batch formula big data

numbers of ingredients to be used, processing va- chmarking, product benchmarking, strategic


riables, pack-out instructions, and product disposition. benchmarking.B
See: assembly parts list, batch sheet, blend formula,
benchmark measuresA set of measurements (or me-
fabrication order, manufacturing order, mix ticket.B
trics) that is used to establish goals for improvements in
batch formulaSyn: batch bill of materials.B processes, functions, products, and so on. Benchmark
measures are often derived from other firms that dis-
batch manufacturingA type of manufacturing process

B in which sets of items are moved through the different


manufacturing steps in a group or batch.B
play best-in-class achievement.B
bench stocksSyn: floor stocks.B

batch numberSyn: lot number.B bespokeA custom-made product or service. The term
originally was applied to clothing, but now applies to
batch pickingA method of picking orders in which or-
software as well.B
der requirements are aggregated by product across or-
ders to reduce movement to and from product best-in-classAn organization, often from another in-
locations. The aggregated quantities of each product dustry, recognized for excellence in a specific process
are then transported to a common area where the indi- area. See: process benchmarking.B
vidual orders are constructed. See: discrete order pick- best practicesIn benchmarking, the measurement or
ing, order picking, zone picking.B performance standard by which similar items are eva-
batch processing1) A manufacturing technique in luated. Defining a best practice identifies opportunities
which parts are accumulated and processed together in to improve effectiveness. The process of comparing an
a lot. 2) A computer technique in which transactions are actual result to a best practice may be applied to re-
accumulated and processed together or in a lot. Syn: sources, activities, or cost objects.B
batch production.B beta distributionA type of probability distribution often
batch productionSyn: batch processing.B used to model activity times.B

batch sensitivity factorA multiplier that is used for the beta releaseA version of a product sent to certain cus-
rounding rules in determining the number of batches tomers prior to general release in order to receive feed-
required to produce a given amount of product.B back on product performance.B

batch sheetIn many process industries, a document beta testA term used to describe the pilot evaluation
that combines product and process definition. See: of a good or service (i.e., the second evaluation).B
batch card.B biasA consistent deviation from the mean in one direc-
baudThe number of bits transmitted per second.B tion (high or low). A normal property of a good forecast
is that it is not biased. See: average forecast error.B
Bayesian analysisStatistical analysis where uncertain-
ty is incorporated, using all available information to bidA quotation specifically given to a prospective pur-
choose among a number of alternative decisions.B chaser upon request, usually in competition with other
vendors. See: quotation.B
beginning available balanceSyn: available inventory.B
bid evaluationA comparison of supplier quotes for a
beginning inventoryA statement of the inventory count product based on price, quality, lead time, delivery per-
at the end of last period, usually from a perpetual inven- formance, and other criteria and, based on that compar-
tory record.B ison, selecting a supplier.B
benchmarkingComparing a companys costs, prod- bid pricingOffering a specific price for each job rather
ucts, and services to that of a company thought to have than setting a standard price that applies for all
superior performance. The benchmark target is often a customers.B
competitor but is not always a firm in the same industry.
bid proposalThe response to the written request from
Seven types of benchmarking have been cited: (1) com-
a potential customer asking for the submission of a qu-
petitive benchmarking, (2) financial benchmarking, (3)
otation or proposal to provide goods or services. The bid
functional benchmarking, (4) performance benchmark-
proposal is in response to a request for proposal (RFP)
ing, (5) process benchmarking, (6) product benchmark-
or request for quote (RFQ).B
ing, and (7) strategic benchmarking. See: competitive
benchmarking, financial benchmarking, functional ben- big dataA collection of data and technology that ac-
chmarking, performance benchmarking, process ben- cesses, integrates, and reports all available data by fil-

14 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


big Q, little q bin transfer

tering, correlating, and reporting insights not attainable determine the items for which purchase requisitions
with past data technologies. It describes data and production orders must be released. A variety of
processing beyond the human scale. In the past, data- display formats exist for bills of material, including the
bases tended to be limitedthey only had to meet the single-level bill of material, indented bill of material,
demands of human users entering and retrieving data. modular (planning) bill of material, transient bill of
With the emergence of e-commerce and internet search material, matrix bill of material, and costed bill of
engines, database technology is evolving to manage material. 2) A list of all the materials needed to make
humans and computers. Today, with the amount of data
growing by 50 percent each year, it is information tech-
one production run of a product, by a contract
manufacturer, of piece parts/components for its
B
nology that is capable of managing, processing, and customers. The bill of material may also be called the
finding value.B formula, recipe, or ingredients list in certain process
industries.B
big Q, little qA term used to contrast the difference
between managing for quality in all business processes bill-of-material accuracyThe degree to which a list of
and products (big Q) and managing for quality in a li- specified items conforms to administrative specifica-
mited capacitytraditionally in only factory products and tions and with correct quantities.B
processes (little q).B
bill-of-material explosionThe process of determining
bilateral contractAn agreement wherein each party component identities, quantities per assembly, and
makes a promise to the other party.B other parent/component relationship data for a parent
bill-backA penalty given to the supplier because a late item. Explosion may be single level, indented, or
delivery or poor quality resulted in extra costs.B summarized.B

billing and collection costsIn transportation, the costs bill-of-material processorA computer program for
related to issuing invoices or bills. These amounts can maintaining and retrieving bill-of-material information.B
be reduced by combining shipments in an order to limit bill-of-material structuringThe process of organizing
transportation frequency.B bills of material to perform specific functions.B
bill of activitiesIn activity-based cost accounting, a bill of operationsSyn: routing.B
summary of activities needed by a product or other cost
object. The bill of activities includes volume and cost of bill of resourcesA listing of the required capacity and
each activity.B key resources needed to manufacture one unit of a se-
lected item or family. Rough-cut capacity planning uses
bill of batchesA method of tracking the specific multi- these bills to calculate the approximate capacity re-
level batch composition of a manufactured item. The bill quirements of the master production schedule.
of batches provides the necessary where-used and Resource planning may use a form of this bill. Syn: bill
where-from relationships required for lot traceability.B of capacity. See: bill of labor, capacity planning using
bill of capacitySyn: bill of resources.B overall factors, product load profile, resource profile,
rough-cut capacity planning, routing.B
bill of distributionSyn: distribution network structure.B
bin1) A storage device designed to hold small discrete
bill of laborA structured listing of all labor require-
parts. 2) A shelving unit with physical dividers separat-
ments for the fabrication, assembly, and testing of a
ing the storage locations.B
parent item. See: bill of resources, capacity bill proce-
dure, routing.B bin location fileA file that specifically identifies the lo-
cation where each item in inventory is stored.B
bill of lading (uniform)A carriers contract and receipt
for goods the carrier agrees to transport from one place bin reserve systemSyn: two-bin inventory system.B
to another and to deliver to a designated person. In
bin tag1) A type of perpetual inventory record, de-
case of loss, damage, or delay, the bill of lading is the
signed for storekeeping purposes, maintained at the
basis for filing freight claims.B
storage area for each inventory item. 2) An identifying
bill of material (BOM)1) A listing of all the marking on a storage location.B
subassemblies, intermediates, parts, and raw materials
bin transferAn inventory transaction to move a quanti-
that go into a parent assembly showing the quantity of
ty from one valid location (bin) to another valid location
each required to make an assembly. It is used in
(bin).B
conjunction with the master production schedule to

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 15


bin trips blowthrough

bin tripsUsually, the number of transactions per blend offIn process industries, the rework of material
stockkeeping unit per unit of time.B by introducing a small percentage into another run of
the same product.B
bitAcronym for binary digit. It can have only the values
0 or 1.B blend orderA manufacturing order to a blending de-
black beltIn six sigma, team leader for process im- partment authorizing it to mix the ingredients of a prod-
provement. Responsibilities include defining, measur- uct. See: assembly order.B

B ing, and controlling the improvement process.B


black box designWhen suppliers or company functions
blockageSee: blocking.B

block controlControl of the production process in


are given general design guidelines and are requested groups, or blocks, of shop orders for products under-
to complete the technical details.B going the same basic processes.B
blank check purchase orderAn order with a signed
block diagramA diagram that shows the operations,
blank check attached that is usually only good up to a
interrelationships, and interdependencies of compo-
specific amount.B
nents in a system. Boxes, or blocks (hence the name),
blanket orderSyn: blanket purchase order.B represent the components; connecting lines between
the blocks represent interfaces. There are two types of
blanket order releaseA message that is used to re-
block diagrams: (1) functional block diagrams, which
lease a quantity from a blanket order.B
show a systems subsystems and lower level products,
blanket purchase orderA long-term commitment to a their interrelationships, and interfaces with other sys-
supplier for material against which short-term releases tems and (2) reliability block diagrams, which are simi-
will be generated to satisfy requirements. Often blanket lar to functional block diagrams except they are
orders cover only one item with predetermined delivery modified to emphasize those aspects influencing relia-
dates. Syn: blanket order, standing order.B bility. See: flowchart.B
blanket rateA rate that does not depend on the dis- blocked operationAn upstream work center that is not
tance cargo is transported.B permitted to produce because of a full queue at a
blanket releaseThe authorization to ship and/or downstream work center or because no kanban autho-
produce against a blanket agreement or contract.B rizes production.B

blanket routingA routing that lists groups of operations blocked operationsA group of operations identified
needed to produce a family of items. The items may separately for instructions and documentation but re-
have small differences in size, but they use the same ported as one.B
sequence of operations. Specific times or tools for each
blockingThe condition requiring a work center that has
individual item can be included.B
parts to process to remain idle as long as the queue to
bleeding edgeAn innovative process that may be un- which the parts would be sent is full or kanbans autho-
usual enough to pose a risk to the customer or client.B rizing production are not present.B
blemishAn imperfection that is severe enough to be blocking bugA defect that prevents a thorough investi-
noticed but should not cause any real impairment with gation as to the cause, or that prevents shipment of a
respect to intended normal or reasonably foreseeable product.B
use. See: defect, imperfection, nonconformity.B
block schedulingAn operation scheduling technique
blend formulaAn ingredient list for a product in where each operation is allowed a block of time, such
process industries. See: batch card, manufacturing or- as a day or a week.B
der, mix ticket.B
block stackingA storage method in which pallets, cas-
blendingThe process of physically mixing two or more
es, or cartons are stacked upwards from the floor to
lots or types of material to produce a homogeneous lot.
whatever practical height is available without the use of
Blends normally receive new identification and require
shelves.B
testing.B
block systemA system for selecting items to be cycle
blending departmentIn process industries, the name
counted by a group or block of numbers.B
of the department where the ingredients are mixed.
See: final assembly department.B blowthroughSyn: phantom bill of material.B

16 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


blueprint brand name

blueprintIn engineering, a line drawing showing the bottom-up planningPlanning for resource require-
physical characteristics of a part.B ments by starting at the bottom of the bill of material or
services, estimating the resources required to produce
blue skyGoodwill associated with the acquisition of a
each product or service, and then adding the resources
company asset.B
up.B
body of knowledgeThe knowledge in a given area that
a person is expected to understand to be certified as a bottom-up replanningIn MRP, the process of using
practitioner.B
boilerplateThe standard terms and conditions on a
pegging data to solve material availability or other prob-
lems. This process is accomplished by the planner (not
the computer system), who evaluates the effects of
B
purchase order or other document.B possible solutions. Potential solutions include com-
BOMAbbreviation for bill of material.B pressing lead time, cutting order quantity, substituting
material, and changing the master schedule.B
bona fideLatin for in good faith.B
boundedThe adjustment of a shop order quantity of a
bondA long-term debt of a firm.B
parent to use the remaining units of a component, raw
bond (performance)A guarantee of satisfactory work material, or lot.B
completion that is executed in connection with a con-
tract and that secures the performance and fulfillment Box-Jenkins modelA forecasting method based on re-
of all the undertakings, covenants, terms, conditions, gression and moving average models. The model is
and agreements contained in the contract.B based not on regression of independent variables, but
on past observations of the item to be forecast at vary-
bonded warehouseBuildings or parts of buildings des- ing time lags and on previous error values from fore-
ignated by the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury for storing casting. See: forecast.B
imported merchandise, operated under U.S. Customs
supervision.B BPMAbbreviation for business process management.B

booked ordersDemand that has been confirmed. See: BPRAbbreviation for business process reengineering.B
customer order, demand, order penetration point.B bracketed recallRecall from customers of suspect lot
bookingsThe value of all sales after discounts and re- numbers plus a specified number of lots produced be-
bates have been applied.B fore and after the suspect ones.B
book inventoryAn accounting definition of inventory brainstormingA technique that teams use to generate
units or value obtained from perpetual inventory ideas on a particular subject. Each person on the team
records rather than by actual count.B is asked to think creatively and write down as many
ideas as possible. The ideas are not discussed or re-
book valueThe accounting value of an asset.B
viewed until after the brainstorming session.B
Boolean algebraA form of algebra that, like ordinary
algebra, represents relationships and properties with branch and boundOperations research models for de-
symbols. However, Boolean algebra also has classes, termining optimal solutions based on the enumeration
propositions, on-off circuit elements, and operators of subsets of possible solutions, which implicitly enume-
(and, or, not, except, if, then). Boolean algebra is useful rate all possible solutions.B
in defining the logic of a complex system.B branch warehouseSyn: distribution center.B
bottleneckA facility, function, department, or resource branch warehouse demandSyn: warehouse demand.B
whose capacity is less than the demand placed upon it.
For example, a bottleneck machine or work center ex- brandingThe use of a name, term, symbol, or design,
ists where jobs are processed at a slower rate than they or a combination of these, to identify a product.B
are demanded. Syn: bottleneck operation.B brand loyaltyThe tendency of some consumers to stay
bottleneck operationSyn: bottleneck.B with a preferred product in spite of a competitors
advantages.B
bottom-up estimatingA method of estimation that
involves disaggregating a piece of work into brand managerThe person in charge of the marketing
components, estimating each component requirement, program for a given brand. Syn: product manager.B
and adding the resulting times and/or costs to arrive at
brand nameA word or combination of words used to
the estimate for the whole.B
identify a product and differentiate it from other prod-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 17


brand plan buffer

ucts; the verbal part of a trademark, in contrast to the broadcast systemA sequence of specific units to be
pictorial mark; a trademark word.B assembled and completed at a given rate. This se-
quence is communicated to supply and assembly activi-
brand planSyn: market plan.B
ties to perform operations and position material so that
brand recognitionThe degree to which customers rec- it merges with the correct assembled unit.B
ognize a particular brand identity and associate it with a
browserSoftware used on the web to retrieve and dis-
particular product line relative to other available

B brands.B
breadmanIn kanban, an arrangement in which the
play documents on-screen, connect to other sites using
hypertext links, display images, and play audio files.B
B7Abbreviation for the basic seven tools of quality.B
customer does not specify the quantity to be delivered
on a specific basis, but instead gives the supplier a set B2BAbbreviation for business-to-business
of guidelines. The delivery person determines the quan- commerce.B
tity according to these rules.B
B2CAbbreviation for business-to-consumer sales.B
break-bulkDividing truckloads of homogeneous items
bubble chartA diagram that attempts to display the
into smaller, more appropriate quantities for use.B
interrelationships of systems, functions, or data in a se-
break-bulk warehousingA form of cross-docking in quential flow. It derives its name from the circular sym-
which the incoming shipments are from a single source bols used to enclose the statements on the chart.B
or manufacturer.B
bucketA time period, usually a week.B
breakdown maintenanceRemedial maintenance that
bucketed systemAn MRP, DRP, or other time-phased
occurs when equipment fails and must be repaired on
system in which all time-phased data are accumulated
an emergency or priority basis. Syn: irregular mainten-
into time periods called buckets. If the period of accu-
ance, reactive maintenance.B
mulation is one week, then the system is said to have
break-even analysisA study of the number of units, or weekly buckets.B
amount of time, required to recoup an investment.B
bucketless systemAn MRP, DRP, or other time-phased
break-even chartA graphical tool showing the total va- system in which all time-phased data are processed,
riable cost and fixed cost curve along with the total rev- stored, and usually displayed using dated records rather
enue curve. The point of intersection is defined as the than defined time periods (buckets).B
break-even point (i.e., the point at which total revenues
budgetA plan that includes an estimate of future costs
exactly equal total costs). See: total cost curve.B
and revenues related to expected activities. The budget
break-even pointThe level of production or the volume serves as a pattern for and a control over future
of sales at which operations are neither profitable nor operations.B
unprofitable. The break-even point is the intersection of
budget at completion (BAC)The total planned budget
the total revenue and total cost curves. See: total cost
for a project.B
curve.B
budgeted capacityThe volume/mix of throughput on
break-even timeThe total elapsed time of a technology
which financial budgets were set and overhead/burden
transfer beginning with a scientific investigation and
absorption rates established.B
ending when the profits from a new product offset the
cost of its development.B budgeted cost of work performedIn project manage-
ment, this term has been replaced with the term earned
breeder bill of materialA bill of material that
value.B
recognizes and plans for the availability and usage of
by-products in the manufacturing process. The breeder budgeted cost of work scheduledIn project manage-
bill allows for complete by-product MRP and product/by- ment, this term has been replaced with the term
product costing.B planned value.B

bricks and mortarA company that sells through a phys- buffer1) A quantity of materials awaiting further
ical location. Ant: clicks and mortar (selling over the processing. It can refer to raw materials, semifinished
internet).B stores or hold points, or a work backlog that is
purposely maintained behind a work center. 2) In the
broadbandA coaxial cable offering several channels
theory of constraints, buffers can be time or material
for text, voice, and/or video transmission.B
and support throughput and/or due date performance.

18 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


buffer management business plan

Buffers can be maintained at the constraint, convergent bundlingCombining two or more products or services
points (with a constraint part), divergent points, and into a single transaction.B
shipping points.B
burdenSyn: overhead.B
buffer managementIn the theory of constraints, a burden rateA cost, usually in dollars per hour, that is
process in which all expediting in a shop is driven by normally added to the cost of every standard production
what is scheduled to be in the buffers (constraint, ship- hour to cover overhead expenses.B
ping, and assembly buffers). By expediting this material
into the buffers, the system helps avoid idleness at the
constraint and missed customer due dates. In addition,
burn rateThe rate at which a company consumes
cash. It can be used to determine when more cash
B
the causes of items missing from the buffer are identi- must be raised.B
fied, and the frequency of occurrence is used to priorit- business clustersWhen businesses locate in close
ize improvement activities.B proximity for competition purposes.B
buffer stockSyn: safety stock.B business cycleA period of time marked by long-term
fluctuations in the total level of economic activity.
build cycleThe time period between a major setup and
Measures of business cycle activity include the rate of
a cleanup. It recognizes cyclical scheduling of similar
unemployment and the level of gross domestic
products with minor changes from one product/model
product.B
to another.B
business environmentSyn: operating environment.B
build-up forecastsA qualitative forecasting technique
in which individuals who are familiar with specific mar- business intelligenceInformation collected by an or-
ket segments estimate the demand within these seg- ganization on customers, competitors, products or ser-
ments. The overall forecast then is obtained by vices, and processes. Business intelligence provides
calculating the sum of the forecasts for these organizational data in such a way that the organization-
segments.B al knowledge filters can easily associate with this data
and turn it into information for the organization.
bulk issueParts issued from stores to work-in-process Persons involved in business intelligence processes
inventory, but not based on a job order. They are issued may use application software and other technologies to
in quantities estimated to cover requirements of indi- gather, store, analyze, and provide access to data, and
vidual work centers and production lines. The issue may present that data in a simple, useful manner. The soft-
be used to cover a period of time or to fill a fixed-size ware aids in business performance management and
container.B aims to help consumers make better business deci-
bulk packingPlacing several small packages in a larger sions by offering them accurate, current, and relevant
container to prevent damage or theft.B information. Some businesses use data warehouses
because they are a logical collection of information ga-
bulk storageLarge-scale storage for raw materials, in- thered from various operational databases for the pur-
termediates, or finished products. Each vessel normally pose of creating business intelligence.B
contains a mixture of lots and materials that may be
business judgment ruleUnder common law, an ab-
replenished and withdrawn for use or pack-out
sence of liability for corporate directors and officers if
simultaneously.B
they have used rational business judgment and have no
bullwhip effectAn extreme change in the supply posi- conflict of interest.B
tion upstream in a supply chain generated by a small
business marketSyn: industrial market.B
change in demand downstream in the supply chain.
Inventory can quickly move from being backordered to business plan1) A statement of long-range strategy
being excess. This is caused by the serial nature of and revenue, cost, and profit objectives usually accom-
communicating orders up the chain with the inherent panied by budgets, a projected balance sheet, and a
transportation delays of moving product down the cash flow (source and application of funds) statement.
chain. The bullwhip effect can be eliminated by syn- A business plan is usually stated in terms of dollars and
chronizing the supply chain.B grouped by product family. The business plan is then
translated into synchronized tactical functional plans
bundleOne or more unassembled items shipped to-
through the production planning process (or the sales
gether as a set of items.B
and operations planning process). Although frequently

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 19


business planning CAD

stated in different terms (dollars versus units), these largely over the internet. It includes traditional brick and
tactical plans should agree with each other and with the mortar businesses that also offer products online and
business plan. See: long-term planning, strategic plan. businesses that trade exclusively electronically.B
2) A document consisting of the business details (organ-
business unitA division or segment of an organization
ization, strategy, and financing tactics) prepared by an
generally treated as a separate profit-and-loss center.B
entrepreneur to plan for a new business.B
buyerAn individual whose functions may include sup-

C business planningThe process of constructing the


business plan. See: business plan.B
business processA set of logically related tasks or ac-
plier selection, negotiation, order placement, supplier
follow-up, measurement and control of supplier perfor-
mance, value analysis, and evaluation of new materials
tivities performed to achieve a defined business and processes. In some companies, the functions of
outcome.B order placement and supplier follow-up are handled by
business process management (BPM)A business dis- the supplier scheduler.B
cipline or function that uses business practices, tech- buyer behaviorThe way individuals or organizations
niques, and methods to create and improve business behave in a purchasing situation. The customer-
processes. BPM is a holistic approach to the use of ap- oriented concept finds out the wants, needs, and de-
propriate process-related business disciplines to gain sires of customers and adapts resources of the organi-
business performance improvements across the enter- zation to deliver need-satisfying goods and services.B
prise or supply chain. It promotes business effective-
buyer codeA code used to identify the purchasing per-
ness and efficiency while striving for innovation,
son responsible for a given item or purchase order.B
flexibility, and integration with technology. Most process
improvement disciplines or activities can be considered buyer cycleThe purchasing sequence that generally
as BPM.B follows the buyers product and budget cycles.B
business process outsourcingContracting with third buyer/plannerA buyer who also does material
parties to perform non-core activities within a business. planning. This term should not be confused with
Functions often outsourced include human resources, planner/ buyer, which is a synonym for supplier
accounts receivable, accounts payable, and payroll.B scheduler.B
business process reengineering (BPR)A procedure buyers marketA market in which goods can easily be
that involves the fundamental rethinking and radical secured and in which the economic forces of business
redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic or- tend to cause goods to be priced at the purchasers es-
ganizational improvements in such critical measures of timate of value.B
performance as cost, quality, service, and speed. Any
buying capacitySyn: capacity buying.B
BPR activity is distinguished by its emphasis on (1)
process rather than functions and products and (2) the buying downGiven a product that historically expe-
customers for the process.B rienced price swings, attempting to buy when the price
is low or down. See: hedging, speculative buying.B
business serviceThe software aspect of electronic
commerce. It performs activities, such as encryption, by-productA material of value produced as a residual
that are required to support business transactions.B of or incidental to the production process. The ratio of
by-product to primary product is usually predictable. By-
business strategyA plan for choosing how to compete.
products may be recycled, sold as-is, or used for other
Three generic business strategies are (1) least cost, (2)
purposes. See: co-product.B
differentiation, and (3) focus.B
byteA string of 8 bits used to represent a single cha-
business-to-business commerce (B2B)Business con-
racter in a computer code.B
ducted over the internet between businesses. The im-
plication is that this connectivity will cause businesses
to transform themselves via supply chain management
to become virtual organizationsreducing costs, improv- C
ing quality, reducing delivery lead time, and improving
cacheA high-speed device used within a computer to
due-date performance.B
store frequently retrieved data.C
business-to-consumer sales (B2C)Business being
CADAcronym for computer-aided design.C
conducted between businesses and final consumers

20 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


CAD/CAM capacity buying

CAD/CAMThe integration of computer-aided design capability studySyn: process capability analysis.C


and computer-aided manufacturing to achieve
capable-to-promise (CTP)The process of committing
automation from design through manufacturing.C
orders against available capacity as well as inventory.
CAEAbbreviation for computer-aided engineering.C This process may involve multiple manufacturing or dis-
tribution sites. Capable-to-promise is used to determine
cageA secure area used to store valuable items.C
when a new or unscheduled customer order can be de-

C
CAITAbbreviation for computer-aided inspection and livered. Capable-to-promise employs a finite-scheduling
test.C model of the manufacturing system to determine when
calculated capacitySyn: rated capacity.C an item can be delivered. It includes any constraints
that might restrict the production, such as availability of
calculated usageThe determination of usage of com- resources, lead times for raw materials or purchased
ponents or ingredients in a manufacturing process by parts, and requirements for lower-level components or
multiplying the receipt quantity of a parent by the quan- subassemblies. The resulting delivery date takes into
tity per of each component or ingredient in the bill or consideration production capacity, the current manufac-
recipe, accommodating standard yields.C turing environment, and future order commitments. The
calendar timeThe passage of days or weeks as in the objective is to reduce the time spent by production
definition of lead time or scheduling rules, in contrast planners in expediting orders and adjusting plans be-
with running time.C cause of inaccurate delivery-date promises.C

calendar unitThe smallest unit of time in a project capacity1) The capability of a system to perform its
plan.C expected function. 2) The capability of a worker,
machine, work center, plant, or organization to produce
calibrationThe comparison of a measurement instru- output per time period. Capacity required represents
ment or system of unverified accuracy with a measure- the system capability needed to make a given product
ment instrument or system of a known accuracy to mix (assuming technology, product specification, etc.).
detect any variation from the required performance As a planning function, both capacity available and
specification.C capacity required can be measured in the short term
calibration frequencyThe interval in days between tool- (capacity requirements plan), intermediate term (rough-
ing calibrations.C cut capacity plan), and long term (resource
requirements plan). Capacity control is the execution
call centerA facility housing personnel who respond to
through the I/O control report of the short-term plan.
customer phone queries. These personnel may provide
Capacity can be classified as budgeted, dedicated,
customer service or technical support. Call center ser-
demonstrated, productive, protective, rated, safety,
vices may be in-house or outsourced.C
standing, or theoretical. See: capacity available,
CAMAcronym for computer-aided manufacturing.C capacity required. 3) Required mental ability to enter
into a contract.C
campaignA series of batches of the same product run
together (back to back).C capacity availableThe capability of a system or re-
source to produce a quantity of output in a particular
cancellation chargeA fee charged by a seller to cover
time period. Syn: available capacity. See: capacity,
its costs associated with a customers cancellation of
available time.C
an order. If the seller has started engineering work, pur-
chased raw materials, or started manufacturing opera- capacity bill procedureA rough-cut capacity planning
tions, these charges could also be included in the method that takes into account any shifts in product
cancellation charge.C mix. Bill of material and routing information are required
with direct labor-hour or machine-hour data available
can-order pointAn ordering system used when multiple
for each operation. See: bill of labor.C
items are ordered from one vendor. The can-order point
is a point higher than the original order point. When any capacity buyingA purchasing practice whereby a com-
one of the items triggers an order by reaching the must- pany commits to a supplier for a given amount of its ca-
order point, all items below their can-order point are al- pacity per unit of time. Subsequently, schedules for
so ordered. The can-order point is set by considering the individual items are given to the supplier in quantities to
additional holding cost that would be incurred should match the committed level of capacity. Syn: buying
the item be ordered early.C capacity.C

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 21


capacity-constrained resource (CCR) capacity strategy

capacity-constrained resource (CCR)A resource that is range time horizon. Personnel costs include hiring and
not a constraint but will become a constraint unless training of direct laborers, supervisors, and support per-
scheduled carefully. Any resource that, if its capacity is sonnel in the areas related to the capacity increase.
not carefully managed, is likely to compromise the Equipment purchases to increase capacity are also
throughput of the organization. (Also called capacity considered. In contrast, costs related to decreasing ca-
constraint resource.)C pacity include layoffs, the fixed overhead spread over
fewer units, the impact of low morale, and the ineffi-

C capacity controlThe process of measuring production


output and comparing it with the capacity plan,
determining if the variance exceeds pre-established
ciencies of lower production levels.C

capacity requiredThe capacity of a system or resource


limits, and taking corrective action to get back on plan if needed to produce a desired output in a particular time
the limits are exceeded. See: input/output control.C period. Syn: required capacity. See: capacity.C
capacity cushionExtra capacity that is added to a sys- capacity requirementsThe resources needed to pro-
tem after capacity for expected demand is calculated. duce the projected level of work required from a facility
Syn: safety capacity. See: protective capacity.C over a time horizon. Capacity requirements are usually
capacity managementThe function of establishing, expressed in terms of hours of work or, when units con-
measuring, monitoring, and adjusting limits or levels of sume similar resources at the same rate, units of
capacity in order to execute all manufacturing production.C
schedules (i.e., the production plan, master production
capacity requirements planA time-phased display of
schedule, material requirements plan, and dispatch
present and future load (capacity required) on all re-
list). Capacity management is executed at four levels:
sources based on the planned and released supply au-
resource requirements planning, rough-cut capacity
thorizations (i.e., orders) and the planned capacity
planning, capacity requirements planning, and
(capacity available) of these resources over a span of
input/output control.C
time. See: load profile.C
capacity peggingDisplaying the specific sources of ca-
capacity requirements planning (CRP)The function of
pacity requirements. This is analogous to pegging in
establishing, measuring, and adjusting limits or levels of
MRP, which displays the source of material
capacity. The term capacity requirements planning in
requirements.C
this context refers to the process of determining in de-
capacity planningThe process of determining the tail the amount of labor and machine resources re-
amount of capacity required to produce in the future. quired to accomplish the tasks of production. Open
This process may be performed at an aggregate or shop orders and planned orders in the MRP system are
product-line level (resource requirements planning), at input to CRP, which through the use of parts routings
the master-scheduling level (rough-cut capacity plan- and time standards translates these orders into hours
ning), and at the material requirements planning level of work by work center by time period. Even though
(capacity requirements planning). See: capacity re- rough-cut capacity planning may indicate that sufficient
quirements planning, resource planning, rough-cut ca- capacity exists to execute the MPS, CRP may show that
pacity planning.C capacity is insufficient during specific time periods. See:
capacity planning.C
capacity planning using overall factors (CPOF)A rough-
cut capacity planning technique. The master schedule capacity simulationThe ability to do rough-cut capacity
items and quantities are multiplied by the total time re- planning using a simulated master production schedule
quired to build each item to provide the total number of or material plan rather than live data.C
hours to produce the schedule. Historical work center
percentages are then applied to the total number of capacity smoothingSyn: load leveling.C
hours to provide an estimate of the hours per work cen-
capacity strategyOne of the strategic choices that a
ter to support the master schedule. This technique eli-
firm must make as part of its manufacturing strategy.
minates the need for engineered time standards. Syn:
There are three commonly recognized capacity strate-
overall factors. See: bill of resources, capacity planning,
gies: lead, lag, and tracking. A lead capacity strategy
resource profile, rough-cut capacity planning.C
adds capacity in anticipation of increasing demand. A
capacity-related costsCosts generally related to in- lag strategy does not add capacity until the firm is oper-
creasing (or decreasing) capacity in the medium-to long- ating at or beyond full capacity. A tracking strategy adds

22 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


capacity utilization cash flow statement

capacity in small amounts to attempt to respond to mum weight. Since carload rates usually include mini-
changing demand in the marketplace.C mum rates per unit of volume, the higher LCL (less than
carload) rate may be less expensive for a heavy but rel-
capacity utilizationGoods produced, or customers
atively small shipment.C
served, divided by total output capacity.C
carrierA company that provides air, sea, or land trans-
capitalMoney or resources used to invest in assets
portation services.C
that produce products.C
capital assetA physical object that is held by an organ-
ization for its production potential and that costs more
carrying costThe cost of holding inventory, usually de-
fined as a percentage of the dollar value of inventory
per unit of time (generally one year). Carrying cost de-
C
than some threshold value.C
pends mainly on the cost of capital invested as well as
capital budgetingActions relating to the planning and such costs of maintaining the inventory as taxes and
financing of capital outlays for such purposes as the insurance, obsolescence, spoilage, and space occupied.
purchase of new equipment, the introduction of new Such costs vary from 10 percent to 35 percent annual-
product lines, and the modernization of plant facilities.C ly, depending on type of industry. Carrying cost is ulti-
mately a policy variable reflecting the opportunity cost
capital expenditureMoney invested in a long-term as-
of alternative uses for funds invested in inventory. Syn:
set, one that is expected to last longer than one year.
holding costs.C
The investment is expected to generate a stream of fu-
ture benefits.C cartelA group of companies that agree to cooperate,
rather than compete, in producing a product or service,
capital-intensiveA situation in which the largest ex-
thus limiting or regulating competition.C
penditure in an operation is capital as opposed to labor.
See: labor-intensive.C cascaded systemsMultistage operations. The input to
each stage is the output of a preceding stage, thereby
capital rationingIn financial management, the process
causing interdependencies among the stages.C
of apportioning capital expenditures among prospective
projects to conserve limited investment funds.C cascading yield lossThe condition where yield loss
happens in multiple operations or tasks, resulting in a
capital recovery1) Charging periodically to operations
compounded yield loss. Syn: cumulative yield. See:
amounts that will ultimately equal the amount of capital
composite yield.C
expenditure. See: amortization, depletion, depreciation.
2) The replacement of the original cost of an asset plus CASEAcronym for computer-assisted software
interest. 3) The process of regaining the net investment engineering.C
in a project by means of revenue in excess of the cost cash budgetA budget based on planned cash receipts
from the project. (Usually implies amortization of prin- and disbursements of a plant, division, or firm.C
cipal plus interest on the diminishing unrecovered
balance.)C cash conversion cycle1) In retailing, the length of time
between the sale of products and the cash payments
capital structureThe combination of permanent short- for a companys resources. 2) In manufacturing, the
term debt, long-term debt, preferred stock, and com- length of time from the purchase of raw materials to the
mon equity used to finance a firm.C collection of accounts receivable from customers for the
CAPPAcronym for computer-aided process planning.C sale of products or services.C

carcassA nonserviceable item obtained from a cus- cash cowA highly profitable product in a low-growth
tomer which is intended for use in remanufacturing.C market. See: growth-share matrix.C

cargoA product shipped in an aircraft, railroad car, cash discountA price break offered for the early pay-
ship, barge, or truck.C ment of an invoice.C

cargo container capacityThe inside usable cubic vo- cash flowThe net flow of dollars into or out of the pro-
lume of a container.C posed project. The algebraic sum, in any time period, of
all cash receipts, expenses, and investments. Also
carbon footprintA measure of carbon emissions from a called cash proceeds or cash generated.C
person, organization, building, or operation.C
cash flow managementSyn: funds flow management.C
carload lotA shipment that qualifies for a reduced
cash flow statementSyn: funds flow statement.C
freight rate because it is greater than a specified mini-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 23


cash spin or free cash spin central limit theorem

cash spin or free cash spinThe advantage of reducing sification occurring in a sample. Syn: count chart, num-
inventory in the supply chain and reallocating the saved ber defective chart.C
capital in a more profitable direction.C
CCRAbbreviation for capacity-constrained resource.C
cash-to-cash cycle timeAn indicator of how efficiently a
cellA manufacturing or service unit consisting of a
company manages its assets to improve cash flow.
number of workstations and the materials transport
Inventory days + accounts receivable days accounts
mechanisms and storage buffers that interconnect

C payable days = cash-to-cash cycle time. See: cash con-


version cycle.C
them.C

cellular layoutAn equipment configuration to support


catalog channelA facility that receives orders based on
cellular manufacturing.C
a published book of offerings and ships from its ware-
house to the customer.C cellular manufacturingA manufacturing process that
produces families of parts within a single line or cell of
catchballA business process of floating ideas and machines controlled by operators who work only within
comments around in an iterative manner, much like the line or cell.C
tossing a ball back and forth.C
centerIn statistics, values near the middle of results
categorical planA method of selecting and evaluating from a process.C
suppliers that considers input from many departments
and functions within the buyers organization and sys- center-of-gravity approachA methodology for locating
tematically categorizes that input. Engineering, produc- distribution centers at approximately the location
tion, quality assurance, and other functional areas representing the minimum transportation costs be-
evaluate all suppliers for critical factors within their re- tween the plants, the distribution centers, and the
spective scopes of responsibility. For example, engi- markets.C
neering would develop a category evaluating suppliers center-of-gravity modelsSyn: gravity models.C
design flexibility. Rankings are developed across cate-
gories, performance ratings are obtained, and supplier centralized authorityLimiting the ability to make deci-
selections are made. See: weighted-point plan.C sions to a few managers.C

category managementIn marketing, an organizational centralized computer networkA network in which there
structure giving managers responsibility for planning is one computer (or possibly more) linked to all others in
and implementing marketing systems for certain prod- a given enterprise.C
uct lines.C centralized dispatchingThe organization of the dis-
causal forecastA type of forecasting that uses cause- patching function into one central location. This struc-
and-effect associations to predict and explain relation- ture often involves the use of data collection devices for
ships between the independent and dependent va- communication between the centralized dispatching
riables. An example of a causal model is an function, which usually reports to the production control
econometric model used to explain the demand for department, and the shop manufacturing
housing starts based on consumer base, interest rates, departments.C
personal incomes, and land availability.C centralized inventory controlInventory decision making
for all stockkeeping units exercised from one office or
cause-and-effect diagramA tool for analyzing process
department for an entire company.C
dispersion. It is also referred to as the Ishikawa diagram
(because Kaoru Ishikawa developed it) and the fish- centralized marketing systemAn organizational struc-
bone diagram (because the complete diagram resem- ture in which a central marketing group manages func-
bles a fish skeleton). The diagram illustrates the main tionally divided areas, such as advertising, sales, and
causes and subcauses leading to an effect (symptom). marketing research.C
The cause-and-effect diagram is one of the seven tools
centralized purchasingA system in which all purchas-
of quality. Syn: fishbone chart, Ishikawa diagram.C
ing decisions are made from a corporate purchasing
caveat emptorA Latin phrase meaning Let the buyer office.C
beware. (i.e., the purchase is at the buyers risk.)C
central limit theoremA theorem that states that a dis-
c chartA control chart for evaluating the stability of a tribution consisting of sample means can be assumed
process in terms of the count of events of a given clas- to be normally distributed, even if the population from

24 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


central point scheduling change management

which the samples are drawn is not normally high level of professional knowledge in production and
distributed.C inventory management.C
central point schedulingA variant of scheduling that Certified Purchasing Manager1) Certification from The
employs both forward and backward scheduling, start- Institute for Supply Management (ISM), formerly NAPM.
ing from the scheduled start date of a particular This is no longer being tested (C.P.M.). 2) Certification
operation.C from the American Purchasing Society (CPM).C
central processing unit (CPU)The electronic processing
unit of a computer, where mathematical calculations
certified supplierA status awarded to a supplier who
consistently meets predetermined quality, cost, delivery, C
are performed.C financial, and count objectives. Incoming inspection
may not be required.C
central storageUsing a central location for storing all
inventory items in order to obtain more control of inven- Certified Supply Chain ProfessionalThe APICS designa-
tory and to improve inventory record accuracy.C tion that recognizes a high level of professional know-
CEPAbbreviation for cost equalization point.C ledge in supply chain management.C

certificated carrierA regulated for-hire air carrier that ceteris paribusLatin for all other things being the
provides service under an operating certificate.C same.C

certificate of analysisA certification of conformance to CFPIMAbbreviation for Certified Fellow in Production


quality standards or specifications for products or mate- and Inventory Management.C
rials. It may include a list or reference of analysis results chain of customersThe sequence of customers who in
and process information. It is often required for transfer turn consume the output of each other, forming a chain.
of the custody of materials.C For example, individuals are customers of a department
certificate of complianceA suppliers certification that store, which in turn is the customer of a producer, who
the supplies or services in question meet specified re- is the customer of a material supplier.C
quirements.C chain reactionA chain of events proposed by W.
certificate of originA document attesting to a ship- Edwards Deming: improve quality, and costs will go
ments country of origin.C down because of less scrap and rework, while revenues
will go up because the company will be able to sell more
certificate of public convenience and necessityA certif- product at higher prices. Thus, better quality means
icate that grants authority to a particular carrier, enabl- more profitability.C
ing that carrier to act as a common carrier in serving
and transporting commodities to a specific area.C champion(1) In quality control, sponsor of a six sigma
implementation project. (2) In general, sponsor of an
certificationDocumentation of competency by a sup- improvement effort.C
plier or by an organization, such as ISO 9000 certifica-
tion. See: supplier certification, ISO 9000.C chance variationVariation in process results occurring
because of numerous small factors such as workers,
certification auditsAudits occurring within registration equipment, raw material, work methods, and environ-
processes (e.g., for ISO 9000:2000).C mental differences.C
Certified Fellow in Production and Inventory
change agentA person who facilitates change within
Management (CFPIM)The APICS designation that is a
an organization. This person may or may not be within
recognition of superior knowledge and performance in
the organization and may or may not be the initiator of
contributing to the profession.C
the change.C
certified fixturesThe inspection models that conform
change controlThe process of determining, approving,
to known specifications.C
or rejecting changes to a plan baseline.C
Certified in Integrated Resource Management (CIRM)
change managementThe business process that coor-
The APICS designation that is a recognition of a high
dinates and monitors all changes to the business
level of professional knowledge in enterprise-wide
processes and applications operated by the business as
processes and activities.C
well as to their internal equipment, resources, operating
Certified in Production and Inventory Management systems, and procedures. The change management
(CPIM)The APICS designation that is a recognition of a discipline is carried out in a way that minimizes the risk

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 25


change order clean technology

of problems that will affect the operating environment ing production to meet demand. Companies may com-
and service delivery to the users.C bine chase and level production schedule methods.
Syn: chase strategy, chase-demand strategy.C
change orderA formal notification that a purchase or-
der or shop order must be modified in some way. This chase strategySyn: chase production method.C
change can result from modifications such as a revised
check digitA digit added to each number in a coding
quantity, date, or customer specification; an engineer-
system that allows for detection of errors in the record-

C ing change; or a change in inventory requirement date.C


changeoverSyn: setup.C
ing of the code numbers. Through the use of the check
digit and a predetermined mathematical formula, re-
cording errors such as digit reversal or omission can be
changeover costsSyn: setup costs.C
discovered.C
changeover flexibilitySyn: setup flexibility.C
checkingVerifying and documenting the order selec-
change requestAn application to change scopes of tion in terms of both product number and quantity.C
work, budgets, and/or schedules.C
checklistA tool used to ensure that important steps or
channel1) In queuing theory, a line for waiting. 2) In actions in an operation have been taken. Checklists
distribution, a route from raw materials through con- contain items that are important or relevant to an issue
sumption. See: distribution channel, marketing or situation.C
channel.C
check sheetA simple data-recording device. The check
channel conflictTwo or more agencies of one business sheet is designed by the user to facilitate the users in-
competing for the same customer. For example, retail, terpretation of the results. The check sheet is one of the
catalog, or web sales.C seven tools of quality. Check sheets are often confused
channel equityImportant affiliations between suppliers with data sheets and checklistsC
and purchasers that improve value for everyone.C
churnThe process of customers changing their buying
channel integrationStrengthening relationships up and preferences because they find better and/or cheaper
down the supply chain from suppliers suppliers to cus- products and services elsewhere. The internet makes it
tomers customers.C easy for customers to shop electronically in search of a
better deal.C
channel partnersSuppliers, manufacturers, distribu-
tors, and retailers who form a supply chain to make and churn reductionNot losing as many customers to the
distribute a set of products.C competition.C
channels of distributionAny series of firms or individu- CIFAbbreviation for cost, insurance, freight.C
als that participates in the flow of goods and services
CIMAcronym for computer-integrated manufacturing.C
from the raw material supplier and producer to the final
user or consumer. See: distribution channel.C CIRMAcronym for Certified in Integrated Resource
Management.C
chargeThe initial loading of ingredients or raw mate-
rials into a processor, such as a reactor, to begin the CISGAbbreviation for contracts for the international
manufacturing process.C sale of goods.C

chargeback provisionsContractual terms specifying city driverA delivery person who drives a local route, as
how a company may charge a supplier for failure to opposed to long-haul route.C
perform.C claimA charge made against a company because of
charge ticketA document used for receiving goods and loss or damage.C
charging those goods to an operating cost center.C classificationThe designation of the job function that
chart of accountsIn accounting, a list of general ledger an employee is assigned to and is proficient infor ex-
accounts used to track costs, revenues, assets, liabili- ample, assembler, machinist, or welder.C
ties, and so on by category.C classification of defectsThe delineation of possible
chase-demand strategySyn: chase production defects on a unit, classified by seriousness: critical (A),
method.C major (B), minor (C), or incidental (D).C
chase production methodA production planning me- clean technologyA technical measure taken to reduce
thod that maintains a stable inventory level while vary- or eliminate at the source the production of any nuis-

26 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


cleanup collaborative planning

ance, pollution, or waste and to help save raw mate- that feedback is provided by the execution processes so
rials, natural resources, and energy.C that the planning can be kept valid at all times.C

cleanupThe neutralizing of the effects of production closed periodThe accounting time period for which the
just completed. It may involve cleaning residues, sanita- adjusting and closing entries have been posted. Ant:
tion, equipment refixturing, and so on.C open period.C
closely heldA description of an organization owned by

C
clearinghouseAn entity restricted to providing services
such as settling accounts.C a small number of people.C

clerical/administrationSeveral related activities closeness ratingsIn layout analysis, to begin yielding.


necessary for the organizations operation, generally In layout analysis, measures of how beneficial it would
including but not limited to the following: updating be for one department to be located near another.C
records and files based on receipts, shipments, and cloud computingAn emerging way of computing where
adjustments; maintaining labor and equipment records; data is stored in massive data centers which can be ac-
and performing locating, order consolidation, cessed from any connected computers over the
correspondence preparation, and similar activities.C internet.C

clicks and mortarRefers to a brick and mortar compa- CMIAbbreviation for co-managed inventory.C
ny that also has succeeded in making online sales. Ant: CNCAbbreviation for computer numerical control.C
bricks and mortar.C
co-designSyn: participative design/engineering.C
clickstreamThe way a customer moves through a
co-destinyThe evolution of a supply chain from intra-
website.C
organizational management to interorganizational
clientIn information systems, a software program that management.C
is used to contact and obtain data from a server pro-
coefficient of correlationA value used to express the
gram on another computer. Each client program is de-
relationship between two variables, whether there is a
signed to work with one or more specific kinds of server
strong or weak correlation. The coefficient of correlation
programs, and each server requires a specific kind of
varies from 0 to 1 with values close to 0 indicating no
client. A browser is one type of client.C
relationship, or a weak relationship, and values close to
client/server systemA distributed computing system in 1 indicating a strong relationship. The existence of a
which work is assigned to the computer best able to relationship does not prove causality.C
perform it from among a network of computers.C coefficient of determinationUsed to measure the ex-
CLINAbbreviation for contract line items number.C pected accuracy of a forecast; measures the variation in
one variable due to a different variable.C
clock cardSyn: time card.C
coefficient of variationIn statistics, the ratio of the
closed-loop feedback systemA planning and control standard deviation to the mean for a particular
system that monitors system progress toward the plan process.C
and has an internal control and replanning capability.C
COFCAbbreviation for container on a railroad flatcar.C
closed-loop MRPA system built around material re-
cold chainA term referring to the storage, transfer, and
quirements planning that includes the additional plan-
supply chain of temperature-controlled products.
ning processes of production planning (sales and
Industries in the cold chain include food and agricul-
operations planning), master production scheduling,
ture, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals.C
and capacity requirements planning. Once this planning
phase is complete and the plans have been accepted collaborationJoint work among people to achieve
as realistic and attainable, the execution processes common business objectives.C
come into play. These processes include the manufac- collaborative forecastingThe process for collecting and
turing control processes of input-output (capacity) mea- reconciling information from within and outside the or-
surement, detailed scheduling and dispatching, as well ganization to come up with a single projection of
as anticipated delay reports from both the plant and demand.C
suppliers, supplier scheduling, and so on. The term
collaborative planningSyn: collaborative planning, fo-
closed loop implies not only that each of these
recasting, and replenishment.C
processes is included in the overall system, but also

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 27


collaborative planning, forecasting, and replenishment (CPFR) communication management plan

collaborative planning, forecasting, and replenishment commodity buyingGrouping like parts or materials un-
(CPFR)1) A collaboration process whereby supply der one buyers control for the procurement of all re-
chain trading partners can jointly plan key supply chain quirements to support production.C
activities from production and delivery of raw materials
commodity procurement strategyThe purchasing plan
to production and delivery of final products to end cus-
for a family of items. This would include the plan to
tomers. Collaboration encompasses business planning,
manage the supplier base and solve problems.C
sales forecasting, and all operations required to reple-

C nish raw materials and finished goods. 2) A process phi-


losophy for facilitating collaborative communications.
commonalityA condition where given raw materials or
ingredients are used in multiple parents.C
CPFR is considered a standard, endorsed by the common carrierTransportation available to the public
Voluntary Interindustry Commerce Standards. Syn: col- that does not provide special treatment to any one party
laborative planning.C and is regulated as to the rates charged, the liability as-
collaborative supply relationshipSyn: supplier sumed, and the service provided. A common carrier
partnership.C must obtain a certificate of public convenience and ne-
cessity from the Federal Trade Commission for inter-
collaborative transportation managementA method of state traffic. Ant: private carrier.C
sharing information among suppliers, buyers, and
transporters to add value to the service.C common carrier dutiesThe requirements of common
carriers to offer reasonable services and rates and to
collective bargainingA highly regulated system estab- avoid discrimination.C
lished to control conflict between labor and manage-
common causesCauses of variation that are inherent
ment. It defines and specifies the rules and procedures
in a process over time. They affect every outcome of the
of initiating, negotiating, maintaining, changing, and
process and everyone working in the process. Syn: ran-
terminating the labor-management relationship.C
dom cause. See: assignable cause, assignable varia-
co-locationPlacing project team members in physical tion, common cause variability.C
proximity to facilitate communication and working rela-
common cause variabilityThe variability in product
tionships.C
quality that results from numerous uncontrollable eve-
co-managed inventory (CMI)Continuous replenishment ryday factors, such as temperature, humidity, and tool
where the manufacture is responsible for managing the wear. Syn: common variation. See: common causes.C
inventory of standard merchandise and the retailer common costA cost that is incurred by the business as
manages promotional items.C a whole.C
combined lead timeSyn: cumulative lead time.C common lawLaw flowing from judicial decisions over
the years rather than from legislative action.C
commercial invoiceAn official document indicating the
names of the seller and buyer, the product being common materialReadily available items used in in-
shipped, and its value. The document is provided by the dustry that require no special handling.C
seller.C
common parts billSyn: common parts bill of material.C
commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS)A term describing
common parts bill of materialA type of planning bill
computer software made available for sale by commer-
that groups common components for a product or fami-
cial developers.C ly of products into one bill of material, structured to a
commercial speechCommunication that is primarily pseudoparent item number. Syn: common parts bill.C
for a business purpose. Such speech is protected under common-size income statementIn accounting, an in-
the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution but less so come statement having values expressed as a percen-
than is noncommercial speech.C tage of sales rather than dollar values.C
committed capabilityThe portion of the production ca- common variationSyn: common cause variability.C
pability that is currently in use or is scheduled for use.C
communication management planA document that
commodityAn item that is traded in commerce. The describes the communications needs and expectations
term usually implies an undifferentiated product com- within a project, including format, dates, locations, and
peting primarily on price and availability.C responsibilities.C

28 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


company culture computer-assisted software engineering (CASE)

company cultureA system of values, beliefs, and be- composite partA part that represents operations
haviors inherent in a company. To optimize business common to a family or group of parts controlled by
performance, top management must define and create group technology. Tools, jigs, and dies are used for the
the necessary culture.C composite part; therefore, any parts of that family can
be processed with the same operations and tooling. The
compensationThe pay and benefits given for services
goal here is to reduce setup costs.C
rendered to an organization.C

compensation lawsLaws designed to pay employees


for injuries sustained on the job.C
composite yieldA condition where loss occurs along
several operations resulting in a decreased yield for the
end item. Syn: cumulative yield.C
C
competitive advantageThe advantage a company has compositionThe makeup of an item, typically express-
over its rivals in attracting customers and defending ing chemical properties rather than physical
against competitors. Sources of the advantage include properties.C
characteristics that a competitor cannot duplicate with-
out substantial cost and risk, such as a manufacturing compound interest1) The type of interest that is pe-
technique, brand name, or human skill set. Syn: com- riodically added to the amount of investment (or loan)
petitive edge.C so that subsequent interest is based on the cumulative
amount. 2) The interest charges under the condition
competitive analysisAn analysis of a competitor that that interest is charged on any previous interest earned
includes its strategies, capabilities, prices, and costs.C in any time period, as well as on the principal.C
competitive benchmarkingBenchmarking a product or compound yieldThe cumulative effect of yield loss at
service against competitors. Syn: performance ben- multiple operations within the manufacturing cycle.C
chmarking. See: benchmarking.C
comptrollerSyn: controller.C
competitive bidA price offering by one company that a
computer-aided design (CAD)The use of computers in
buyer will consider along with price offerings from other
interactive engineering drawing and storage of designs.
companies.C
Programs complete the layout, geometric transforma-
competitive differentiatorA characteristic that makes a tions, projections, rotations, magnifications, and interval
company or product unique within a marketplace.C (cross-section) views of a part and its relationship with
other parts.C
competitive edgeSyn: competitive advantage.C
computer-aided engineering (CAE)The process of ge-
competitive intelligenceThe information required to nerating and testing engineering specifications on a
conduct a competitive analysis about external events computer workstation.C
and trends that can affect a companys plans.C
computer-aided inspection and test (CAIT)The use of
complete and on-time delivery (COTD)A metric defining computer technology in the inspection and testing of
customer service. To be considered as complete and on manufactured products.C
time, all items in the orderin the correct quantity and
with the correct line itemsmust arrive on time.C computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)The use of com-
puters to program, direct, and control production
componentThe raw material, part, or subassembly equipment in the fabrication of manufactured items.C
that goes into a higher level assembly, compound, or
computer-aided process planning (CAPP)A method of
other item. This term may also include packaging mate-
process planning in which a computer system assists in
rials for finished items. See: ingredient, intermediate
the development of manufacturing process plans (defin-
part.C
ing operation sequences, machine and tooling require-
component availabilityThe availability of component ments, cut parameters, part tolerances, inspection
inventory for the manufacture of a specific parent order criteria, and other items). Artificial intelligence and clas-
or group of orders or schedules.C sification and coding systems may be used in the gen-
eration of the process plan.C
component lead-time offsetSyn: lead-time offset.C
computer-assisted software engineering (CASE)The
composite lead timeSyn: cumulative lead time.C
use of computerized tools to assist in the process of
composite manufacturing lead timeSyn: cumulative designing, developing, and maintaining software prod-
manufacturing lead time.C ucts and systems.C

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 29


computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) consignment inventory

computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM)The neering changes have been incorporated and


integration of the total manufacturing organization documented.C
through the use of computer systems and managerial
configuration management systemFormal procedures
philosophies that improve the organizations
to identify and document the physical characteristics of
effectiveness; the application of a computer to bridge
a product or project, control changes, and support an
various computerized systems and connect them into a
audit to verify conformance.C
coherent, integrated whole. For example, budgets,

C CAD/CAM, process controls, group technology systems,


MRP II, and financial reporting systems are linked and
configuration systemSyn: customer order servicing
system.C
interfaced.C configuratorSoftware system that creates, uses, and
computer numerical control (CNC)A technique in which maintains product models that allow complete defini-
a machine tool controller uses a computer or micropro- tion of all possible product options and variations with a
cessor to store and execute numerical instructions.C minimum of data entries.C

concentrationThe percentage of an active ingredient confirming orderA purchase order issued to a supplier,
within the whole. For example, a 40 percent solution of listing the goods or services and terms of an order
hydrochloric acid.C placed orally or otherwise before the usual purchase
document.C
concept phaseIn project management, the first phase
in which a project is defined and the scope is planned.C confiscationThe taking of property without adequate
compensation for it.C
concurrencySyn: resource contention.C
conflict of interestAny business activity, personal or
concurrent designSyn: participative design/ company-related, that interferes with a companys goals
engineering.C or that entails unethical or illegal actions.C
concurrent engineeringSyn: participative design/ en- conformanceAn affirmative indication or judgment
gineering.C that a product or service has met the requirements of a
relevant specification, contract, or regulation.C
conference room pilotSimulation of all business
processes from end-to-end within the new information conformance perspectiveA measure of how closely a
system in a controlled environment.C product or service performs to its intended quality.C

confidence intervalThe range on either side of an es- connectivityThe ability to communicate effectively with
timated value from a sample that is likely to contain the supply chain partners to facilitate interorganization syn-
true value for the whole population.C chronization.C

confidence levelThe probability that a particular value considerationIn contract law, an obligation that is to
lies between an upper and a lower boundthe confi- the detriment of one party (promisee) or to the benefit
dence limits.C of the other party (promisor).C

confidence limitThe bounds of an interval. A probabili- consigned stocksInventories, generally of finished


ty can be given for the likelihood that the true value will goods, that are in the possession of customers, dealers,
lie between the confidence limits.C agents, and so on, but remain the property of the manu-
facturer by agreement with those in possession. Syn:
configurationThe arrangement of components as spe- consignment inventory, vendor-owned inventory. See:
cified to produce an assembly.C consignment.C
configuration auditA review of the product against the consigneeThe receiver of a shipment of freight.C
engineering specifications to determine whether the
engineering documentation is accurate, up-to-date, and consignment1) A shipment that is handled by a com-
representative of the components, subsystems, or sys- mon carrier. 2) The process of a supplier placing goods
tems being produced.C at a customer location without receiving payment until
after the goods are used or sold. See: consigned
configuration controlThe function of ensuring that the stocks.C
product being built and shipped corresponds to the
consignment inventorySyn: consigned stocks. See:
product that was designed and ordered. This means
consignment.C
that the correct features, customer options, and engi-

30 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


consignor containerization

consignorThe originator of a shipment of freight.C hausted in the production or sale of a good or service.
Syn: consumable tooling, supplies; expendables.C
consolidationPackages and lots that move from sup-
pliers to a carrier terminal and are sorted and then consumable tooling, suppliesSyn: consumables.C
combined with similar shipments from another suppli-
consumerA person who purchases a good or service
ers container load or truckload for travel to a final des-
for his or her own use (not for resale). See: customer.C
tination. See: milk run.C

C
consumer durable goodsA division of durable goods
consolidation warehousesCollection points that re- for items intended for consumer use, such as refrigera-
ceive less-than-truckload (LTL) shipments from regional tors, as opposed to industrial goods, such as fork lifts.
sources and then ships in cargo load or truckload quan- See: durable goods.C
tities to a manufacturing facility.C
consumer marketA market composed of individuals
consolidatorA company that groups together various and families who buy products and services for con-
shipments or orders to facilitate movement.C sumption. See: government market, industrial market,
consortia trade exchanges (CTX)An online market- institutional market.C
place, usually owned by a third party, that allows mem- consumer price indexA measure of the overall level of
bers to trade with each other. This site lowers members prices. It attempts to relate the cost of buying a specific
search costs and enables lower prices for the buyer.C set of goods and services with the cost of buying the
consortiumA group of companies that work together to same set of goods and services during an earlier time
jointly produce a product, service, or project.C period.C

constantA quantity that has a fixed value. Ant: consumers risk ()For a given sampling plan, the
variable.C probability of acceptance of a lot, the quality of which
has designated numerical value representing a level
constrained optimizationAchieving the best possible
that is worse than some threshold value. See: type II
solution to a problem in terms of a specified objective
error.C
function and a given set of constraints.C
consumer surplusThe difference between the highest
constraint1) Any element or factor that prevents a sys- price a consumer is willing to pay for a good or service
tem from achieving a higher level of performance with and the price actually paid.C
respect to its goal. Constraints can be physical, such as
a machine center or lack of material, but they can also consuming the forecastThe process of reducing the
be managerial, such as a policy or procedure. 2) One of forecast by customer orders or other types of actual
a set of equations that cannot be violated in an optimi- demands as they are received. The adjustments yield
zation procedure.C the value of the remaining forecast for each period. Syn:
forecast consumption.C
constraint accountingSyn: theory of constraints
accounting.C consumptionThe amount of each bill-of-material com-
ponent used in the production process to make the
constraint-oriented finite loadingA finite loading tech- parent.C
nique that plans orders around bottleneck work centers.
The objective is to maximize total production through- contact efficiencyA measure of how well an organiza-
put. Orders in small lot sizes aggregate into large lot tion transforms website hits into visits.C
sizes at the constraint and then load forward. Prior op- contactlessUsing radio frequency identification or sim-
erations are then backward-scheduled, and down- ilar technologies to record data about an item electroni-
stream operations are forward-scheduled. See: drum- cally without physical contact with the item.C
buffer-rope, order-oriented finite loading.C
containerA large box in which commodities to be
constraints managementThe practice of managing re- shipped are placed.C
sources and organizations in accordance with the
container designThe characteristics of the product
theory of constraints (TOC) principles. See: theory of
that make it transportable with ease of handling and
constraints.C
stowability. Container concepts include packaging,
constraint theorySyn: theory of constraints.C monetary density, and physical density.C
consumablesSupplies or materials (such as paint, containerizationA shipment method in which commod-
cleaning materials, or fuel) that are consumed or ex- ities are placed in containers, and after initial loading,

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 31


container on a flatcar (COFC) contract carrier

the commodities per se are not rehandled in shipment continuous process improvement (CPI)A never-ending
until they are unloaded at the destination.C effort to expose and eliminate root causes of problems:
small-step improvement as opposed to big-step im-
container on a flatcar (COFC)A specialized form of con-
provement. Syn: continuous improvement. See:
tainerization in which rail, motor, and sea transport
kaizen.C
coordinate.C
content management applicationsSupports the evolu- continuous productionA production system in which

C tionary life cycle of digital-based information and makes


information dynamically updatable online; includes the
the productive equipment is organized and sequenced
according to the steps involved to produce the product.
This term denotes that material flow is continuous dur-
ability to publish content to a repository and support
access to digital-based content.C ing the production process. The routing of the jobs is
fixed and setups are seldom changed. Syn: continuous
contestable marketA market having low entry costs.C flow (production), continuous process, continuous man-
contingency planningA process for creating a docu- ufacturing. See: mass production, project
ment that specifies alternative plans to facilitate project manufacturing.C
success if certain risk events occur.C continuous replenishmentA process by which a sup-
contingency reserveA budget of money or time allowed plier is notified daily of actual sales or warehouse ship-
over an initial estimate to reduce the likelihood of ments and commits to replenishing these sales (by size,
overruns.C color, and so on) without stockouts and without receiv-
ing replenishment orders. The result is a lowering of as-
contingent projectA project that can be accepted only
sociated costs and an improvement in inventory
if one or more other projects are accepted first. See:
turnover. See: rapid replenishment, vendor-managed
independent project, mutually exclusive project.C
inventory.C
continuous flow distributionA pull system diverting
continuous review systemThe inventory level on-hand
products in response to customer requirements while
and on-order for this system is checked whenever a
keeping distribution costs low.C
change in inventory level occurs and when the reorder
continuous flow (production)Syn: continuous point is reached a restocking order is released. See:
production.C fixed reorder cycle inventory model.C
continuous improvementThe act of making incremen- continuous variableA variable, such as height, tem-
tal, regular improvements and upgrades to a process or perature, or weight, that can be measured along a con-
product in the search for excellence.C tinuous scale. See: discrete variable.C
continuous manufacturingA type of manufacturing contractAn agreement between two or more compe-
process that is dedicated to the production of a very tent persons or companies to perform or not to perform
narrow range of standard products. The rate of product specific acts or services or to deliver merchandise. A
change and new product information is very low. contract may be oral or written. A purchase order, when
Significant investment in highly specialized equipment accepted by a supplier, becomes a contract.
allows for a high volume of production at the lowest Acceptance may be in writing or by performance, unless
manufacturing cost. Thus, unit sales volumes are very the purchase order requires acceptance in writing.C
large, and price is almost always a key order-winning
criterion. Examples of items produced by a continuous contract accountingThe function of collecting costs
process include gasoline, steel, fertilizer, glass, and pa- incurred on a given job or contract, usually in a progress
per. Syn: continuous production.C payment situation. Certain U.S. government contracting
procedures require contract accounting.C
continuous processSyn: continuous production.C
contract administrationManaging all aspects of a con-
continuous process controlThe use of transducers
tract to guarantee that the contractor fulfills his
(sensors) to monitor a process and make automatic
obligations.C
changes in operations through the design of appropri-
ate feedback control loops. Although such devices have contract carrierA carrier that does not serve the gen-
historically been mechanical or electromechanical, eral public, but provides transportation for hire for one
there is now widespread use of microcomputers and or a limited number of shippers under a specific
centralized control.C contract.C

32 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


contract date control system

contract dateThe date when a contract is accepted by control chartA graphic comparison of process perfor-
all parties.C mance data with predetermined computed control lim-
its. The process performance data usually consist of
contract laborSelf-employed individuals or firms con-
groups of measurements selected in regular sequence
tracted by an organization to perform specific services
of production that preserve the order. The primary use
on an intermittent or short-term basis.C
of control charts is to detect assignable causes of varia-
contract line items number (CLIN)Specific items that tion in the process as opposed to random variations.
are priced separately on a contract.C

contract manufacturingA situation in which a third par-


The control chart is one of the seven tools of quality.
Syn: process control chart.C
C
ty makes products that are packaged under another control decisionA decision about the planning or con-
companys label.C trolling of daily operations.C
contract peggingSyn: full pegging.C controllable costA cost that is under the direct control
contract reportingReporting of and the accumulation of a given level of management.C
of finished production against commitments to a controlled accessFenced or walled areas within a
customer.C warehouse or yard usually monitored by security cam-
contracts for the international sale of goods (CISG) eras. These areas are used to store high-value items.C
Govern the sale of goods in the international environ- controlled issueSyn: planned issue.C
ment. They enable exporters to avoid choice-of-law
issues.C controllerThe person responsible for financial and
managerial accounting within a company. Syn:
contract target costThe estimated cost negotiated in a
comptroller.C
contract.C
control limitA statistically determined line on a control
contributionThe difference between sales price and
chart (upper control limit or lower control limit). If a val-
variable costs. Contribution is used to cover fixed costs
ue occurs outside of this limit, the process is deemed to
and profits.C
be out of control.C
contribution marginAn amount equal to the difference
control numberTypically, the manufacturing order or
between sales revenue and variable costs.C
schedule number used to identify a specific instance or
contribution margin pricingA method of setting prices period of production.C
based on the contribution margin. It provides a ceiling
and a floor between which the price setter operates. control phaseOne of the six sigma phases of quality.
The ceiling is the target selling pricewhat the seller Process performance is observed, often with control
would like to getand the floor is the total variable charts, for steady results.C
costs of the product using traditional accounting.C control pointsIn the theory of constraints, strategic lo-
contribution relativitiesAn investment by one stake- cations in the logical product structure for a product or
holder may benefit others in the supply chain.C family that simplify the planning, scheduling, and con-
trol functions. Control points include gating operations,
contributory negligenceA rule under which a defen- convergent points, divergent points, constraints, and
dant may escape liability if it can be shown that the shipping points. Detailed scheduling instructions are
plaintiff was negligent to some extent.C planned, implemented, and monitored at these loca-
controlComparing actual to planned performance and tions. Other work centers are instructed to work if they
taking corrective action, as needed, to align perfor- have work; otherwise, be prepared for work. In this
mance with plan.C manner, materials flow rapidly through the facility with-
out detailed work center scheduling and control.C
control boardA visual means of showing machine load-
ing or project planning, usually a variation of the basic control systemA system that has as its primary func-
Gantt chart. Syn: dispatch(ing) board, planning board, tion the collection and analysis of feedback from a giv-
schedule board. See: schedule chart.C en set of functions for the purpose of controlling the
functions. Control may be implemented by monitoring or
control centerIn a centralized dispatching operation,
systematically modifying parameters or policies used in
the place at which the dispatching is done.C
those functions, or by preparing control reports that in-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 33


convergent point cost-budgeting

itiate useful action with respect to significant deviations corporate cultureThe set of important assumptions
and exceptions.C that members of the company share. It is a system of
shared values about what is important and beliefs
convergent pointAn operation in a production process
about how the company works. These common assump-
where multiple materials/parts/components are
tions influence the ways the company operates.C
combined into a single component. An assembly
operation is an example of a convergent point.C corporate purchasing cardsSyn: procurement credit

C conversion efficiencyIn e-commerce, a measure of


how well an organization transforms visits to its website
into customer orders. See: attractability efficiency.C
card.C

corrective actionThe implementation of solutions re-


sulting in the reduction or elimination of an identified
convertible securityAn asset (stock or bond) that may problem.C
be changed for another asset at the owners request.C
corrective maintenanceThe maintenance required to
conveyorA device following a fixed route that has the restore an item to a satisfactory condition.C
capability of moving material between points in a facili-
correlated demandsDemands that consistently vary in
ty. This device commonly is used when there is a high
the same direction because of the relationship between
volume of flow along the route.C
the items demanded.C
cooperative trainingAn educational process in which
students alternate formal studies with actual on-the-job correlationThe relationship between two sets of data
experience. Successful completion of the off-campus such that when one changes, the other is likely to make
experience may be a prerequisite for graduation from a corresponding change. If the changes are in the same
the program of study.C direction, there is positive correlation. When changes
tend to occur in opposite directions, there is negative
co-productA product that is usually manufactured to- correlation. When there is little correspondence or ran-
gether or sequentially because of product or process dom changes, there is no correlation.C
similarities. See: by-product.C
correlation coefficientA measure of the degree of cor-
core competenciesBundles of skills or knowledge sets
relation between two values, which has a range from -1
that enable a firm to provide the greatest level of value
to 1.C
to its customers in a way that is difficult for competitors
to emulate and that provides for future growth. Core cost accountingThe branch of accounting that is con-
competencies are embodied in the skills of the workers cerned with recording and reporting business operating
and in the organization. They are developed through costs. It includes the reporting of costs by departments,
collective learning, communication, and commitment to activities, and products.C
work across levels and functions in the organization and
cost allocationThe assignment of costs that cannot be
with the customers and suppliers. For example, a core
directly related to production activities via more mea-
competency could be the capability of a firm to coordi-
surable means (e.g., assigning corporate expenses to
nate and harmonize diverse production skills and mul-
different products via direct labor costs or hours).C
tiple technologies. To illustrate, advanced casting
processes for making steel require the integration of cost analysisA review and an evaluation of actual or
machine design with sophisticated sensors to track anticipated cost data.C
temperature and speed, and the sensors require ma-
cost-based contractA type of purchasing contract
thematical modeling of heat transfer. For rapid and ef-
where the price of goods or services is tied to the cost
fective development of such a process, materials
of key inputs or other economic factors, such as interest
scientists must work closely with machine designers,
rates.C
software engineers, process specialists, and operating
personnel. Core competencies are not directly related to cost-benefit ratioA ratio of total measurable benefits
the product or market.C to the initial capital cost. This might be used in deciding
core processThat unique capability that is central to a which projects to pursue in a continuous improvement
companys competitive strategy.C effort.C

core teamA cross-functional team of specialists cost-budgetingIn project management, accumulating


formed to manage new product introduction. See: cross- the estimated costs of individual activities to arrive at a
functional team.C cost baseline.C

34 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


cost center cost-plus-incentive-fee contract

cost centerThe smallest segment of an organization cost objectIn activity-based cost accounting, anything
for which costs are collected and formally reported, typ- for which a separate cost measurement is desirable.
ically a department. The criteria in defining cost centers This may include a product, a customer, a project, or
are that the cost be significant and that the area of re- other work unit.C
sponsibility be clearly defined. A cost center is not nec-
cost object driverIn activity-based cost accounting, a
essarily identical to a work center; normally, a cost
numerical measure of the demand placed on one cost
center encompasses more than one work center, but
this may not always be the case.C

cost controlApplying procedures that monitor the


object by other cost objects.C

cost of capitalThe cost of maintaining a dollar of capi- C


tal invested for a certain period, normally one year. This
progress of operations against authorized budgets, and
cost is normally expressed as a percentage and may be
taking action to achieve minimal costs.C
based on factors such as the average expected return
cost driverSyn: driver (first definition).C on alternative investments and current bank interest
rate for borrowing.C
cost driver analysisIn activity-based cost accounting,
the examination of the impact of cost drivers. The re- cost of goods soldAn accounting classification useful
sults of this analysis are useful in the continuous im- for determining the amount of direct materials, direct
provement of cost, quality, and delivery times.C labor, and allocated overhead associated with the
products sold during a given period of time. See: cost of
costed bill of materialA form of bill of material that ex- sales.C
tends the quantity per of every component in the bill by
the cost of the components.C cost of lost salesProfit that is foregone because of a
stock-out situation.C
cost elementIn activity-based cost accounting, the
lowest subdivision of a resource, activity, or cost cost of poor qualityThe cost associated with providing
object.C poor quality products or services. There are four catego-
ries of costs: (1) internal failure costs (costs associated
cost engineerAn engineer whose judgment and expe- with defects found before the customer receives the
rience are used in the application of scientific principles product or service); (2) external failure costs (costs as-
and techniques to problems of cost estimation and cost sociated with defects found after the customer receives
control in business planning, profitability analysis, the product or service); (3) appraisal costs (costs in-
project management and production planning, schedul- curred to determine the degree of conformance to qual-
ing, and control.C ity requirements); and (4) prevention costs (costs
cost estimation(1) Specification of the relationship incurred to keep failure and appraisal costs to a mini-
between cost and the underlying cost drivers. (2) In mum). Syn: cost of quality.C
project management, creating an approximation of the cost of qualitySyn: cost of poor quality.C
resources and associated costs needed to complete a
project.C cost of salesThe total cost attached (allocated) to
units of finished product delivered to customers during
cost equalization point (CEP)A point or quantity at the period. See: cost of goods sold.C
which the cost curves of two manufacturing methods
cost performance index (CPI)A measure of project effi-
have an equal value.C
ciency. Earned value over actual costs.C
cost, insurance, freight (CIF)A freight term indicating
cost-plus contractA pricing method where the buyer
that the seller is responsible for cost, the marine insur-
agrees to pay the seller all the acceptable costs of the
ance, and the freight charges on an ocean shipment of
product or service up to a maximum cost plus a fixed
goods.C
fee. Syn: cost-type contract.C
cost managementControl of activities to eliminate
cost-plus-fixed-fee contractA contract in which the sel-
waste, improve cost drivers, and plan operations. This
ler is paid for costs specified as allowable in the con-
process should affect the organizations setting of
tract plus a stipulated fixed fee.C
strategy. Factors such as product pricing, introduction
of new products, and distribution of existing products cost-plus-incentive-fee contractA contract in which the
are examples of strategic decisions that are affected by seller is paid for costs specified as allowable in the con-
cost management.C tract plus a profit provided certain provisions are met.C

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 35


cost pool crew size

cost poolIn activity-based cost accounting, an aggre- value items, although properties other than value can
gation of resources assigned to activities or activities influence the frequency.C
assigned to cost objects. Items may be aggregated or
count-per-unit chartSyn: U chart.C
disaggregated depending on how the data are to be
used.C count pointA point in a flow of material or sequence of
operations at which parts, subassemblies, or assem-
cost-ratio planA variation of the weighted-point plan of
blies are counted as being complete. Count points may

C supplier evaluation and selection. The cost ratio is


obtained by dividing the bid price by the weighted
scores determined by the weighted-point plan. This
be designated at the ends of lines or upon removal from
a work center, but most often they are designated as
the points at which material transfers from one depart-
procedure determines the true costs by taking into
ment to another. Syn: pay point.C
account compensating factors. Suppliers are selected
and/or evaluated based on the lowest cost ratio.C couponA promotional device offering special savings
when a product is purchased.C
cost reductionThe act of lowering the cost of goods or
services by securing a lower price, reducing labor costs, CpA widely used process capability index. It is calcu-
and so forth. In cost reduction, the item usually is not lated by dividing the difference between the upper spe-
changed, but the circumstances around which the item cification limit (USL) and the lower specification limit
is secured are changedas opposed to value analysis, (LSL) by 6 times the standard deviation (s) or
in which the item itself is actually changed to produce a C

C
lower cost.C
CPFRAbbreviation for collaborative planning, forecast-
cost tradeoffConsidering the advantages and disad- ing, and replenishment.C
vantages of one method to another, such as different
CPI1) Abbreviation for continuous process improve-
avenues of distribution or providing customer service.C
ment. 2) Abbreviation for cost performance index.C
cost-type contractSyn: cost-plus contract.C
CPIMAbbreviation for Certified in Production and
cost varianceIn cost accounting, the difference be- Inventory Management.C
tween what has been budgeted for an activity and what
CpkAn index method of the variability of a process. A
it actually costs.C
widely used process capability index. It is expressed as:
cost-volume-profit analysisThe study of how profits
C
change with various levels of output and selling price.C
where m is the mean and s is the standard deviation.C
COTDAbbreviation for complete and on-time delivery.C
CPMAbbreviation for critical path method.C
COTSAbbreviation for commercial-off-the-shelf.C
C.P.M.Abbreviation for Certified Purchasing Manager.C
Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals
(CSCMP)A not-for-profit worldwide organization of lo- CPOFAbbreviation for capacity planning using overall
gistics and supply chain managers. It provides educa- factors.C
tional opportunities through a variety of activities.C CPUAbbreviation for central processing unit.C
counselingThe providing of basic, technical, and cranes and hoistsEquipment capable of moving items
sometimes professional human assistance to em- up and down or side to side.C
ployees to help them with personal and work-related
crashingIn project management, adding resources to
problems.C
critical path or near-critical path activities on a project
count chartSyn: c chart.C to shorten project duration after analyzing the project to
counterpurchaseWhen an exporter buys unrelated identify the most cost-effective course of action.C
goods or services from an importer.C credit periodThe time allowed a customer to pay an
countertradeAny transaction in which partial or full invoice in full.C
payment is made with goods instead of money. This of- crew sizeThe number of people required to perform an
ten applies in international trade.C operation. The associated standard time should
count frequencyThe number of times an item in inven- represent the total time for all crew members to per-
tory is counted during a period of time. Generally, high- form the operation, not the net start to finish time for
value inventories are counted more frequently than low- the crew.C

36 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


crew-size standard cross-functional organization

crew-size standardA labor estimate of the number of eration, or at an operation where key components are
workers necessary to complete the required output for a consumed.C
given shift.C
critical processesProcesses that have large potential
critical activityAny activity on the critical path of a for losseither money, property, or human life.C
project; an activity with no slack time (i.e., any delay in critical process parametersA variable or a set of va-
the activity will delay project completion). See: critical riables that dominates the other variables. Focusing on
path, critical path method.C

critical chainThe longest sequence of dependent


these variables will yield the greatest return in invest-
ment in quality control and improvement.C C
events through a project network, considering both critical ratioA dispatching rule that calculates a priority
technical and resource dependencies in completing the index number by dividing the time to due date remain-
project. The critical chain is the constraint of a project.C ing by the expected elapsed time to finish the job. For
critical chain methodIn the theory of constraints, a example,
network planning technique for the analysis of a timeremaining 30
criticalratio .75
projects completion time, used for planning and con- workremaining 40
trolling project activities. The critical chain, which de- A ratio less than 1.0 indicates the job is behind sche-
termines project duration, is based on technological dule, a ratio greater than 1.0 indicates the job is ahead
and resource constraints. Strategic buffering of paths of schedule, and a ratio of 1.0 indicates the job is on
and resources is used to increase project completion schedule.C
success. See: critical chain, critical path method.C
critical success factorOne of a few organizational ob-
critical characteristicsThe attributes of a product that jectives whose achievement should be sufficient for or-
must function properly to avoid the failure of the prod- ganizational success.C
uct. Syn: functional requirements.C
critical-to-quality characteristics (CTQs)Critical-to-
critical failureThe malfunction of those parts that are quality characteristics (CTQs) are the important and
essential for continual operation or the safety of the measurable traits of a product or process whose per-
user.C formance targets must be met to satisfy the customer.
They adjust improvement efforts to meet consumer re-
critical massIndividuals who add value to the product
quirements. CTQs represent customer expectations for
or service. These individuals include personnel working
a product.C
directly on the product, personnel providing a service to
the customer, and personnel who provide support for critical value analysisA modified ABC analysis where a
the product or service (e.g., after-sale service).C subjective metric of the criticality of an item is assigned
to each item.C
critical pathThe longest sequence of activities through
a network. The critical path defines the planned project CRMAbbreviation for customer relationship manage-
duration. See: critical activity, critical path method.C ment and customer relations management.C

critical path activityIn project management, any activi- cross-dockingThe concept of packing products on the
ty on a networks critical path as determined by the crit- incoming shipments so they can be easily sorted at in-
ical path method.C termediate warehouses or for outgoing shipments
based on final destination. The items are carried from
critical path lead timeSyn: cumulative lead time.C the incoming vehicle docking point to the outgoing ve-
critical path method (CPM)A network planning tech- hicle docking point without being stored in inventory at
nique for the analysis of a projects completion time the warehouse. Cross-docking reduces inventory in-
used for planning and controlling the activities in a vestment and storage space requirements. Syn: direct
project. By showing each of these activities and their loading.C
associated times, the critical path, which identifies cross-functional integrationThread that weaves the
those elements that actually constrain the total time for entire organization and manufacturing process into one
the project, can be determined. See: critical chain me- fabric in which each of the different parts serves and
thod, network analysis, critical activity, critical path.C supports the whole. See: integrated enterprise.C
critical point backflushBackflush performed at a spe- cross-functional organizationOrganization where
cific point in the manufacturing process, at a critical op- groups of directors, executives, and managers with a

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 37


cross-functional team cumulative sum control chart

diversity of skills and backgrounds work on problems work ethics, education, religion, and consumer and eco-
outside the bounds of their functional responsibilities. logical factors.C
See: integrated enterprise.C
cumulative available-to-promiseA calculation based on
cross-functional teamA set of individuals from various the available-to-promise (ATP) figure in the master
departments assigned a specific task such as imple- schedule. Two methods of computing the cumulative
menting new computer software. See: core team.C available-to-promise are used, with and without look-

C cross plotSyn: scatter chart.C


cross-sellingOccurs when customers buy additional
ahead calculation. The cumulative with look-ahead ATP
equals the ATP from the previous period plus the MPS
of the period minus the backlog of the period minus the
products or services after the initial purchase.C sum of the differences between the backlogs and MPSs
cross-shipmentMaterial flow activity where materials of all future periods until, but not to include, the period
are shipped to customers from a secondary shipping where point production exceeds the backlogs. The cu-
point rather than from a preferred shipping point.C mulative without look-ahead procedure equals the ATP
in the previous period plus the MPS, minus the backlog
cross-sourcingA method of sourcing that uses one in the period being considered. See: available-to-
supplier in one area of business for a product or service promise.C
and uses a different supplier in a different area of busi-
ness for similar products or services. The suppliers can cumulative lead timeThe longest planned length of
then compete for future business.C time to accomplish the activity in question. It is found by
reviewing the lead time for each bill of material path
cross-subsidyIn activity-based cost accounting, the
below the item; whichever path adds up to the greatest
situation of assigning too much or too little cost to a
number defines cumulative lead time. Syn: aggregate
cost object. This may lead to poor decision making rela-
lead time, combined lead time, composite lead time,
tive to the economic goals of the organization.C
critical path lead time, stacked lead time. See: planning
cross-trainingProviding training or experience in sev- horizon, planning time fence.C
eral different areas (e.g., training an employee on sev-
cumulative manufacturing lead timeThe cumulative
eral machines). Cross-training provides backup workers
planned lead time when all purchased items are as-
in case the primary operator is unavailable.C
sumed to be in stock. Syn: composite manufacturing
CRPAbbreviation for capacity requirements planning.C lead time.C
CRTAbbreviation for current reality tree.C cumulative MRPThe planning of parts and subassem-
blies by exploding a master schedule, as in MRP, except
CSCMPAbbreviation for Council of Supply Chain
that the master-scheduled items and therefore the ex-
Management Professionals.C
ploded requirements are time phased in cumulative
CSCPAbbreviation for Certified Supply Chain form. Usually these cumulative figures cover a planning
Professional.C year.C
CSRAbbreviation for customer service cumulative receiptsA cumulative number, or running
representative.C total, as a count of parts received in a series or se-
CTPAbbreviation for capable-to-promise.C quence of shipments. The cumulative receipts provide a
number that can be compared with the cumulative fig-
CTQsAbbreviation for critical-to-quality characteristicsC
ures from a plan developed by cumulative MRP.C
cubageCubic volume of space being used or available
cumulative sumThe accumulated total of all forecast
for shipping or storage.C
errors, both positive and negative. This sum will ap-
cube utilizationIn warehousing, a measurement of the proach zero if the forecast is unbiased. Syn: sum of
utilization of the total storage capacity of a vehicle or deviations.C
warehouse.C
cumulative sum control chartA control chart on which
cubic spaceIn warehousing, a measurement of space the plotted value is the cumulative sum of deviations of
available or required in transportation and successive samples from a target value. The ordinate of
warehousing.C each plotted point represents the algebraic sum of the
previous ordinate and the most recent deviations from
cultural environmentThe sociocultural factors of the
the target.C
organizations external environment. It includes values,

38 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


cumulative system customer order servicing system

cumulative systemA method for planning and control- customer-as-participantA service system that contains
ling production that makes use of cumulative MRP, cu- a high level of customer involvement in part of the ser-
mulative requirements, and cumulative counts.C vice delivery.C

cumulative trauma disorderAn occupational injury be- customer-as-productA service system designed to ac-
lieved to be caused by repetitive motions such as typing tually perform the service on the customer, such as in
or twisting.C health care or hair salons.C

cumulative yieldSyn: cascading yield loss, composite


yield.C
customer contact centersCenters that combine phone
centers and web contact services to enable customers
to contact the center 24 hours a day via phone, web, or
C
current assetsAn accounting/financial term (balance email.C
sheet classification of accounts) representing the short-
term resources owned by a company, including cash, customer convergenceAn internet-based marketing
accounts receivable, and inventories. See: assets, concept in which organizations must provide descrip-
balance sheet.C tions of the goods and services they offer so that poten-
tial customers locate or converge on the appropriate
current cost1) The current or replacement cost of la- websites.C
bor, material, or overhead. Its computation is based on
customer coproductionThe customer is part of the
current performance or measurements, and it is used to
service delivery process. For example, in grocery stores
address todays costs before production as a revision of
customers often have the option to use the self check-
annual standard costs. 2) An assets value based on the
out.C
cost of an identical asset purchased today.C
customer defection analysisAnalyzing the customers
current finish timeIn project management, the present
who have stopped buying to determine why.C
estimate of an activitys finish time.C
customer-defined attributesThe characteristics of a
current liabilitiesThe debts owed by a company and
good or service that are viewed as being important in
expected to be paid within 12 months. See: liabilities,
addressing the needs of the customer. See: house of
balance sheet.C
quality.C
current priceThe price currently being paid as opposed customer drivenA companys consideration of cus-
to standard cost.C tomer wants and desires in deciding what is produced
current ratioCurrent assets divided by current and its quality.C
liabilities.C customer facingA hardware or software product, tech-
current reality tree (CRT)A logic-based tool for using nology, or any thing or person that a businesss cus-
cause-and-effect relationships to determine root prob- tomer deals with directly.C
lems that cause the observed undesirable effects of the customer orderAn order from a customer for a particu-
system. See: root cause analysis.C lar product or a number of products. It is often referred
current start dateIn project management, the present to as an actual demand to distinguish it from a fore-
estimate of an activitys start date.C casted demand. See: booked orders.C
customer/order fulfillment processA series of
curve fittingAn approach to forecasting based on a
customers interactions with an organization through
straight line, polynomial, or other curve that describes
the order filling process, including product/service
some historical time series data.C
design, production and delivery, and order status
customer1) A person or organization receiving a good, reporting.C
service, or information. See: external customer, internal
customer order promisingSyn: order promising.C
customer. 2) In project management, every project has
a customer who may be internal or external to the or- customer order servicing systemAn automated system
ganization and who is responsible for the final project for order entry, where orders are keyed into a local ter-
acceptance.C minal and a bill-of-material translator converts the cata-
log ordering numbers into required manufacturing part
customer acquisitionIn marketing, the rate at which
numbers and due dates for the MRP system. Advanced
new customers are switching to an organizations
systems contain customer information, sales history,
brand.C
forecasting information, and product option compatibili-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 39


customer partner cybermarketing

ty checks to facilitate order processing, cleaning up total that were supposed to be shipped in that time pe-
orders before placing a demand on the manufacturing riod. Syn: customer service level, fill rate, order-fill ratio,
system. Syn: configuration system, sales order - percent of fill. Ant: stockout percentage. 2) In a make-
configuration.C to-order company, it is usually some comparison of the
number of jobs or dollars shipped in a given time period
customer partnerA customer organization with which a
(e.g., a week) compared with the number of jobs or dol-
company has formed a customer-supplier partnership.
lars that were supposed to be shipped in that time

C See: outpartnering.C
customer partnershipSyn: customer-supplier
partnership.C
period.C
customer service representative (CSR)Personnel as-
signed to customer relations who answer customer
customer profitabilityEstimating the profit retained on questions and who provide technical support.C
business with a specific customer.C
customer shareIn marketing, a measurement (usually
customer relationship management (CRM)A marketing a percentage) of how many potential customers are at-
philosophy based on putting the customer first. The col- tracted to a brand. It is a measurement of the recogni-
lection and analysis of information designed for sales tion of the brand in the marketplace and the
and marketing decision support (as contrasted to en- predisposition of the customer to buy the brand when
terprise resources planning information) to understand presented with a choice of competing brands.C
and support existing and potential customer needs. It
customer-supplier partnershipA long-term relationship
includes account management, catalog and order entry,
between a buyer and a supplier characterized by team-
payment processing, credits and adjustments, and oth-
work and mutual confidence. The supplier is considered
er functions. Syn: customer relations management.C
an extension of the buyers organization. The partner-
customer relations management (CRM)Syn: customer ship is based on several commitments. The buyer pro-
relationship management.C vides long-term contracts and uses fewer suppliers. The
customer satisfactionThe results of delivering a good supplier implements quality assurance processes so
or service that meets customer requirements.C that incoming inspection can be minimized. The suppli-
er also helps the buyer reduce costs and improve prod-
customer segmentationThe practice of dividing a cus-
uct and process designs. Syn: customer partnership.
tomer base into groups of individuals that are similar in
See: outpartnering.C
specific ways relevant to marketing. Traditional segmen-
tation focuses on identifying customer groups based on customer surveysDevices such as interviews or ques-
demographics and attributes such as attitude and psy- tionnaires that aim to collect user data and preferences
chological profiles.C about product or service characteristics.C

customer service1) The ability of a company to ad- customer tolerance timeSyn: demand lead time.C
dress the needs, inquiries, and requests from custom- custom productA product that is made to meet the
ers. 2) A measure of the delivery of a product to the requirements of specific customers.C
customer at the time the customer specified.C
customs brokerA person who manages the paperwork
customer service levelSyn: customer service ratio.C required for international shipping and tracks and
customer service life cycleIn information systems, a moves the shipments through the proper channels.C
model that describes the relationship with a customer custom serviceA service that is created to meet the
as having four phases: requirements, acquisition, own- requirements of specific customers.C
ership, and retirement.C
cut-off controlA procedure for synchronizing cycle
customer service management processA process that counting and transaction processing.C
enables a business to offer post-purchase service and
cwtAbbreviation for hundredweight.C
information to the customer.C
cybercashThe technology that enables online accep-
customer service ratio1) A measure of delivery per-
tance of credit cards, approving customers for payment
formance of finished goods, usually expressed as a per-
before delivery is made.C
centage. In a make-to-stock company, this percentage
usually represents the number of items or dollars (on cybermarketingAny type of internet-based promotion.
one or more customer orders) that were shipped on Many marketing managers use the term to refer to any
schedule for a specific time period, compared with the type of computer-based marketing.C

40 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


cybernetics data date

cyberneticsThe study of control processes in mechani- when material enters a production facility until it exits.
cal, biological, electrical, and information systems.C Syn: throughput time.C

cybernetic systemThe information flow or information cyclical componentA component of demand, usually
system (electronic, mechanical, logical) that controls an describing the impact of the business cycle on demand.
industrial process.C See: decomposition, time series analysis.C
cyclical demandDemand influenced by the increases

D
cyberspaceA common name encompassing both the
internet and other forms of electronic communication.C and decreases in the economy over time.C

cycle1) The interval of time during which a system or


process, such as seasonal demand or a manufacturing
operation, periodically returns to similar initial condi-
D
tions. 2) The interval of time during which an event or dampenersUser-input parameters to suppress the re-
set of events is completed.C porting of insignificant or unimportant action
messages.D
cycle counterAn individual who is assigned to do cycle
counting.C dark factoryA completely automated production facility
with no labor. Syn: lightless plant.D
cycle countingAn inventory accuracy audit technique
dashboardAn easy-to-read management tool similar to
where inventory is counted on a cyclic schedule rather
an automobiles dashboard designed to address a wide
than once a year. A cycle inventory count is usually tak-
range of business objectives by combining business in-
en on a regular, defined basis (often more frequently for
telligence and data integration infrastructure. See: ex-
high-value or fast-moving items and less frequently for
ecutive dashboard.D
low-value or slow-moving items). Most effective cycle
counting systems require the counting of a certain dataAny representations, such as alphabetic or nu-
number of items every workday with each item counted meric characters, to which meaning can be assigned.D
at a prescribed frequency. The key purpose of cycle data acquisitionObtaining data from a source, such as
counting is to identify items in error, thus triggering re- a database, and communicating that data to another
search, identification, and elimination of the cause of database or a data warehouse.D
the errors.C
databaseA data processing file-management ap-
cycle inventorySyn: cycle stock.C proach designed to establish the independence of
computer programs from data files. Redundancy is mi-
cycle reduction stockStock held to reduce delivery
nimized, and data elements can be added to, or deleted
time.C
from, the file structure without necessitating changes to
cycle service levelThe probability of not having a existing computer programs.D
stockout in any one ordering cycle, which begins at the
database management system (DBMS)The software
time an order is placed and ends when the goods are
designed for organizing data and providing the mechan-
placed in stock. Syn: measure of service, service level.C
ism for storing, maintaining, and retrieving that data on
cycle stockOne of the two main conceptual compo- a physical medium (i.e., a database). A DBMS separates
nents of any item inventory, the cycle stock is the most data from the application programs and people who use
active component; the cycle stock depletes gradually as the data and permits many different views of the data.D
customer orders are received and is replenished cycli- data cleansingSifting through a database to find and
cally when supplier orders are received. The other con- fix mistakes such as misspelling, missing information,
ceptual component of the item inventory is the safety and false data.D
stock, which is a cushion of protection against uncer-
tainty in the demand or in the replenishment lead time. data collectionThe act of compiling data for recording,
Syn: cycle inventory.C analysis, or distribution.D
data communicationsTransmission of data in
cycle time1) In industrial engineering, the time be-
computer-readable form using various transmission ve-
tween completion of two discrete units of production.
hicles and paths.D
For example, the cycle time of motors assembled at a
rate of 120 per hour would be 30 seconds. 2) In mate- data dateThe date through which a report has pro-
rials management, it refers to the length of time from vided actual accomplishment. Syn: time-now date.D

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 41


data dictionary decision matrix

data dictionary1) A catalog of requirements and speci- DBMSAbbreviation for database management
fications for an information system. 2) A file that stores system.D
facts about the files and databases for all systems that
DBRAbbreviation for drum-buffer-rope.D
are currently being used or for the software involved.D
D chartA control chart for evaluating a process in
data elementA group of characters that defines an
terms of a demerit (or quality score); for example, a
item at a basic level. Syn: data field.D
weighted sum of counts of various classified noncon-

D data fileA collection of related data records organized


in a specific manner (e.g., one record for each inventory
formities. Syn: demerit chart.D

DDPAbbreviation for distributed data processing.D


item showing product code, unit of measure, production
costs, transactions, selling price, and production lead deadheadThe return of an empty transportation con-
time).D tainer to its point of origin. See: backhauling.D

data integrityAssurance that data accurately reflects debentureA bond that is backed by the general credit
the environment it is representing.D of the issuing firm.D

data miningThe process of studying data to search for deblendThe further processing of a product to adjust
previously unknown relationships. This knowledge is specific physical and chemical properties to within spe-
then applied to achieving specific business goals.D cification ranges.D

data normalizationA database maintenance term used debtAn amount owed to creditors. It is generally equal
in the context of relational databases, which helps to to the total assets in a company less the equity. See:
minimize the duplication of information or safeguard liabilities.D
the database against certain types of logical or struc-
debt-to-equity ratioThe amount of bonds and preferred
tural data anomalies. It is often used when merging da-
stocks relative to the owners equity position. The debt
ta from one or more databases.D
to equity ratio is a measurement of the use of borrowed
data transferThe movement by electronic means of funds to leverage owners equity.D
data from one location to another. The data can take
decentralized authorityThe process of dispersing
the form of voice, text, image, or others. The movement
decision-making governance to staff people below the
is accomplished by communication links between
executive level of an organization.D
computers and a variety of input/output devices.D
decentralized computer networkA network where
data warehouseA repository of data that has been
there is no central computer or computers linked to all
specially prepared to support decision-making applica-
other computers in the group.D
tions. Syn: decision-support data. See: information data
warehouse.D decentralized dispatchingThe organization of the dis-
patching function into individual departmental
date codeA label on products with the date of produc-
dispatchers.D
tion. In food industries, it is often an integral part of the
lot number.D decentralized inventory controlInventory decision mak-
ing exercised at each stocking location for SKUs at that
date effectivityA technique used to identify the effec-
location.D
tive date of a configuration change. A component
change is controlled by effective date within the bill of decentralized purchasingWhen purchasing decisions
material for the unchanged parent part number.D are made locally and not at a central location.D

days of supplyInventory-on-hand metric converted decision matrixA matrix used by teams to evaluate
from units to how long the units will last. For example, if problems or possible solutions. After a matrix is drawn
there are 2,000 units on hand and the company is us- to evaluate possible solutions, for example, the team
ing 200 per day, than there are 10 days of supply.D lists the solutions in the far left vertical column. Next,
the team selects criteria to rate the possible solutions,
days outstandingA term used to imply the amount of
writing them across the top row. Third, each possible
an asset or liability measured in days of sales. For ex-
solution is rated on a scale of 1 to 5 for each criterion
ample, accounts payable days are the typical number of
and the rating recorded in the corresponding grid.
days that a firm delays payments of invoices to its
Finally, the ratings of all the criteria for each possible
suppliers.D
solution are added to determine its total score. The total

42 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


decision theory defect

score is then used to help decide which solution de- production rate of the supplying operation do not con-
serves the most attention.D strain production or use rates of the next operation.D
decision theoryA systematic approach to making deci- decoupling inventoryAn amount of inventory kept be-
sions, particularly when uncertainty is present.D tween entities in a manufacturing or distribution net-
decisions under certaintySimple decisions that as- work to create independence between processes or
sume complete information and no uncertainty con- entities. The objective of decoupling inventory is to dis-
nected with the analysis of decisions.D
decisions under riskDecision problems in which the
connect the rate of use from the rate of supply of the
item. See: buffer.D D
analyst elects to consider several possible futures, the decoupling pointsThe locations in the product struc-
probabilities of which can be estimated.D ture or distribution network where inventory is placed to
create independence between processes or entities.
decisions under uncertaintyDecisions for which the
Selection of decoupling points is a strategic decision
analyst elects to consider several possible futures, the
that determines customer lead times and inventory in-
probabilities of which cannot be estimated.D
vestment. See: control points.D
decision-support dataSyn: data warehouse.D
decryptionTransformation of encrypted text into a
decision support system (DSS)A computer system de- readable format.D
signed to assist managers in selecting and evaluating
courses of action by providing a logical, usually quantit- dedicated capacityA work center that is designated to
ative, analysis of the relevant factors.D produce a single item or a limited number of similar
items. Equipment that is dedicated may be special
decision tableA means of displaying logical conditions equipment or may be grouped general-purpose equip-
in an array that graphically illustrates actions asso- ment committed to a composite part.D
ciated with stated conditions.D
dedicated contract carrierA third-party hauler that
decision treeA method of analysis that evaluates
works exclusively for a single customer.D
alternative decisions in a tree-like structure to estimate
values and/or probabilities. Decision trees take into dedicated equipmentEquipment whose use is re-
account the time value of future earnings by using a stricted to specific operations on a limited set of
rollback concept. Calculations are started at the far components.D
right-hand side, then traced back through the branches
dedicated lineA production line permanently confi-
to identify the appropriate decision.D
gured to run well-defined parts, one piece at a time,
decision variablesThe variables that will be changed to from station to station.D
find the optimal solution in an optimization problem.D
de-expediteThe reprioritizing of jobs to a lower level of
declared valueThe value of goods declared on a bill of activity. All extraordinary actions involving these jobs
lading, used to determine a freight rate or limit the car- stop.D
riers liability.D
defamationInjury to anothers reputation by a public
decompositionA method of forecasting where time se-
utterance: print (libel) or oral (slander).D
ries data are separated into up to three components:
trend, seasonal, and cyclical; where trend includes the defaultThe action that will be taken by a computer
general horizontal upward or downward movement over program when the user does not specify a variable
time; seasonal includes a recurring demand pattern parameter.D
such as day of the week, weekly, monthly, or quarterly;
defectA goods or services nonfulfillment of an in-
and cyclical includes any repeating, nonseasonal pat-
tended requirement or reasonable expectation for use,
tern. A fourth component is random, that is, data with
including safety considerations. There are four classes
no pattern. The new forecast is made by projecting the
of defects: Class 1, Very Serious, leads directly to se-
patterns individually determined and then combining
vere injury or catastrophic economic loss; Class 2,
them. See: cyclical component, random component,
Serious, leads directly to significant injury or significant
seasonal component, trend component.D
economic loss; Class 3, Major, is related to major prob-
decouplingCreating independence between supply lems with respect to intended normal or reasonably fo-
and use of material. Commonly denotes providing in- reseeable use; and Class 4, Minor, is related to minor
ventory between operations so that fluctuations in the problems with respect to intended normal or reasonably

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 43


defects per million opportunities demand chain management

foreseeable use. See: blemish, imperfection, delivery lead timeThe time from the receipt of a cus-
nonconformity.D tomer order to the delivery of the product. Syn: delivery
cycle.D
defects per million opportunitiesThe quantity of de-
fects per one million defect opportunitiesa potential delivery policyThe companys goal for the time to ship
problem that is important to the customer.D the product after the receipt of a customers order. The
policy is sometimes stated as our quoted delivery

D
defects per unitThe average number of blemishes on time.D
a particular product (e.g., a television cabinet).D
delivery reliabilityA performance criterion that meas-
deficiencyFailure to meet quality standards.D ures how consistently goods and services are delivered
on, or before, the promised time.D
define-measure-analyze-design-verifyA six sigma
process that outlines the steps needed to create a delivery scheduleThe required or agreed time or rate
completely new business process or product at six sig- of delivery of goods or services purchased for a future
ma quality levels.D period.D

define-measure-analyze-improve-control (DMAIC)The delivery speedA performance criterion that measures


sequence of steps for improvement projects within six- how quickly a product or service can be delivered once
sigma quality control.D the demand is identified.D
delivery windowA time frame for when goods or ser-
define, measure, analyze, improve, control (DMAIC)
vices should be delivered.D
processA six sigma improvement process comprised
of five stages: (1) Determine the nature of the problem, Delphi methodA qualitative forecasting technique
(2) Measure existing performance and commence re- where the opinions of experts are combined in a series
cording data and facts that offer information about the of iterations. The results of each iteration are used to
underlying causes of the problem, (3) Study the infor- develop the next, so that convergence of the experts
mation to determine the root causes of the problem, (4) opinions is obtained. See: management estimation,
Improve the process by effecting solutions to the prob- panel consensus.D
lem, and (5) Monitor the process until the solutions be-
demandA need for a particular product or component.
come ingrained.D
The demand could come from any number of sources
define phaseA step in the six sigma DMAIC process in (e.g., a customer order or forecast, an interplant re-
which project goals and customer deliverables are iden- quirement, a branch warehouse request for a service
tified. See: design-measure-analyze-improve-control part or the manufacturing of another product). At the
process.D finished goods level, demand data are usually different
from sales data because demand does not necessarily
degrees of freedomA statistical term indicating the result in sales (i.e., if there is no stock, there will be no
number of variables or data points used for testing a sale). There are generally up to four components of de-
relationship. The greater the degrees of freedom, the mand: cyclical component, random component, sea-
greater the confidence that can be placed on the statis- sonal component, and trend component. See: booked
tical significance of the results.D orders.D
delay reportSyn: anticipated delay report.D demand-based order quantityAn order system using
forecast or derived demand for one or more future pe-
delay reportingReporting against an operation status
riods (rather than a fixed quantity as in economic order
of a manufacturing order on an exception basis, when
quantity).D
delays are anticipated.D
demand chain1) A demand chain is composed of the
delinquent orderSyn: past due order.D enterprises that sell a businesss goods or services. 2)
deliverableAny unique and verifiable product or result Supply chain as seen from the viewpoint of the custom-
that is needed to complete a process or project.D er, the entity who chooses among competing products
and services and thus controls the demand.D
delivery appointmentThe time for goods to arrive at a
demand chain managementA supply chain inventory
selected location.D
management approach that concentrates on demand
delivery cycleSyn: delivery lead time.D pull rather than supplier push inventory models.D

44 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


demand curve demand time fence (DTF)

demand curveA graphic description of the relationship forecasts and reconciles volume and mix variations in
between price and quantity demanded in a market, as- the forecast.D
suming that all other factors stay the same. Quantity
demand planningThe process of combining statistical
demanded of a product is measured on the horizontal
forecasting techniques and judgment to construct de-
axis for an array of different prices measured on the
mand estimates for products or services (both high and
vertical axis.D
low volume; lumpy and continuous) across the supply
demand depositsDeposits that can be withdrawn on
demand or paid to a third party by check.D
chain from the suppliers' raw materials to the consum-
er's needs. Items can be aggregated by product family,
geographical location, product life cycle, and so forth, to
D
demand-driven supply networkA situation where a determine an estimate of consumer demand for fi-
customer purchase initiates real-time information flows nished products, service parts, and services. Numerous
through the supply chain which then causes movement forecasting models are tested and combined with
of product through the network.D judgment from marketing, sales, distributors, warehous-
demand during lead timeThe quantity of a product ex- ing, service parts, and other functions. Actual sales are
pected to be withdrawn from stock or to be consumed compared with forecasts provided by various models
during its replenishment lead time when usage is at the and judgments to determine the best integration of
forecasted rate. See: expected demand.D techniques and judgment to minimize forecast error.
See: demand management.D
demand filterA standard that is set to monitor sales
data for individual items in forecasting models. It is demand pullThe triggering of material movement to a
usually set to be tripped when the demand for a period work center only when that work center is ready to be-
differs from the forecast by more than some number of gin the next job. In effect, it shortens or eliminates the
mean absolute deviations.D queue from in front of a work center, but it can cause a
queue at the end of a previous work center. Demand
demand forecastingForecasting the demand for a par- pull also can occur within a supply chain, in which case
ticular good, component, or service.D it often is called a demand chain.D
demand forecast updatingRecomputing a forecast af- demand rateA statement of requirements in terms of
ter deleting the oldest data and adding data that oc- quantity per unit of time (hour, day, week, month,
curred since the last forecast revision.D etc.).D

demand lead timeThe amount of time potential cus- demand riskThe risk that declining economic activity
tomers are willing to wait for the delivery of a good or a substantially reduces the demand for a firms products
service. Syn: customer tolerance time.D or services.D

demand management1) The function of recognizing demand segmentationCategorizing demand types into
all demands for goods and services to support the mar- groups that share similar characteristics (e.g., govern-
ketplace. It involves prioritizing demand when supply is ment, large customers, seasonal products). Similar
lacking. Proper demand management facilitates the segments can be treated alike in business or capacity
planning and use of resources for profitable business planning.D
results. 2) In marketing, the process of planning, ex- demand shapingThe practice of using the four Ps
ecuting, controlling, and monitoring the design, pricing, (product, pricing, placement, and promotion) and other
promotion, and distribution of products and services to market variables to influence the demand of a product
bring about transactions that meet organizational and or service so that the demand better matches the avail-
individual needs. Syn: marketing management. See: able supply. See: four Ps.D
demand planning.D
demand-side analysisTechniques such as market
demand management processA process that weighs research, surveys, focus groups, and performance/cost
both customer demand and a firms output capabilities, modeling used to identify emerging technologies.D
and tries to balance the two. Demand management is
demand time fence (DTF)1) That point in time inside
made up of planning demand, communicating demand,
of which the forecast is no longer included in total de-
influencing demand, and prioritizing demand.D
mand and projected available inventory calculations;
demand managerPerson who assists sales and mar- inside this point, only customer orders are considered.
keting in the development and maintenance of sales Beyond this point, total demand is a combination of ac-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 45


demand uncertainty derived demand

tual orders and forecasts, depending on the forecast fied loading or unloading time. See: detention,
consumption technique chosen. 2) In some contexts, express.D
the demand time fence may correspond to that point in
denied party listA list of organizations that are unau-
the future inside which changes to the master schedule
thorized to submit a bid for an activity.D
must be approved by an authority higher than the mas-
ter scheduler. Note, however, that customer orders may densityA measure of the weight of an item compared
still be promised inside the demand time fence without to its volume. Because density can influence the num-

D higher authority approval if there are quantities


available-to-promise (ATP). Beyond the demand time
ber of units that can be carried by a particular truck,
this is a factor in defining transportation charges.D
fence, the master scheduler may change the MPS with- departmental stocksAn informal system of holding
in the limits of established rescheduling rules, without some stock in a production department. This action is
the approval of higher authority. See: option overplan- taken as a protection from stockouts in the stockroom
ning, planning time fence, time fence.D or for convenience; however, it results in increased in-
demand uncertaintyThe uncertainty or variability in ventory investment and possible degradation of the ac-
demand as measured by the standard deviation, mean curacy of the inventory records.D
absolute deviation (MAD), or variance of forecast department overhead rateThe overhead rate applied
errors.D to jobs passing through a department.D

demerit chartSyn: D chart.D dependent demandDemand that is directly related to


or derived from the bill of material structure for other
Deming circleThe concept of a continuously rotating
items or end products. Such demands are therefore
wheel of plan-do-check-action (PDCA) used to show the
calculated and need not and should not be forecast. A
need for interaction among market research, design,
given inventory item may have both dependent and in-
production, and sales to improve quality. See: plan-do-
dependent demand at any given time. For example, a
check-action.D
part may simultaneously be the component of an as-
Deming PrizeAn award given annually to organizations sembly and sold as a service part. See: independent
that, according to the award guidelines, have success- demand.D
fully applied companywide quality control based on sta- depletionThe reduction in the value of a capital asset
tistical quality control and will keep up with it in the (usually a natural resource) in the balance sheet and
future. Although the award is named in honor of W. charging this amount as an expense against income for
Edwards Deming, its criteria are not specifically related the period. See: capital recovery.D
to Demings teachings. There are three separate divi-
sions for the award: the Deming Application Prize, the deployment planning and schedulingPlanning how to
Deming Prize for Individuals, and the Deming Prize for use existing inventory to meet demand requirements.D
Overseas Companies. The award process is overseen by depositionThe sworn questioning, outside of court, of
the Deming Prize Committee of the Union of Japanese a potential witness by the other sides attorney.D
Scientists and Engineers in Tokyo.D
depreciationAn allocation of the original value of an
Demings 14 PointsSyn: 14 Points.D asset against current income to represent the declining
value of the asset as a cost of that time period.
demographicsThe characteristics of a specific popula-
Depreciation does not involve a cash payment. It acts
tion, such as a set of potential customers.D
as a tax shield and thereby reduces the tax payment.
demographic segmentationIn marketing, dividing po- See: capital recovery, depletion, double-declining-
tential markets by characteristics of potential custom- balance depreciation, straight line depreciation, units-
ers, such as age, sex, income, and education.D of-production depreciation.D

demonstrated capacityProven capacity calculated depreciation of a currencyA decrease in the buying


from actual performance data, usually expressed as the power of a countrys currency in terms of other coun-
average number of items produced multiplied by the tries goods and services.D
standard hours per item. See: maximum demonstrated derived demandDemand for component products that
capacity.D arises from the demand for final design products. For
example, the demand for steel is derived from the de-
demurrageThe carrier charges and fees applied when
mand for automobiles.D
rail freight cars and ships are retained beyond a speci-

46 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


description by brand detailed scheduling

description by brandA method to identify a product or products. This process is associated with green manu-
service required; requesting by brand usually means the facturing.D
product or service provides some advantage over other
design for serviceSimplification of parts and
brands.D
processes to improve the after-sale service of a product.
description by market grade/industry standardA Syn: design for maintainability.D
method to identify a product or service required when design for six sigmaAn approach to designing products
there is a high level of understanding between user and
supplier.D
and processes that attempts to ensure the firm can
provide products or services that meet six sigma quality
levels. These quality levels correspond to approximately
D
description by performance characteristicsA method
to identify a product or service by specifying the perfor- 3.4 defects per million opportunities.D
mance required.D design for the environment (DFE)Considering health,
description by specificationA method to identify a safety, and environmental aspects of a product during
product or service required by communicating its cha- the design and development phase of product
racteristics in detail.D development.D

deseasonalized dataData from which seasonality has design for the supply chainEnhancement of a firms
been removed using annual moving averages.D product design in consideration of the issues that will
arise in the supply chain, from raw materials to the final
deshiA Japanese word meaning student.D stage of the products life cycle.D
designThe conversion of a need or innovation into a designing in quality vs. inspecting in qualitySyn: pre-
product, process, or service that meets both the enter- vention vs. detection.D
prise and customer expectations. The design process
design of experiments (DOE)1) A process for structur-
consists of translating a set of functional requirements
ing statistically valid studies in any science. 2) A quality
into an operational product, process, or service.D
management technique used to evaluate the effect of
design changeover flexibilityThe capability of the exist- carefully planned and controlled changes to input
ing production system to accommodate and introduce a process variables on the output variable. The objective
large variety of major design changes quickly.D is to improve production processes.D
design cycleThe interval of time between the start of design phaseOne of the six sigma phases of quality. It
the design process of one model and the completion of involves improvement project identification and selec-
the design process for the model.D tion. See: design-measure-analyze-improve-control
process.D
design engineeringThe discipline consisting of process
engineering and product engineering.D design reviewA technique for evaluating a proposed
design to ensure that the design (1) is supported by
design for maintainabilitySyn: design for service.D
adequate materials and materials that are available on
design for manufacturabilitySimplification of parts, a timely basis, (2) will perform successfully during use,
products, and processes to improve quality and reduce (3) can be manufactured at low cost, and (4) is suitable
manufacturing costs.D for prompt field maintenance.D
design for manufacture and assembly (DFMA)A prod- design simplificationA process of reducing the number
uct development approach that involves the manufac- of pieces in a product or machine, eliminating features
turing function in the initial stages of product design to that are seldom needed, and eliminating steps in the
ensure ease of manufacturing and assembly. See: early production process.D
manufacturing involvement.D design-to-orderSyn: engineer-to-order.D
design for qualityA product design approach that uses destructive testingInspection that renders the in-
quality measures to capture the extent to which the de- spected part inoperable.D
sign meets the needs of the target market (customer
attributes), as well as its actual performance, aesthet- detailed planning and controlThe planning of a project
ics, and cost. See: total quality engineering.D in the short term, covering the present time up until a
few weeks out.D
design for remanufactureProducts developed in a
detailed schedulingSyn: operations scheduling.D
manner that allows components to be used in other

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 47


detail file direct loading

detail fileA file that contains manufacturing, routing, or petitionfocusing on making a product or service
specification details. See: master file.D unique.D
detentionCarrier charges and fees applied when truck digital cash or moneyAn electronic currency equivalent
trailers are retained beyond a specified loading or un- of currency or coins.D
loading time. See: demurrage, express.D
dimensions of qualityAn aspect of quality that is speci-
deteriorationProduct spoilage, damage to the pack- fied to enhance the ability to define quality. The most

D age, and so forth. This is one of the considerations in


inventory carrying cost.D
commonly used list for products was created by David
Garvin. His dimensions are aesthetics, conformance,
durability, features, perceived quality, performance, re-
deterministic modelsModels where no uncertainty is
liability, and serviceability. The most commonly used list
included (e.g., inventory models without safety stock
for service quality was created by Parasuraman,
considerations).D
Zeithamel, and Berry. This list is assurance, availability,
deviationThe difference, usually the absolute differ- completeness, empathy, pleasantness, professionalism,
ence, between a number and the mean of a set of responsiveness, service reliability, tangibles, and
numbers, or between a forecast value and the actual timeliness.D
value.D
direct costingSyn: variable costing.D
Deweys reflective thinkingA problem solving tech-
direct costs1) In traditional cost accounting, variable
nique with a formal sequence of (1) problem definition,
costs that can be directly attributed to a particular job
(2) problem analysis, (3) brainstorming solutions, (4)
or operation. Direct material and direct labor are tradi-
development of proposed solutions, and (5) solution
tionally considered direct costs. 2) In activity-based cost
testing and validation.D
(ABC) accounting, a cost that can specifically be traced
DFMAAbbreviation for design for manufacture and and is economically feasible to track to a particular cost
assembly.D object (e.g., the units produced, a production line, a de-
diagnostic journey and remedial journeyA two-phase partment, a manufacturing plant). In contrast, if the cost
investigation used by teams to solve chronic quality must be allocated across various cost objects, it is an
problems. In the first phasethe diagnostic journeythe indirect cost. Based on the cost object under considera-
team journeys from the symptom of a chronic problem tion, the classification of direct and indirect can change.
to its cause. In the second phasethe remedial jour- ABC accounting assumes that more costs traditionally
neythe team journeys from the cause to its remedy.D viewed as fixed costs are variable and can be traced to
cost objects.D
diagnostic studyA brief investigation or cursory me-
thods study of an operation, process, group, or individ- direct-deduct inventory transaction processingA me-
ual to discover causes of operational difficulties or thod of inventory bookkeeping that decreases the book
problems for which more detailed remedial studies may (computer) inventory of an item as material is issued
be feasible. An appropriate work measurement tech- from stock, and increases the book inventory as trans-
nique may be used to evaluate alternatives or to locate actions processed for each item. The key concept here
major areas requiring improvement.D is that the book record is updated coincidentally with
the movement of material out of or into stock. As a re-
dieA special form used in general-purpose equipment
sult, the book record is a representation of what is phys-
to make specific parts.D
ically in stock. Syn: discrete issue.D
differentiated marketingMarketing to different market
direct deliveryThe consignment of goods directly from
segments with a different marketing strategy for each
the supplier to the buyer, frequently used where a third
segment.D
party acts as intermediary between supplier and
differentiated oligopolyA market in which a few com- buyer.D
panies produce partially differentiated products or ser-
direct laborLabor that is specifically applied to the
vices that are marketed within a given geographical
good being manufactured or used in the performance of
area. Differentiation may be based on quality, features,
the service. Syn: touch labor.D
styling, or services offered along with the product. See:
industry structure types.D direct labor costThe compensation of workers who are
involved in converting material into a finished product.D
differentiation strategyA business strategy that focus-
es on setting a product or service apart from the com- direct loadingSyn: cross-docking.D

48 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


direct marketing discrete order quantity

direct marketingCommunicating directly with consum- discountAn allowance or deduction granted by the sel-
ers in an effort to elicit a response or a transaction.D ler to the buyer, usually when the buyer meets certain
stipulated conditions that reduce the price of the prod-
direct materialMaterial that becomes a part of the fi-
ucts purchased. A quantity discount is an allowance de-
nal product in measurable quantities.D
termined by the quantity or value of the purchase. A
direct materials costThe acquisition cost of all mate- cash discount is an allowance extended to encourage
rials used directly in the finished product.D payment of an invoice on or before a stated date. A
direct materials purchasingPurchasing from suppliers
on a contractual basis for a fixed period of time or
trade discount is a deduction from an established price
for goods or services made by the seller to those en-
D
amount of product. For job shops, the purchasing con- gaged in certain businesses. See: price break.D
tract can be only for one job. For repetitive manufactur- discounted cash flowA method of investment analysis
ing, the materials are usually purchased on contracts in which future cash flows are converted, or discounted,
that last for a model run or at least a year.D to their value at the present time. The net present value
direct numerical control (DNC)A system in which sets of an item is estimated to be the sum of all discounted
of numerical control machines are connected to a com- future cash flows.D
puter, allowing direct control of machines by the com- discount periodThe time allowed a customer to re-
puter without use of external storage media.D ceive a cash discount for timely payment of an invoice.D
direct offsetSimilar to bartering, trading goods or ser- discount rateThe rate of interest charged to commer-
vices for related goods or services or agreeing on co-
cial banks by a central banking authority.D
production.D
discrete available-to-promiseA calculation based on
direct salesSales from the manufacturer to the ulti-
the available-to-promise figure in the master schedule.
mate consumer without going through a distributor or
For the first period, the ATP is the sum of the beginning
retailer.D
inventory plus the MPS quantity minus backlog for all
direct store delivery (DSD)A shipment that bypasses periods until the item is master scheduled again. For all
the customers warehouse and goes directly from the other periods, if a quantity has been scheduled for that
manufacturers plant to the retail store.D time period then the ATP is this quantity minus all cus-
tomer commitments for this and other periods until
direct truck shipmentShipment made without any ad-
another quantity are scheduled in the MPS. For those
ditional stops, such as for loading or changing trucks.D
periods where the quantity scheduled is zero, the ATP is
disabilityA limitation of capability that limits function- zero (even if deliveries have been promised). The prom-
ing within a plant or a company.D ised customer commitments are accumulated and
disassembly bill of materialIn remanufacturing, a bill shown in the period where the item was most recently
of material used as a guide for the inspection in the scheduled. Syn: incremental available-to-promise. See:
teardown and inspection process. On the basis of in- available-to-promise.D
spection, this bill is modified to a bill of repair defining discrete issueSyn: direct-deduct inventory transaction
the actual repair materials and work required. Syn: processing.D
teardown bill of material. See: repair bill of material.D
discrete manufacturingThe production of distinct
disbursementThe physical issuance and reporting of items such as automobiles, appliances, or computers.D
the movement of raw material, components, or other
items from a stores room or warehouse. Taking a part discrete order pickingA method of picking orders in
out of inventory. See: issue.D which the items on one order are picked before the next
order is picked. See: batch picking, order picking, zone
disbursement listSyn: picking list.D picking.D
disciplinary actionAn action taken to enforce com-
discrete order quantityAn order quantity that
pliance with organizational rules and policies.D
represents an integer number of periods of demand.
discontinuous demandA demand pattern that is cha- Most MRP systems employ discrete order quantities.
racterized by large demands interrupted by periods with See: fixed-period requirements, least total cost, least
no demand, as opposed to a continuous or steady (e.g., unit cost, lot-for-lot, part period balancing, period order
daily) demand. Syn: lumpy demand.D quantity, Wagner-Whitin algorithm.D

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 49


discrete variable distribution cost

discrete variableA variable, such as number of de- distressed goodsProducts that are damaged or close
fects, that can take on only certain values (such as in- to their expiration date and cannot be sold at full
tegers). See: continuous variable.D price.D
discussion listA group of people who have all signed distributed inventoryMaintaining inventory in a variety
up on a listserver to participate via email in the discus- of locations to provide better customer service.D
sion of a given topic.D

D
distributed numerical controlAn approach to auto-
diseconomies of scaleOccurs when more outputs are
mated machining in which each machine tool has its
required than the efficient quantity that the facility is
own dedicated microcomputer or computer numerical
designed to produce; this causes an increase in unit
control (CNC). Each machine tools CNC is connected
cost.D
via a network with a minicomputer that handles distri-
disintermediationThe process of eliminating an inter- buted processing between the host mainframe comput-
mediate stage or echelon in a supply chain. Total supply er and the CNC. This minicomputer handles part
chain operating expense is reduced, total supply chain program transfers and machine status data collection.
inventory is reduced, total cycle time is reduced, and This approach is considered more advanced than direct
profits increase among the remaining echelons. See: numerical control, in which several machine tools are
echelon.D tied directly to a central computer.D
dispatch(ing) boardSyn: control board.D distributed systemsComputer systems in multiple lo-
dispatcher1) A production control person whose pri- cations throughout an organization, working in a coop-
mary function is dispatching. 2) A transportation worker erative fashion, with the system at each location
who sends out and tracks cars, buses, trucks, railcars, primarily serving the needs of that location but also able
and other vehicles.D to receive and supply information from other systems
within a network.D
dispatchingThe selecting and sequencing of available
jobs to be run at individual workstations and the as- distribution1) The activities associated with the
signment of those jobs to workers.D movement of material, usually finished goods or service
parts, from the manufacturer to the customer. These
dispatching ruleThe logic used to assign priorities to
activities encompass the functions of transportation,
jobs at a work center.D
warehousing, inventory control, material handling, order
dispatch listA listing of manufacturing orders in priority administration, site and location analysis, industrial
sequence. The dispatch list, which is usually communi- packaging, data processing, and the communications
cated to the manufacturing floor via paper or electronic network necessary for effective management. It in-
media, contains detailed information on priority, loca- cludes all activities related to physical distribution, as
tion, quantity, and the capacity requirements of the well as the return of goods to the manufacturer. In
manufacturing order by operation. Dispatch lists are many cases, this movement is made through one or
normally generated daily and oriented by work center. more levels of field warehouses. Syn: physical distribu-
Syn: work center schedule, priority report.D tion. 2) The systematic division of a whole into discrete
dispersionThe scattering of the observations of a fre- parts having distinctive characteristics.D
quency distribution around its average.D
distribution by valueSyn: ABC classification.D
dispute resolutionThe process of arbitration or media-
distribution centerA location used to store inventory.
tion to settle arguments without going to court.D
Decisions driving warehouse management include site
distinctive competencyA sustainable advantage that a selection, number of facilities in the system, layout, and
company has over its competitors. distributed data methods of receiving, storing, and retrieving goods.D
processing (DDP)A data processing organizational
concept under which computer resources of a company distribution channelThe distribution route, from raw
are installed at more than one location with appropriate materials through consumption, along which products
communication links. Processing is performed at the travel. See: channels of distribution, marketing
users location generally on a smaller computer and channel.D
under the users control and scheduling, as opposed to
distribution costThose items of cost related to the ac-
processing for all users being done on a large, centra-
tivities associated with the movement and storage of
lized computer system.D
finished products. Distribution costs can include inven-

50 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


distribution curve dock-to-stock inventory

tory costs, transportation costs, and order processing (warehouse space, workforce, money, trucks, freight
costs.D cars, etc).D

distribution curveA graphic display of numerous data distribution systemA group of interrelated facilities
points showing the mean and frequency of occurrences manufacturing and one or more levels of warehousing
of observations on a chart. See: normal distribution linking the production, storage, and consumption activi-
curve.D ties for spare parts and finished goods inventory. See:

distribution inventoryInventory, usually spare parts


and finished goods, located in the distribution system
pipeline stock.D
distribution warehouseA facility where goods are re- D
(e.g., in warehouses, in-transit between warehouses ceived in large-volume uniform lots, stored briefly, and
and the consumer).D then broken down into smaller orders of different items
required by the customer. Emphasis is on expeditious
distribution network structureThe planned channels of movement and handling.D
inventory disbursement from one or more sources to
distributorA business that does not manufacture its
field warehouses and ultimately to the customer. There
own products, but purchases and resells these prod-
may be one or more levels in the disbursement system.
ucts. Such a business usually maintains a finished
Syn: bill of distribution.D
goods inventory. Syn: wholesaler.D
distribution of forecast errorsTabulation of the fore-
divergent pointAn operation in a production process in
cast errors according to the frequency of occurrence of
which a single material/component enters and, after
each error value. The errors in forecasting are, in many
processing, can then be routed to a number of different
cases, normally distributed even when the observed da-
downstream operations.D
ta do not come from a normal distribution.D
diversification strategyAn expansion of the scope of
distribution plannerA person who plans inventories the product line to exploit new markets. A key objective
and schedules replenishment shipments for the distri- of a diversification strategy is to spread the companys
bution centers.D risk over several product lines in case there should be a
distribution planningThe planning activities associated downturn in any one products market.D
with transportation, warehousing, inventory levels, ma- dividendA payment to stockholders either in cash or
terials handling, order administration, site and location stock.D
planning, industrial packaging, data processing, and
dividend yieldThe ratio of dividends per share over
communications networks to support distribution.D
stock price.D
distribution requirements planning (DRP)1) The func-
DMAICAcronym for define-measure-analyze-improve-
tion of determining the need to replenish inventory at
control.D
branch warehouses. A time-phased order point ap-
proach is used where the planned orders at the branch DMAIC processAcronym for define, measure, analyze,
warehouse level are exploded via MRP logic to be- improve, and control process.D
come gross requirements on the supplying source. In DNCAbbreviation for direct numerical control.D
the case of multilevel distribution networks, this explo-
sion process can continue down through the various dock receiptA receipt recorded for a shipment re-
levels of regional warehouses (master warehouse, fac- ceived or delivered at a pier or dock.D
tory warehouse, etc.) and become input to the master dock-to-stockA program by which specific quality and
production schedule. Demand on the supplying sources packaging requirements are met before the product is
is recognized as dependent, and standard MRP logic released. Prequalified product is shipped directly into
applies. 2) More generally, replenishment inventory cal- the customers inventory. Dock-to-stock eliminates the
culations, which may be based on other planning ap- costly handling of components, specifically in receiving
proaches such as period order quantities or replace and inspection and enables product to move directly
exactly what was used, rather than being limited to the into production.D
time-phased order point approach.D
dock-to-stock inventoryA supplier-customer relation-
distribution resource planning (DRP II)The extension of ship where specified quality and packaging require-
distribution requirements planning into the planning of ments are met before the product is released. The
the key resources contained in a distribution system product is then received directly into the customers in-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 51


dock-to-stock time dumping

ventories. See: point-of-use inventory, stockless driver1) In activity-based cost accounting, an opera-
purchasing.D tion that influences the quantity of work required and
cost of an activity. Syn: cost driver. 2) In the theory of
dock-to-stock timeSyn: put-away time.D
constraints, an underlying cause that is responsible for
Dodge-Romig tablesInformation about the correct several observed effects.D
sample size and maximum defective quantity in a sam-
drop-dead dateThe last possible date to apply influ-
ple to satisfy lot acceptance; a quality control

D measurement.D
DOEAbbreviation for design of experiments.D
ence to a future activity.D
drop shipTo take the title of the product but not ac-
tually handle, stock, or deliver it (i.e., to have one sup-
dogA slang term used to refer to a low-growth, low- plier ship directly to another or to have a supplier ship
market-share product. See: growth-share matrix.D directly to the buyers customer).D

dojoA Japanese word meaning hall.D DRPAbbreviation for distribution requirements


planning.D
domestic corporationA company incorporated in a par-
ticular state or country.D DRP IIAbbreviation for distribution resource planning.D

double-declining-balance depreciationA type of accele- drumIn the theory of constraints, the constraint is
rated depreciation. See: depreciation.D viewed as a drum, and nonconstraints are like soldiers
in an army who march in unison to the drumbeat; the
double order point systemA distribution inventory resources in a plant should perform in unison with the
management system that has two order points. The drumbeat set by the constraint.D
smallest equals the original order point, which covers
demand during replenishment lead time. The second drum-buffer-rope (DBR)The theory of constraints me-
order point is the sum of the first order point plus nor- thod for scheduling and managing operations that have
mal usage during manufacturing lead time. It enables an internal constraint or capacity-constrained
warehouses to forewarn manufacturing of future reple- resource.D
nishment orders.D drum scheduleThe detailed production schedule for a
double-sampling planA way to control quality by taking resource that sets the pace for the entire system. The
one sample and making an accept or reject decision, drum schedule must reconcile the customer require-
and, if the decision cannot be made, taking a second ments with the systems constraint(s).D
sample and making the accept or reject decision by DSDAbbreviation for direct store delivery.D
combining the results of both samples.D
DSSAbbreviation for decision support system.D
double smoothingSyn: second-order smoothing.D
DTFAbbreviation for demand time fence.D
downgradeThe substitution of a product of lower quali- dual-card kanban systemSyn: two-card kanban
ty, value, or status for another either in planning or in system.D
fact.D
dual sourcingA method for sourcing requirements by
downloadThe process of transferring data or programs using a few suppliers for the same products or services.
from one computer to another (and usually saving to a See: multisourcing, multiple sourcing, single sourcing.D
disk).D
due dateThe date when purchased material or produc-
downstreamUsed as a relative reference within a firm tion material is due to be available for use. Syn: ex-
or supply chain to indicate moving in the direction of the pected receipt date. See: arrival date.D
end customer.D
due date ruleA dispatching rule that directs the se-
downstream operationThe tasks subsequent to the quencing of jobs by the earliest due date.D
task currently being planned or executed.D
dummy activityIn activity-on-arrow diagramming, an
downtimeTime when a resource is scheduled for op- activity with zero duration used to express a precedence
eration but is not producing for reasons such as main- relationship that cant otherwise be diagrammed. It is
tenance, repair, or setup.D shown graphically with a dashed arrow.D
drawbackA refund of customs duties paid on material dumpingSelling goods below costs in selected
imported and later exported.D markets.D

52 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


dunnage earned value method

dunnageThe packing material used to protect a prod- earliest start dateThe earliest date an operation or or-
uct from damage during transport.D der can start. It may be restricted by the current date,
material availability, or management-specified maxi-
durability1) A measurement of time or amount of use
mum advance.E
before a product needs repair or replacement. 2) One of
the eight dimensions of quality that refers to the length earlinessIf a job is finished before its due date, the
of a products economic life.D difference between its completion date and the due
durable goodsGenerally, any goods whose continuous
serviceability is likely to exceed three years (e.g., trucks,
date. See: lateness, tardiness.E

early finish date (EF)In the critical path method of E


furniture). See: consumer durable goods.D project management, the earliest time at which a given
activity is estimated to be completed. This date can
durationIn project management, the length of time an
change as the project is executed.E
activity is estimated to require.D
dutyA tax levied by a government on the importation, early manufacturing involvementThe process of
exportation, or use and consumption of goods.D involving manufacturing personnel early in the product
design activity and drawing on their expertise, insights,
duty-free zoneAn area where merchandise is brought and knowledge to generate better designs in less time
into the country for further work to be done. Duty is paid and to generate designs that are easier to manufacture.
only on the items brought in, normally at a lower rate Early involvement of manufacturing, field service,
than finished goods, and paid only at the time of sale.D suppliers, customers, and so on means drawing on their
dynamic congruenceIn simulation, the situation where expertise, knowledge, and insight to improve the design.
a physical system and a simulation model mimic one Benefits include increased functionality, increased
another closely.D quality, ease of manufacture and assembly, ease of
testing, better testing procedures, ease of service,
dynamic kanbanAn electronic signal using kanban to decreased cost, and improved aesthetics. See: design
create an automatic purchase order to a supplier or a for manufacture and assembly, participative
manufacturing order to a shop. Dynamic kanban is one design/engineering.E
of the elements of a manufacturing execution system
that enables just-in-time deliveries to production. See: early start date (ES)In the critical path method of
kanban.D project management, the earliest time at which a given
activity is estimated to begin. This date can change as
dynamic lot sizingAny lot-sizing technique that creates
the project is executed.E
an order quantity subject to continuous recomputation.
See: least total cost, least unit cost, part period balanc- early supplier involvement (ESI)The process of
ing, period order quantity, Wagner-Whitin algorithm.D involving suppliers early in the product design activity
and drawing on their expertise, insights, and knowledge
dynamic programmingA method of sequential decision
to generate better designs in less time and designs that
making in which the result of the decision at each stage
are easier to manufacture with high quality. See:
affords the best possible means to exploit the expected
participative design/engineering.E
range of likely (yet unpredictable) outcomes in the fol-
lowing decision-making stages.D earmarked materialThe reserved material on hand
that is physically identified, rather than merely reserved

E
in a balance-of-stores record.E

earned hoursA statement reflecting the standard hour


assigned for actual production reported during the pe-
EACAbbreviation for estimate at completion.E
riod. Syn: earned volume.E
EAPAbbreviation for employee assistance program.E
earned valueIn project management, the total value,
earliest due date (EDD)A priority rule that sequences including overhead, of approved estimates for com-
the jobs in a queue according to their (operation or job) pleted activities or portions thereof.E
due dates. See: earliest operation due date.E
earned value methodIn project management, a com-
earliest operation due date (ODD)A dispatching rule parison of planned activity time and cost to actual activ-
that selects the job having the earliest due date for the ity time and cost to see if a project is on schedule by
impending operation. See: earliest due date.E time and by budget.E

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 53


earned volume efficiency

earned volumeSyn: earned hours.E cimal, and C = unit cost. Syn: economic lot size, mini-
mum cost order quantity. See: total cost curve.E
earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT)Syn: net op-
erating income.E economic value addedIn managerial accounting, the
net operating profit earned above the cost of capital for
earnings before taxes (EBT)Earnings before interest
a profit center.E
and taxes minus interest charges.E
economy of scaleA phenomenon whereby larger vo-

E
EBITAcronym for earnings before interest and taxesE
lumes of production reduce unit cost by distributing
eBPPAbbreviation for electronic bill presentment and fixed costs over a larger quantity. See: economy of
payment.E scope.E
EBTAbbreviation for earnings before taxes.E economy of scopeUsing one versatile plant to produce
e-cashAn electronic system that provides for deposits many different products at a lower cost than making
and withdrawals of digital money. It permits a payer us- each product in different plants at a higher cost. See:
ing it to remain anonymous.E economy of scale.E

echelonA level of supply chain nodes. For example, a ECRAbbreviation for efficient consumer response.E
supply chain with two independent factory warehouses EDDAbbreviation for earliest due date.E
and nine wholesale warehouses delivering product to
350 retail stores is a supply chain with three echelons EDIAbbreviation for electronic data interchange.E
between the factory and the end customer. One echelon EDIFACTAbbreviation for EDI for administration, com-
consists of the two independent factory warehouses, merce, and transport.E
one echelon consists of the nine wholesale ware-
EDI for administration, commerce, and transport
houses, and one echelon consists of the 350 retail
(EDIFACT)A set of United Nations rules for electronic
stores. Each echelon adds operating expense, holds in-
data interchange. These are international guidelines
ventory, adds to the cycle time, and expects to make a
and standards for the electronic exchange of data re-
profit. See: disintermediation.E
garding trade.E
e-commerceAbbreviation for electronic commerce.E
EDTAn abbreviation for electronic data transfer.E
econometric modelA set of equations intended to be
edutainmentMixing entertainment and education
used simultaneously to capture the way in which de-
elements to make learning more fun.E
pendent and independent variables are interrelated.E
EEOAbbreviation for equal employment opportunity.E
econometric modelingThe process of developing eco-
nometric models. See: econometric model.E EEOCAbbreviation for Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission.E
economic indicatorAn index of total business activities
at the regional, national, and global levels.E EFAbbreviation for early finish date.E
economic infrastructureA nations networks for sup- effective capacitySyn: rated capacity.E
porting commerce, including transportation, communi- effective dateThe date on which a component or an
cations, and finance.E operation is to be added or removed from a bill of ma-
economic lifeThe time until a product is scrappednot terial or an assembly process. The effective dates are
because it is unusable but because repairs are becom- used in the explosion process to create demands for
ing too expensive to justify further use.E the correct items. Normally, bills of material and routing
systems provide for an effectivity start date and stop
economic lot sizeSyn: economic order quantity.E
date, signifying the start or stop of a particular relation-
economic order quantity (EOQ)A type of fixed order ship. Effectivity control also may be by serial number
quantity model that determines the amount of an item rather than date. Syn: effectivity, effectivity date.E
to be purchased or manufactured at one time. The in-
effective interest rateSyn: annual percentage rate.E
tent is to minimize the combined costs of acquiring and
carrying inventory. The basic formula is: effectivitySyn: effective date.E
quantity effectivity dateSyn: effective date.E
where A = annual usage in units, S = ordering costs in efficiencyA measurement (usually expressed as a
dollars, i = annual inventory carrying cost rate as a de- percentage) of the actual output to the standard output

54 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


efficiency variance employee assistance program (EAP)

expected. Efficiency measures how well something is electronic commerce applicationA computer interface
performing relative to existing standards; in contrast, between two organizations that is used to carry out
productivity measures output relative to a specific input business transactions electronically.E
(e.g., tons/labor hour). Efficiency is the ratio of (1)
electronic communitiesCommunities of people who
actual units produced to the standard rate of production
communicate exclusively electronically.E
expected in a time period or (2) standard hours
produced to actual hours worked (taking longer means electronic data interchange (EDI)The paperless (elec-
less efficiency) or (3) actual dollar volume of output to a
standard dollar volume in a time period. Illustrations of
tronic) exchange of trading documents, such as pur-
chase orders, shipment authorizations, advanced E
these calculations follow. (1) There is a standard of 100 shipment notices, and invoices, using standardized
pieces per hour and 780 units are produced in one document formats.E
eight-hour shift; the efficiency is 780/800 converted to
electronic documentThe electronic representation of a
a percentage, or 97.5 percent. (2) The work is
document that can be printed.E
measured in hours and took 8.21 hours to produce 8
standard hours; the efficiency is 8/8.21 converted to a electronic formAn electronic version of a paper form.
percentage or 97.5 percent. (3) The work is measured These forms eliminate the cost of printing, storing, and
in dollars and produces $780 with a standard of $800; distributing paper forms.E
the efficiency is $780/$800 converted to a percentage,
electronic funds transfer (EFT)A computerized system
or 97.5 percent.E
that processes financial transactions and information
efficiency varianceIn cost accounting, the difference about these transactions or performs the exchange of
between the actual volume of a resource used and the value between two parties.E
budgeted volume, multiplied by the budgeted or stan-
electronic invoice presentment and payment (EIPP)
dard price.E
Accepting and sending invoices and payments over the
efficient consumer response (ECR)Replenishment internet.E
through a distribution network based on point-of-sale
electronic mail (email)A technology for handling mail
information.E
electronically.E
e-formAbbreviation for electronic form.E
electronic marketAn internet-based market where
EFTAbbreviation for electronic funds transfer.E most sales occur electronically.E
EIAbbreviation for employee involvement.E electronic product codes (EPCs)Codes that are used
80-20A term referring to the Pareto principle. The with RFID tags to carry information on the product that
principle suggests that most effects come from relative- will support warranty programs.E
ly few causes; that is, 80 percent of the effects (or sales
electronic publishingRepresentation of text and mul-
or costs) come from 20 percent of the possible causes
timedia documents electronically.E
(or items). See: ABC classification.8
electronic signatureAn authentication that validates a
EIPPAbbreviation for electronic invoice presentment
transaction by means of an authorization code to identi-
and payment.E
fy an individual or group.E
elasticity of demand (supply)The ratio of the percen-
tage change in quantity demanded (supplied) to the emailAcronym for electronic mail.E
percentage change in price.E embezzlementThe fraudulent taking of anothers
e-learningTraining or schooling done online.E property while acting in a fiduciary capacity.E

electronic bill presentment and payment (eBPP)A sys- empathyA dimension of service quality referring to car-
tem that connects the bill issuer, bill payer, and the ing, individualized attention from a service firm.E
payers bank to facilitate electronic payment. Payment empiricalPertaining to a statement or formula based
is usually by credit card.E upon experience or observation rather than on deduc-
electronic commerce (e-commerce)The use of com- tion or theory.E
puter and telecommunication technologies to conduct
employee assistance program (EAP)Employer-provided
business via electronic transfer of data and
service aimed at helping employees and their families
documents.E
with personal and work-related problems. Examples in-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 55


employee empowerment enterprise performance management (EPM)

clude financial counseling and chemical-dependency endogenous variableA variable whose value is deter-
rehabilitation programs.E mined by relationships included within the model.E

employee empowermentThe practice of giving non- end productSyn: end item.E


managerial employees the responsibility and the power
end user1) The final consumer of a product. 2) The
to make decisions regarding their jobs or tasks. It is as-
recipient of an output from a computer system.E
sociated with the practice of transfer of managerial re-

E sponsibility to the employee. Empowerment allows the end-user computingUse of computer resources by
employee to take on responsibility for tasks normally non-information-system personnel to enter, retrieve,
associated with staff specialists. Examples include al- manipulate, or print data.E
lowing the employee to make scheduling, quality, enforced problem solvingThe methodology of inten-
process design, or purchasing decisions.E tionally restricting a resource (e.g., inventory, storage
employee involvement (EI)The concept of using the space, number of workers) to expose a problem that
experience, creative energy, and intelligence of all em- must then be resolved.E
ployees by treating them with respect, keeping them engineering changeA revision to a drawing or design
informed, and including them and their ideas in released by engineering to modify or correct a part. The
decision-making processes appropriate to their areas of request for the change can be from a customer or from
expertise. Employee involvement focuses on quality and production, quality control, another department, or a
productivity improvements. Syn: people involvement.E supplier. Syn: engineering change notice, engineering
employee stock ownership plan (ESOP)In the United change order.E
States, a program that encourages workers to purchase engineering change noticeSyn: engineering change.E
company stockgenerally tied into the compensation/
benefits package. The intention is to give workers a feel- engineering change orderSyn: engineering change.E
ing of participation in the management and direction of engineering characteristicsThe technical features de-
the company.E signed into a product.E
empowermentA condition whereby employees have engineering drawingsA visual representation of the
the authority to make decisions and take action in their dimensional characteristics of a part or assembly at
work areas without prior approval. For example, an op- some stage of manufacture.E
erator can stop a production process if a problem is de-
engineering orderSyn: experimental order.E
tected, or a customer service representative can send
out a replacement product if a customer calls with a engineering standardDesign or test guidelines in-
problem.E tended to promote the design, production, and test of a
part, component, or product in a manner that promotes
encryptionChanging readable words into another form,
standardization, ease of maintenance, consistency,
called a cipher, which hides the texts meaning.E
adequacy of test procedures, versatility of design, ease
ending inventoryA statement of on-hand quantities or of production and field service, and minimization of the
the dollar value of a SKU at the end of a period, often number of different tools and special tools required.E
determined by a physical inventory.E
engineer-to-orderProducts whose customer specifica-
end itemA product sold as a completed item or repair tions require unique engineering design, significant cus-
part; any item subject to a customer order or sales fore- tomization, or new purchased materials. Each customer
cast. Syn: end product, finished good, finished product. order results in a unique set of part numbers, bills of
See: good.E material, and routings. Syn: design-to-order.E

end-of-life-inventoryInventory kept on hand to satisfy en routeA term describing goods in transit.E


demand for products that are no longer being
enterpriseAny undertaking, venture, initiative, or busi-
manufactured.E
ness organization with a defined mission.E
end-of-life managementPlanning for the phase-out of
enterprise performance management (EPM)The
one product and the phase-in of a new product to avoid
process of monitoring performance across the enter-
both the excessive inventory of and an out-of-stock sit-
prise with the goal of improving business performance.
uation with the old product before the replacement
An EPM system integrates and analyzes data from many
product is available.E
sources, including e-commerce systems, front- and

56 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


enterprise resources management equivalent unit cost

back-office applications, data warehouses, and external EOQ = 1Reducing setup time and inventory to the
data sources. Advanced EPM systems can support point where it is economically sound to produce in
many performance methodologies, such as the ba- batches with a size of one. Often EOQ = 1 is an ideal to
lanced scorecard.E strive for, like zero defects.E
enterprise resources managementThe planning, ex- EOQ tablesTables listing several ranges of monthly
ecution, control, and measurement functions required usages in dollars and the appropriate order size in dol-
to effectively operate an enterprise.E
enterprise resources planning (ERP)Framework for
organizing, defining, and standardizing the business
lars or monthly usage for each usage range.E

EPAAbbreviation for Environmental Protection


E
Agency.E
processes necessary to effectively plan and control an
organization so the organization can use its internal EPCAbbreviation for electronic product code.E
knowledge to seek external advantage.E EPMAbbreviation for enterprise performance
enterprise resources portalA means for a company to management.E
share, exchange, or transact information with an exter-
equal employment opportunity (EEO)In the United
nal business partner using internet-based technologies.
States, the laws prohibiting discrimination in employ-
An enterprise resources portal is often associated with
ment because of race or color, sex, age, handicap sta-
an enterprise resources planning system, which can be
tus, religion, and national origin.E
configured to share or present such information via an
internet portal or hyperlink. An enterprise resources por- Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)An
tal can also be one means of implementing a private administrative agency in the United States that over-
trading exchange.E sees Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, which prohibits em-
ployment discrimination based on race, color, religion,
entrepreneurOne who organizes resources productive-
sex, or national origin.E
ly and bears the risk of the venture.E
environmentally responsible businessA firm that oper- equal protection clauseA part of the Fourteenth
ates in such a way as to minimize deleterious impacts Amendment to the U.S. Constitution requiring similar
to society. See: green manufacturing, green supply treatment of citizens in similar circumstances.E
chain.E equal runout methodSyn: equal runout quantities.E
environmentally responsible manufacturingA collec- equal runout quantitiesOrder quantities for items in a
tion of manufacturing activities that includes design of group that result in a supply that covers an equal time
the product, facility, manufacturing processes, logistics, for all items. Syn: equal runout method. See: fair-share
and supplier relationships that reduce or eliminate envi- quantity logic.E
ronmental waste through innovation and
improvements.E equilibrium pointThe point in a market where the de-
mand for a product and the supply of that product are
environmentally responsible purchasingSyn: responsi-
exactly equal. If supply were greater, the price would
ble procurement.E
fall. If demand were greater, the price would rise. Free
environmentally sensitive engineeringDesigning with markets tend to move toward their equilibrium point.E
consideration of how a product or its packaging will ul-
equipment classA means to describe a group of
timately be disposed.E
equipment with similar characteristics for purposes of
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)A U.S. agency planning and scheduling.E
with regulatory authority over matters affecting the envi-
ronment, including waste generation and habitat equityThe part of a companys total assets not pro-
destruction.E vided by creditors; owner-invested funds.E

environmental scanningProcess used to expose an equivalent daysThe standard hour requirements of a


organizations potential strengths, weaknesses, oppor- job converted to days for scheduling purposes.E
tunities, and threats. Many experts emphasize oppor-
equivalent unit costA method of costing that uses the
tunities and threats because the tool is primarily
total cost incurred for all like units for a period of time
external.E
divided by the equivalent units completed during the
EOQAbbreviation for economic order quantity.E same time period.E

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 57


equivalent units executive information system

equivalent unitsA translation of inventories into equiv- actions to break an assumption and hence solve (eva-
alent finished goods units or of inventories exploded porate) the problem can be determined.E
back to raw materials for period end valuation of inven-
eventAn event is an identifiable point in time among a
tories. An equivalent unit can be the sum of several par-
set of related activities. Graphically, an event can be
tially completed units. Two units 50 percent completed
represented by two approaches: (1) in activity-on-node
are equivalent to one unit 100 percent completed.E
networks, it is represented by a node; (2) in activity-on-

E ergonomicsApproach to job design that focuses on the


interactions between the human operator and such tra-
ditional environmental elements as atmospheric con-
arrow networks, the event is represented by the arrow.E
event-based marketingPromoting goods or services
through specific events.E
taminants, heat, light, sound, and all tools and
equipment.E event-on-arrow networkSyn: activity-on-arrow
network.E
ERPAbbreviation for enterprise resources planning.E
event-on-node networkSyn: activity-on-node network.E
ESAbbreviation for early start date.E
everyday low prices (EDLP)A retail strategy of keeping
escalationAn amount or percentage by which a con- prices low across all products or services as opposed to
tract price may be adjusted if specified contingencies having sales at certain times.E
occur, such as changes in the suppliers raw material or
exception messageSyn: action message.E
labor costs.E
exception reportA report that lists or flags only those
ESIAbbreviation for early supplier involvement.E
items that deviate from the plan.E
ESOPAcronym for employee stock ownership plan.E
excess capacityCapacity that is not used to either pro-
estimate at completion (EAC)Estimated cost of an ac- duce or protect the creation of throughput.E
tivity or project when the defined scope of work will be
excess inventoryAny inventory in the system that ex-
finished. It is the actual cost-to-date plus estimate-to-
ceeds the minimum amount necessary to achieve the
complete for uncompleted activities.E desired throughput rate at the constraint or that ex-
estimate of errorIn statistics, a measure of dispersion. ceeds the minimum amount necessary to achieve the
See: standard deviation, standard error, variance.E desired due date performance. Total inventory = pro-
ductive inventory + protective inventory + excess
estimate to complete (ETC)Expected cost to complete
inventory.E
all remaining work for an activity or project.E
excess issueThe removal from stock and assignment
ETCAbbreviation for estimate to complete.E
to a schedule of a quantity higher than the schedule
ethical standardsA set of guidelines for proper con- quantity. Syn: overissue.E
duct by business professionals. For example, the ISM exchange rateThe rate at which one currency converts
(formerly NAPM) provides a set of principles and stan- to another.E
dards for the proper conduct of purchasing activities.E
exchange unitThe number of units to be produced be-
euroOfficial currency of the Eurozone, which forms a fore changing the bit, tool, or die. See: process batch.E
large part of the European Union.E
exclusive useCarrier vehicles assigned for the exclu-
eurobondAn internationally marketed bond.E sive use of a particular shipper.E
eurocurrencyMoney that is deposited outside of the executing processesThe processes performed to com-
country that issued it (outside of the issuing countrys plete a project plan to accomplish the objectives set
control).E forth in the project scope.E
eurodollarA U.S. dollar held in a foreign bank.E executive dashboardA set of cross-functional metrics
European Union (EU)An economic and political union for measuring company performance that indicates the
of European countries, created to strengthen econo- health of the company. It usually includes the compa-
mies and lower trade barriers.E nys key performance indicators. See: dashboard.E
executive information systemA software application
evaporating cloudIn the theory of constraints, a logic-
used by top managers, without assistance, to access
based tool for surfacing assumptions related to a con-
information on the current organizational status.E
flict or problem. Once the assumptions are surfaced,

58 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


executive sales and operations planning explode-to-deduct

executive sales and operations planningThe portion of expected demand during lead timeSyn: demand dur-
sales and operations planning that defines executive ing lead time.E
decision-making processes to balance supply and de-
expected lifeThe average length of time a product re-
mand at the volume level in families, fully integrates
mains in service or in a serviceable condition.E
financial planning and operational planning, and that
provides a forum for establishing and linking high-level expected receipt dateSyn: due date.E
strategic plans with day-to-day operations. See: sales

E
expected valueThe average value that would be ob-
and operations planning.E served in taking an action an infinite number of times.
exemplarA particularly strong practice that should be The expected value of an action is calculated by multip-
imitated.E lying the outcome of the action by the probability of
achieving the outcome.E
exemptGenerally, a classification of employees/jobs
for which compensation is not determined by extending expediteTo rush or chase production or purchase or-
the recorded hours worked by an hourly rate (e.g., pay is ders that are needed in less than the normal lead time;
specified at an annual or monthly rate). Exempt to take extraordinary action because of an increase in
employees include most professionals, administrative relative priority. Syn: stockchase.E
and management personnel, and sales representatives. expeditorA production control person whose primary
Specifically, the term refers to and is fully defined by the duty is expediting.E
U.S. Department of Labor Fair Labor Standards Act,
expendablesSyn: consumables.E
which regulates minimum wages and overtime for
nonexempt employees. See: exempt positions, expenseExpenditures of short-term value, including
nonexempt positions.E depreciation, as opposed to land and other fixed capi-
tal. See: overhead.E
exempt carrierA for-hire carrier that is free from eco-
nomic regulation.E expensed stocksSyn: floor stocks.E

exempt employeeA person filling an exempt position. experience curveSyn: learning curve.E
See: exempt positions.E experience curve pricingThe average cost pricing me-
exempt positionsPositions that do not require the thod, but using an estimate of future average costs,
payment of overtime because they meet the tests of based on an experience (learning) curve.E
executive, supervisory, or administrative activity, as de- experimental designA formal plan that details the spe-
fined under the Fair Labor Standards Act.E cifics for conducting an experiment, such as which sta-
exit interviewAn interview given to an employee who is tistical techniques and responses, factors, levels,
leaving the company. The purpose is to find out why a blocks, and treatments, are to be used.E
person is leaving, what was liked and disliked about the experimental orderAn order generated by the laborato-
job and the company, and what changes would make ry, research and development, or engineering group
the department and the company a better place to that must be run through regular production facilities
work.E with potential future product or market development as
exogenous variableA variable whose values are de- a project or team goal. Syn: engineering order, laborato-
termined by considerations outside the model in ry order, pilot order, R&D order.E
question.E experimental researchA form of research (sometimes
expansionAny increase in the capacity of a plant, facil- used in marketing research) where matched sets of
ity, or unit, usually by added investment. The scope of people are controlled for certain variables (such as in-
this increase extends from the elimination of problem come, age, and so on) while other variables (such as
areas to the complete replacement of an existing facility products offered) are varied to test research questions.
with a larger one.E See: marketing research.E

expected completion quantityThe planned quantity of expert systemA type of artificial intelligence computer
a manufacturing order after expected scrap.E system that mimics human experts by using rules and
heuristics rather than deterministic algorithms.E
expected demandThe quantity expected to be con-
explodeTo perform a bill-of-material explosion.E
sumed during a given time period when usage is at the
forecast rate. See: demand during lead time.E explode-to-deductSyn: backflush.E

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 59


explosion extrinsic forecasting method

explosionSyn: requirements explosion. Ant: pose of goods, that induces the buyer to buy and on
implosion.E which the seller intends the buyer to depend.E

explosion levelSyn: low-level code.E extended enterpriseThe notion that supply chain part-
ners form a larger entity. See: supply chain community.E
exponential distributionA continuous probability distri-
bution where the probability of occurrence either steadi- extensible markup language (XML)This language facili-

E
ly increases or decreases. The steady increase case tates direct communication among computers on the
(positive exponential distribution) is used to model phe- internet. Unlike the older hypertext markup language
nomena such as customer service level versus cost. (HTML), which provides HTML tags giving instructions to
The steady decrease case (negative exponential distri- a web browser about how to display information, XML
bution) is used to model phenomena such as the weight tags give instructions to a web browser about the cate-
given to any one time period of demand in exponential gory of information.E
smoothing.E
external customerA person or organization that rece-
exponential smoothing forecastA type of weighted ives a good, a service, or information but is not part of
moving average forecasting technique in which past ob- the organization supplying it. See: customer, internal
servations are geometrically discounted according to customer.E
their age. The heaviest weight is assigned to the most
external environmentAll the factors that exist outside
recent data. The smoothing is termed exponential be-
the boundary of the organization that have the possibili-
cause data points are weighted in accordance with an
ty of affecting any part of the organization. See: internal
exponential function of their age. The technique makes
environment, organizational environment.E
use of a smoothing constant to apply to the difference
between the most recent forecast and the critical sales external factoryA situation where suppliers are viewed
data, thus avoiding the necessity of carrying historical as an extension of the firms manufacturing capabilities
sales data. The approach can be used for data that ex- and capacities. The same practices and concerns that
hibit no trend or seasonal patterns. Higher order expo- are commonly applied to the management of the firms
nential smoothing models can be used for data with manufacturing system should also be applied to the
either (or both) trend and seasonality.E management of the external factory.E
export brokerA party that introduces the buyer to the external failure costsThe costs related to problems
seller and eventually withdraws, getting a fee for servic- found after the product reaches the customer. This
es rendered.E usually includes such costs as warranty and returns.E
export complianceCooperating with export rules re- externalityThe costs or benefits of a firms activities
garding packaging and documentation.E borne or received by others.E
export licenseA document received from a governmen- external setup timeThe time associated with elements
tal agency authorizing a certain quantity of an export to of a setup procedure performed while the process or
be sent to a given country.E machine is running. Ant: internal setup time.E
exportsProducts produced in one country and sold in extranetA network connection to a partners network
another.E using secure information processing and internet proto-
cols to do business.E
exposuresThe number of times per year that the sys-
tem risks a stockout. The number of exposures is ar- extrapolationEstimation of the future value of some
rived at by dividing the lot size into the annual usage.E data series based on past observations. Statistical fore-
casting is a common example. Syn: projection.E
express1) Carrier payment to its customers when
ships, rail cars, or trailers are unloaded or loaded in less extrinsic forecasting methodA forecast method on a
than the time allowed by contract and returned to the correlated leading indicator, such as estimating furni-
carrier for use. See: demurrage, detention. 2) The use of ture sales based on housing starts. Extrinsic forecasts
priority package delivery to achieve overnight or second- tend to be more useful for large aggregations, such as
day delivery.E total company sales, than for individual product sales.
Ant: intrinsic forecast method. See: quantitative fore-
express warrantyA positive representation, made by a
casting technique.E
seller, concerning the nature, character, use, and pur-

60 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


fabrication FAQs

failure analysisThe collection, examination, review,

F and classification of failures to determine trends and to


identify poorly performing parts or components.F

fabricationManufacturing operations for making com- failure costsA term used within the cost of poor quality
ponents, as opposed to assembly operations.F model to include both internal and external failure
costs. See: cost of poor quality, external failure costs,
fabrication levelThe lowest production level. The only
components at this level are parts (as opposed to as-
semblies or subassemblies). These parts are either pro-
internal failure costs.F

failure mode analysis (FMA)A procedure to determine


F
cured from outside sources or fabricated within the which malfunction symptoms appear immediately be-
manufacturing organization.F fore or after a failure of a critical parameter in a system.
After all the possible causes are listed for each symp-
fabrication orderA manufacturing order to a tom, the product is designed to eliminate the
component-making department authorizing it to pro- problems.F
duce component parts. See: batch card, manufacturing
failure mode effects analysis (FMEA)A procedure in
order.F
which each potential failure mode in every sub-item of
fabricatorA manufacturer that turns the product of a an item is analyzed to determine its effect on other sub-
converter into a larger variety of products. For example, items and on the required function of the item.F
a fabricator may turn steel rods into nuts, bolts, and
failure mode effects and criticality analysis (FMECA)A
twist drills, or may turn paper into bags and boxes.F
procedure that is performed after a failure mode effects
facilitating productsProducts that support the opera- analysis to classify each potential failure effect accord-
tions of a firm but are not sold externally, such as furni- ing to its severity and probability of occurrence.F
ture and computers.F Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA)Federal law that go-
facilitiesThe physical plant, distribution centers, ser- verns the definitions of management and labor and es-
vice centers, offices, laboratories, and related tablishes wage payment and hours worked and other
equipment.F employment practices.F

fair returnWithin transportation, a profit level accom-


facility layoutDescribes where machines and utilities
plishing a rate of return on investment that regulatory
will be located in a facility, as well as the arrangement
agencies deem acceptable given the level of risk.F
of processes.F
fair-share quantity logicThe process of equitably allo-
facility planningLong range plan of what capacity is
cating available stock among field distribution centers.
needed, when it will be needed, and what facilities will
Fair-share quantity logic is normally used when stock
meet these requirements; also, a plan for the layout of
available from a central inventory location is less than
these facilities.F
the cumulative requirements of the field stocking loca-
factory within a factoryA technique to improve man- tions. The use of fair-share quantity logic involves pro-
agement focus and overall productivity by creating au- cedures that push stock out to the field, instead of
tonomous business units within a larger physical plant. allowing the field to pull in what is needed. The objec-
Syn: plant within a plant.F tive is to maximize customer service from the limited
available inventory. See: equal runout quantities.F
failsafe techniquesSyn: failsafe work methods, poka-
familyA group of end items whose similarity of design
yoke.F
and manufacture facilitates their being planned in ag-
failsafe work methodsMethods of performing opera- gregate, whose sales performance is monitored togeth-
tions so that actions that are incorrect cannot be com- er, and, occasionally, whose cost is aggregated at this
pleted. For example, a part without holes in the proper level.F
place cannot be removed from a jig, or a computer sys-
family contractsA purchase order that groups families
tem will reject invalid numbers or require double entry
of similar parts together to obtain pricing advantages
of transaction quantities outside the normal range.
and a continuous supply of material.F
Called poka-yoke by the Japanese. Syn: failsafe tech-
niques, mistake-proofing, poka-yoke.F FAQsAbbreviation for frequently asked questions.F

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 61


FAS final assembly department

FAS1) Abbreviation for final assembly schedule. 2) feeThe charge for the use of the contractors organiza-
Abbreviation for free alongside ship.F tion for the period and to the extent specified in the
contract.F
fast-trackingA project schedule compression tech-
nique that overlaps (or performs in parallel) activities feedbackThe flow of information back into the control
that would ordinarily be performed sequentially.F system so that actual performance can be compared
with planned performance.F
fault isolationA technique used to identify the cause of

F a defect.F

fault toleranceThe ability of a system to avoid or mi-


feedback loopThe part of a closed-loop system that
allows the comparison of response with command.F
nimize the disruptive effects of defects by using some feeder workstationsAn area of manufacture whose
form of redundancy or extra design margins.F products feed a subsequent work area.F
fault tree analysisA logical approach to identify the feedstockThe primary raw material in a chemical or
probabilities and frequencies of events in a system that refining process normally received by pipeline or large-
are most critical to uninterrupted and safe operation. scale bulk shipments. Feedstock availability is frequent-
This analysis may include failure mode effects analysis ly the controlling factor in setting the production sche-
(determining the result of component failure interac- dule and rate for a process.F
tions toward system safety) and techniques for human
FEFOAbbreviation for first expiry first out.F
error prediction.F
FEUAn abbreviation for forty-foot equivalent unit.F
feasibility studyAn analysis designed to establish the
practicality and cost justification of a given project and, fiduciaryOne having the duty to act on anothers be-
if it appears to be advisable to do so, to determine the half in a trustworthy and confidential fashion.F
direction of subsequent project efforts.F
fieldA specified area of a record used for a particular
feasible economic order quantityWhen solving a quan- category of data.F
tity discount problem, the economic order quantity is
field finished goodsFinished goods kept in distribution
feasible if the computed number can be purchased at
centers or warehouses.F
the cost used in the EOQ problem rather than at some
other discount quantity. For example, consider a prod- field serviceThe functions of installing and maintaining
uct that sells for $10 for 1 to 99 units, $9 for 100 to a product for a customer after the sale or during the
499 units, and $8 for 500 for more units. If the quantity lease. Field service may also include training and im-
discount solution calls for purchasing 800 units at the plementation assistance. Syn: after-sale service.F
$8 value, the solution is feasible; however if the quanti-
field service partsService parts kept in distribution
ty discount solution calls for purchasing 250 units at
centers or warehouses.F
this cost the solution is not feasible, because the pur-
chase quantity is not consistent with the purchase price field warehouseSyn: distribution center.F
for that quantity.F
FIFOAcronym for first in, first out.F
featureA distinctive characteristic of a good or service.
fileAn organized collection of records.F
The characteristic is provided by an option, accessory,
or attachment. For example, in ordering a new car, the file structureThe manner in which records are stored
customer must specify an engine type and size (option), within a file (e.g., sequential, random, index-
but need not necessarily select an air conditioner (at- sequential).F
tachment). See: accessory, attachment, option.F
file transfer protocol (FTP)A protocol used to transfer
feature codeAn identifying code assigned to a distinct files over the internet.F
product feature that may contain one or more specific
fill rateSyn: customer service ratio.F
part number configurations.F
final assemblyThe highest level assembled product, as
Federal Trade Commission (FTC)The United States go-
it is shipped to customers.F
vernmental agency charged with protecting businesses
and consumers from unfair business practices. It also final assembly departmentThe name for the manufac-
regulates advertising and promotion at the national turing department where the product is assembled.
level.F See: blending department, pack-out department.F

62 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


final assembly schedule (FAS) first expiry first out (FEFO)

final assembly schedule (FAS)A schedule of end items finish-to-finishIn project management, a network re-
to finish the product for specific customers orders in a quirement that activity A must be finished before sub-
make-to-order or assemble-to-order environment. It is sequent activity B can finish. See: logical relationship.F
also referred to as the finishing schedule because it
finish-to-orderSyn: assemble-to-order.F
may involve operations other than the final assembly;
also, it may not involve assembly (e.g., final mixing, cut- finish-to-startIn project management, a network re-
ting, packaging). The FAS is prepared after receipt of a quirement that activity A must be finished before activi-
customer order as constrained by the availability of ma-
terial and capacity, and it schedules the operations re-
ty B can start. See: logical relationship.F
finite forward schedulingAn equipment scheduling
F
quired to complete the product from the level where it is technique that builds a schedule by proceeding sequen-
stocked (or master scheduled) to the end-item level.F tially from the initial period to the final period while ob-
financial accountingThe use of generally accepted ac- serving capacity limits. A Gantt chart may be used with
counting principles to prepare reports to external agen- this technique. See: finite loading.F
cies, such as investors and governmental agencies.F finite loadingAssigning no more work to a work center
financial benchmarkingComparing one companys fi- than the work center can be expected to execute in a
nancial results with that of another company. This type given time period. The specific term usually refers to a
of benchmarking need not involve direct contact be- computer technique that involves calculating shop prior-
tween the initiator company and the target company, as ity revisions in order to level load operation by opera-
many financial records are publicly available. See: ben- tion. Syn: finite scheduling. See: drum-buffer-rope.F
chmarking.F finite schedulingSyn: finite loading.F
financial forecastingEstimating a firms future finan- firewallA device used to control access to a companys
cial statements.F data from the internet or other outside sources.F
financial leverage management ratiosA set of mea- firm fixed-price contractA contract in which the seller
surements of the degree to which a firm is financing as- is paid a set price without regard to costs. Syn: fixed-
sets with fixed-charge instruments such as debt or price contract.F
preferred stock.F
firm master production scheduleA part of the master
financial managementThe function concerned with production schedule in which changes can occur only
ensuring the availability of funds for research and de- rarely.F
velopment, operations, and marketing.F
firm offerA written offer to buy or sell goods that will
finish dateThe time of completion of a project or activi- be held open for a stipulated period.F
ty. It may be planned, actual, early, late, baseline, or
target.F firm planned order (FPO)A planned order that can be
frozen in quantity and time. The computer is not allowed
finished goodSyn: end item.F to change it automatically; this is the responsibility of
finished goods inventoryThose items on which all the planner in charge of the item that is being planned.
manufacturing operations, including final test, have This technique can aid planners working with MRP sys-
been completed. These products are available for tems to respond to material and capacity problems by
shipment to the customer as either end items or repair firming up selected planned orders. In addition, firm
parts. Syn: finished products inventory. See: goods.F planned orders are the normal method of stating the
master production schedule. See: planning time fence.F
finished good waiversApprovals for deviation from
normal product specifications.F first-article inspectionA quality check on the first com-
ponent run after a new setup has been completed. Syn:
finished productSyn: end item.F
first-piece inspection.F
finished products inventorySyn: finished goods
first-come-first-served ruleA dispatching rule under
inventory.F
which the jobs are sequenced by their arrival times.
finishing lead time1) The time that is necessary to See: first-in, first-out.F
finish manufacturing a good after receipt of a customer
first expiry first out (FEFO)A picking methodology as-
order. 2) The time allowed for completing the good
suring that the usage shelf life of items is optimized.
based on the final assembly schedule.F
Years ago, first in, first out (FIFO) was satisfactory as the

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 63


first in, first out (FIFO) fixed-interval review system

shelf-life days for items often didnt vary and FIFO often five-forces model of competitionA methodology for
coincided with the expiry dates. However, re-testing is analyzing competitive pressures in a market and as-
frequently done to extend shelf-life dates on some lots sessing the strength and importance of each of those
or batches, while other lots may have typical shelf-life pressures.F
dates shortened because of quality or processes. Thus,
five MsThe branches of a cause and effect (fishbone)
FEFO was introduced by software vendors to provide
diagram: manpower, methods, materials, machines,
this picking methodology for use with shelf-life con-

F trolled items.F
first in, first out (FIFO)A method of inventory valuation
and measurements.F

five SsFive terms beginning with S used to create a


for accounting purposes. The accounting assumption is workplace suitable for lean production. Sort means to
that the oldest inventory (first in) is the first to be used separate needed items from unneeded ones and re-
(first out), but there is no necessary relationship with move the latter. Simplify means to neatly arrange items
the actual physical movement of specific items. See: for use. Scrub means clean up the work area.
Standardize means to sort, simplify, and scrub daily.
first-come-first-served rule, average cost system.F
Sustain means to always follow the first four Ss. Some-
first-mover advantageThe phenomenon of market lea- times referred to by the Japanese equivalents: seiri, sei-
dership being gained through market innovation.F ton, seiso, seiketsu, and shitsuke.F
first-order smoothingA single exponential smoothing; a
five whysThe common practice in total quality man-
weighted moving average approach that is applied to
agement is to ask why five times when confronted
forecasting problems where the data do not exhibit sig-
with a problem. By the time the answer to the fifth
nificant trend or seasonal patterns. Syn: single expo-
why is found, the ultimate cause of the problem is
nential smoothing, single smoothing.F
identified. Syn: five Ws. See: root cause analysis.F
first pass yieldThe ratio of products that conform to
five WsSyn: five whys.F
specifications without rework or modification to total
input.F fixed assetsAssets acquired for use within a company
having an estimated useful life of one year or more.F
first-piece inspectionSyn: first-article inspection.F
first-tier supplierOne that supplies goods or services fixed-asset turnoverSales divided by net fixed assets.
directly to a business.F Fixed assets reflect asset acquisition price less
depreciation.F
fishbone analysisA technique to organize the elements
of a problem or situation to aid in the determination of fixed budgetA budget of expected costs based on a
the causes of the problem or situation. The analysis re- specific level of production or other activity.F
lates the effect of the environment to the several possi-
fixed costAn expenditure that does not vary with the
ble sources of the problem.F
production volume; for example, rent, property tax, and
fishbone chartSyn: cause-and-effect diagram.F salaries of certain personnel.F
fishbone diagramSyn: cause-and-effect diagram.F fixed-cost contribution per unitAn allocation process
fitness for useA term used to indicate that a good or where total fixed cost for a period is divided by total
service fits the customers defined purpose for that units produced in that given time period.F
good or service.F fixed-interval order systemSyn: fixed reorder cycle in-
five focusing stepsIn the theory of constraints, a ventory model.F
process to continuously improve organizational profit by
fixed-interval review systemA hybrid inventory system
evaluating the production system and market mix to de-
in which the inventory analyst reviews the inventory po-
termine how to make the most profit using the system
sition at fixed time periods. If the inventory level is
constraint. The steps consist of (1) identifying the con-
found to be above a preset reorder point, no action is
straint to the system, (2) deciding how to exploit the
taken. If the inventory level is at or below the reorder
constraint to the system, (3) subordinating all noncon-
point, the analyst orders a variable quantity equal to M
straints to the constraint, (4) elevating the constraint to
x where M is a maximum stock level and x is the cur-
the system, (5) returning to step 1 if the constraint is
rent quantity on hand and on order (if any). This hybrid
broken in any previous step, while not allowing inertia to
system does not reorder every review interval. It there-
set in.F
fore differs from the fixed-interval order system, which

64 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


fixed-location storage fixture

automatically places an order whenever inventory is where the costs of frequent movement of the product
reviewed.F are very high.F

fixed-location storageA method of storage in which a fixed-price contractSyn: firm fixed-price contract.F
relatively permanent location is assigned for the storage
of each item in a storeroom or warehouse. Although fixed-price-incentive-fee contractA contract in which
more space is needed to store parts than in a random- the seller is paid a set price and can earn an additional
location storage system, fixed locations become famili-
ar, and therefore a locator file may not be needed. See:
random-location storage.F
profit if certain stipulations are met.F

fixed propertyProperty attached to, and not easily re-


F
moved from, the location.F
fixed order period systemA method of inventory plan-
ning that measures actual inventory levels at regular
fixed reorder cycle inventory modelA form of indepen-
intervals of time; either an order is placed every time or
dent demand management model in which an order is
a check of inventory levels is made and an order placed
placed every n time units. The order quantity is variable
if needed. Often the quantity ordered varies from period
and essentially replaces the items consumed during the
to period as inventory is restored to a predetermined
current time period. Let M be the maximum inventory
level. See: fixed order quantity system.F
desired at any time, and let x be the quantity on hand at
fixed order quantityA lot-sizing technique in MRP or the time the order is placed. Then, in the simplest mod-
inventory management that will always cause planned el, the order quantity will be M x. The quantity M must
or actual orders to be generated for a predetermined be large enough to cover the maximum expected de-
fixed quantity, or multiples thereof, if net requirements mand during the lead time plus a review interval. The
for the period exceed the fixed order quantity.F order quantity model becomes more complicated
whenever the replenishment lead time exceeds the re-
fixed order quantity systemAn inventory system, such
view interval, because outstanding orders then have to
as economic order quantity, in which the same order
be factored into the equation. These reorder systems
quantity is used from order to order. The time between
are sometimes called fixed-interval order systems, order
orders (order period) then varies from order to order.
level systems, or periodic review systems. Syn: fixed-
Syn: fixed reorder quantity inventory model. See: fixed
interval order system, fixed order quantity system, order
order period system.F
level system, periodic review system, time-based order
fixed overheadTraditionally, all manufacturing costs system. See: fixed reorder quantity inventory model, hy-
other than direct labor and direct materialsthat con- brid inventory system, independent demand item man-
tinue even if products are not produced. Although fixed agement models, optional replenishment model.F
overhead is necessary to produce the product, it cannot
be directly traced to the final product.F fixed reorder quantity inventory modelA form of inde-
pendent demand item management model in expected
fixed-period quantityAn MRP lot-sizing technique that demand during the replenishment lead time. Fixed
sets the lot size equal to the net requirements for a giv- reorder quantity models assume the existence of some
en number of periods.F form of a perpetual inventory record or some form of
fixed-period requirementsA lot-sizing technique that physical tracking (e.g., a two-bin system that is able to
sets the order quantity to the demand for a given num- determine when the reorder point is reached). These
ber of periods. See: discrete order quantity.F reorder systems are sometimes called fixed order quan-
tity systems, lot-size systems, or order point-order quan-
fixed-position layoutA factory layout that plans for the tity systems. Syn: fixed order quantity system, lot-size
product to be in a set place; the people, machines, and system, order point-order quantity system, quantity-
tools are brought to and from the product.F based order system. See: fixed reorder cycle inventory
fixed-position manufacturingSimilar to project manu- model, hybrid inventory system, independent demand
facturing, this type of manufacturing is mostly used for item management models, optional replenishment
large, complex projects, where the product remains in model, order point, order point system, statistical inven-
one locations for its full assembly period or may move tory control, time-phased order point.F
from location to location after considerable work and
fixtureA device to hold and locate a work piece during
time are spent on it. Examples of fixed position manu-
inspection or production operations. See: jig.F
facturing include shipbuilding or aircraft assembly,

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 65


flag of convenience floor-ready merchandise

flag of convenienceA ship registered in a nation with flexible machine center (FMC)An automated system,
low taxes and lax safety regulations. Liberia and which usually consists of computer numerical control
Panama are two favorite flags of convenience.F machines with robots loading and unloading the parts
conveyed into, and through, the system. Its purpose is
flatbedA type of truck trailer that has a floor but no
to provide quicker throughput, changeovers, setups,
enclosure. Sideboards or tie-downs are used to prevent
and so forth to enable the manufacturing of multiple
cargo from falling off.F
products.F

F flatcarA railroad car without sides used for hauling


machinery.F flexible manufacturing system (FMS)A group of numer-
ically controlled machine tools interconnected by a cen-
flexibility1) The ability of the manufacturing system to
tral control system. The various machining cells are
respond quickly, in terms of range and time, to external
interconnected via loading and unloading stations by an
or internal changes. Six different categories of flexibility
automated transport system. Operational flexibility is
can be considered: mix flexibility, design changeover
enhanced by the ability to execute all manufacturing
flexibility, modification flexibility, volume flexibility, re-
tasks on numerous product designs in small quantities
routing flexibility, and material flexibility (see each term
and with faster delivery.F
for a more detailed discussion). In addition, flexibility
involves concerns of product flexibility. Flexibility can be flexible path equipmentMaterials handling equipment
useful in coping with various types of uncertainty (re- such as forklifts that do not have to follow fixed paths.F
garding mix, volume, and so on). 2) The ability of a
flexible specializationA strategy based on multi-use
supply chain to mitigate, or neutralize, the risks of de-
equipment, skilled workers, and innovative senior man-
mand forecast variability, supply continuity variability,
agers to accommodate the continuous change that oc-
cycle time plus lead-time uncertainty, and transit time
curs in the marketplace.F
plus customs-clearance time uncertainty during periods
of increasing or diminishing volume.F flexible workforceA workforce whose members are
cross-trained and whose work rules permit assignment
flexibility responsivenessThe ability of the firm and its
of individual workers to different tasks.F
management to change rapidly in response to changes
taking place in the marketplace.F flextimeAn arrangement in which employees are al-
flexible automationAutomation that provides short se- lowed to choose work hours as long as the standard
tup times and the ability to switch quickly from one number of work hours is worked.F
product to another.F float1) The amount of work-in-process inventory be-
flexible benefits/cafeteria plansPlans designed to give tween two manufacturing operations, especially in repe-
employees a core of minimum basic coverage with the titive manufacturing. 2) In supply chains, the time
option to choose additional coverage or, sometimes, necessary for items such as documents and checks to
cash. Employees can customize their benefits packages go from one supply chain partner to another. 3) In the
to suit their personal needs.F critical path method of project management, the
amount of time that an activitys early start or early
flexible budgetA budget showing the costs and reve-
finish time can be delayed without delaying the comple-
nues expected to be incurred or realized over a period
tion time of the entire project. There are three types:
of time at different levels of activity, measured in terms
total float, free float, and independent float. Syn: path
of some activity base such as direct labor hours, direct
float, slack.F
labor costs, or machine hours. A flexible manufacturing
overhead budget gives the product costs of various floating inventory location systemSyn: random-location
manufacturing overhead items at different levels of ac- storage.F
tivity. See: step budget.F
floating order pointAn order point that is responsive to
flexible capabilityMachinerys ability to be readily changes in demand or to changes in lead time.F
adapted to processing different components on an on-
floating storage locationSyn: random-location
going basis.F
storage.F
flexible capacityThe ability to operate manufacturing
equipment at different production rates by varying staff- floor-ready merchandiseProducts shipped by a suppli-
ing levels and operating hours or starting and stopping er having all needed tags, prices, security devices, and
at will.F so on already in place.F

66 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


floor stocks FMEA

floor stocksStocks of inexpensive production parts symbols)


held in the factory, from which production workers can Syn: process flowchart, process flow diagram. See:
draw without requisitions. Syn: bench stocks, expensed flowchart, process flow.F
stocks.F
flow processingIn process systems development, work
flowchartThe output of a flowcharting process, a chart flows from one workstation to another at a nearly con-
that shows the operations, transportation, storages, de- stant rate and with no delays. When producing discrete
lays, inspections, and so on related to a process.
Flowcharts are drawn to better understand processes.
The flowchart is one of the seven tools of quality. Syn:
(geometric) units, the process is called repetitive manu-
facturing; when producing non-geometric units over
time, the process is called continuous manufacturing. A
F
flow diagram. See: block diagram, flow process chart.F physical-chemical reaction takes place in the conti-
nuous flow process.F
flowchartingA systems analysis tool that graphically
presents a procedure. Symbols are used to represent flow rackA storage rack using metal shelves equipped
operations, transportations, inspections, storages, de- with wheels or rollers allowing product to flow from the
lays, and equipment.F back to the front of the rack to make the product more
accessible for order picking.F
flow controlA specific production control system that is
based primarily on setting production rates and feeding flow rateRunning rate; the inverse of cycle time; for
work into production to meet these planned rates, then example, 360 units per shift (or 0.75 units per
monitoring and controlling production. See: shop floor minute).F
control.F
flow shopA form of manufacturing organization in
flow diagramSyn: flowchart.F which machines and operators handle a standard,
usually uninterrupted, material flow. The operators gen-
flow lineSyn: flow shop.F
erally perform the same operations for each production
flow manufacturingSyn: flow shop.F run. A flow shop is often referred to as a mass produc-
flow orderAn order filled, not by moving material tion shop or is said to have a continuous manufacturing
through production as an integral lot, but by production layout. The plant layout (arrangement of machines,
made over time and checked by a cumulative count un- benches, assembly lines, etc.) is designed to facilitate a
til the flow order quantity is complete.F product flow. Some process industries (chemicals, oil,
paint, etc.) are extreme examples of flow shops. Each
flow plantSyn: flow shop.F
product, though variable in material specifications, uses
flow process chartA graphic, symbolic representation the same flow pattern through the shop. Production is
of the work performed, or to be performed, on a product set at a given rate, and the products are generally man-
as it passes through some or all of the stages of a ufactured in bulk. Syn: flow line, flow manufacturing,
process. Typically, the information included in the chart flow plant.F
is quantity, distance moved, type of work done (by sym-
flow timeThe time between the release of a job to a
bol with explanation), and equipment used. Work times
work center or shop until the job is finished.F
may also be included. The flow process chart symbols
(ASME Standard Symbols) generally used are as follows: flow time efficiencyThe ratio of theoretical flow time to
O operation: A subdivision of a process that changes the actual flow time through a process.F
or modifies a part, material, or product and is done es- FLSAAbbreviation for Fair Labor Standards Act.F
sentially at one workplace location
fluctuation inventoryInventory that is carried as a cu-
transportation (move): Change in location of a per-
shion to protect against forecast error. Syn: fluctuation
son, part, material, or product from one workplace to
stock. See: inventory buffer.F
another
inspection: Comparison of observed quality or quan- fluctuation stockSyn: fluctuation inventory.F
tity of a product with a quality or quantity standard
FMAAbbreviation for failure mode analysis.F
storage: Keeping a product, material, or part pro-
tected against unauthorized removal FMAPEAbbreviation for forecast mean absolute per-
D delay: An event that occurs when an object or per- centage of error.F
son waits for the next planned action FMCAbbreviation for flexible machine center.F
O combined activity: Adjustment during testing (e.g.,
FMEAAbbreviation for failure mode effects analysis.F
combination of the separate operation and inspection

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 67


FMECA foreign trade zone (FTZ)

FMECAAbbreviation for failure mode effects and criti- al, random, seasonal, and trend. Syn: sales forecast.
cality analysis.F See: Box-Jenkins model, exponential smoothing fore-
cast, extrinsic forecasting method, intrinsic forecasting
FMSAbbreviation for flexible manufacturing system.F
method, moving average forecast, qualitative forecast-
FOBAbbreviation for free on board.F ing method, quantitative forecasting method.F
FOB destinationThe supplier pays for transportation to forecast accuracyA measurement of forecast useful-

F
the buyers location, where the buyer takes possession ness, often defined as the average difference between
of the goods.F the forecast value to the actual value. Syn: sales fore-
FOB originationThe buyer takes possession of the cast. See: forecast error.F
goods at the suppliers location, and the buyer must forecast biasTendency of a forecast to systematically
provide transportation.F miss the actual demand (consistently either high or
focused factoryA plant established to focus the entire low).F
manufacturing system on a limited, concise, managea-
forecast consumptionSyn: consuming the forecast.F
ble set of products, technologies, volumes, and markets
precisely defined by the companys competitive strate- forecast errorThe difference between actual demand
gy, technology, and economics. See: cellular and forecast demand, stated as an absolute value or as
manufacturing.F a percentage. See: average forecast error, forecast ac-
curacy, mean absolute deviation, tracking signal.F
focused low-cost strategyTargeting a market with a
low-cost product line in order to lower the cost of sales forecast horizonThe period of time into the future for
and increase gross margin.F which a forecast is prepared.F
focus forecastingA system that allows the user to si- forecastingThe business function that attempts to
mulate the effectiveness of numerous forecasting tech- predict sales and use of products so they can be pur-
niques, enabling selection of the most effective one.F chased or manufactured in appropriate quantities in
focus groupA set of people who are interviewed to- advance.F
gether for the purpose of collecting marketing data.F forecast intervalThe time unit for which forecasts are
focus-group researchA form of research (frequently prepared, such as week, month, or quarter. Syn: fore-
used in marketing research) where data are gathered by cast period.F
interviewing consumers in groups of 6 to 10 at a time forecast managementThe process of making, check-
(the focus group). See: marketing research.F ing, correcting, and using forecasts. It also includes de-
focus strategyTargeting a narrow market with specia- termination of the forecast horizon.F
lized goods or services.F forecast mean absolute percentage of error (FMAPE)
follow-upMonitoring of job progress to see that opera- The absolute error divided by actual demand for n pe-
tions are performed on schedule or that purchased ma- riods. Where absolute error is the variation between the
terial or products will be received on schedule.F actual demand and the forecast for the period ex-
pressed as a positive value (without regard for sign).F
force field analysisA technique for analyzing the forces
that will aid or hinder an organization in reaching an ob- forecast periodSyn: forecast interval.F
jective. An arrow pointing to an objective is drawn down
foreign freight forwarderAn entity that picks up goods
the middle of a piece of paper. The factors that will aid
at the production site and coordinates transport to the
the objectives achievement (called the driving forces)
foreign customers location.F
are listed on the left side of the arrow; the factors that
will hinder its achievement (called the restraining foreign trade zone (FTZ)Areas supervised by U.S.
forces) are listed on the right side of the arrow.F Customs and Border Protection that are considered to
be outside U.S. territory. Material in the zone is not sub-
forecastAn estimate of future demand. A forecast can
ject to duty taxes, which are payable when the material
be constructed using quantitative methods, qualitative
is moved outside the zone for consumption. There is no
methods, or a combination of methods, and it can be
limit on the time material may remain in the zone.
based on extrinsic (external) or intrinsic (internal) fac-
Internationally, similar areas are called free trade
tors. Various forecasting techniques attempt to predict
zones.F
one or more of the four components of demand: cyclic-

68 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


forensic procurement free alongside ship (FAS)

forensic procurementAnalyzing root cause-and-effect for operations. See: forward pass. Ant: back
troubleshooting.F scheduling.F

formal cultureThe visible segment of the organization- Fourier seriesA form of analysis useful for forecasting.
al culture, such as policies and procedures, mission The model is based on fitting sine waves with increasing
statement, and dress codes. See: informal culture.F frequencies and phase angles to a time series.F

formatThe predetermined arrangement of the charac-

F
4PLAbbreviation for fourth-party logistics.F
ters of data for computer input, storage, or output.F
four PsA set of marketing tools to direct the business
form-fit-functionA term used to describe the process of offering to the customer. The four Ps are product, price,
designing a part or product to meet or exceed the per- place, and promotion.F
formance requirements expected by customers.F
14 PointsW. Edwards Demings 14 management prac-
formulaA statement of ingredient requirements. A tices to help companies increase their quality and prod-
formula may also include processing instructions and uctivity: (1) create constancy of purpose for improving
ingredient sequencing directions. Syn: formulation, products and services; (2) adopt the new philosophy; (3)
recipe.F cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality; (4)
end the practice of awarding business on price alone;
formulationSyn: formula.F
instead, minimize total cost by working with a single
form utilityThe value created by changing a goods supplier; (5) improve constantly and forever every
form through a production process.F process for planning, production, and service; (6) insti-
tute training on the job; (7) adopt and institute leader-
forty-foot equivalent unitA measure of container ca-
ship; (8) drive out fear; (9) break down barriers between
pacity that is equivalent to two 20-foot equivalency
staff areas; (10) eliminate slogans, exhortations, and
units; that is, a unit equivalent to 40-feet long, 8-feet
targets for the workforce; (11) eliminate numerical quo-
wide, and approximately 8-feet high.F
tas for the workforce and numerical goals for manage-
40/30/30 ruleA rule that identifies the sources of ment; (12) remove barriers that rob people of pride of
scrap, rework, and waste as 40 percent product design, workmanship and eliminate the annual rating or merit
30 percent manufacturing processing, and 30 percent system; (13) institute a vigorous program of education
from suppliers.4 and self-improvement for everyone; and (14) put every-
body in the company to work to accomplish the trans-
forward buyingThe practice of buying materials in a
formation. Syn: Demings 14 Points.F
quantity exceeding current requirements but not beyond
the point that the long-term need exists.F fourth-party logistics (4PL)Fourth-party logistics differs
from third-party logistics in the following ways: (1) the
forward flow schedulingA procedure for building
4PL organization is often a separate entity formed by a
process train schedules that starts with the first stage
joint venture or other long-term contract between a
and proceeds sequentially through the process struc-
client and one or more partners; (2) the 4PL organiza-
ture until the last stage is scheduled.F
tion is an interface between the client and multiple lo-
forward integrationProcess of buying or owning ele- gistics services providers; (3) ideally, all aspects of the
ments of the production cycle and the channel of distri- clients supply chain are managed by the 4PL organiza-
bution forward toward the final customer. See: vertical tion; and, (4) it is possible for a major 3PL organization
integration.F to form a 4PL organization within its existing structure.
See: third-party logistics.F
forward passIn the critical path method of project
management, working from the first node to the last four-wall inventorySyn: wall-to-wall inventory.F
node calculating early start times and early finish times
FPOAbbreviation for firm planned order.F
as well as the projects duration. See: forward schedul-
ing, backward pass, critical path method.F franchise extensionThe placement of a brand name
on products outside the companys present sphere of
forward schedulingA scheduling technique where the
activity.F
scheduler proceeds from a known start date and com-
putes the completion date for an order, usually proceed- free alongside ship (FAS)A term of sale indicating the
ing from the first operation to the last. Dates generated seller is liable for all changes and risks until the goods
by this technique are generally the earliest start dates sold are delivered to the port on a dock that will be used

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 69


free float functional organization

by the vessel. Title passes to the buyer when the seller fringe benefitsEmployer-granted compensations that
has secured a clean dock or ships receipt of goods.F are not directly tied to salary.F
free floatIn the critical path method of project man- front roomThe place where the customer comes into
agement, the amount of time that a given activity can contact with the service operation. Many service opera-
be delayed without delaying an immediately subsequent tions contain front room and back room operations.
activitys early start time. See: float, independent float, See: back room.F

F total float.F
free on board (FOB)The terms of sale that identify
where title passes to the buyer.F
frozen master production scheduleThe parts of a mas-
ter production schedule that should not be changed or
should be changed rarely.F
free slackThe amount of time by which the completion frozen zoneIn forecasting, the periods where no
of an activity in a project network can increase without changes can be made to work orders based on changes
delaying the start of the next activity.F in demand. This provides stability to the master produc-
tion schedule.F
free trade zone (FTZ)The international term for what is
known in the United States as a foreign trade zone. See: FRTAbbreviation for future reality tree.F
foreign trade zone.F
FTCAbbreviation for Federal Trade Commission.F
freight billA freight carriers invoice for a shipment.F
FTPAbbreviation for file transfer protocol.F
freight carriersCompanies that move cargo via truck,
FTZAbbreviation for foreign trade zone.F
rail, air, or sea.F
Full-Baldrige approachA quality award program mod-
freight chargeThe rate established for the transporta-
eled after the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award
tion of freight.F
and using the same criteria.F
freight collectThe freight and charges to be paid by the
full cost pricingEstablishing price at some markup
consignee.F
over the full cost (absorption costing). Full costing in-
freight consolidationThe grouping of shipments to ob- cludes direct manufacturing as well as applied
tain reduced costs or improved utilization of the trans- overhead.F
portation function. Consolidation can occur by market
full peggingThe ability of a system to automatically
area grouping, grouping according to scheduled delive-
trace requirements for a given component all the way
ries, or using third-party pooling services such as public
up to its ultimate end item, customer, or contract num-
warehouses and freight forwarders.F
ber. Syn: contract pegging.F
freight equalizationThe practice by more distant sup-
fully qualified domain nameThe complete, registered
pliers of absorbing the additional freight charges to
address (URL) of an internet site.F
match the freight charges of a supplier geographically
closer to the customer. This is done to eliminate the functional benchmarkingBenchmarking a single func-
competitive advantage of lower freight charges that the tion within an organization rather than the entire organ-
nearest supplier has.F ization. See: benchmarking.F

freight forwarderThe middle man between the carri- functionalityThe degree to which a product achieves
er and the organization shipping the product. Often its designed purpose.F
combines smaller shipments to take advantage of lower functional layoutA facility configuration in which opera-
bulk costs.F tions of a similar nature or function are grouped togeth-
frequency distributionA table that indicates the fre- er; an organizational structure based on departmental
quency with which data fall into each of any number of specialty (e.g., saw, lathe, mill, heat treat, press). Syn:
subdivisions of the variable. The subdivisions are usual- job shop layout, process layout.F
ly called classes.F functional managerA manager responsible for a spe-
frequency of repairSyn: repair factor.F cialized department, such as accounting or
engineering.F
frequently asked questions (FAQs)A list of commonly
asked questions pertaining to a website (or perhaps functional organizationA hierarchical organization in
software, hardware, and so on) along with the answers which each individual has one clear superior and staff
to these questions.F areas are well defined.F

70 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


functional organizational structure gap analysis

functional organizational structureAn organizational (1) develop, expand, and complete the solution and (2)
structure based on functional specialization, such as identify and solve or prevent new problems created by
sales, engineering, manufacturing, finance, and implementing the solution.F
accounting.F
futuresContracts for the sale and delivery of commodi-
functional requirementsSyn: critical characteristics.F ties at a future time, made with the intention that no
commodity be delivered or received immediately.F
functional siloA view of an organization where each
department is operated independently of the others.
Each group is referred to as a silo. See: silo effect.F
future valueA present payments value at some point
in the future valued at a given interest rate.F G
functional silo syndromeSuboptimization of an organi- future worth1) The equivalent monetary value at a
zations goals due to members of specific functions de- designated future date based on the time value of
veloping more loyalty to the functions group goals than money. 2) The monetary sum, at a given future time,
to the organizations goals.F that is equivalent to one or more sums at given earlier
times when interest is compounded at a given rate.
functional strategyA strategy that is built from the
See: time value of money.F
business strategy for the various business functions,
such as finance, marketing, and production. See: stra- fuzzy logicA field of logic based on fuzzy sets, that is,
tegic planning.F sets in which membership is probabilistic rather than
deterministic.F
functional systems designThe development and defi-
nition of the business functions to be accomplished by
a computer system (i.e., preparing a statement of the
proposed computer systems data input, data manipula-
G
tion, and information output in common business terms GAAPAcronym for generally accepted accounting
that can be reviewed, understood, and approved by a principles.G
user organization). This statement, after approval, pro-
vides the basis for the computer systems design.F gain sharingA method of incentive compensation
where employees share collectively in savings from
functional testMeasure of a production components productivity improvements. Syn: gain sharing plans.G
ability to work as designed to meet a level of
performance.F gain sharing plansSyn: gain sharing.G

funds flow managementThe planning, execution, and GAMPAcronym for generally accepted manufacturing
control of cash receipts and disbursements with the ob- practices.G
jective of maintaining the cash balance at a preset posi- G&AAbbreviation for general and administrative
tive value. Syn: cash flow management.F expenses.G
funds flow statementA financial statement showing Gantt chartThe earliest and best-known type of plan-
the flow of cash and its timing into and out of an organi- ning and control chart, especially designed to show
zation or project. Syn: cash flow statement, statement graphically the relationship between planned perfor-
of cash flows.F mance and actual performance over time. Named after
funnel experimentAn experiment that demonstrates its originator, Henry L. Gantt, the chart is used for (1)
the effects of tampering. Marbles are dropped through machine loading, in which one horizontal line is used to
a funnel in an attempt to hit a flat-surfaced target be- represent capacity and another to represent load
low. The experiment shows that adjusting a stable against that capacity; or (2) monitoring job progress, in
process to compensate for an undesirable result or an which one horizontal line represents the production
extraordinarily good result will produce output that is schedule and another parallel line represents the actual
worse than if the process had been left alone. See: progress of the job against the schedule in time. Syn:
tampering.F job progress chart, milestone chart.G

future orderAn order entered for shipment at some gapWhen the actual performance level is not equal to
future date.F the expected performance level.G
gap analysisA tool designed to assess the distance
future reality tree (FRT)In the theory of constraints, a
that exists between a service that is offered and cus-
logic-based tool for constructing and testing potential
tomer expectations.G
solutions before implementation. The objectives are to

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 71


gapped schedule Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) Reporting Framework

gapped scheduleA schedule in which every piece in a nication between marketing and manufacturing, top
lot is finished at one work center before any piece in the management control of the production planning process
lot can be processed at the succeeding work center; the (sales and operations planning process), systems capa-
movement of material in complete lots, causing time ble of validly translating high-level plans into detailed
gaps between the end of one operation and the begin- schedules, and so on. Today GAMP includes such para-
ning of the next. It is a result of using a batched sche- digms as just-in-time, theory of constraints, total quality
dule at each operation (work center), where process management, business process reengineering, and

G batch and transfer batch are assumed to be the same


or equal. Syn: gap phasing, straight-line schedule. Ant:
supply chain management.G
general merchandise warehouseA warehouse for the
overlapped schedule.G
storage of goods that require no special handling.G
gap phasingSyn: gapped schedule.G
general-purpose machineryManufacturing resources
gatekeepingA group technique applied by a team that can perform several kinds of operations.G
leader to effectively manage a situation, discussion, or
general storesSyn: supplies.G
meeting. For example, in a situation where a dominant
spokesperson or person of authority monopolizes a dis- general warehouseA location where goods usually are
cussion, the gatekeeper will intervene by requesting stored for long periods of time. The primary purpose is
additional group members input.G to protect goods until they are needed. The general
warehouse is used because the producer or owner ei-
gate reviewThe formal review process between the
ther does not have the necessary warehouse space or
major phases of a new product introduction effort. The
the cost of storage is better off-site. Usually use of a
determination to continue or to stop the project is for-
general warehouse involves minimal handling, move-
mally made at each review point or gate.G
ment, and transportation.G
gatewayThe connection that allows data and other in-
general warrantyAn assurance that the product is fit
formation to flow between two networks.G
for use. See: special warranty, warranty.G
gateway operationSyn: gateway work center.G
generic processingA means of developing routings or
gateway work centerA work center that performs the processes for the manufacture of products through a
first operation of a particular routing sequence.G family relationship, usually accomplished by means of
GATTAcronym for general agreement on tariffs and tabular data to establish interrelationships. It is espe-
trade.G cially prevalent in the manufacture of raw material such
as steel, aluminum, or chemicals.G
gaugeAn instrument for measuring or testing.G
GERTAcronym for graphical evaluation and review
GDSSAbbreviation for group decision support
technique.G
system.G
globalizationThe interdependence of economies glo-
gembaA Japanese word meaning shop floor.G
bally that results from the growing volume and variety of
genchi genbutsuA Japanese phrase meaning visit the international transactions in goods, services, and capi-
shop floor to observe what is occurring.G tal, and also from the spread of new technology.G
general and administrative expenses (G&A)The cate- global marketingThe use of one marketing strategy in
gory of expenses on an income statement that includes all countries in which a company operates, selling a sin-
the costs of general managers, computer systems, re- gle product worldwide.G
search and development, and more.G
global measurementsMeasurements used to judge
generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) the performance of the system as a whole.G
Accounting practices that conform to conventions, rules,
global positioning system (GPS)A system that uses sa-
and procedures that have general acceptability by the
tellites to locate an objects position.G
accounting profession.G
Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)A network-based or-
generally accepted manufacturing practices (GAMP)A
ganization that pioneered the world's most widely used
group of practices and principles, independent of any
sustainability reporting framework.G
one set of techniques, that define how a manufacturing
company should be managed. Included are such ele- Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) Reporting Framework
ments as the need for data accuracy, frequent commu- The framework that sets out the principles and perfor-

72 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


global sourcing green supply chain

mance indicators organizations can use to measure and graphical evaluation and review technique (GERT)A
report their human rights, labor, environment, and anti- network analysis technique that allows for probability
corruption practices and outcomes.G distributions of activity durations and also conditions
under which some activities may not be carried out.
global sourcingUsing international sources for
See: critical path method, network analysis, program
supplies.G
evaluation and review technique.G

G
global strategyA strategy that focuses on improving
graphical forecasting methodsThe use of visual infor-
worldwide performance through the sales and market-
mation to predict sales patterns, it typically involves
ing of common goods and services with minimum prod-
plotting information in a graphical form. It is relatively
uct variation by country. Its competitive advantage
easy to convert a spreadsheet into a graph that conveys
grows through selecting the best locations for opera-
the information visually. Trends and patterns of data
tions in other countries. See: multinational strategy.G
are easier to spot, and extrapolation of previous de-
global supply chainsSupply chains that include inter- mand can be used to predict future demands.G
national partners or markets.G graphical user interface (GUI)A connection between
glocalizationA combination of "globalization" and "loca- the computer and the user employing a mouse and
lization." When used in a supply chain context, glocaliza- icons so that the user makes selections by pointing at
tion is a form of postponement where a product or icons and clicking the mouse.G
service is developed for distribution globally but is mod- gravity modelsAn approach used for locating facilities
ified to meet the needs of a local market. The modifica- at the center of gravity. Gravity is determined by the
tions are made to conform with local laws, customs, product of the masses of two bodies divided by the
cultures or preferences.G square of the distance between them. In gravity models,
GNPAbbreviation for gross national product.G the population of each neighborhood in the region is
used as the mass, and driving time is used as the
going concern valueThe value of the firm as a whole, distance.G
rather than the sum of the values of the separate
gray box designA situation in which the supplier and
parts.G
client jointly design a product or service. See: black box
go/no-goThe state of a unit or product. Two design.G
parameters are possible: go (conforms to specification)
green beltA manager or team member who has been
and no-go (does not conform to specification).G
trained in six sigma improvement methods and will
goodA tangible product, merchandise, or ware.G have full-time responsibilities for process and quality
improvement.G
goodness of fitThe degree to which a model complies
with observed data.G green fieldThe initiation of a new process where no
similar initiatives have previously existed.G
goodwillAn intangible item that is only recorded on a
companys books as the result of a purchase. Generally, green logisticsA purchasing firm has the responsibility
it is inseparable from the enterprise but makes the to properly dispose of packaging supplies received with
company more valuable, for example, a good items ordered.G
reputation.G green manufacturingA method of producing a good or
government marketA market in which most or all buy- service that minimizes external cost and pollution. It in-
ers consist of agencies of federal, state, or local gov- cludes design for reuse, design for disassembly, and
ernments. See: consumer market, industrial market, design for remanufacture. See: environmentally respon-
institutional market.G sible business.G
green marketingIn advertising, promoting products
GPSAbbreviation for global positioning system.G
because of their environmental sensitivity.G
gradesThe sublabeling of items to identify their partic-
green reverse logisticsThe responsibility of the suppli-
ular makeup and to separate one lot from other produc-
er to dispose of packaging materials or environmentally
tion lots of the same item.G
sensitive materials such as heavy metals.G
grandfather clauseA provision that exempts existing
green supply chainA supply chain that considers envi-
entities from a newly created regulation.G
ronmental impacts on its operations and takes action

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 73


GRI hard automation

along the supply chain to comply with environmental group layoutA layout in which machine groups are ar-
safety regulations and communicate this to customers ranged to process families of parts with similar charac-
and partners. See: environmentally responsible teristics.G
business.G
group replacementReplacing an entire set of compo-
GRIAbbreviation for Global Reporting Initiative.G nents, whether failed or not, all at one time (e.g., replac-
ing all the light bulbs in a ceiling fixture).G
grid techniqueA quantitative model used for locating

H plants and warehouses by finding the least cost point,


given the positions of raw materials and markets.G
group technology (GT)An engineering and manufactur-
ing philosophy that identifies the physical similarity of
parts (common routing) and establishes their effective
grievanceA complaint by an employee concerning al-
production. It provides for rapid retrieval of existing de-
leged contract violations handled formally through con-
signs and facilitates a cellular layout.G
tractually fixed procedures. If unsettled, a grievance
may lead to arbitration.G group technology work cellsA concentrated area for
producing parts based on similar operations and/or
grievance proceduresMethods identified in a collective
characteristics to use equipment and labor more
bargaining agreement to resolve problems that develop
efficiently.G
or to determine if a contract has been violated.G
groupthinkA situation in which a team seizes on one
gross inventoryThe standard cost value of inventory
solution to a problem and does not consider other via-
before allowance for excess or obsolete items.G
ble solutions either because members are afraid of con-
gross marginThe difference between total revenue frontation or because they convince themselves that
and the cost of goods sold. Syn: gross profit margin.G other ideas arent worth discussing.G
gross national product (GNP)The market value of all growth-share matrixIn marketing, a division of prod-
goods and services produced in a nation in a given ucts by relative market share and market growth rate.
year.G Products are divided as follows: (1) Cash cowshigh
market share, low growth rate; (2) Starshigh market
gross profitSales minus cost of goods sold.G
share, high growth rate; (3) Dogslow market share, low
gross profit marginSyn: gross margin.G growth rate; and (4) Question markslow market share,
gross profit margin rateSales minus cost of goods sold high growth rate. Sometimes this same set of terms is
then divided by sales.G used to categorize products by market share and profit-
ability. See: cash cow, dog, question mark, star.G
gross requirementThe total of independent and de-
pendent demand for a component before the netting of growth trajectorySyn: ramp rate.G
on-hand inventory and scheduled receipts.G GTAbbreviation for group technology.G
gross salesThe total amount charged to all customers GTSGrasps the situation.G
during the accounting time period.G
guaranteeA contractual obligation by one entity to
gross weightVehicle weight including freight or another that a fact regarding a product is true. See:
passengers.G warranty.G
group classification codeA part of a material classifica- GUIAbbreviation for graphical user interface.G
tion technique that provides for designation of charac-

H
teristics by successively lower order groups of code.
Classification may denote function, type of material,
size, shape, and so forth.G
handling costThe cost involved in the movement of
group decision support system (GDSS)The software
material. In some cases, the handling cost depends on
designed to support groups in unstructured decision
the size of the inventory.H
making by supporting brainstorming, conflict resolution,
voting, and other techniques.G hanseiA Japanese word meaning reflection.H
groupingMatching like operations and running them hard automationUse of specialized machines to man-
together sequentially, thereby taking advantage of a ufacture and assemble products. Each machine is nor-
common setup.G mally dedicated to one function, such as milling.H

74 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


hard copy high-level language (HLL)

hard copyA printed report, message, or special riods beyond some time fence such that, if the hedge is
listing.H not needed, it can be rolled forward before major re-
sources must be committed to produce the hedge and
hardware1) In manufacturing, relatively standard
put it in inventory. A product mix hedge is an approach
items such as nuts, bolts, washers, or clips. 2) In data
where several interrelated optional items are over-
processing, the computer and its peripherals.H
planned. Sometimes, using a planning bill, the sum of
harmonic smoothingAn approach to forecasting based the percent mix can exceed 100 percent by a defined
on fitting some set of sine and cosine functions to the
historical pattern of a time series. Syn: seasonal
amount, thus triggering additional hedge planning. 3) In
purchasing, any purchase or sale transaction having as
H
harmonics.H its purpose the elimination of the negative aspects of
harmonized system classification codesAn interna- price fluctuations. See: market hedge, option overplan-
tionally standardized description of goods that uses a ning, planning bill of material, safety stock, time fence,
system of numbers to provide increasingly detailed two-level master.H
classification and descriptions.H hedge inventoryA form of inventory buildup to buffer
against some event that may not happen. Hedge inven-
hash totalA control process used to ensure that all
tory planning involves speculation related to potential
documents in a group are present or processed. In
labor strikes, price increases, unsettled governments,
practice, the arithmetic sum of data not normally added
and events that could severely impair a companys stra-
together is found, the checking (audit) process adds the
tegic initiatives. Risk and consequences are unusually
same data, and a comparison is made. If the sums do
high, and top management approval is often required.H
not agree, an error exists. Example: the last digit of
every part number in an assembly is added, and the last hedgingThe practice of entering into contracts on a
digit of the sum becomes the last digit of the assembly. commodity exchange to protect against future fluctua-
If the last digit of an assembly is not the same as the tions in the commodity. This practice allows a company
sum of the last digit of the components sum, the as- to isolate profits to the value-added process rather than
sembly must be missing a part or must have the wrong to uncontrolled pricing factors. See: speculative
combination of parts.H buying.H
Hawthorne effectA study at the Hawthorne Western heelIn the process industry, an item used in the manu-
Electric plant from 1927 to 1932 systematically im- facture of itself. For example, in the manufacture of
proved working conditions and productivity improved. plastic, the ingredients will include the parent as well as
Then, when it systematically worsened working condi- the components.H
tions, productivity improved. From this study, it was de- heijunkaIn just-in-time philosophy, an approach to lev-
termined that concern by management generally factors el production throughout the supply chain to match the
into improved productivity.H planned rate of end product sales.H
hazardous wasteWaste, such as chemicals or nuclear helper applicationSoftware that assists the browser
material, that is hazardous to humans or animals and when audio, video, or large images are requested.H
requires special handling.H
heuristicsA form of problem solving in which the re-
hazmatHazardous material defined by environmental sults or rules have been determined by experience or
laws and legal precedents. A product has been defined intuition instead of by optimization. Heuristics can be
as hazardous by regulations that impose stiff fines if the used in such areas as forecasting; lot sizing; or deter-
regulations are ignored.H mining production, staff, or inventory levels.H
hedge1) An action taken in an attempt to shield the hierarchical databaseA method of constructing a da-
company from an uncertain event such as a strike, price tabase that requires that related record types be linked
increase, or currency reevaluation. 2) In master sche- in tree-like structures, where no child record can have
duling, a scheduled quantity to protect against uncer- more than one physical parent record.H
tainty in demand or supply. The hedge is similar to
high-level language (HLL)Relatively sophisticated
safety stock, except that a hedge has the dimension of
computer language that allows users to employ a nota-
timing as well as amount. A volume hedge or market
tion with which they are already familiar. For example:
hedge is carried at the master schedule or production
COBOL (business), ALGOL (mathematical and scientific),
plan level. The master scheduler plans excess quanti-
FORTRAN, BASIC, Java, and Visual Basic.H
ties over and above the demand quantities in given pe-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 75


hi-low house of quality (HOQ)

hi-lowA forklift truck with a standing operator.H HOQAbbreviation for house of quality.H
histogramA graph of contiguous vertical bars horizontal dependencyThe relationship between the
representing a frequency distribution in which the components at the same level in the bill of material, in
groups or classes of items are marked on the x axis and which all must be available at the same time and in suf-
the number of items in each class is indicated on the y ficient quantity to manufacture the parent assembly.
axis. The pictorial nature of the histogram lets people See: vertical dependency.H

H see patterns that are difficult to see in a simple table of


numbers. The histogram is one of the seven tools of
quality.H
horizontally integrated firmAn organization that seeks
to produce or sell a type of product in numerous mar-
kets. The horizontal integration exists when an organi-
historical analogyA judgmental forecasting technique zation produces or sells similar products in various
based on identifying a sales history that is analogous to geographical locations. Horizontal integration in market-
a present situation, such as the sales history of a simi- ing occurs more frequently than horizontal integration in
lar product, and using that past pattern to predict future production. See: vertically integrated firm.H
sales. See: management estimation.H
horizontal marketplaceAn online marketplace used by
historical labor standardDetermined by studying ac- buyers and sellers from multiple industries. This mar-
tual past labor data for the operation of interest.H ketplace lowers prices by lowering transaction costs.H
HLLAbbreviation for high-level language.H horizontal mergerAn alliance of two or more compet-
holding companyIn financial management, a firm that ing firms.H
controls the voting stock of other firms.H hoshinA Japanese word meaning statement of
holding costsSyn: carrying costs.H objectives.H

hold orderA written order directing that certain opera- hoshin kanriSee hoshin planning.H
tions or work be interrupted or terminated pending a
hoshin planningBreakthrough planning. A Japanese
change in design or other disposition of the material.
strategic planning process in which a company develops
Syn: stop work order.H
up to four vision statements that indicate where the
hold pointsStockpoints for semifinished inventory.H company should be in the next five years. Company
goals and work plans are developed based on the vision
holonic network1) A network of autonomous, distri-
statements. Periodic audits are then conducted to mon-
buted human or computer systems with the capability
itor progress.H
to act in an integrated manner. 2) A network of compa-
nies dynamically interacting to act as one system. Each host computerAny computer on a network that is a
company or holon has a different process and core repository for services available to other computers on
competency. Virtual enterprises are created by organiz- the network. It is common to have one host machine
ing the holons, to take advantage of core provide several services such as the World Wide Web.H
competencies.H
housekeepingThe manufacturing activity of identifying
homogeneous productA product that is effectively and maintaining an orderly environment for preventing
identical from producer to producer.H errors and contamination in the manufacturing
honeycombingThe practice of removing a pallet of process.H
merchandise where the space is not exhausted in an house of quality (HOQ)A structured process that re-
orderly fashion, resulting in a vacant space not usable lates customer-defined attributes to the products tech-
for storage of other items. This is one of the hidden nical features needed to support and generate these
costs of warehousing.H attributes. This technique achieves this mapping by
honeycomb lossThe usable empty storage space in a means of a six-step process: (1) identification of cus-
stack due to storage of only a single stockkeeping unit tomer attributes; (2) identification of supporting tech-
in the stack to permit better access.H nical features; (3) correlation of the customer attributes
with the supporting technical features; (4) assignment
hopper carsRail cars that permit bulk commodities to
of priorities to the customer requirements and technical
be loaded at the top and removed from the bottom of
features; (5) evaluation of competitive stances and
the car. Some hopper cars have permanent tops that
competitive products; and (6) identification of those
provide protection from bad weather.H
technical features to be used (deployed) in the final de-

76 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


hub ICC

sign of the product. HOQ is part of the quality function inventory model, optional replenishment model, order
deployment (QFD) process and forces designers to con- point system.H
sider customer needs and the degree to which the pro-
hybrid layoutThis layout combines two or more layout
posed designs satisfy these needs. See: customer-
types.H
defined attributes, quality function deployment.H
hybrid manufacturing processSyn: hybrid production
hubA large manufacturer or retailer doing business

I
method.H
with many trading partners.H
hybrid organizational structureAn organizational struc-
hub-and-spoke systemsIn warehousing, a system that
ture that embodies multiple organizational forms (func-
has a hub (or center point) where sorting or transfers
tional, product, or geographical) simultaneously. For
occur, and the spokes are outlets serving the destina-
example, some functions may be centralized (such as
tions related to the hub.H
finance and accounting), whereas others may be dupli-
human factors engineeringA merging of those cated geographically (such as sales).H
branches of engineering and the behavioral sciences
hybrid production methodA production planning me-
that concern themselves principally with the human
thod that combines the aspects of both the chase and
component in the design and operation of human-
level production planning methods. Syn: hybrid manu-
machine systems. Human factors engineering is based
facturing process, hybrid strategy. See: chase produc-
on a fundamental knowledge and study of human phys-
tion method, level production method, production
ical and mental abilities and emotional characteristics.H
planning method.H
human-machine interfaceThe location where data is
hybrid purchasing organizationA mix of the centralized
transferred from a worker to a computer, or vice-versa.H
and decentralized purchasing formatusually decentra-
human relations movementA movement started in the lized at the corporate level and centralized at the busi-
early 1900s among managers who believed that em- ness unit level.H
ployees are humans who should be treated with respect
hybrid strategySyn: hybrid production method.H
in the workplace.H
hypermediaAn addition to hypertext to include sound,
human resourcesThe portion or department of a com-
pictures, or music.H
pany that sets personnel policies and practices.H
hypertextA system of relating information without us-
human resource utilizationUsing labor to its fullest po-
ing menus or hierarchies.H
tential to maximize product or service output.H
hypertext linksLinks contained within text connecting
hundredweight (cwt)One hundred pounds.H
to other websites or other pages on the current site.H
hurdle rateThe minimum acceptable rate of return on
hypertext markup language (HTML)A language used to
a project.H
create web pages that permits the user to create text,
hybrid EDIA situation in which only one trading partner hypertext links, and multimedia elements within the
is EDI-enabled, while the other continues to use paper page. HTML is not a programming language, but a way
and fax. Usually the EDI-enabled partner would have to format text.H
electronic documents converted to fax.H
hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP)A protocol that tells
hybrid inventory systemAn inventory system combining computers how to communicate with each other. Most
features of the fixed reorder quantity inventory model internet addresses begin with http://.H
and the fixed reorder cycle inventory model. Features of
hypothesis testingUse of statistical models to test
the fixed reorder cycle inventory model and the fixed
conclusions about a population or universe based on
reorder quantity inventory model can be combined in
sample information.H
many different ways. For example, in the order point-
periodic review combination system, an order is placed
if the inventory level drops below a specified level be-
fore the review date; if not, the order quantity is deter- I
mined at the next review date. Another hybrid inventory
ICCAbbreviation for Interstate Commerce
system is the optional replenishment model. See: fixed
Commission.I
reorder cycle inventory model, fixed reorder quantity

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 77


ideal quality incentive pay system

ideal qualityA term used by Genichi Taguchi to refer to import/export licenseOfficial authorization issued by a
the target value of a particular measure. Loss to society government allowing the shipping or delivery of a
increases with the square of the deviation of an actual product across national boundaries.I
product from this ideal point.I
import merchantPurchasing agent who buys and takes
idle capacityThe available capacity that exists on non- the title for goods and then resells them.I
constraint resources beyond the capacity required to
importsProducts bought in one country and produced

I support the constraint. Idle capacity has two compo-


nents: protective capacity and excess capacity.I
idle inventoryThe inventory generally not needed in a
in another.I
imposed dateA fixed date given to an activity usually
start no earlier than or finish no later than.I
system of linked resources. From a theory of constraints
perspective, idle inventory generally consists of protec- improve phaseOne of the six sigma phases of quality.
tive inventory and excess inventory. See: excess inven- In this phase, the improvements to products and/or
tory, productive inventory, protective inventory.I processes are adopted. See: design-measure-analyze-
improve-control process.I
idle timeThe time when operators or resources (e.g.,
machines) are not producing product because of setup, impulse responseHow quickly an estimate or forecast
maintenance, lack of material, lack of tooling, or lack of changes when the underlying data of the estimate have
scheduling.I changed.I

IFBAbbreviation for invitation for bid.I inactive inventoryStock designated as in excess of


consumption within a defined period or stocks of items
IIEAbbreviation for Institute of Industrial Engineers.I
that have not been used for a defined period.I
IMCAbbreviation for intermodal marketing company.I
inbound logisticsThe group in charge of moving mate-
imperfectionA quality characteristics departure from rials from suppliers or vendors into production
its intended level or state without any association to processes or storage facilities; or, the actual movement
conformance to specification requirements or to the of such material.I
usability of a product or service. See: blemish, defect,
inbound stockpointA defined location next to the place
nonconformity.I
of use on a production floor. Materials are brought to
implementationThe act of installing a system into op- the stockpoint as needed and taken from it for imme-
eration. It concludes the system project with the excep- diate use. Inbound stockpoints are used with a pull sys-
tion of appropriate follow-up or post-installation review.I tem of material control.I
implied authorityThe right of an agent, when directed incentiveA reward, financial or otherwise, that com-
by a principal to accomplish a task, to do what is rea- pensates a worker for high or continued performance
sonably necessary to accomplish it.I above standard. An incentive is also a motivating influ-
ence to induce effort above normal.I
implied contractA binding agreement inferred from the
actions of the parties.I incentive arrangementsThe incentive contract allows
for the sharing of the cost responsibility between the
implied warrantyA warranty imposed on sellers beyond
buyer and seller. Incentives are incorporated into the
any express agreement in the contract.I
contracts to motivate the supplier to improve its per-
implode1) Compression of detailed data in a formance in areas such as quality, on-time delivery, and
summary-level record or report. 2) Tracing a usage customer satisfaction. There are three elements of an
and/or cost impact from the bottom to the top (end incentive agreement: target cost, target profit, and the
product) of a bill of material using where-used logic.I sharing agreement.I
implosionThe process of determining the where-used incentive contractA contract where the buyer and sel-
relationship for a given component. Implosion can be ler agree to a target cost and maximum price. Cost sav-
single-level (showing only the parents on the next higher ings below the target are shared between buyer and
level) or multilevel (showing the ultimate top-level par- seller. If actual cost exceeds the target cost, the cost
ent). See: where-used list. Ant: explosion.I overrun is shared between buyer and seller up to the
import broker or sales agentPurchasing agent who maximum price.I
charges a fee for transactions but does not take the incentive pay systemA way to compensate employees
title of the goods.I based on their job performance.I

78 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


incentive rate independent trading exchange

incentive rateIn transportation, a discounted rate de- than once, under every subassembly in which it is
signed to convince a shipper to ship a higher volume in used.I
a particular load.I
indented trackingThe following of all lot numbers of
incomeSyn: profit.I intermediates and ingredients consumed in the manu-
facture of a given batch of product down through all le-
income statementA financial statement showing the vels of the formula.I

I
net income for a business over a given period of time.
See: balance sheet, funds flow statement.I indented where-usedA listing of every parent item, and
the respective quantities required, as well as each of
incoming businessThe number of orders, the dollar their respective parent items, continuing until the ulti-
value of orders, or the quantity of units that have been mate end item or level-0 item is referenced. Each of
received on orders from customers. This volume is par- these parent items calls for a given component item in
ticularly important to the forecaster, who must compare a bill-of-material file. The component item is shown
incoming business against the forecast rather than closest to the left margin of the listing, with each parent
against actual shipments when actual shipments do not indented to the right, and each of their respective par-
reflect true customer demand. This situation may exist ents indented even further to the right.I
because of back-ordered items, bottlenecks in the ship-
independent actionIn transportation, the publication
ping room, and so forth.I
of a freight rate that differs from that of the rate bureau
in-control processA process in which the statistical to which the publisher is a member. This is a permitted
measure being evaluated is in a state of statistical con- action.I
trol (i.e., the variations among the observed sampling
independent demandThe demand for an item that is
results can be attributed to a constant system of
unrelated to the demand for other items. Demand for
chance causes). Ant: out-of-control process.I finished goods, parts required for destructive testing,
incotermsShort for International Commercial Terms; and service parts requirements are examples of inde-
created to simplify international transactions.I pendent demand. See: dependent demand.I

incremental analysisA method of economic analysis in independent demand item management models
which the cost of a single additional unit is compared to Models for the management of items whose demand is
its revenue. When the net contribution of an additional not strongly influenced by other items managed by the
unit is zero, total contribution is maximized.I same company. These models can be characterized as
follows: (1) stochastic or deterministic, depending on
incremental available-to-promiseSyn: discrete the variability of demand and other factors; (2) fixed
available-to-promise.I quantity, fixed cycle, or hybrid (optional replenishment).
See: fixed reorder cycle inventory model, fixed reorder
incremental cost1) Cost added in the process of fi-
quantity inventory model, optional replenishment
nishing an item or assembling a group of items. If the
model.I
cost of the components of a given assembly equals $5
and the additional cost of assembling the components independent floatIn project management, the amount
is $1, the incremental assembly cost is $1, while the of float on an activity that does not affect float on pre-
total cost of the finished assembly is $6. 2) Additional ceding or succeeding activities. See: float, free float,
cost incurred as a result of a decision.I total float.I

incremental utilization heuristicUsing a workers full independent projectA project which, whether or not it
capacity by adding one task at a time (in priority order) is accepted, does not eliminate other projects from eli-
up to the maximum capacity, or waiting for the utiliza- gibility. See: contingent project, mutually exclusive
tion to fall and then adding more tasks.I project.I
independent trading exchangeA business-to-business
indented bill of materialA form of multilevel bill of ma-
marketplace ownership model. These are public sites
terial. It exhibits the highest-level parents closest to the
often used for indirect materials and commodity pur-
left margin, and all the components going into these
chases where the price is the primary factor and where
parents are shown indented toward the right. All subse-
any buyers and sellers for a particular market meet to
quent levels of components are indented farther to the
gain access to a wider market to find the best deals.
right. If a component is used in more than one parent
See: public marketplaces.I
within a given product structure, it will appear more

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 79


index information data warehouse

indexA value, expressed as a percentage, giving the industryA set of companies providing a product or ser-
relationship of a measurement to a base value. A result vice where each companys offering is a close substi-
of 100 would be average while numbers greater than tute for its competitors offerings.I
100 would be above average and those less than 100
industry analysisA major study of an industry; its major
would be below average.I
competitors, customers, and suppliers; and the focus
indicatorAn index of business activities.I and driving forces within that industry.I

I indifference pointThe point at which two options


create the same costs for a specific output level.I
industry structure typesEconomists have developed
models of the types of competition faced by various
indirect costsCosts that are not directly incurred by a firms. These types are (1) Pure monopolyOnly one firm
particular job or operation. Certain utility costs, such as provides a particular product or service. The monopoly
plant heating, are often indirect. An indirect cost is typi- may be regulated or unregulated; (2) Pure oligopolyA
cally distributed to the product through the overhead few companies produce essentially the same product or
rates.I service and market it within a given area. A company is
forced to price its product at the going rate unless it can
indirect laborWork required to support production in
differentiate its product; (3) Differentiated oligopolyA
general without being related to a specific product (e.g.,
few companies produce partially differentiated products
floor sweeping).I
or services that are marketed within a given area.
indirect labor costThe compensation paid to workers Differentiation may be based on quality, features, styl-
whose activities are not related to a specific product.I ing, or services offered along with the product; (4)
indirect materialsSyn: supplies.I Monopolistic competitionMany competitors offer par-
tially differentiated products or services. Most competi-
indirect retail locationsA retailer who sells products to tors focus on market segments where they can meet
the public but who buys products indirectly through a customers needs somewhat better than their competi-
third-party distributor, rather than directly from the tors; and (5) Pure competitionMany competitors offer
seller.I undifferentiated products or services.I
industrial buyersBuyers who purchase materials main-
inefficiency riskThe risk of losing customers because
ly for conversion.I
another firm has lower unit costs.I
industrial engineeringThe engineering discipline con-
infinite loadingCalculation of the capacity required at
cerned with facilities layout, methods measurement and
work centers in the time periods required regardless of
improvement, statistical quality control, job design and
the capacity available to perform this work. Syn: infinite
evaluation, and the use of management sciences to
scheduling.I
solve business problems.I
industrial facilities managementThe installation and infinite schedulingSyn: infinite loading.I
maintenance of the physical plant, its surroundings, and inflationAn ongoing rise in the overall level of prices.
the physical assets of an organization.I Inflation reduces the purchasing power of money.I
industrial marketA market where most or all custom-
influence filterIn e-commerce, a device to make
ers are individuals or businesses that buy products to
stakeholders better satisfied with a website.I
produce other goods and services. Syn: business mar-
ket, producer market. See: consumer market, govern- informal cultureOrganizational characteristics and re-
ment market, institutional market.I lationships that are not part of the formal structure but
industrial revolutionA movement to the use of facto- that influence how the organization accomplishes its
ries and machines and away from activities done by goals.I
hand without mechanical assistance.I informationData that have been interpreted and that
industrial trucksVehicles powered by hand, electricity, meet the need of one or more managers.I
or propane for material handling activities in a ware-
information data warehouseA repository (typically
house. More flexible but slower and less constant than
large) of corporate data that can be accessed using
conveyors, they are not in a fixed position. Industrial
specialized query tools. This technique separates the
trucks are the most-common form of materials handling
analysis of data from the recording of data and is often
equipment.I
used to combine data from different computing systems

80 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


information distribution institutional market

to make information access more convenient and cohe- inputWork arriving at a work center or production
rent. See: data warehouse.I facility.I

information distributionMaking needed data available input controlManagement of the release of work to a
to stakeholders in a timely manner.I work center or production facility.I

information flow profileA graph of the performance of input/output analysisSyn: input/output control.I
information flow compared to some set of performance

I
input/output control (I/O)A technique for capacity
criteria.I control where planned and actual inputs and planned
information systemInterrelated computer hardware and actual outputs of a work center are monitored.
and software along with people and processes designed Planned inputs and outputs for each work center are
for the collection, processing, and dissemination of in- developed by capacity requirements planning and
formation for planning, decision making, and control.I approved by manufacturing management. Actual input
is compared to planned input to identify when work
information system architectureA model of how the
center output might vary from the plan because work is
organization operates regarding information. The model
not available at the work center. Actual output is also
considers four factors: (1) organizational functions, (2)
compared to planned output to identify problems within
communication of coordination requirements, (3) data
the work center. Syn: input/output analysis. See:
modeling needs, and (4) management and control
capacity control.I
structures. The architecture of the information system
should be aligned with and match the architecture of input/output devicesModems, terminals, or various
the organization.I pieces of equipment whose designed purpose relates to
manual, mechanical, electronic, visual, or audio entry to
information technologyThe technology of computers, and from the computers processing unit.I
telecommunications, and other devices that integrate
data, equipment, personnel, and problem-solving me- input rate capacityMeasurement that takes rates of
thods in planning and controlling business activities. different inputs and transforms them into a common
Information technology provides the means for collect- unit to measure the input. See: capacity utilization.I
ing, storing, encoding, processing, analyzing, transmit- insourcingUsing the firms internal resources to pro-
ting, receiving, and printing text, audio, or video vide goods and services. See: make-or-buy decision.I
information.I
inspectionMeasuring, examining, testing, or gauging
information visibilityHow extensive information is one or more characteristics of a good or service and
shared throughout a firm and with other stakeholders.I comparing the results with specified requirements to
infrastructural elementsElements of a strategy includ- determine whether conformity is achieved for each cha-
ing decision rules, policies, personnel guidelines, and racteristic.I
organizational structure.I inspection orderAn authorization to an inspection de-
partment or group to perform an inspection operation.I
ingredientIn the process industries, the raw material
or component of a mixture. See: component.I inspection ticketFrequently used as a synonym for an
inspection order; more properly a reporting of an in-
initial public offering (IPO)A firms first sale of common
spection function performed.I
stock.I
instantaneous receiptThe receipt of an entire lot-size
innovation riskThe risk of losing customers because
quantity in a very short period of time.I
another firm creates more innovative products.I
Institute for Supply Management (ISM)A nonprofit so-
innovative productsProducts that tend to have a high
ciety for purchasing managers and others, formerly the
profit margin, be unique, have less competition, and
National Association of Purchasing Management
have dynamic demand.I
(NAPM).I
in-process inventorySyn: work in process.I
Institute of Industrial Engineers (IIE)A nonprofit educa-
in-process waiver requestsRequests for waivers on tional organization with members interested in the field
normal production procedures because of deviations in of industrial engineering.I
materials, equipment, or quality metrics, where normal
institutional marketA market in which most or all cus-
product specifications are maintained.I
tomers are one of the following: schools, hospitals, pris-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 81


instruction sheet intermittent production

ons, and other institutions that provide products and interactiveA characteristic of those applications where
services to individuals who are under their care. See: a user communicates with a computer program via a
consumer market, government market, industrial terminal, entering data and receiving responses from
market.I the computer.I

instruction sheetSyn: routing.I interactive computer systemA computer system that


supports real-time interaction with a user. The response

I
intangibleOne distinguishing feature of pure services.
time to the user is similar to the actual timing of the
Pure services cannot be inventoried or carried in stock
business or physical process. See: interactive system.I
for long periods of time.I
interactive customer careA generic term for a variety
intangible costsThose costs that are difficult to quanti-
of services provided over the internet. These services
fy such as the cost of poor quality or of high employee
include customer service and technical support.I
turnover.I
interactive schedulingComputer scheduling where the
integrated carrierA company that provides a variety of
process is either automatic or manually interrupted to
transportation services including ground, sea, air car-
allow the scheduler the opportunity to review and
riage, and freight forwarding.I
change the schedule.I
integrated change controlIn project management, a
interactive systemRefers to those computer applica-
system under which any changes are coordinated
tions in which a user communicates with a computer
across the entire project.I
program via a system, entering data and receiving res-
integrated enterpriseA business or organization made ponses from the computer. See: interactive computer
up of individuals who have acquired the knowledge and system.I
skills to work with others to make the organization a
interarrival timeTime between the arrival of two se-
greater success than the sum of each individuals out-
quential customers or events.I
put. Integration includes increased communication and
coordination between individuals and within and across interest1) Financial share in a project or enterprise. 2)
teams, functions, processes, and organizations over Periodic compensation for lending money. 3) In an
time. See: cross-functional integration.I economy study, synonymous with required return, ex-
pected profit, or charge for the use of capital. 4) The
integrated internet marketing (I2M)The use of internet
cost for the use of capital. Sometimes referred to as the
facilities to sell products, influence stakeholder atti-
time value of money.I
tudes, and improve the companys image.I
interest rateThe ratio of the interest payment to the
integrated logisticsSyn: service response logistics.I
principal for a given unit of time. It is usually expressed
integrated logistics service providersOrganizations as a percentage of the principal.I
that provide one or many logistics services to a custom-
interleavingAssigning multiple tasks to be performed
er for a fee.I
concurrently, often the assignment of multiple picking
integrated resource management (IRM)Syn: resource orders to a single picker to pick concurrently.I
management.I
intermediately positioned warehouseA warehouse lo-
integrated services digital network (ISDN)Emerging cated between customers and manufacturing plants to
international standard for using public phone lines to provide increased customer service and reduced distri-
transmit voice and data over the same line.I bution cost.I

integrating mechanismA physical, organizational, or intermediately positioned strategyTo position a ware-


informational entity that allows people and functions to house halfway between the supplier and the customer.I
interact freely by transcending boundaries.I
intermediate partMaterial processed beyond raw ma-
intellectual propertyVarious legal entitlements that terial and used in higher level items. See: component.I
attach to certain names, written and recorded media,
intermittent productionA form of manufacturing in
and inventions.I
which the jobs pass through the functional departments
intelligent agentA program that regularly gathers in- in lots, and each lot may have a different routing. See:
formation without the owner being present.I job shop.I

82 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


intermodal marketing companies (IMCs) interrelationship digraph

intermodal marketing companies (IMCs)Organizations staff to execute procurement activities that add value to
that are the intermediary for shippers and intermodal the overall supply chain. Such tasks as local supplier
rail carriers.I development, contract negotiations, quality audits, and
best practice operations provide reduced dependence
intermodal transport1) Shipments moved by different
on third parties and improve overall efficiency and
types of equipment combining the best features of each
costs.I
mode. 2) The use of two or more different carrier modes
in the through movement of a shipment.I
internal controlsThe policies and procedures, the do-
cumentation, and the plan for an organization that au-
international standardsStandards established by in-
ternational standards-setting organizations to promote
interoperability among operating environments.I
I
thorize transactions, safeguard assets, and maintain internetA worldwide network of computers belonging
the accuracy of financial records.I to businesses, governments, and universities that
internal customerThe recipient (person or department) enables users to share information in the form of files
of another persons or departments output (good, ser- and to send electronic messages and have access to a
vice, or information) within an organization. See: cus- tremendous store of information.I
tomer, external customer.I internet operationsOperations performed over the in-
internal environmentThe chosen domain or scope of ternet encompassing such things as email, telnet, new-
activities within which an organization operates, for ex- sgroups, file transfer protocol, and the World Wide
ample, the tasks associated with goods or services to Web.I
be delivered by the organization. See: external environ- internet service provider (ISP)A business or organiza-
ment, organizational environment.I tion that sells access to the internet and related servic-
internal failure costsThe cost of things that go wrong es to consumers. For a monthly fee, the service provider
before the product reaches the customer. Internal fail- offers a software package, username, password, and
ure costs usually include rework, scrap, downgrades, access to the internet (via various technologies such as
reinspection, retest, and process losses.I dial-up and DSL), which enables users to browse the
World Wide Web and USENET and send and receive
internal rate of returnThe rate of compound interest at
email. The ISP may also provide a combination of ser-
which the companys outstanding investment is repaid
vices, including internet transit, domain name registra-
by proceeds from the project.I
tion and hosting, web hosting, and colocation.I
internal setup timeThe time associated with elements
of a setup procedure performed while the process or interoperation timeThe time between the completion
machine is not running. Ant: external setup time.I of one operation and the start of the next.I

internal supply chainA structure for sharing informa- interplant demandOne plants need for a part or prod-
tion within a firm and creating an atmosphere for coop- uct that is produced by another plant or division within
eration between functions to strengthen the firm.I the same organization. Although it is not a customer
order, it is usually handled by the master production
international companyCompany that uses production scheduling system in a similar manner. See: interplant
sharing and sells its products in a different country.I transfer.I
international logisticsAll functions concerned with the
interplant transferThe shipment of a part or product by
movement of materials and finished goods on a global
one plant to another plant or division within the corpo-
scale.I
ration. See: interplant demand, transfer pricing.I
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
interpolationThe process of finding a value of a func-
Group of cooperating institutes from 155 countries
tion between two known values. Interpolation may be
working to develop and publish international standards.
performed numerically or graphically.I
It acts as a bridge between public and private sectors.I
interrelationship digraphA technique used to define
international procurement office (IPO)Establishes a
how factors relate to one another. Complex multivaria-
global presence for a company by providing localized
ble problems or desired outcomes can be displayed
supply management services in a region that is strateg-
with their interrelated factors. The logical and often
ically important. This management approach is a long-
causal relationships between the factors can be
term commitment that takes advantage of a region's
illustrated.I
language and cultural capabilities to use trusted local

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 83


interrogate inventory effectiveness index

interrogateRetrieve information from computer files by inventory accountingThe branch of accounting dealing
use of predefined inquiries or unstructured queries with valuing inventory. Inventory may be recorded or va-
handled by a high-level retrieval language.I lued using either a perpetual or a periodic system. A
perpetual inventory record is updated frequently or in
interruptA break in the normal flow of a computer rou-
real time, while a periodic inventory record is counted or
tine such that the flow can be resumed from that point
measured at fixed time intervals (e.g., every two weeks
at a later time. An interrupt is usually caused by a signal
or monthly). Inventory valuation methods of LIFO, FIFO,

I from an external source.I


interstate commerceThe movement of persons or
property across one or more state lines for business
or average costs are used with either recording system.I
inventory accuracyWhen the on-hand quantity is within
purposes.I an allowed tolerance of the recorded balance. This im-
portant metric usually is measured as the percent of
Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC)A U.S. regula- items with inventory levels that fall within tolerance.
tory agency charged with enforcing regulations control- Target values usually are 95 percent to 99 percent, de-
ling railroads, motor carriers, pipelines, domestic water pending on the value of the item.I
carriers, domestic surface freight forwarders, and
brokers.I inventory adjustmentA change made to an inventory
record to correct the balance, to bring it in line with ac-
intranetA privately owned network that makes use of tual physical inventory balances. The adjustment either
internet technology and applications to meet the needs increases or decreases the item record on-hand
of an enterprise. It resides entirely within a department balance.I
or company, providing communication and access to
information, similar to the internet, with web pages, and inventory balance location accuracyWhen the invento-
so on for internal use only.I ry count is accurate at specific locations.I

in-transit inventoryMaterial moving between two or inventory bufferInventory used to protect the through-
more locations, usually separated geographically; for put of an operation or the schedule against the negative
example, finished goods being shipped from a plant to a effects caused by delays in delivery, quality problems,
distribution center.I delivery of incorrect quantity, and so on. Syn: inventory
cushion. See: fluctuation inventory, safety stock.I
in-transit lead timeThe time between the date of
shipment (at the shipping point) and the date of receipt inventory controlThe activities and techniques of
(at the receivers dock). Orders normally specify the maintaining the desired levels of items, whether raw
date by which goods should be at the dock. materials, work in process, or finished products. Syn:
Consequently, this date should be offset by in-transit material control.I
lead time for establishing a ship date for the supplier.I inventory conversion periodThe time period needed to
intrastate commerceMoving people or materials be- produce and sell a product, measured from procure-
tween points within a single state.I ment of raw materials to the sale of the product.I
intrinsic forecast methodA forecast based on internal inventory costsCosts associated with ordering and
factors, such as an average of past sales. Ant: extrinsic holding inventory. See: carrying costs, ordering cost.I
forecast.I
inventory cushionSyn: inventory buffer.I
inventory1) Those stocks or items used to support
inventory cycleThe length of time between two con-
production (raw materials and work-in-process items),
secutive replenishment shipments.I
supporting activities (maintenance, repair, and operat-
ing supplies), and customer service (finished goods and inventory diversionThe shipment of parts against a
spare parts). Demand for inventory may be dependent project or contract other than the original project or con-
or independent. Inventory functions are anticipation, tract for which the items were purchased.I
hedge, cycle (lot size), fluctuation (safety, buffer, or re- inventory driversThose conditions that would lead a
serve), transportation (pipeline), and service parts. 2) All company to hold inventory.I
the money currently tied up in the system. As used in
theory of constraints, inventory refers to the equipment, inventory effectiveness indexA system to identify non-
fixtures, buildings, and so forth that the system owns value-adding inventory and make it visible and provide a
as well as inventory in the forms of raw materials, work- process to measure non-value adding inventory and sell
in-process, and finished goods.I or write it off to keep working capital in control.I

84 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


inventory investment irregular maintenance

inventory investmentThe dollars that are in all levels of inventory shrinkageLosses of inventory resulting from
inventory.I scrap, deterioration, pilferage, and so forth.I
inventory issue1) Items released from an inventory inventory taxTax based on the value of inventory on
location for use or sale. 2) The inventory record transac- hand at a particular time.I
tion reducing the inventory balance by the amount
inventory turnoverThe number of times that an inven-
released.I
tory cycles, or turns over, during the year. A frequently
inventory managementThe branch of business man-
agement concerned with planning and controlling
inventories.I
used method to compute inventory turnover is to divide
the average inventory level into the annual cost of
sales. For example, an average inventory of $3 million
I
inventory optimization softwareA computer application divided into an annual cost of sales of $21 million
having the capability of finding optimal inventory strate- means that inventory turned over seven times. Syn: in-
gies and policies related to customer service and return ventory turns, turnover. See: inventory velocity.I
on investment over several echelons of a supply chain.I inventory turnsSyn: inventory turnover.I
inventory ordering systemInventory models for the rep- inventory usageThe value or the number of units of an
lenishment of inventory. Independent demand inventory inventory item consumed over a period of time.I
ordering models include but are not limited to fixed
inventory valuationThe value of the inventory at either
reorder cycle, fixed reorder quantity, optional reple-
its cost or its market value. Because inventory value
nishment, and hybrid models. Dependent demand in-
can change with time, some recognition is taken of the
ventory ordering models include material requirements
age distribution of inventory. Therefore, the cost value
planning, kanban, and drum-buffer-rope.I
of inventory is usually computed on a FIFO basis, LIFO
inventory plannerSyn: material planner (first basis, or a standard cost basis to establish the cost of
definition).I goods sold.I
inventory planningThe activities and techniques of de- inventory velocityThe speed with which inventory
termining the desired levels of items, whether raw ma- passes through an organization or supply chain at a
terials, work in process, or finished products including given point in time as measured by inventory turnover.
order quantities and safety stock levels. Syn: material See: inventory turnover.I
planning.I
inventory visibilityThe extent to which inventory infor-
inventory policyA statement of a companys goals and mation is shared within a firm and with supply chain
approach to the management of inventories.I partners.I
inventory poolingThe act of holding inventory in a sin- inventory write-offA deduction of inventory dollars from
gle location instead of multiple locations.I the financial statement because the inventory is of less
inventory receiptAn inventory record transaction that value. An inventory write-off may be necessary because
records the receipt or arrival of inventory into physical the value of the physical inventory is less than its book
stores by increasing the inventory on-hand balance by value or because the items in inventory are no longer
the received quantity. Often associated with receipt of a usable.I
purchase or production order quantity.I invitation for bid (IFB)Syn: request for proposal.I
inventory recordA history of the inventory transactions invoiceA list of goods shipped by the supplier to the
of a specific material.I buyer stating prices, quantities, and other costs.I
inventory reserveAn accounting deduction from earn- involuntary servicesServices that are not sought by
ings to fairly and reasonably represent the value of in- customers. These include hospitals and prisons.I
ventoried assets on a balance sheet. The inventory
reserve is used to make up for the fact that all inventory I/OAbbreviation for input/output control.I
will not be sold at the cost to the firm.I IPO1) Abbreviation for initial public offering. 2)
inventory returnsItems returned to the manufacturer Abbreviation for international procurement office.I
as defective, obsolete, overages, and so forth. An inven- IRMAbbreviation for integrated resource
tory item record transaction records the return or re- management.I
ceipt into physical stores of materials from which the
irregular maintenanceSyn: breakdown maintenance.I
item may be scrapped.I

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 85


ISDN item record

ISDNAbbreviation for integrated services digital ISO 31000A standard adopted by the International
network.I Standards Organization that outlines principles and a
set of guidelines to manage risk in any endeavor. The
Ishikawa diagramSyn: cause-and-effect diagram.I
standard includes guidelines for understanding risk, de-
islands of automationStand-alone pockets of veloping a risk management policy, integrating risk
automation (e.g., robots, CAD/CAM systems, numerical management into organizational processes (including
control machines) that are not connected into a accountability and responsibility), and establishing in-

I cohesive system.I
ISOAbbreviation for International Organization for
ternal and external risk communication processes. ISO
31000 is not a management system standard and is
Standardization.I not intended or appropriate for certification purposes or
regulatory or contractual use.I
ISO certificationIn quality management, denotes that a
company has obtained an ISO9000 quality standard. ISO 26000An international standard adopted by the
Also, it is the process by which a firm achieves such cer- International Standards Organization to assist organiza-
tification.I tions in contributing to sustainable development beyond
ISO 14000 Series StandardsA series of generic envi- legal compliance through a common understanding of
ronmental management standards developed by the social responsibility. ISO 26000 is not a management
International Organization of Standardization, which system standard and is not intended or appropriate for
provide structure and systems for managing environ- certification purposes or regulatory or contractual use.I
mental compliance with legislative and regulatory re-
ISPAn abbreviation for internet service provider.I
quirements and affect every aspect of a companys
environmental operations.I I2MAbbreviation for integrated internet marketing.I
isolationThe determination of the location of a failure issue1) The physical movement of items from a stock-
through the use of accessory support and diagnostic ing location. See: disbursement. 2) Often, the transac-
equipment.I tion reporting of this activity.I
ISO 9000A set of international standards on quality
issue cycle timeThe time required to generate a requi-
management and quality assurance developed to help
sition for material, pull the material from an inventory
companies effectively document the quality system
location, and move it to its destination.I
elements to be implemented to maintain an efficient
quality system. The standards, initially published in itemAny unique manufactured or purchased part, ma-
1987, are not specific to any particular industry, terial, intermediate, subassembly, or product.I
product, or service. The standards were developed by
the International Organization for Standardization, item demandDemand disaggregated into specific con-
known as ISO, a specialized international agency for figurations of goods or services. See: item.I
standardization composed of the national standards
item master fileA file containing all item master
bodies of 91 countries. The standards underwent major
records for a product, product line, plant, or company.
revision in 2008 and now include ISO 9000:2008
See: master file.I
(definitions), ISO 9001:2008 (requirements), and ISO
9004:2008 (continuous improvement). See: ISO/TS item master recordSyn: item record.I
16949, QS 9000.I
item numberA number that serves to uniquely identify
ISO 9000:2000A certification process requiring a
an item. Syn: part number, product number, stock code,
third-party audit that defines in broad terms what must
stock number.I
be done to manage company quality and to document
these quality processes. It recently was updated by ISO item recordThe master record for an item. Typically,
9000:2008.I it contains identifying and descriptive data and control
ISO/TS 16949A standard written by the International values (lead times, lot sizes, etc.) and may contain data
Automotive Task Force that applies only to automotive on inventory status, requirements, planned orders, and
companies. It includes quality management system; costs. Item records are linked by bill of material records
management responsibility; resource management; (or product structure records), thus defining the bill of
product realization; and measurement, analysis, and material. Syn: item master record, part master record,
improvement. See: QS 9000.I part record.I

86 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


Java joint replenishment

jobs, and its purpose is to reduce employee

J dissatisfaction.J
job enrichmentAn increase in the number of tasks that
JavaA general-purpose computer language created by an employee performs and an increase in the control
Sun Microsystems.J over those tasks. It is associated with the design of jobs
and especially the production workers job. Job enrich-
jidokaThe Japanese term for the practice of stopping
the production line when a defect occurs.J
jigA device that holds a piece of work in a desired po-
ment is an extension of job enlargement.J
job gradeA form of job evaluation that assigns jobs to
predetermined job classifications according to the jobs
J
sition and guides the tool or tools that perform the ne-
relative worth to the organization. Pay scales are usually
cessary operations. See: fixture.J
set for each job grade.J
jishukenA Japanese word meaning voluntary study
job lotA specific quantity of a part or product that is
groups.J
produced at one time.J
JITAcronym for just in time.J
job orderSyn: manufacturing order.J
JIT master scheduleSyn: level schedule (second
job order costingSyn: job costing.J
definition).J
JIT supplier environmentTo effectively participate as a job progress chartSyn: Gantt chart.J
supplier under just in time (JIT), a company must supply job rotationThe practice of an employee periodically
components and subassemblies in exact quantities, de- changing job responsibilities to provide a broader pers-
livery time, and quality. Shipments are made within nar- pective and a view of the organization as a total system,
row time windows that are rigidly enforced. Virtually to enhance motivation, and to provide cross-training.J
every component must be delivered on time and be
job sequencing rulesA set of priorities and conditions
within specifications.J
that specify the order in which jobs are processed be-
job1) The combination of tasks, duties, and responsi- cause of scarce resources.J
bilities assigned to an individual employee and usually
job shop1) An organization in which similar equipment
considered his or her work assignment. 2) The contents
is organized by function. Each job follows a distinct
of a work order.J
routing through the shop. 2) A type of manufacturing
job analysisA process of gathering (by observation, process used to produce items to each customers spe-
interview, or recording systems) significant task- cifications. Production operations are designed to han-
oriented activities and requirements about work re- dle a wide range of product designs and are performed
quired of employees.J at fixed plant locations using general-purpose equip-
jobbingSyn: job shop.J ment. Syn: jobbing. See: intermittent production, project
manufacturing.J
job costingA cost accounting system in which costs
are assigned to specific jobs. This system can be used job shop layoutSyn: functional layout.J
with either actual or standard costs in the manufactur- job shop schedulingThe production planning and con-
ing of distinguishable units or lots of products. Syn: job trol techniques used to sequence and prioritize produc-
order costing.J tion quantities across operations in a job shop.J
job descriptionA formal statement of duties, qualifica- job statusA periodic report showing the plan for com-
tions, and responsibilities associated with a particular pleting a job (usually the requirements and completion
job.J date) and the progress of the job against that plan.J
job designThe function of describing a job with respect job ticketSyn: time ticket.J
to its content and the methods to be used. Criteria,
joint orderAn order on which several items are com-
such as the degree of job specialization, job enrich-
bined to obtain volume or transportation discounts.J
ment, and job enlargement are useful in designing work
content.J joint rateA rate for a route involving two or more carri-
ers to move a shipment.J
job enlargementAn increase in the number of tasks
that an employee performs. Job enlargement is asso- joint replenishmentCoordinating the lot sizing and or-
ciated with the design of jobs, particularly production der release decision for related items and treating them

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 87


joint replenishment system key supply chain processes

as a family of items. The objective is to achieve lower minating waste in machinery, labor, or production me-
costs because of ordering, setup, shipping, and quantity thods. See: continuous process improvement.K
discount economies. This term applies equally to joint
kaizen blitzA rapid improvement of a limited process
ordering (family contracts) and to composite part (group
area, for example, a production cell. Part of the im-
technology) fabrication scheduling. Syn: joint reple-
provement team consists of workers in that area. The
nishment system.J
objectives are to use innovative thinking to eliminate

K joint replenishment systemSyn: joint replenishment.J


joint ventureAn agreement between two or more firms
non-value-added work and to immediately implement
the changes within a week or less. Ownership of the im-
provement by the area work team and the development
to risk equity capital to attempt a specific business
objective.J of the teams problem-solving skills are additional bene-
fits. See: kaizen event.K
judgment itemsThose inventory items that cannot be
effectively controlled by algorithms because of age (new kaizen eventA time-boxed set of activities carried out
or obsolete product) or management decision (promo- by the cell team during the week of cell implementation.
tional product).J The kaizen event is an implementation arm of a lean
manufacturing program. See: kaizen blitz.K
Juran trilogySyn: quality trilogy.J
kanbanA method of just-in-time production that uses
jurisdictionThe authority of a governmental agency to
standard containers or lot sizes with a single card at-
undertake its activities.J
tached to each. It is a pull system in which work centers
jury of executive opinionA forecast given by a group of signal with a card that they wish to withdraw parts from
executives who are knowledgeable about the industry, feeding operations or suppliers. The Japanese word
competition, and the firm.J kanban, loosely translated, means card, billboard, or
just in time (JIT)A philosophy of manufacturing based sign but other signaling devices such as colored golf
on planned elimination of all waste and on continuous balls have also been used. The term is often used syn-
improvement of productivity. It encompasses the suc- onymously for the specific scheduling system developed
cessful execution of all manufacturing activities re- and used by the Toyota Corporation in Japan. See: move
quired to produce a final product, from design card, production card, synchronized production.K
engineering to delivery, and includes all stages of con- keiretsuA form of cooperative relationship among
version from raw material onward. The primary ele- companies in Japan where the companies largely re-
ments of just in time are to have only the required main legally and economically independent, even
inventory when needed; to improve quality to zero de- though they work closely in various ways such as finan-
fects; to reduce lead times by reducing setup times, cial backing. A member of a keiretsu generally owns a
queue lengths, and lot sizes; to incrementally revise the limited amount of stock in other member companies. A
operations themselves; and to accomplish these activi- keiretsu generally forms around a bank and a trading
ties at minimum cost. In the broad sense, it applies to company, but distribution (supply chain) keiretsu al-
all forms of manufacturingjob shop, process, and re- liances have been formed of companies ranging from
petitiveand to many service industries as well. Syn: raw material suppliers to retailers.K
short-cycle manufacturing, stockless production, zero
inventories.J key performance indicator (KPI)A financial or nonfi-
nancial measure that is used to define and assess
just-in-time purchasingThis type of purchasing uses
progress toward specific organizational goals and typi-
few suppliers who have long-term commitments with
cally is tied to an organization's strategy and business
the organization. Long-term contracts are used, which
stakeholders. A KPI should not be contradictory to other
enable the purchaser to develop and certify the quality
departmental or strategic business unit performance
process at the supplier.J
measures.K

K key success factorsThe product attributes, organiza-


tional strengths, and accomplishments with the great-
est impact on future success in the marketplace.K
kaizenThe Japanese term for improvement; continuing
key supply chain processesImportant steps in produc-
improvement involving everyonemanagers and work-
ing, marketing, and servicing goods and services.K
ers. In manufacturing, kaizen relates to finding and eli-

88 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


kit last in, first out (LIFO)

kit1) The components of a parent item that have been rate. The variance is unfavorable if the actual hours ex-
pulled from stock and readied for movement to a pro- ceed the standard hours. Syn: labor usage variance.L
duction area. 2) A group of repair parts to be shipped
labor gradeA classification of workers whose capability
with an order. Syn: kitted material, staged material.K
indicates their skill level or craft. See: skill-based com-
kitted materialSyn: kit.K pensation, skills inventories.L

kittingThe process of constructing and staging kits.K labor-intensiveWhen an operation has more expendi-

knowledge-based systemA computer program that


employs knowledge of the structure of relations and
tures on labor than capital. See: capital-intensive.L

labor productivityA partial productivity measure, the


L
reasoning rules to solve problems by generating new rate of output of a worker or group of workers per unit
knowledge from the relationships about the subject.K of time compared to an established standard or rate of
output. Labor productivity can be expressed as output
knowledge creationThe propensity for generating
per unit of time or output per labor hour. See: machine
knowledge.K
productivity, productivity.L
knowledge managementConcept of information being
labor rate varianceLabor rate variance is the sum of
used by executives, managers, and employees to more
the actual wage rate minus the standard wage rate mul-
effectively produce product, interface with customers,
tiplied by the actual number of labor hours. The va-
and navigate through competitive markets.K
riance is unfavorable if the actual rate is greater than
knowledge management toolProvides an assortment the standard rate.L
of information quickly to stakeholders for faster and labor standardUnder normal conditions, the quantity
better decisions.K of worker minutes necessary to finish a product or
knowledge workerA worker whose job is the accumu- process.L
lation, transfer, validation, analysis, and creation of in- labor ticketSyn: labor claim.L
formation.K
labor usage varianceSyn: labor efficiency variance.L
KPIAbbreviation for key performance indicator.K
labor voucherSyn: labor claim.L

L ladingThe cargo being transported by a vehicle.L

lag capacity strategyNot adding capacity until the firm


laboratory orderSyn: experimental order.L is operating at or beyond full capacity. This keeps unit
costs minimized by working at full capacity, but does
laborThe people who produce value in a product not satisfy total demand.L
stream.L
laid-down costThe sum of the product and transporta-
labor claimA factory workers report that lists the jobs tion costs. The laid-down cost is useful in comparing the
an employee worked on (number of pieces, number of total cost of a product shipped from different supply
hours, etc.) and often the amount of money to which the sources to a customers point of use.L
employee is entitled. A labor claim is usually made on a
LANAcronym for local area network.L
labor chit or time ticket. Syn: labor ticket, labor
voucher.L land bridgeMoving goods over water, then land, and
then water again to the final point.L
labor costThe dollar amount of labor performed during
manufacturing. This amount is added to direct material landed costThis cost includes the product cost plus
cost and overhead cost to obtain total manufacturing the costs of logistics, such as warehousing, transporta-
cost.L tion, and handling fees.L
labor efficiency1) Syn: worker efficiency. 2) The aver- lap phasingSyn: overlapped schedule.L
age of worker efficiency for all direct workers in a de-
last in, first out (LIFO)A method of inventory valuation
partment or facility.L
for accounting purposes. The accounting assumption is
labor efficiency varianceLabor efficiency variance is that the most recently received (last in) is the first to be
(actual number of hours worked minus standard num- used or sold (first out) for costing purposes, but there is
ber of hours worked) multiplied by standard labor wage no necessary relationship with the actual physical

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 89


late finish date (LF) lean production

movement of specific items. See: average cost lead management toolA tool used by sales personnel
systems.L that helps them follow a specified sales process to
close deals.L
late finish date (LF)In the critical path method of
project management, the last date upon which a given lead time1) A span of time required to perform a
activity can be completed without delaying the comple- process (or series of operations). 2) In a logistics con-
tion date of the project.L text, the time between recognition of the need for an

L latenessDelivery date minus due date. Lateness may


be positive or, in the case of early jobs, negative. See:
earliness, tardiness.L
order and the receipt of goods. Individual components
of lead time can include order preparation time, queue
time, processing time, move or transportation time, and
receiving and inspection time. Syn: total lead time. See:
late orderSyn: past due order.L manufacturing lead time, purchasing lead time.L
late start date (LS)In the critical path method of lead-time inventoryInventory that is carried to cover
project management, the last date upon which a given demand during the lead time.L
activity can be started without delaying the completion
lead-time offsetA technique used in MRP where a
date of the project.L
planned order receipt in one time period will require the
launch phaseIn this last phase of product develop- release of that order in an earlier time period based on
ment, either the product is fed into the supply chain or the lead time for the item. Syn: component lead-time
the service is made available to consumers.L offset, offsetting.L
law of diminishing marginal returnsA principle that as lead-time schedulingDevelopment of a schedule of
the quantity of a variable factor applied to a fixed factor start and completion times of planned operations for a
is increased, the additional units of the variable factor manufacturing order by calculation of the lead time. The
will result in smaller and smaller increases in output. calculation includes the duration of all operations, inte-
See: marginal product.L roperation times, and order administration times. See:
law of variabilityThe more that variability exists in a back scheduling, central point scheduling, forward
process, the less productive that process will be.L scheduling, probable scheduling.L

layoffThe process by which employees that are not leanSyn: lean production.L
needed for some extended amount of time are given lean enterpriseA group of individuals, functions, and
notice that their services are not needed. Benefits may sometimes legally separate but operationally synchro-
or may not continue in a layoff.L nized organizations. The value stream defines the lean
layoutPhysical arrangement of resources or centers of enterprise. The objectives of the lean enterprise are to
economic activity (machines, groups of people, worksta- correctly specify value to the ultimate customer, and to
tions, storage areas, aisles, etc.) within a facility. analyze and focus the value stream so that it does eve-
Layouts include product (linear or line), functional (job rything from product development and production to
shop or process), cellular, and fixed position.L sales and service in a way that actions that do not
create value are removed and actions that do create
LBOAbbreviation for leveraged buyout.L value proceed in a continuous flow as pulled by the cus-
LCL1) Abbreviation for less than carload (lot ship- tomer. Lean enterprise differs from a virtual corpora-
ment). 2) Abbreviation for lower control limit.L tion in which the organizational membership and
structure keeps changing.L
LDIAbbreviation for logistics data interchange.L
lean manufacturingSyn: lean production.L
lead capacity strategyA capacity strategy in which, as
demand increases and is expected to increase, capacity lean metricA metric that permits a balanced evalua-
is added prior to the realization of demand.L tion and responsequality without sacrificing quantity
objectives. The types of metrics are financial, behavior-
leading indicatorA specific business activity index that
al, and core-process performance.L
indicates future trends. For example, housing starts is a
leading indicator for the industry that supplies builders lean productionA philosophy of production that em-
hardware.L phasizes the minimization of the amount of all the re-
sources (including time) used in the various activities of
lead logistics providers (LLPs)Organizations that over-
the enterprise. It involves identifying and eliminating
see the third-party logistics operations of their clients.L
non-value-adding activities in design, production, supply

90 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


learning curve level of service

chain management, and dealing with customers. Lean too expensive to replace. It often runs on antiquated
producers employ teams of multiskilled workers at all hardware.L
levels of the organization and use highly flexible, in-
legal environmentThe governmental restrictions
creasingly automated machines to produce volumes of
placed on an organization regarding the goods and
products in potentially enormous variety. It contains a
services provided by the business, for example,
set of principles and practices to reduce cost through
environmental regulations, export/import restrictions,
the relentless removal of waste and through the simpli-
fication of all manufacturing and support processes.
Syn: lean, lean manufacturing.L
safety regulations, and mandated deregulations.L
lesseeAn entity to which a lease is given.L L
learning curveA curve reflecting the rate of improve- lessorAn entity which gives a lease.L
ment in time per piece as more units of an item are less-than-carload (LCL)Either a small shipment that
made. A planning technique, the learning curve is par- does not fill the railcar or a shipment of not enough
ticularly useful in project-oriented industries in which weight to qualify for a carload quantity rate discount.L
new products are frequently phased in. The basis for
less-than-truckload (LTL)Either a small shipment that
the learning curve calculation is that workers will be
does not fill the truck or a shipment of not enough
able to produce the product more quickly after they get
weight to qualify for a truckload quantity (usually set at
used to making it. Syn: experience curve, manufacturing
about 10,000 lbs.) rate discount, offered to a general
progress curve.L
commodity trucker.L
learning management systemA software system for
letter of creditAn assurance by a bank that payment
delivering and managing education and training within
will be made as long as the sales terms agreed to by the
an organization.L
buyer and seller are met. This method of payment for
learning organization1) Group of people who have wo- sales contracts provides a high degree of protection for
ven a continuous, enhanced capacity to learn into the the seller.L
corporate culture. 2) An organization in which learning levelEvery part or assembly in a product structure is
processes are analyzed, monitored, developed, and assigned a level code signifying the relative level in
aligned with competitive goals.L which that part or assembly is used within the product
leaseA rental agreement lasting an extended period.L structure. Often times the end items are assigned level
0 with the components and subassemblies going into it
least changeover costDetermining the lowest cost of
assigned to level 1 and so on. The MRP explosion
making machine changeovers between jobs by se-
process starts from level 0 and proceeds downward one
quencing the jobs accordingly.L
level at a time.L
least-squares methodA method of curve fitting that level-demand strategyA strategy of keeping capacity
selects a line of best fit through a plot of data to minim- level and not variable with demand.L
ize the sum of squares of the deviations of the given
points from the line. See: regression analysis.L levelingSyn: resource leveling.L
level loadingSyn: load leveling.L
least total costA dynamic lot-sizing technique that cal-
culates the order quantity by comparing the setup (or level of effortIn project management, support activity
ordering) costs and the carrying cost for various lot siz- (e.g., customer liaison) that is not easily measured by
es and selects the lot size where these costs are most discrete accomplishment. It usually has a uniform work
nearly equal. See: discrete order quantity, dynamic lot rate.L
sizing.L
level of serviceA measure (usually expressed as a per-
least unit costA dynamic lot-sizing technique that adds centage) of satisfying demand through inventory or by
ordering cost and inventory carrying cost for each trial the current production schedule in time to satisfy the
lot size and divides by the number of units in the lot customers requested delivery dates and quantities. In
size, picking the lot size with the lowest unit cost. See: a make-to-stock environment, level of service is some-
discrete order quantity, dynamic lot sizing.L times calculated as the percentage of orders picked
complete from stock upon receipt of the customer or-
legA portion of a complete trip.L
der, the percentage of line items picked complete, or
legacy systemsA computer application program that is the percentage of total dollar demand picked complete.
old and interfaces poorly with other applications but is In make-to-order and design-to-order environments, lev-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 91


level production method line

el of service is the percentage of times the customer- terial, and environmental inputs and outputs.
requested or acknowledged date was met by shipping Sometimes called cradle-to-grave analysis, LCA includes
complete product quantities. Syn: measure of service, raw material extraction through materials processing,
service level. See: cycle service level.L manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance,
and disposal or recycling.L
level production methodA production planning method
that maintains a stable production rate while varying life cycle analysisA quantitative forecasting technique

L inventory levels to meet demand. Syn: level strategy,


production leveling. See: level schedule.L
level production scheduleSyn: level schedule.L
based on applying past patterns of demand data cover-
ing introduction, growth, maturity, saturation, and de-
cline of similar products to a new product family.L

level schedule1) In traditional management, a produc- life cycle costingIn evaluating alternatives, the consid-
tion schedule or master production schedule that gene- eration of all costsincluding acquisition, operation,
rates material and labor requirements that are as and disposition coststhat will be incurred over the en-
evenly spread over time as possible. Finished goods in- tire time of product ownership.L
ventories buffer the production system against seasonal life testingThe simulation of a products life under con-
demand. See: level production method. 2) In JIT, a level trolled real-world conditions to see if it holds up and
schedule (usually constructed monthly) in which each performs as required.L
days customer demand is scheduled to be built on the
LIFOAcronym for last in, first out.L
day it will be shipped. A level schedule is the output of
the load-leveling process. Syn: JIT master schedule, lev- lighterA short-haul flat-bottomed barge.L
el production schedule. See: load leveling.L
lightless plantSyn: dark factory.L
level strategySyn: level production method.L
LIMITAcronym for lot-size inventory management in-
leverage-capital structure ratioAn indicator of whether terpolation technique.L
or not a company has the ability to retire its long-term
limited accessSecuring inventory, usually in a locked
debts.L
environment, to protect it from theft and to help im-
leveraged buyout (LBO)A takeover of a company using prove inventory count accuracy.L
borrowed funds where assets of the acquired company
limited liability companyIn the United States, a busi-
are used as partial collateral for the loan.L
ness organization that, as with a corporation, enjoys li-
leveraging purchase volumeBuying in large quantities mited liability yet is not a taxable entity.L
to take advantage of volume price or shipping
limited life materialMaterial having a finite shelf life.L
discounts.L
LFAbbreviation for late finish date.L limited partnershipA partnership having two types of
partners: (1) limited partners contribute assets to the
liabilitiesAn accounting/financial term (balance sheet company without participating in management and (2)
classification of accounts) representing debts or general partners manage the company and are respon-
obligations owed by a company to creditors. Liabilities sible for all debts.L
may have a short-term time horizon, such as accounts
payable, or a longer-term obligation, such as mortgage limiting operationThe operation with the least capacity
payable or bonds payable. See: assets, balance sheet, in a series of operations with no alternative routings.
debt, owners equity.L The capacity of the total system can be no greater than
the limiting operation, and as long as this limiting condi-
licensingPaying a fee for permission to manufacture tion exists, the total system can be effectively sche-
and sell a product created by another.L duled by scheduling the limiting operation and providing
life cycle analogy methodA method for forecasting the this operation with proper buffers. See: protective ca-
life cycle of a new product or service, including the in- pacity, protective inventory.L
troduction, growth, maturity, and decline phases. In ad-
line1) A specific physical space for the manufacture of
dition to time frames, this qualitative technique tries to
a product that in a flow shop layout is represented by a
estimate demand levels.L
straight line. In actuality, this may be a series of pieces
life cycle assessment (LCA)Understanding the human of equipment connected by piping or conveyor systems.
and environmental aspects and impacts during the life 2) A type of manufacturing process used to produce a
of a product, process, or service, including energy, ma- narrow range of standard items with identical or highly

92 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


linear decision rules listserv

similar designs. Production volumes are high, produc- work through that assembly line at the planned line
tion and material handling equipment is specialized, rate.L
and all products typically pass through the same se-
line efficiencyA measure of actual work content versus
quence of operations. See: assembly line.L
cycle time of the limiting operation in a production line.
linear decision rulesA modeling technique using simul- Line efficiency (percentage) is equal to the sum of all
taneous equations (e.g., the establishment of aggregate station task times divided by the longest task time mul-
workforce levels) based upon minimizing the total cost
of hiring, firing, holding inventory, backorders, payroll,
overtime, and undertime.L
tiplied by the number of stations. In an assembly line
layout, the line efficiency is 100 percent minus the bal-
ance delay percentage.L
L
linearity1) Production at a constant quantity. 2) Use of line functionsAreas involved in daily operations.
resources at a level rate, typically measured daily or Logistics line functions include inventory control, order
more frequently.L processing, warehousing and packaging.L

linear layoutA layout of various machines in one line haul costsBasic costs of carrier operation to move
straight line. This type of layout makes it difficult to real- a container of freight, including driver's wages and
locate operations among workers and machinery.L usage depreciation. These vary with the cost per mile,
the distance shipped, and the weight moved.L
linear productionActual production to a level schedule,
so that a plotting of actual output versus planned out- line itemOne item on an order, regardless of quantity.L
put forms a straight line, even when plotted for a short line loadingThe loading of a production line by multip-
segment of time.L lying the total pieces by the rate per piece for each item
linear programmingMathematical models for solving to come up with a finished schedule for the line.L
linear optimization problems through minimization or line managerA manager involved in managing a de-
maximization of a linear function subject to linear con- partment that is directly involved in making a product.L
straints. For example, in blending gasoline and other
petroleum products, many intermediate distillates may line manufacturingRepetitive manufacturing per-
be available. Prices and octane ratings as well as upper formed by specialized equipment in a fixed sequence.L
limits on capacities of input materials that can be used line scrapThe worth of work in process and raw mate-
to produce various grades of fuel are given. The prob- rials scrapped because of faulty processing as a per-
lem is to blend the various inputs in such a way that (1) centage of the total value of production at standard
cost will be minimized (profit will be maximized), (2) cost.L
specified optimum octane ratings will be met, and (3)
the need for additional storage capacity will be line of balance planningA project planning technique
avoided.L using a lead-time offset chart and a chart of required
final assembly completions to graph a third bar chart
linear regressionA statistical data technique that ex- showing the number of each component that should be
presses a variable as a linear function of an indepen- completed to date. This bar chart forms a descending
dent variable. Linear regression can be used to develop line, and aggregate component completions are then
forecasting models.L plotted against this line of balance. This is a crude form
of material planning.L
linear trend forecastingUsing simple linear regression
to estimate future trends.L line of creditA contract that enables a company to bor-
row funds at any time up to a predetermined limit.L
line balancing1) The balancing of the assignment of
the tasks to workstations in a manner that minimizes linkThe transportation method used in a logistics sys-
the number of workstations and minimizes the total tem to connect the nodes of the system.L
amount of idle time at all stations for a given output
liquidityThe ability of a firm to pay debts as they come
level. In balancing these tasks, the specified time re-
due.L
quirement per unit of product for each task and its se-
quential relationship with the other tasks must be liquidity ratioFinancial ratios that are indicators of a
considered. See: uniform plant loading. 2) A technique firms ability to retire short-term financial obligations.L
for determining the product mix that can be run down
listservSyn: listserver.L
an assembly line to provide a fairly consistent flow of

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 93


list server logistics system

list serverSoftware running on a web-accessed com- sure that when the record shows an items location, it
puter that facilitates electronic discussions by emailing is, in fact, in that location.L
submissions from one member to all other members of
location gridA layout of a warehouse used to improve
the discussion group. Syn: listserv.L
inventory management and cycle counting.L
live loadSyn: available work.L
location tagA bar-coded sign situated at a warehouse
loadThe amount of planned work scheduled for and location. The location number can be read or scanned.L

L actual work released to a facility, work center, or opera-


tion for a specific span of time. Usually expressed in
locator fileA file used in a stockroom (or anywhere)
providing information on where each item is located.
terms of standard hours of work or, when items con-
See: locator system.L
sume similar resources at the same rate, units of pro-
duction. Syn: workload.L locator systemA system for maintaining a record of the
storage locations of items in inventory. See: locator
load centerSyn: work center.L
file.L
load-distance analysisIn layout analysis, a method of
logbookA daily record kept by an interstate driver of
choosing a facility layout based on selecting the layout
driving and duty-related and non-duty-related activities.L
with the shortest product or material travel per time
period.L logical relationshipIn project management, a depen-
dency between two activities or between a milestone
loading portThe port where cargo is loaded onto an
and an activity. The four possible relationships are (1)
exporting vessel.L
finish-to-startactivity A must be finished before activity
load levelingSpreading orders out in time or resche- B can start; (2) finish-to-finishactivity A must be fi-
duling operations so that the amount of work to be nished before activity B can finish; (3) start-to-start
done in sequential time periods tends to be distributed activity A must start before activity B can start; and (4)
evenly and is achievable. Although both material and start-to-finishactivity A must start before activity B can
labor are ideally level loaded, specific businesses and finish.L
industries may load to one or the other exclusively (e.g.,
logistics1) In an industrial context, the art and science
service industries). Syn: capacity smoothing, level load-
of obtaining, producing, and distributing material and
ing. See: level schedule.L
product in the proper place and in proper quantities. 2)
load profileA display of future capacity requirements In a military sense (where it has greater usage), its
based on released and/or planned orders over a given meaning can also include the movement of personnel.L
span of time. Syn: load projection. See: capacity
logistics channelA set of supply chain partners who
requirements plan.L
participate in storage, transportation, and communica-
load projectionSyn: load profile.L tions that contribute to the flow of goods.L
local area network (LAN)A high-speed data communi- logistics data interchange (LDI)The electronic trans-
cation system for linking computer terminals, programs, mission of logistics information via computer systems.L
storage, and graphic devices at multiple workstations
logistics managementThe part of supply chain man-
distributed over a relatively small geographic area such
agement that oversees the planning and execution of
as a building or campus.L
forward and reverse flow of goods and related informa-
local measuresThe set of measurements that relates tion between points in the supply chain to meet cus-
to a resource, operation, process, or part and usually tomer requirements.L
has low correlation to global organization measures.
logistics strategyA plan for the logistics elements of a
Examples are errors per printed page, departmental ef-
businessincluding warehousing, information systems,
ficiency, and volume discounts.L
and transportationthat is aligned with the overall
local rateA rate pertaining to two points served by a business strategy. See: strategic plan.L
single carrier.L
logistics systemThe planning and coordination of the
locational determinantsInformation or factors consi- physical movement aspects of a firms operations such
dered in determining where to put a facility.L that a flow of raw materials, parts, and finished goods is
achieved in a manner that minimizes total costs for the
location auditA methodical verification of the location
levels of service desired.L
records for an item or group of items in inventory to en-

94 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


log normal distribution lot splitting

log normal distributionA continuous probability distri- lot-for-lotA lot-sizing technique that generates planned
bution where the logarithms of the variable are normally orders in quantities equal to the net requirements in
distributed.L each period. See: discrete order quantity.L
longest-task-time (LTT) heuristicThe method of attach- lot numberA unique identification assigned to a ho-
ing additional jobs to a workstation based on priority mogeneous quantity of material. Syn: batch number,
order, with the longest task scheduled first.L mix number.L
long-term planningBusiness planning that addresses
the strategic needs of the organization. See: business
lot number controlAssignment of unique numbers to
each instance of receipt and carrying forth that number L
plan, resource planning.L into subsequent manufacturing processes so that, in
long-term production planSyn: aggregate production review of an end item, each lot consumed from raw ma-
plan.L terials through end item can be identified as having
been used for the manufacture of this specific end item
long tonTwo thousand two hundred and forty pounds.L lot.L
loose standardA standard time greater than that re- lot number traceabilityTracking parts by lot numbers
quired by a qualified worker with normal skill and to a group of items. This tracking can assist in tracing
effort.L quality problems to their source. A lot number identifies
loss leader pricingPricing some products below cost to a designated group of related items manufactured in a
attract customers into the store, in the expectation that single run or received from a vendor in a single
they will buy other items as well.L shipment.L

loss to societyAccording to Genichi Taguchi, a loss to lot operation cycle timeThe length of time required
society occurs whenever a dimension of a product dif- from the start of setup to the end of cleanup for a pro-
fers from its target value. This loss increases with the duction lot at a given operation, including setup, pro-
square of the deviation from the target. According to duction, and cleanup.L
this concept, a loss to society occurs even though a di- lot sizeThe amount of a particular item that is ordered
mension is within toleranceas long as the dimension from the plant or a supplier or issued as a standard
is not exactly on the target. For example, a loss to socie- quantity to the production process. Syn: order quantity.L
ty might occur because an assembly made of compo-
nents that are within specification, but not exactly on lot-size codeA code that indicates the lot-sizing tech-
target, wears out faster than an assembly comprised of nique selected for a given item. Syn: order policy code.L
components that are all exactly on the target.L lot-size inventoryInventory that results whenever
lost saleA potential sale that was not completed, quantity price discounts, shipping costs, setup costs, or
usually due to lack of availability of the item in similar considerations make it more economical to pur-
question.L chase or produce in larger lots than are needed for im-
mediate purposes.L
lost time factorThe complement of utilization, that is
one minus the utilization factor. It is the percentage of lot-size inventory management interpolation technique
time lost to machine, tool, and worker unavailability. It (LIMIT)A technique for looking at the lot sizes for
can be calculated as the planned hours minus actual groups of similar products to determine the effect eco-
hours used, divided by the planned hours. See: balance nomic lot sizes will have on the total inventory, total se-
delay, utilization.L tup costs, and machine availability.L

lotA quantity produced together and sharing the same lot-size systemSyn: fixed reorder quantity inventory
production costs and specifications. See: batch.L model.L

lot controlA set of procedures (e.g., assigning unique lot sizingThe process of, or techniques used in, deter-
batch numbers and tracking each batch) used to main- mining lot size. See: order policy.L
tain lot integrity from raw materials, from the supplier
lot splittingDividing a lot into two or more sublots and
through manufacturing to consumers.L
simultaneously processing each sublot on identical (or
lot costIn cost accounting, those costs associated with very similar) facilities as separate lots, usually to com-
processing a common lot or quantity of parts having the press lead time or to expedite a small quantity. Syn: op-
same specifications.L eration splitting.L

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 95


lot tolerance percent defective (LTPD) maintainability

lot tolerance percent defective (LTPD)Expressed in machine breakdown, maintenance, teardown, setup,
percent defective, the poorest quality in an individual lot and other factors.M
that should be accepted. Note: The LTPD is used as a
machine flexibilityIn work-cell design, choosing be-
basis for some inspection systems and is commonly as-
tween general-purpose machinery versus special-
sociated with a value for a small consumers risk.L
purpose machinery, so that the lowest cost and most
lot traceabilityThe ability to identify the lot or batch adaptability is achieved.M

M number of product in terms of one or all of the follow-


ing: its composition, purchased parts, manufacturing
date, or shipped items. In certain regulated industries,
machine hoursThe amount of time, in hours, that a
machine is actually running. Machine hours, rather than
labor hours, may be used for planning capacity for
lot traceability may be a legislative requirement.L
scheduling, and for allocating costs.M
low-cost-provider strategyA strategy of offering the
machine-limited capacityA production environment
lowest prices in the market to gain share and increase
where a specific machine limits throughput of the
sales volume in industries composed by numerous
process. See: constraint, throughput.M
players offering the same type of products.L
machine loadingThe accumulation by workstation,
lower control limit (LCL)Control limit for points below
machine, or machine group of the hours generated from
the central line in a control chart.L
the scheduling of operations for released orders by time
lower specification limit (LSL)In statistical process period. Machine loading differs from capacity require-
control, charting the line that defines the minimum ac- ments planning in that it does not use the planned or-
ceptable level of random output. See: tolerance limits.L ders from MRP but operates solely from released
orders. It may be of limited value because of its limited
low-level codeA number that identifies the lowest level
visibility of resources.M
in any bill of material at which a particular component
appears. Net requirements for a given component are machine productivityA partial productivity measure.
not calculated until all the gross requirements have The rate of output of a machine per unit of time com-
been calculated down to that level. Low-level codes are pared with an established standard or rate of output.
normally calculated and maintained automatically by Machine productivity can be expressed as output per
the computer software. Syn: explosion level.L unit of time or output per machine hour. See: labor
productivity, productivity.M
LSAbbreviation for late start date.L
machine utilizationA measure of how intensively a
LSLAbbreviation for lower specification limit.L machine is being used. Machine utilization compares
LTLAbbreviation for less than truckload.L the actual machine time (setup and run time) to availa-
ble time.M
LTPDAbbreviation for lot tolerance percent defective.L
machining centerA machine capable of performing a
LTTAbbreviation for longest-task-time.L variety of metal, wood, or plastic removal operations on
lumpy demandSyn: discontinuous demand.L a part, usually operated by numerical control.M

macro environmentThe environment external to a

M business including technological, economic, natural,


and regulatory forces that marketing efforts cannot
control.M
machine attachmentsAdditional machine parts that
decrease the time needed to complete a task and the MADAcronym for mean absolute deviation.M
level of human involvement.M mainframeLarge computer system, typically with a
machine centerA production area consisting of one or separate central processing unit. This high-level com-
more machines (and, if appropriate for capacity plan- puter is designed for the most intensive computational
ning, the necessary support personnel) that can be con- tasks.M
sidered as one unit for capacity requirements planning maintainabilityThe characteristic of equipment design
and detailed scheduling.M and installation that provides the ability for the equip-
ment to be repaired easily and efficiently. See:
machine downtimesPeriods during which a machine is
serviceability.M
unavailable due to tool breakage, worker unavailability,

96 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


maintenance, repair, and operating (MRO) supplies manual rescheduling

maintenance, repair, and operating (MRO) supplies managementThe functions of planning, organizing,
Items used in support of general operations and main- and controlling the transformation process and its utility
tenance such as maintenance supplies, spare parts, in providing a good or service to customers.M
and consumables used in the manufacturing process
management by objectives (MBO)A participative goal-
and supporting operations.M
setting process that enables the manager or supervisor
maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO)An item for to construct and communicate the goals of the depart-
reprocessing in the remanufacturing industry.M

major setupThe equipment setup and related activi-


ment to each subordinate. At the same time, the subor-
dinate is able to formulate personal goals and influence
the departments goals.M
M
ties required to manufacture a group of items in se-
quence, exclusive of the setup required for each item in management by walking around (MBWA)The man-
the group.M agement technique of managers touring a facility on a
regular basis to talk with workers and staff about prob-
make-or-buy cost analysisA comparison of all of the lems, trends, and potential solutions.M
costs associated with making an item versus the cost of
buying the item.M management estimationA judgmental forecasting
technique whereby responsible individuals predict the
make-or-buy decisionThe act of deciding whether to demand for new products or alter a quantitative fore-
produce an item internally or buy it from an outside cast for existing products largely on the basis of expe-
supplier. Factors to consider in the decision include rience and intuition. Other judgmental forecasting
costs, capacity availability, proprietary and/or techniques may be used in combination with manage-
specialized knowledge, quality considerations, skill ment estimation to improve the accuracy of the esti-
requirements, volume, and timing.M mate. See: Delphi method, historical analogy, panel
consensus, pyramid forecasting.M
make-to-orderA production environment where a good
or service can be made after receipt of a customers management information system (MIS)Integrated ap-
order. The final product is usually a combination of proach for providing interpreted and relevant data that
standard items and items custom-designed to meet the can help managers make decisions. This information
special needs of the customer. Where options or acces- can reflect the progress or lack of progress made in
sories are stocked before customer orders arrive, the achieving major objectives.M
term assemble-to-order is frequently used. Syn:
management scienceSyn: operations research.M
produce-to-order. See: assemble-to-order, make-to-
stock.M managerial accountingA branch of accounting that
uses techniques such as break-even analysis, cost-
make-to-stockA production environment where prod-
volume-profit analysis, make-buy analysis, and others to
ucts can be and usually are finished before receipt of a
provide information used in day-to-day decision
customer order. Customer orders are typically filled
making.M
from existing stocks, and production orders are used to
replenish those stocks. Syn: produce-to-stock. See: man-hourA unit of measure representing one person
assemble-to-order, make-to-order.M working for one hour. The combination of n people
working for h hours produces nh man-hours. Frequent
Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (MB QA)An qualifications to the definition include (1) designation of
award established by Congress in 1987 to raise aware- work effort as normal effort; (2) designation of time
ness of quality management and to recognize U.S. spent as actual hours.M
companies that have implemented successful quality
management systems. Up to four awards may be given manifest systemA production control system where
annually in each of three categories: manufacturing the exact sequence of items to be assembled is
company, service company, and small business. The required.M
award is named after the late Secretary of Commerce,
manual reschedulingThe most common method of re-
Malcolm Baldrige, a proponent of quality management.
scheduling open orders (scheduled receipts). Under this
The U.S. Commerce Departments National Institute of
method, the MRP system provides information on the
Standards and Technology manages the award, and the
part numbers and order numbers that need to be re-
American Society for Quality (ASQ) administers it. Syn:
scheduled. Due dates and order quantity changes re-
Baldrige Award.M
quired are then analyzed and changed by material

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 97


manufacturability manufacturing order

planners or other authorized persons. Syn: planner in- external environmental forces; corporate strategy;
tervention. Ant: automatic rescheduling.M business unit strategy; other functional strategies
(marketing, engineering, finance, etc.); product
manufacturabilityA measure of the design of a product
selection; product/process design; product/process
or process in terms of its ability to be produced easily,
technology; and management competencies. Often
consistently, and with high quality.M
refers to whether a company, plant, product, or service
manufacturers agentSyn: manufacturers is make-to-stock, make-to-order, or assemble-to-order.

M representative.M
manufacturers representativeOne who sells goods for
Syn: production environment.M

manufacturing execution systems (MES)Programs and


several firms but does not take title to them. Syn: man- systems that participate in shop floor control, including
ufacturers agent, manufacturing representative.M programmed logic controllers and process control com-
manufacturingA series of interrelated activities and puters for direct and supervisory control of manufactur-
operations involving the design, material selection, ing equipment; process information systems that gather
planning, production, quality assurance, management, historical performance information, then generate re-
and marketing of discrete consumer and durable ports; graphical displays; and alarms that inform opera-
goods.M tions personnel what is going on in the plant currently
and a very short history into the past. Quality control in-
manufacturing authorizationSyn: manufacturing
formation is also gathered and a laboratory information
order.M management system may be part of this configuration
manufacturing automation protocol (MAP)An to tie process conditions to the quality data that are
application-specific protocol based on the International generated. Thereby, cause-and-effect relationships can
Standards Organizations open systems interconnection be determined. The quality data at times affect the con-
(OSI) standards. It is designed to allow communication trol parameters that are used to meet product specifica-
between a companys computers and computers from tions either dynamically or off line.M
different vendors in the manufacturing shop floor
manufacturing instructionA set of detailed instructions
environment.M
for carrying out a manufacturing process. It is usually
manufacturing calendarA calendar used in inventory referenced by the routing and thus can simplify the con-
and production planning functions that consecutively tent of the routing.M
numbers only the working days so that the component
manufacturing layout strategiesAn element of
and work order scheduling may be done based on the
manufacturing strategy. It is the analysis of physical
actual number of workdays available. Syn: M-day calen-
capacity, geography, functional needs, corporate
dar, planning calendar, production calendar, shop ca-
philosophy, and product-market/process focus to
lendar. See: resource calendar.M
systematically respond to required facility changes
manufacturing capital asset valueThe depreciated driven by organizational, strategic, and environmental
value of manufacturing fixed assets.M considerations.M
manufacturing cycleSyn: manufacturing lead time.M manufacturing lead timeThe total time required to
manufacturing cycle efficiencyThe ratio of value-added manufacture an item, exclusive of lower level purchas-
time to manufacturing lead time or cycle time. ing lead time. For make-to-order products, it is the
Manufacturing cycle time can be improved by the reduc- length of time between the release of an order to the
tion of manufacturing lead time by eliminating non- production process and shipment to the final customer.
value-added activities such as inspecting, moving, and For make-to-stock products, it is the length of time be-
queuing.M tween the release of an order to the production process
and receipt into inventory. Included here are order
manufacturing data sheetSyn: routing.M preparation time, queue time, setup time, run time,
manufacturing engineeringThe engineering discipline move time, inspection time, and put-away time. Syn:
concerned with designing and improving production manufacturing cycle, production cycle, production lead
processes. See: process engineering.M time. See: lead time.M

manufacturing environmentThe framework in which manufacturing orderA document, group of documents,


manufacturing strategy is developed and implemented. or schedule conveying authority for the manufacture of
Elements of the manufacturing environment include specified parts or products in specified quantities. Syn:

98 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


manufacturing order reporting mapping

job order, manufacturing authorization, production or- ing company. Ideally, it addresses operational planning
der, production release, run order, shop order, work or- in units, financial planning in dollars, and has a simula-
der. See: assembly parts list, batch card, blend order, tion capability to answer what-if questions. It is made up
fabrication order, mix ticket, work order.M of a variety of processes, each linked together: business
planning, production planning (sales and operations
manufacturing order reportingSyn: production report-
planning), master production scheduling, material re-
ing and status control.M
quirements planning, capacity requirements planning,
manufacturing philosophyThe set of guiding principles,
driving forces, and ingrained attitudes that helps com-
and the execution support systems for capacity and ma-
terial. Output from these systems is integrated with fi-
M
municate goals, plans, and policies to all employees nancial reports such as the business plan, purchase
and that is reinforced through conscious and subcons- commitment report, shipping budget, and inventory pro-
cious behavior within the manufacturing organization.M jections in dollars. Manufacturing resource planning is a
direct outgrowth and extension of closed-loop MRP.M
manufacturing planning and control system (MPC)A
closed-loop information system that includes the plan-
manufacturing strategyA collective pattern of deci-
ning functions of production planning (sales and opera- sions that acts upon the formulation and deployment of
tions planning), master production scheduling, material
manufacturing resources. To be most effective, the
requirements planning, and capacity requirements
manufacturing strategy should act in support of the
planning. Once the plan has been accepted as realistic, overall strategic direction of the business and provide
execution begins. The execution functions include input-
for competitive advantages (edges).M
output control, detailed scheduling, dispatching, antic-
ipated delay reports (department and supplier), and manufacturing volume strategyAn element of manu-
supplier scheduling. A closed-loop MRP system is one facturing strategy that includes a series of assumptions
example of a manufacturing planning and control and predictions about long-term market, technology,
system.M and competitive behavior in the following areas: (1) the
manufacturing processThe series of operations per- predicted growth and variability of demand, (2) the
formed upon material to convert it from the raw materi- costs of building and operating different sized plants,
al or a semifinished state to a state of further (3) the rate and direction of technological improvement,
completion. Manufacturing processes can be arranged (4) the likely behavior of competitors, and (5) the antic-
in a process layout, product layout, cellular layout, or ipated impact of international competitors, markets,
fixed-position layout. Manufacturing processes can be and sources of supply. It is the sequence of specific vo-
planned to support make-to-stock, make-to-order, lume decisions over time that determines an organiza-
assemble-to-order, and so forth, based on the strategic tions long-term manufacturing volume strategy.M
use and placement of inventories. See: production
many-to-many communicationCommunication that
process, transformation process.M
enables many people to exchange information with
manufacturing process developmentThe definition many other people.M
and implementation of an execution system for making
a part, good, or service that is consistent with the objec- MAPAcronym for manufacturing automation
tives of the firm.M protocol.M

manufacturing progress curveSyn: learning curve.M MAPEAbbreviation for mean absolute percent error.M

manufacturing ramp-upThe final phase of new product MAPI method1) A procedure for equipment replace-
and process development, whereby the new product ment analysis sponsored by the Machinery and Allied
moves from pilot production to full-scale Products Institute. 2) A method of capital investment
manufacturing.M analysis that has been formulated by the Machinery and
manufacturing releaseThe issuance of a manufactur- Allied Products Institute. This method uses a fixed for-
ing order into the factory.M mat and provides charts and graphs to facilitate calcu-
lations. A prominent feature of this method is that it
manufacturing representativeSyn: manufacturers rep- explicitly includes obsolescence.M
resentative.M
mappingDrawing the organizations processes or rela-
manufacturing resource planning (MRP II)A method for
tionships that form a business process.M
the effective planning of all resources of a manufactur-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 99


margin market planning

marginA ratio of an organizations operating profit to marketing channelThat set of organizations through
revenues, measuring managements ability to control which a good or service passes in going from a raw
operating expenses.M state to the final consumer. See: channels of distribu-
tion, distribution channel.M
marginal analysisA decision rule that optimality occurs
where incremental revenue equals incremental cost.M marketing cost analysisThe study and evaluation of
marginal costThe incremental costs incurred when the the relative profitability or costs of different marketing

M level of output of some operation or process is in-


creased by one unit.M
operations in terms of customers, marketing units,
commodities, territories, or marketing activities. Cost
accounting is typically used.M
marginal cost of capitalThe cost of the next dollar, af-
ter taxes, that a firm expects to raise for investment.M marketing managementSyn: demand management.M

marginal pricingPricing products at a markup over the marketing mixThe concept that marketing strategy se-
marginal cost of producing the next item. Marginal costs lects product, price, promotion, and channel targets in
generally include the variable cost of producing and sell- selected markets.M
ing an additional item.M
marketing researchThe systematic gathering, record-
marginal productIn economics, the additional quantity ing, and analyzing of data about problems relating to
of total output following from a one-unit increase in va- the marketing of goods and services. Such research
riable input. See: law of diminishing marginal returns.M may be undertaken by impartial agencies or by busi-
marginal revenueThe incremental sales dollars re- ness firms or their agents. Marketing research includes
ceived when the level of output of some operation is several types: (1) market analysis (product potential is a
increased by one unit.M type) is the study of the size, location, nature, and cha-
racteristics of markets, (2) sales analysis (or research)
marginal utilityThe additional usefulness and enjoy-
is the systematic study and comparison of sales (or
ment received from consuming one more unit of a good
consumption) data, (3) consumer research (motivation
or service.M
research is a type) is concerned with the discovery and
marketA set of buyers and sellers exchanging prod- analysis of consumer attitudes, reactions, and prefe-
ucts. Prices tend to equalize through ongoing ex- rences. Syn: market research.M
changes between buyers and sellers. Markets include
marketing strategyThe basic plan marketing expects
institutional markets, government markets, industrial
to use to achieve its business and marketing objectives
markets, and consumer markets. See: consumer mar-
in a particular market. This plan includes marketing ex-
ket, government market, industrial market, institutional
penditures, marketing mix, and marketing allocation.M
market.M
market boundaryThe boundary where the laid-down market penetrationThe degree to which a product has
cost for two companies is equal. Laid-down cost is been accepted by the marketplace. Syn: market
product cost plus unit transportation cost.M reach.M

market demandIn marketing, the total demand that market planThe output of the market planning
would exist within a defined customer group in a given process. The market plan includes the current market
geographical area during a particular time period given position, opportunity and issue analysis, marketing ob-
a known marketing program.M jectives and strategies, action plans, programs,
projects, budgets, and pro forma profit and loss state-
market dominanceWhen a firm has very little
ment and management controls. Syn: brand plan, prod-
competition.M
uct plan.M
market drivenResponding to customers needs.M
market planningThe process of developing market
market hedgeScheduling or holding an inventory plans for products and services. This process is com-
quantity greater than the expected demand because of posed of the following phasesidentification; research
expected inaccuracy or volatility in the forecasted de- and analysis of market opportunities; selection of target
mand. See: hedge.M markets; development of marketing strategies; devel-
marketingThe design, pricing, promotion, and distribu- opment of the marketing plans, programs, and projects;
tion of goods to create transactions with businesses and management, execution, and control of the market
and consumers.M plans, programs, and projects.M

100 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


market-positioned strategy master production schedule (MPS)

market-positioned strategyA location strategy that fo- vice characteristics, and many other options when PCs
cuses on the customer by placing warehouses closer to are assembled on one line and at low cost.M
the customer. See: product-positioned strategy.M
mass marketingThe strategy of sending the same
market-positioned warehouseWarehouse positioned message to all potential customers.M
to replenish customer inventory assortments and to af- mass productionHigh-quantity production characte-
ford maximum inbound transport consolidation econo- rized by specialization of equipment and labor. See:
mies from inventory origin points with relatively short-
haul local delivery.M
continuous production.M
master black beltIn six sigma, quality expert capable
M
market reachSyn: market penetration.M of implementing strategic quality efforts including
market researchSyn: marketing research.M teaching other facilitators (black belts) the quality appli-
cations within all levels of the organization.M
market segmentA group of potential customers shar-
master budgetThe document that consolidates all
ing some measurable characteristics based on demo-
other budgets of an organization into an overall plan,
graphics, psychographics, lifestyle, geography, benefits,
including the projection of a cash flow statement and an
and so forth.M
operating statement for the budget period as well as a
market segmentationA marketing strategy in which balance sheet for the end of the budget period. Syn:
the total market is disaggregated into submarkets, or static budget.M
segments, that share some measurable characteristic
master fileA main reference file of information, such
based on demographics, psychographics, lifestyle, geo-
as the item master file or work center file. See: detail
graphy, benefits, and so forth.M
file, item master file.M
market shareThe actual portion of current market de- master packA large, protective box used to contain
mand that a company or product achieves.M smaller boxes. This reduces materials handling
market strategyThe marketing plan to support the activities.M
business strategy.M master planningA group of business processes that
market surveysQuestionnaires designed to get feed- includes the following activities: demand management
back from potential customers about demand for a (which includes forecasting and order servicing); pro-
product or service.M duction and resource planning; and master scheduling
(which includes the master schedule and the rough-cut
market targetingThe process of developing measure- capacity plan).M
ments of the desirability of given market segments and
master planning of resourcesA grouping of business
deciding in which market segments to compete.M
processes that includes the following activities: demand
market value-addedIn financial management, the sur- management, which includes the forecasting of sales,
plus of a firms equity over the capital that has been in- the planning of distribution, and the servicing of cus-
vested in the firm.M tomer orders; sales and operations planning, which in-
cludes sales planning, production planning, inventory
marks and numbersIdentifying agents placed on
planning, backlog planning, and resource planning;
products or containers used to identify a shipment or its
master scheduling, which includes the preparation of
parts.M
the master production schedule and the rough-cut ca-
marquis partnersKey strategic relationships. By part- pacity plan.M
nering with big players, via equity offerings if necessary,
master production schedule (MPS)The master produc-
a company creates barriers to entry into supply chain
tion schedule is a line on the master schedule grid that
relationships for competitors.M
reflects the anticipated build schedule for those items
mass customizationThe creation of a high-volume assigned to the master scheduler. The master schedu-
product with large variety so that a customer may speci- ler maintains this schedule, and in turn, it becomes a
fy an exact model out of a large volume of possible end set of planning numbers that drives material require-
items while manufacturing cost is low due to large vo- ments planning. It represents what the company plans
lume. An example is a personal computer order in which to produce expressed in specific configurations, quanti-
the customer may specify processor speed, memory ties, and dates. The master production schedule is not
size, hard disk size and speed, removable storage de- a sales item forecast that represents a statement of

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 101


master route sheet material receipt inspection

demand. The master production schedule must take material classA means to describe a grouping of mate-
into account the forecast, the production plan, and oth- rials with similar characteristics for planning and sche-
er important considerations such as backlog, availability duling purposes.M
of material, availability of capacity, and management
material constraintUsually a misnomer. Material
policies and goals. See: master schedule.M
shortages are rarely the constraint, rather temporary
master route sheetThe authoritative route process material shortages hinder effective constraint

M sheet from which all other format variations and copies


are derived.M
management by inhibiting the ability to fully exploit
and/or subordinate to the constraint.M

master scheduleThe master schedule is a format that material controlSyn: inventory control.M
includes time periods (dates), the forecast, customer material definitionA definition of the properties and
orders, projected available balance, available-to- characteristics of a substance. material-dominated
promise, and the master production schedule. The mas- scheduling (MDS)A technique that schedules mate-
ter schedule takes into account the forecast; the pro- rials before processors (equipment or capacity). This
duction plan; and other important considerations such technique facilitates the efficient use of materials. MDS
as backlog, availability of material, availability of capaci- can be used to schedule each stage in a process flow
ty, and management policies and goals. See: master scheduling system. MRP systems use material-
production schedule.M dominated scheduling logic. See: processor-dominated
master schedule itemA part number selected to be scheduling.M
planned by the master scheduler. The item is deemed material-dominated scheduling (MDS)A technique that
critical in its impact on lower level components or re- schedules materials before processors (equipment or
sources such as skilled labor, key machines, or dollars. capacity). This technique facilitates the efficient use of
Therefore, the master scheduler, not the computer, materials. MDS can be used to schedule each stage in
maintains the plan for these items. A master schedule a process flow scheduling system. MRP systems use
item may be an end item, a component, a pseudo num- material-dominated scheduling logic. See: processor-
ber, or a planning bill of material.M dominated scheduling.M
master schedulerOften the job title of the person material flexibilityThe ability of the transformation
charged with the responsibility of managing, establish- process to handle unexpected variations in material
ing, reviewing, and maintaining a master schedule for inputs.M
select items. Ideally, the person should have substantial
product, plant, process, and market knowledge because material indexThe total of raw material weights di-
the consequences of this individuals actions often have vided by final product weight.M
a great impact on customer service, material, and ca- material listSyn: picking list.M
pacity planning. See: master production schedule.M
material lotA uniquely identifiable amount of a materi-
master schedulingThe process where the master al. This describes the actual quantity or amount of ma-
schedule is generated and reviewed and adjustments terial available, its current state, and its specific
made to the master production schedule to ensure con- property values.M
sistency with the production plan. The master produc-
material planner1) The person normally responsible
tion schedule (the line on the grid) is the primary input
for managing the inventory levels, schedules, and avail-
to the material requirements plan. The sum of the mas-
ability of selected items, either manufactured or pur-
ter production schedules for the items within the prod-
chased. Syn: inventory planner. 2) In an MRP system,
uct family must equal the production plan for that
the person responsible for reviewing and acting on or-
family.M
der release, action, and exception messages from the
match capacity strategyA capacity strategy that strikes system. Syn: parts planner, planner.M
a balance between the lead and lag capacity strategies
material planningSyn: inventory planning.M
by adding capacity at approximately the rate of actual
demand increase.M material receipt inspectionThe receiving department
compares the incoming material to the purchase order
material analystThe person assigned responsibility for
to verify that the correct material and quantity have
and identification of the planning requirements for spe-
been received. The material is then inspected for quality
cific items and responsibility for each order.M
and general condition. A material receipt report is pre-

102 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


material release matrix bill of material

pared and copies are distributed to the appropriate de- cost and is balanced against the operating costs of the
partments such as purchasing and accounting.M facility.M
material releaseThe introduction of parts into a pro- materials handling systemThe system of transporta-
duction process.M tion that receives, moves, and delivers materials during
the production or distribution process.M
material requirements planThe result from the
process of material requirements planning.M materials handling timeThe time necessary to move
material requirements planning (MRP)A set of tech-
niques that uses bill of material data, inventory data,
materials from one work center to the next work center.
This time includes waiting for the materials handling M
and the master production schedule to calculate re- equipment and actual movement time.M
quirements for materials. It makes recommendations to materials managementThe grouping of management
release replenishment orders for material. Further, be- functions supporting the complete cycle of material
cause it is time-phased, it makes recommendations to flow, from the purchase and internal control of produc-
reschedule open orders when due dates and need tion materials to the planning and control of work in
dates are not in phase. Time-phased MRP begins with process to the warehousing, shipping, and distribution
the items listed on the MPS and determines (1) the of the finished product.M
quantity of all components and materials required to
material specificationAn explanation of the characte-
fabricate those items and (2) the date that the compo-
ristics of material to be produced or purchased.M
nents and material are required. Time-phased MRP is
accomplished by exploding the bill of material, adjusting materials requisition1) An authorization that identifies
for inventory quantities on hand or on order, and offset- the items and quantities to be withdrawn from invento-
ting the net requirements by the appropriate lead ry. 2) An authorization that identifies the items and
times.M quantities to be included in a purchase order. Syn: pro-
duction materials requisition.M
material requisitionThis is the first step to placing a
replenishment order; initiated by the material user.M materials systemConnecting material flows contained
in a production system.M
material review board (MRB)An organization within a
company, often a standing committee, that determines material sublotA uniquely identifiable subset of a ma-
the resolution or disposition of items that have ques- terial lot containing quantity and location. A sublot may
tionable quality or other attributes.M be a single item.M
materialsThe components that are processed by an material usage varianceThe difference between the
operation.M planned or standard requirements for materials to pro-
material safety data sheet (MSDS)A document that is duce a given item and the actual quantity used for a
part of the materials information system and accompa- particular instance of manufacture.M
nies the product. Prepared by the manufacturer, the material yieldSyn: yield.M
MSDS provides information regarding the safety and
materielA term, used more frequently in nonmanufac-
chemical properties and (if necessary) the long-term
turing organizations, to refer to the equipment, appara-
storage, handling, and disposal of the product. Among
tus, and supplies used by an organization.M
other factors, the MSDS describes the hazardous com-
ponents of a product; how to treat leaks, spills, and mathematical programmingThe general problem of
fires; and how to treat improper human contact with the optimizing a function of several variables subject to a
product.M number of constraints. If the function and constraints
are linear in the variables and a subset of the con-
materials efficiencyA concept that addresses the effi-
straints restricts the variables to be nonnegative, a li-
ciency with which materials are obtained, converted,
near programming problem exists.M
and shipped in the overall purchasing, production, and
distribution process. It can be considered as a compa- matrixA mathematical array having one, two, and
nion concept to labor efficiency, and it is potentially sometimes more dimensions, into which collections of
more significant as the materials portion of cost of data may be stored and processed.M
goods sold continues to grow.M
matrix bill of materialA chart made up from the bills of
materials handlingMovement and storage of goods material for a number of products in the same or similar
inside the distribution center. This represents a capital families. It is arranged in a matrix with components in

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 103


matrix diagram mediation

columns and parents in rows (or vice versa) so that re- mean absolute deviation (MAD)The average of the ab-
quirements for common components can be summa- solute values of the deviations of observed values from
rized conveniently.M some expected value. MAD can be calculated based on
observations and the arithmetic mean of those observa-
matrix diagramA graphical technique used to analyze
tions. An alternative is to calculate absolute deviations
the relationship between two related groups of ideas.M
of actual sales data minus forecast data. These data
matrix organizational structureAn organizational struc- can be averaged in the usual arithmetic way or with ex-

M ture in which two (or more) channels of command,


budget responsibility, and performance measurement
exist simultaneously. For example, both product and
ponential smoothing. See: forecast error, tracking
signal.M

functional forms of organization could be implemented mean absolute percent error (MAPE)A measure of sta-
simultaneously, that is, the product and functional tistical variation in a forecast. Computed by dividing
managers have equal authority and employees report to each absolute forecast error by the actual demand,
both managers.M multiplying that by 100 to get the absolute percentage
error, and computing the average.M
maverick spendingA term used when employees or
managers purchase from nonqualified suppliers, by- mean squared error (MSE)A measure of statistical var-
passing established purchasing procedures.M iation in a forecast. Computed by squaring the forecast
errors and then taking the average of the sum of the
maximum allowable costIn service organizations, the squared errors.M
limit of reimbursement allowed by an agency for the
cost of a supply item.M mean time between failures (MTBF)The average time
interval between failures for repairable product for a
maximum demonstrated capacityThe highest amount defined unit of measure (e.g., operating hours, cycles,
of actual output produced in the past when all efforts miles). See: reliability.M
have been made to optimize the resource; for instance,
overtime, additional personnel, extra hours, extra shifts, mean time for failures (MTFF)Average time for failure
reassignment of personnel, or use of any related of a nonrepairable product (expected life) or average
equipment. Maximum demonstrated capacity is the time to first failure of a repairable product. See:
most one could ever expect to produce in a short period reliability.M
of time but represents a rate that cannot be maintained mean time to repair (MTTR)The average time that it
over a long period of time. See: demonstrated takes to repair a product.M
capacity.M
measurement tonA measurement equivalent to 40
maximum inventoryThe planned maximum allowable cubic feet. It is a factor in water transportation rate-
inventory for an item based on its planned lot size and setting.M
target safety stock.M
measure of serviceSyn: level of service.M
maximum order quantityAn order quantity modifier,
applied after the lot size has been calculated, that limits measure phaseA phase in the six sigma design-
the order quantity to a pre-established maximum.M measure-analyze-improve-control process during which
current performance is evaluated. See: design-measure-
MBOAbbreviation for management by objectives.M analyze-improve-control process.M
MBNQAAbbreviation for the Malcolm Baldrige National measures constraintA common misnomer. Bad
Quality Award.M measures are not the constraint. Rather, bad measures
MBWAAbbreviation for management by walking hinder effective constraint management by inhibiting
around.M the ability to fully exploit and/or subordinate to the
constraint.M
M-day calendarSyn: manufacturing calendar.M
medianThe middle value in a set of measured values
M-daysAvailable manufacturing days excluding holi-
when the items are arranged in order of magnitude. If
days and weekends.M
there is no single middle value, the median is the mean
MDSAbbreviation for material-dominated of the two middle values.M
scheduling.M
mediationThe introduction of a neutral third party who
meanThe arithmetic average of a group of values. Syn: attempts to provide alternatives to issues causing con-
arithmetic mean.M flict that have not been put forth by either party or to

104 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


mental model MIS

change the way the parties perceive the situation. It is middlewareSoftware that interconnects incompatible
often used in collective bargaining to reach an applications software and databases from various trad-
agreement.M ing partners into decision-support tools such as ERP.M

mental modelA paradigm of how the world works milestoneIn project management, an important event
formed by a persons experiences and assumptions.M in a project, usually the realization of a significant
deliverable.M

M
merchantsBuyers who purchase for the purpose of
reselling.M milestone chartSyn: Gantt chart.M

MercosurSouthern Common Market.M milestone scheduleIn project management, a high-


level schedule displaying important deliverables.M
merge in transitCombining shipments from several
military standardsProduct standards and specifica-
vendors at an intermediate point of shipment and deli-
tions for military or defense contractors, units, suppli-
vering the combined load to the customer.M
ers, and so forth. These standards sometimes become
mergerThe acquisition of the assets and liabilities of de facto standards within the civilian community.M
one company by another.M
milk runA regular route for pickup of mixed loads from
MESAbbreviation for manufacturing execution several suppliers. For example, instead of each of five
systems.M suppliers sending a truckload per week to meet the
weekly needs of the customer, one truck visits each of
message distributionThe software component of elec-
the suppliers on a daily basis before delivering to the
tronic commerce that enables the sending and receiv-
customers plant. Five truckloads per week are still
ing of messages.M
shipped, but each truckload contains the daily require-
metered issuesIssues of parts or materials from ment from each supplier. See: consolidation.M
stores in quantities that correspond to the rate at which mini-land-bridge trafficA multimodal transportation
materials are used.M solution that moves goods over water and then land,
methods analysisThat part of methods engineering with the final destination being on the opposite coast.
normally involving an examination and analysis of an See: micro-land-bridge traffic.M
operation or a work cycle broken down into its minimum cost order quantitySyn: economic order
constituent parts to improve the operation, eliminate quantity.M
unnecessary steps, and/or establish and record in
minimum inventoryThe planned lowest amount or lev-
detail a proposed method of performance.M
el of inventory for an item.M
methods studyAn analysis to improve the efficiency of
minimum order quantityAn order quantity modifier,
work by studying the existing method to identify and
applied after the lot size has been calculated, that in-
eliminate wasted motion.M
creases the order quantity to a pre-established
methods-time measurement (MTM)A system of prede- minimum.M
termined motion-time standards, a procedure that ana- minimum weightIn transportation, the rate discount
lyzes and classifies the movements of any operation volume.M
into certain human motions and assigns to each motion
a predetermined time standard selected by the nature min-max systemA type of order point replenishment
of the motion and the conditions under which it will be system where the minimum (min) is the order point, and
made.M the maximum (max) is the order up to inventory level.
The order quantity is variable and is the result of the
metricsSyn: performance measurement system.M max minus available and on-order inventory. An order is
microeconomicsThe analysis of the behavior of indi- recommended when the sum of the available and on-
vidual economic decision makers (individuals and order inventory is at or below the min.M
firms).M minor setupThe incremental setup activities required
when changing from one item to another within a group
micro-land-bridge trafficA multimodal transportation
of items.M
solution that moves goods over water and then land,
with the final destination inland. See: mini-land-bridge MISAbbreviation for management information
traffic.M system.M

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 105


misguided capacity plans modular design strategy

misguided capacity plansPlans for capacity utilization families must be forecasted. Even though the appropri-
that are based on erroneous data or assumptions.M ate level of units is forecasted for a given product line,
an inaccurate mix forecast can create material shortag-
missionThe overall goal(s) for an organization set with-
es and inventory problems.M
in the parameters of the business scope.M
mission statementThe company statement of mix numberSyn: lot number.M
purpose.M

M
mix ticketA listing of all the raw materials, ingredients,
mistake-proofingSyn: failsafe work methods, poka- components, and such that are required to perform a
yoke.M mixing, blending, or similar operation. This listing is of-
ten printed on a paper ticket, which also may be used
mixA breakdown of the total demand or production
as a turnaround document to report component quanti-
that identifies different products in an aggregate de-
ties actually used, final quantity actually produced, etc.
mand or production run.M
This term is often used in batch process or chemical
mix controlThe control of the individual items going industries. See: assembly parts list, batch card, blend
through the plant.M formula, manufacturing order.M
mixed-flow schedulingA procedure used in some modal splitThe breakdown of use of transportation
process industries for building process train schedules modes. Statistics used for the calculation include
that start at an initial stage and work toward the ter- passenger-miles, ton-miles, and revenue.M
minal process stages. This procedure is effective for
modeThe most common or frequent value in a group
scheduling where several bottleneck stages may exist.
of values.M
Detailed scheduling is done at each bottleneck stage.M
mixed loadsA load having both regulated and exempt modelA representation of a process or system that
items in the same vehicle.M attempts to relate the most important variables in the
system in such a way that analysis of the model leads to
mixed manufacturingMake-to-stock and make-to-order insights into the system. Frequently, the model is used
manufacturing using a single plant and set of to anticipate the result of a particular strategy in the
equipment.M real system.M
mixed-model assembly lineAn assembly line with more
model numberAn item number for a finished good.
than one type of model passing through it.M
This number may encompass other parts, such as a us-
mixed-model productionMaking several different parts ers manual.M
or products in varying lot sizes so that a factory produc-
modemA device that converts digital signals to analog
es close to the same mix of products that will be sold
signals (and vice versa) so they can be sent over phone
that day. The mixed-model schedule governs the mak-
lines.M
ing and the delivery of component parts, including those
provided by outside suppliers. The goal is to build every modification flexibilityThe capability of the transforma-
model every day, according to daily demand.M tion process to quickly implement minor product design
mixed-model schedulingThe process of developing changes.M
one or more schedules to enable mixed-model produc- modular architectureA type of product architecture
tion. The goal is to achieve a days production each day. where the functional pieces correspond to physical
See: mixed-model production.M pieces. The different physical pieces have their own
mixed production strategySyn: hybrid production me- function, and there is little interaction between them.M
thod. See: chase production method, level production modular bill of materialA type of planning bill that is
method.M arranged in product modules or options. It is often used
mix flexibilityThe ability to handle a wide range of in companies where the product has many optional fea-
products or variants by using equipment that has short tures (e.g., assemble-to-order companies such as au-
setup times.M tomobile manufacturers). See: pseudo bill of material.M

mix forecastForecast of the proportion of products modular design strategyThe strategy of planning and
that will be sold within a given product family, or the designing products so that components or subassem-
proportion of options offered within a product line. blies can be used in current and future products or as-
Product and option mix as well as aggregate product sembled to produce multiple configurations of a

106 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


modularization MSE

product. Automobiles and personal computers are ex- outbound stockpoint) and taken to a point of use (usual-
amples of modular designs.M ly an inbound stockpoint). It authorizes the movement
of one part number between a single pair of work cen-
modularizationIn product development, the use of
ters. The card circulates between the outbound stock-
standardized parts for flexibility and variety. Permits
point of the supplying work center and the inbound
product development cost reductions by using the same
stockpoint of the using work center. Syn: move signal.
item(s) to build a variety of finished goods. This is the
See: kanban.M
first step in developing a planning bill of material
process.M movement inventoryA type of in-process inventory that
arises because of the time required to move goods from
M
modular systemA system architecture design in which
one place to another.M
related tasks are grouped in self-contained packages.
Each package, or module, of tasks performs all of the move orderThe authorization to move a particular item
tasks related to a specific function and advances in from one location to another.M
functions can be implemented without affecting other move signalSyn: move card.M
packages or modules because of the loose coupling
with other modules. One example is a multitiered archi- move ticketA document used in dispatching to author-
tecture in which application business rules are sepa- ize or record movement of a job from one work center to
rated from the data management rules. Another another. It may also be used to report other information,
example is a client-server architecture in which user in- such as the actual quantity or the material storage
terface tasks are separated from the application soft- location.M
ware. See: open system architecture.M move timeThe time that a job spends in transit from
moduleA self-contained unit of a computer program one operation to another in the plant.M
that communicates with other parts of the program moving averageAn arithmetic average of a certain
solely through inputs and outputs.M number (n) of the most recent observations. As each
moldsTools for plastic or chemical production. A mold new observation is added, the oldest observation is
is the term used for the tools that shape plastic or other dropped. The value of n (the number of periods to use
soft material parts.M for the average) reflects responsiveness versus stability
in the same way that the choice of smoothing constant
monitoringThe process of comparing actual to planned does in exponential smoothing. There are two types of
progress.M moving average, simple and weighted. See: simple mov-
monopolistic competitionA market in which many ing average, weighted moving average.M
competitors offer partially differentiated products or moving average forecastA forecasting technique that
services within a given geographical area. Most compet- uses a simple moving average or a weighted moving
itors focus on market segments where they can meet average projected forward as a forecast.M
customers needs somewhat better than their competi-
MPCAbbreviation for manufacturing planning and
tors. See: industry structure types.M
control.M
monopolySole control of a market by a company. In
MPSAbbreviation for master production schedule.M
the United States, a monopoly is a violation of Article 2
of the Sherman Act.M MRBAbbreviation for material review board.M
Monte Carlo simulationA subset of digital simulation MRO1) Abbreviation for maintenance, repair, and op-
models based on random or stochastic processes.M erating. 2) Abbreviation for maintenance, repair, and
overhaul.M
motion studyA type of methods study focused on ther-
bligs, basic hand and body movements. See: therblig.M MRPAbbreviation for material requirements
planning.M
moveThe physical transportation of inventory from one
location to another within a facility. Movements are MRP nervousnessSee: nervousness.M
usually made under the direction and control of the in- MRP IIAbbreviation for manufacturing resource
ventory system.M planning.M
move cardIn a just-in-time context, a card or other sig- MSDSAbbreviation for material safety data sheet.M
nal indicating that a specific number of units of a par-
MSEAbbreviation for mean squared error.M
ticular item are to be taken from a source (usually an

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 107


MTBF multiskilled

MTBFAbbreviation for mean time between failures.M multilinear regression analysisModel used for fore-
casting with more than one independent variable.M
MTFFAbbreviation for mean time for failures.M
MTMAbbreviation for methods-time measurement.M multimediaAn interactive combination of two or more
of the following: text, graphics, video, audio, and anima-
MTTRAbbreviation for mean time to repair.M tion all controlled by a personal computer.M
muda (waste)In lean manufacturing, costs are re-

M
multimedia filesDigitized image, video, and audio files
duced by reducing waste within a system. There are
that can be retrieved and converted to a form usable by
seven categories of waste: (1) overproductionexcess
a human.M
or too early, (2) waitingqueuing delays, (3) transporta-
tionunneeded movements, (4) processingpoor multimodal solutionsTransportation plans that involve
process design, (5) motionactivities that do not add multiple means of transportation and coordinate the
value, (6) inventorystock that is sitting is accumulating physical and information requirements.M
cost without necessarily providing value, (7) defective
multinational corporationA company with capital in-
unitsscrap or rework.M
vestments in more than a single country.M
multiactivity chartShows how workers interact with
each other, or with machines, for different activities.M multinational strategyA strategy that focuses on op-
portunities to achieve cross-business and cross-country
multicountry strategyA strategy in which each country
coordination, thereby enabling economies of scope and
market is self-contained. Customers have unique prod-
an improved competitive position with regard to reduc-
uct expectations that are addressed by local production
ing costs, cross-country subsidization, and so on, to out-
capabilities. Syn: multidomestic strategy.M
compete rivals. See: global strategy. multiphase sys-
multicriteria decision modelsModels that enable deci- temSyn: multiple-phase queuing system.M
sion makers to evaluate various alternatives across
multiple-channel queuing systemA waiting line system
several decision criteria.M
that has parallel waiting lines with queues.M
multicurrencyHaving the capability to handle orders
using monies from several countries for billing multiple-factor productivityA measure of the productiv-
purposes.M ity of two or more inputs, especially labor, capital costs,
energy, and material. See: single-factor productivity.M
multidomestic strategySyn: multicountry strategy.M
multiple-item lot-sizing modelsProcesses or systems
multifactor productivityA productivity score that meas-
used to determine the total replenishment order quanti-
ures output levels relative to more than one input, such
ty for a group of related items.M
as labor or capital.M
multiple-phase queuing systemQueuing system that
multilevel bill of materialA display of all the compo-
performs a service in two or more sequential steps
nents directly or indirectly used in a parent, together
when there are several waiting lines. Syn: multiphase
with the quantity required of each component. If a com-
system. See: channel, queuing theory.M
ponent is a subassembly, blend, intermediate, etc., all
its components and all their components also will be multiple regression modelsA form of regression analy-
exhibited, down to purchased parts and raw sis where the model involves more than one indepen-
materials.M dent variable, such as developing a forecast of
multilevel master scheduleA master scheduling tech- dishwasher sales based upon housing starts, gross na-
nique that allows any level in an end items bill of ma- tional product, and disposable income.M
terial to be master scheduled. To accomplish this, MPS multiple sourcingSyn: multisourcing. See: dual
items must receive requirements from independent and sourcing.M
dependent demand sources. See: two-level master
schedule.M multiprocessingThe simultaneous use by a computer
of two or more central processing units, with each ex-
multilevel where-usedA display for a component listing
ecuting its own instruction set and each controlled by a
all the parents in which that component is directly used
single operating system.M
and the next higher level parents into which each of
those parents is used, until ultimately all top-level (level multiskilledIndividuals who are capable of carrying out
0) parents are listed.M a variety of tasks.M

108 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


multisourcing net profit

multisourcingProcurement of a good or service from negative floatIn project management, the amount of
more than one independent supplier. Syn: multiple time that must be made up on an activity to get the
sourcing. Ant: single sourcing. See: dual sourcing.M project back on schedule. See: float.N

multivariate control chartA control chart for evaluating negligenceThe causing of injury to another by failure
the stability of a process in terms of the levels of two or to use reasonable care.N
more variables or characteristics.M negotiationThe process by which a buyer and a sup-
muraA Japanese word meaning unevenness or
variability.M
plier agree upon the conditions surrounding the pur-
chase of an item or a service.N N
muriA Japanese word meaning strain or overburden.M nemawashiA Japanese word meaning getting a group
to agree on a strategy before beginning to implement
mutually exclusive projectIn capital budgeting, a it.N
project that will not be accepted if a competing project
nervousnessThe characteristic in an MRP system
is accepted. See: contingent project, independent
when minor changes in higher level (e.g., level 0 or 1)
project.M
records or the master production schedule cause signif-
mystery shoppersPeople who pose as customers but icant timing or quantity changes in lower level (e.g., lev-
who are really studying an organizations service quality el 5 or 6) schedules and orders. Syn: system
to provide feedback to the organization for improve- nervousness.N
ment purposes.M
nestingThe act of combining several small processes
to form one larger process.N

N net assetsTotal assets minus total liabilities.N


net change MRPAn approach in which the material
nSample size (the number of units in a sample).N requirements plan is continually retained in the com-
NAFTAAcronym for North American Free Trade puter. Whenever a change is needed in requirements,
Agreement.N open order inventory status, or bill of material, a partial
explosion and netting is made for only those parts af-
National Association of Purchasing Management fected by the change. Ant: regeneration MRP.N
(NAPM)A nonprofit society for purchasing managers
net income (loss)The final figure in the income
and others, now known as the Institute for Supply
statement.N
Management (ISM).N
net inventorySyn: available inventory.N
nationalizationpublic ownership and operation of a
business enterprise.N net operating cash flowIn finance management, the
difference between cash inflow and cash outflow for a
National Labor Relations Board (NLRB)In the United period. It is found by taking the change in net operating
States, the federal agency that regulates labor law.N profit after taxes and adding the change in depreciation
national stock number (NSN)The individual identifica- then subtracting the increase in net working capital re-
tion number assigned to an item to permit inventory quirements.N
management in the U.S. supply system.N net operating incomeThe income before interest and
natural variationsThese variations in measurements taxes are subtracted. Syn: earnings before interest and
are caused by environmental elements and cannot be taxes.N
removed. See: common cause variability.N net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT)Operating prof-
it less applicable taxes.N
NCAbbreviation for numerical control.N
net present valueThe present (discounted) value of
near-critical activityIn project management, a project
future earnings (operating expenses have been de-
activity with a low slack or float value.N
ducted from net operating revenues) for a given number
need dateThe date when an item is required for its of time periods.N
intended use. In an MRP system, this date is calculated
net profitAn absolute measure of financial perfor-
by a bill-of-material explosion of a schedule and the net-
mance that is calculated as the difference between rev-
ting of available inventory against that requirement.N
enues and expenses. In throughput accounting, net

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 109


net requirements nomogram

profit is calculated as throughput minus operating method (CPM) and the program evaluation and review
expense.N technique (PERT).N
net requirementsIn MRP, the net requirements for a neural networkA software system loosely based on
part or an assembly are derived as a result of applying how the brain works. It tries to simulate the multiple
gross requirements and allocations against inventory on layers of elements called neurons. Each neuron is tied
hand, scheduled receipts, and safety stock. Net re- to several neighbors with a value that signifies the

N quirements, lot-sized and offset for lead time, become


planned orders.N
net salesSales dollars the company receives; gross
strength of the connections. Learning is accomplished
by changing the values to cause the network to report
appropriate results. Neural networks have been used
sales minus returns and allowances.N for market forecasts and other applications.N

nettingThe process of calculating net requirements.N new product development teamSyn: participative
design/engineering.N
net weightThe weight of an article exclusive of the
weights of all packing materials and containers.N new product introductionThe development and re-
lease of an item that is new to a companys set of
network1) The interconnection of computers, termin-
offerings.N
als, and communications channels to facilitate file and
peripheral device sharing as well as effective data newsvendor problemA problem inventory manage-
communication. 2) A graph consisting of nodes con- ment dealing with determining the single period (e.g.,
nected by arcs.N day or week) order quantity which will minimize the cost
network analysisIn project management, the calcula- of sometimes having too much inventory and some-
tion of early and late start and finish times for those ac- times having too little.N
tivities not yet completed. See: critical path method, NLRBAbbreviation for National Labor Relations
graphical evaluation and review technique, and pro- Board.N
gram evaluation and review technique (PERT).N
nodeIn project management, a point connected by ar-
network chainA route through a chain involving mul- rows in a network.N
tiple network paths, with switching of paths due to re-
source conflicts.N noiseThe unpredictable or random difference between
the observed data and the true process.N
network diagramA graphical tool that shows the de-
pendencies between activities in a project, i.e., which nominal capacitySyn: rated capacity.N
activities precede other activities and which can be
nominal group techniqueA technique, similar to
done in parallel.N
brainstorming, used by teams to generate ideas on a
networkingDeveloping relationships with people who particular subject. Team members are asked to silently
may be able to enhance the performance of duties or come up with as many ideas as possible, writing them
responsibilities.N down. Each member is then asked to share one idea,
net working capitalThe current assets of a firm minus which is recorded. After all the ideas are recorded, they
its current liabilities. Syn: working capital.N are discussed and prioritized by the group.N

network logicActivity dependencies that make up a nominal interest rateThe noninflation-adjusted inter-
project schedule network diagram.N est rate.N

network loopA network path that crosses the same nominal trading partnerAny organization external to
activity or node twice. A network loop cannot be ana- the firm that provides an essential material or service,
lyzed by the critical path method, critical chain, or other but whose financial success is largely independent of
traditional network schedule analysis techniques.N the financial success of the supply chain community.N

network pathAny continuous series of project activities nomogramA computational aid consisting of two or
connected by precedence relationships in a project more scales drawn and arranged so that the results of
schedule network diagram.N calculations may be found by the linear connection of
points on them. Historically, it was used for calculating
network planningA generic term for techniques that
economic lot sizes or sample sizes for work measure-
are used to plan complex projects. Two of the best
ment observations. Also called an alignment chart.N
known network planning techniques are the critical path

110 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


nonconforming material numerical control (NC)

nonconforming materialAny raw material, part, com- nonsignificant part numberA part number that is as-
ponent, or product with one or more characteristics that signed to each part but does not convey any information
depart from the specifications, drawing, or other ap- about the part. Nonsignificant part numbers are iden-
proved product description.N tifiers, not descriptors. Ant: significant part number.N

nonconformityFailure to fulfill a specified requirement. non-value-addedAn activity that does not add value to
See: blemish, defect, imperfection.N a product, for example, moving the product from one

noncurrent assetsAn accounting/financial term


(balance sheet classification of accounts) representing
work center to another inside a facility. One aspect of
continuous improvement is the elimination or reduction
of non-value-added activities.N
N
the long-term resources owned by a company, including
property, plant, and equipment.N non-vessel-operating common carrier (NVOCC)Carrier
that uses ocean liners and works similarly to freight
nondurable goodsGoods whose serviceability is gen- forwarders.N
erally limited to a period of less than three years (such
as perishable goods and semidurable goods).N NOPATAcronym for net operating profit after taxes.N

nonevident failureFailure occurring in either a product normal and proper usageOperation of the equipment
or a production process that is not immediately evident. with a program of regular maintenance in accordance
This may be indicative of a faulty design.N with generally accepted practices and within the rated
capacity and service classification for which it was spe-
nonexempt employeeA person filling a nonexempt po- cified and designed.N
sition. See: nonexempt positions.N
normal distributionA particular statistical distribution
nonexempt positionsEmployees not meeting the test where most of the observations fall fairly close to one
of executive, supervisory, or administrative personnel mean, and a deviation from the mean is as likely to be
who are paid overtime, as defined by the Fair Labor plus as it is to be minus. When graphed, the normal dis-
Standards Act. See: nonexempt employee.N tribution takes the form of a bell-shaped curve.N
nongovernmental organization (NGO)A legally consti- normalizeTo adjust observed data to a standard
tuted organization that operates independently from base.N
any government. The term is usually applied only to or-
normal timeIn time study, adjusting the actual time
ganizations that pursue some wider social aim with po-
observed by a factor called pace rating. See: pace
litical aspects, but that are not overtly political
rating.N
organizations such as political parties. These types of
organizations are called civil society organizations and North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)An
other names in some jurisdictions.N agreement among the United States, Canada, and
Mexico to promote economic prosperity by reducing
nonlinear programmingProgramming similar to linear trade barriers.N
programming but incorporating a nonlinear objective
function and linear constraints or a linear objective no-touch exchange of dies (NTED)The exchange of
function and nonlinear constraints or both a nonlinear dies without human intervention.N
objective function and nonlinear constraints.N np chartA control chart for evaluating the stability of a
process in terms of the total number of units in a sam-
nonproduction materialItems (indirect materials and
ple in which an event of a given classification occurs.
supplies) in the manufacturing process or in the main-
Syn: number of affected units chart.N
tenance or operation of a facility that do not generally
become part of the final product.N N7Abbreviation for seven new tools of quality.N

nonrecurring materialTooling, gauges, and facilities NSNAbbreviation for national stock number.N
necessary in the manufacturing of the final product and NTEDAbbreviation for no-touch exchange of dies.N
not consumed during manufacturing or shipped with the
final product.N number defective chartSyn: c chart.N
number of affected units chartSyn: np chart.N
nonscheduled hoursHours when a machine is not
generally available to be scheduled for operation; for numerical control (NC)A means of operating a ma-
example, nights, weekends, holidays, lunch breaks, ma- chine tool automatically by the use of coded numerical
jor repair, and rebuilding.N instructions.N

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 111


NVOCC one-card kanban system

NVOCCAbbreviation for non-vessel-operating common occurrence factorWithin the repair/remanufacturing


carrier.N environment, the occurrence factor is associated with
how often a repair is required to bring the average part

O
to a serviceable condition (some repair operations do
not occur 100 percent of the time). The factor is
expressed at the operation level in the routing. See:
repair factor, replacement factor.O

O
obeyaA Japanese word meaning big room," a com-
mand center.O OC curveAbbreviation for operating characteristic
curve.O
objective functionThe goal or function that is to be op-
timized in a model. Most often it is a cost function that OCRAbbreviation for optical character recognition.O
should be minimized subject to some restrictions or a
ODAbbreviation for organizational development.O
profit function that should be maximized subject to
some restrictions.O ODDAbbreviation for earliest operation due date.O

object-oriented programming (OOP)Within computer OEEAbbreviation for overall equipment effectiveness.O


programming, the use of coding techniques and tools OEMAbbreviation for original equipment
that reflect the concept of viewing the business manufacturer.O
environment as a set of elements (or objects) with
offal materialThe by-product or waste of production
associated properties (e.g., data, data
processes (e.g., chips, shavings, turnings).O
manipulation/actions, inheritance). The objects
encapsulate, through data and functions, the properties offerA contractual communication that proposes defi-
of the business that are of interest.O nite terms. A contract is created if the other party ac-
cepts those terms.O
obligated materialSyn: reserved material.O
off-gradeA product whose physical or chemical proper-
observational researchA form of research (frequently ties fall outside the acceptable ranges.O
used in marketing research) where data are gathered by
direct observation of consumers in the market place. offlineComputer work completed either when discon-
See: marketing research.O nected from the internet or from an intranet. This term
describes anytime when someone cannot be contacted
obsolescence1) The condition of being out of date. A via their computer.O
loss of value occasioned by new developments that
offloadTo reschedule or use alternate routings to re-
place the older property at a competitive disadvantage.
duce the workload on a machine, work center, or
A factor in depreciation. 2) A decrease in the value of an
facility.O
asset brought about by the development of new and
more economical methods, processes, or machinery. 3) offset quantitySyn: overlap quantity.O
The loss of usefulness or worth of a product or facility
offsettingSyn: lead-time offset.O
as a result of the appearance of better or more econom-
ical products, methods, or facilities.O offshoreOutsourcing a business function to another
company in a different country than the original compa-
obsolete inventoryInventory items that have met the nys country.O
obsolescence criteria established by the organization.
For example, inventory that has been superseded by a offshore factoryA plant that imports or acquires locally
new model or otherwise made obsolescent. Obsolete all components and then exports the finished product.O
inventory will never be used or sold at full value. OJTAbbreviation for on-the-job training.O
Disposing of the inventory may reduce a companys
on-demandWork is completed only when demand oc-
profit.O
curs. More specifically, it is a process in which a product
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA)A U.S. law or service is made only after an order is placed for that
that applies to all employers in the United States who product or service.O
are engaged in interstate commerce. Its purpose is to
one-card kanban systemA kanban system where only
ensure safe and healthful working conditions by autho-
a move card is employed. Typically, the work centers are
rizing enforcement of the standards provided under the
adjacent, therefore no production card is required. In
act.O
many cases, squares located between work centers are

112 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


100 percent inspection operating assets

used as the kanban system. An empty square signals to meet that goal of full deliveries and by the delivery
the supplying work center to produce a standard con- date.O
tainer of the item. Syn: single-card kanban system. See:
on-time schedule performanceA measure (percen-
two-card kanban system.O
tage) of meeting the customers originally negotiated
100 percent inspectionThe act of inspecting or testing delivery request date. Performance can be expressed as
every item in an incoming or outgoing lot.1 a percentage based on the number of orders, line
one less at a timeA process of gradually reducing the
lot size of the number of items in the manufacturing
pipeline to expose, prioritize, and eliminate waste.O
items, or dollar value shipped on time.O

OOPAbbreviation for object-oriented programming.O O


open-end purchase orderA purchase agreement simi-
one-piece flowA concept that items are processed di- lar to a blanket purchase order that provides the added
rectly from one step to the next, one unit at a time. This convenience of being able to negotiate additional items
helps to shorten lead times and lines of communication, and expiration dates.O
thus more quickly identifying problems.O
open master production scheduleThe part of the mas-
one-to-one marketingA marketing strategy for sending ter production schedule that still has available capacity
a particular message to a single customer, often as- for assigning new orders.O
sisted by a marketing database.O
open officeAn office, with moveable partitions and
one-touch exchange of die (OTED)The ideal of reduc-
furniture, that deemphasizes the compartmentalization
ing or eliminating the setup effort required between op-
of people.O
erations on the same equipment.O
open order1) A released manufacturing order or pur-
on-hand balanceThe quantity shown in the inventory
chase order. Syn: released order. See: scheduled re-
records as being physically in stock.O
ceipt. 2) An unfilled customer order.O
online processingA method of computer processing in
open periodAccounting time period for which the
which data are processed immediately on entry into the
books will still accept adjusting entries and postings.
computer.O
Ant: closed period.O
online receivingAn unloading process characterized by
open system architectureThe capability of software
computers or terminals wherever shipments are re-
and diverse hardware environments to communicate
ceived and employees enter delivery data into the sys-
with each other through the use of standard messaging
tem as the shipments are unloaded.O
and protocols respectively. See: modular system.O
online serviceThe processing of transaction data as
soon as the transaction occurs. It is real-time open-to-buyA control technique used in aggregate in-
processing as opposed to batch processing. See: real ventory management in which authorizations to pur-
time.O chase are made without being committed to specific
suppliers. These authorizations are often reviewed by
on orderThe number or value of goods or services that management using such measures as commodity in
have been ordered but not received at a location.O dollars and by time period.O
on-order stockThe total of all outstanding replenish- open-to-receiveAuthorization to receive goods, such as
ment orders. The on-order balance increases when a a blanket release, firm purchase order item, or supplier
new order is released, and it decreases when material schedule. Open-to-receive represents near-term impact
is received against an order or when an order is on inventory, and is often monitored as a control tech-
canceled.O nique in aggregate inventory management. The total of
on-the-job training (OJT)Learning the skills and neces- open-to-receive, other longer term purchase commit-
sary related knowledge useful for the job at the place of ments, and open-to-buy represents the material and
work or possibly while at work.O services cash exposure of the company.O
on-time deliveryA metric measuring the percent of re- operating assetsAn accounting/financial term
ceipts that were received on time by customers. See: representing the resources owned by a company for
on-time in full.O productive purposes (to generate a profit) including
cash, accounts receivable, inventories, equipment, and
on-time in full (OTIF)A delivery scoring system that sets
facilities.O
a target goal, usually in percent, and the deliverer tries

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 113


operating characteristic curve (OC curve) operation due date

operating characteristic curve (OC curve)A graph used 2) The performance of any planned work or method as-
to determine the probability of accepting lots as a func- sociated with an individual, machine, process, depart-
tion of the quality level of the lots or processes when ment, or inspection. 3) One or more elements that
using various sampling plans. There are three types: involve one of the following: the intentional changing of
Type A curves, which give the probability of acceptance an object in any of its physical or chemical characteris-
for an individual lot coming from finite production (will tics; the assembly or disassembly of parts or objects;
not continue in the future); Type B curves, which give the preparation of an object for another operation,

O the probability of acceptance for lots coming from a


continuous process; and Type C curves, which, for a
transportation, inspection, or storage; planning, calcu-
lating, or giving or receiving information.O
continuous sampling plan, give the long-run percentage
operational availabilityThe portion of time a system is
of product accepted during the sampling phase.O
available to sustain operations in full.O
operating cycleThe three primary activities of a com-
operational performance measurements1) In tradi-
pany are purchasing, producing, and selling a product.
tional management, performance measurements re-
The operating cycle is calculated by adding the invento-
lated to machine, worker, or department efficiency or
ry conversion period to the receivables conversion
utilization. These performance measurements are
period.O
usually poorly correlated with organizational perfor-
operating decisionPlanning operations to meet de- mance. 2) In theory of constraints, performance mea-
mand in the short-term or intermediate-term.O surements that link causally to organizational
performance measurements. Throughput, inventory,
operating efficiencyA ratio (represented as a percen-
and operating expense are examples. See: global per-
tage) of the actual output of a piece of equipment, de-
formance measurements, local performance measure-
partment, or plant as compared to the planned or
ments, strategic performance measurements.O
standard output.O
operational plan(s)The set of short-range plans and
operating environmentThe global, domestic, environ-
schedules detailing specific actions. Operational plans
mental, and stakeholder influences that affect the key
are more detailed than strategic and tactical plans and
competitive factors, customer needs, culture, and phi-
cover a shorter time horizon. See: operational planning,
losophy of each individual company. This environment
strategic plan, tactical plan.O
becomes the framework in which business strategy is
developed and implemented. Syn: business operational planningThe process of setting goals and
environment.O targets and establishing measures constrained by and
targeted for achieving the strategic and tactical plans.
operating expenseAll the money an organization
See: operational plan, strategic planning, tactical
spends in generating goal units.O
planning.O
operating exposureThe risk introduced by flexible ex-
operation chartSyn: routing.O
change rates when operating in the global environment,
including production, storage, and buying and selling operation costingA method of costing used in batch
prices.O manufacturing environments when products produced
have common, as well as distinguishing, characteristics;
operating leverageComparing an organizations an-
for example, suits. The products are identified and
nual sales to its annual costs.O
costed by batches or by production runs, based on the
operating profit margin ratioEarnings before interest variations.O
and taxes divided by sales.O
operation descriptionThe details or description of an
operating systemA set of software programs that activity or operation to be performed. The operation de-
control the execution of the hardware and application scription is normally contained in the routing document
programs. The operating system manages the computer and could include setup instructions, operating instruc-
and network resources through storage management, tions (feeds, speeds, heats, pressure, etc.), and re-
disk input/output, communications linkages, program quired product specifications or tolerances.O
scheduling, and monitoring system usage for
operation due date1) The date when an operation
performance and cost allocations.O
should be completed so that its order due date can be
operation1) A job or task, consisting of one or more met. It can be calculated based on scheduled quantities
work elements, usually done essentially in one location. and lead times. 2) A job sequencing algorithm (dis-

114 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


operation duration operations strategy

patching rule) giving earlier operation due dates higher tems, quality management, production management,
priority.O inventory management, accounting, and other functions
as they affect the operation.O
operation durationThe total time that elapses between
the start of the setup of an operation and the comple- operations planSyn: production plan.O
tion of the operation. Syn: operation time.O
operations planningThe planning of activities that
operation listSyn: routing.O transform inputs into finished goods and services.O
operation numberA sequential number, usually two,
three, or four digits long, such as 010, 020, 030, that
operations process chartSyn: process chart.O
operation splittingSyn: lot splitting.O
O
indicates the sequence in which operations are to be
performed within an items routing.O operations research1) The development and applica-
tion of quantitative techniques to the solution of prob-
operation overlappingSyn: overlapped schedule.O
lems. More specifically, theory and methodology in
operation priority1) The relative importance an mathematics, statistics, and computing are adapted
operation is given based on its scheduled due date and applied to the identification, formulation, solution,
and/or start date, usually as determined by the back- validation, implementation, and control of decision-
scheduling process. 2) The relative importance a job is making problems. 2) An academic field of study con-
given in a queue of jobs by a priority dispatching cerned with the development and application of quan-
heuristic such as shortest processing time first or least titative analysis to the solution of problems faced by
slack remaining first.O management in public and private organizations. Syn:
operation/process yieldThe ratio of usable output management science.O
from a process, process stage, or operation to the input operations schedulingThe actual assignment of start-
quantity, usually expressed as a percentage.O ing or completion dates to operations or groups of op-
operation reportingThe recording and reporting of erations to show when these operations must be done if
every manufacturing (shop order) operation occurrence the manufacturing order is to be completed on time.
on an operation-to-operation basis.O These dates are used in the dispatching function. Syn:
detailed scheduling, order scheduling, shop
operationsThe group that produces the goods and/or
scheduling.O
services that a company sells.O
operations sequenceThe sequential steps for an item
operation setback chartA graphical display of the bill
to follow in its flow through the plant. For instance, op-
of materials and lead-time information provided by the
eration 1: cut bar stock; operation 2: grind bar stock;
routing for each part. The horizontal axis provides the
operation 3: shape; operation 4: polish; operation 5:
lead time from raw materials purchase to component
inspect and send to stock. This information is normally
manufacture to assembly of the finished product.O
maintained in the routing file.O
operations finite loadingA finite loading technique that
operations sequence analysisMethod of planning a
aims to minimize possible delays to individual opera-
facility layout by using graphics to determine the place-
tions and, thus, the potential delay of each scheduled
ment of departments.O
order. Eligible operations from an order or a group of
orders are loaded period by period onto a work center operations sequencingA technique for short-term
or a group of work centers, according to operation-level planning of actual jobs to be run in each work center
priority rules. Syn: operations sequencing. See: based upon capacity (i.e., existing workforce and ma-
constraint-oriented finite loading, drum-buffer-rope, chine availability) and priorities. The result is a set of
order-oriented finite loading.O projected completion times for the operations and simu-
lated queue levels for facilities.O
operation sheetSyn: routing.O
operation start dateThe date when an operation
operations management1) The planning, scheduling,
should be started so that its order due date can be met.
and control of the activities that transform inputs into
It can be calculated based on scheduled quantities and
finished goods and services. 2) A field of study that fo-
lead times or on the work remaining and the time re-
cuses on the effective planning, scheduling, use, and
maining to complete the job.O
control of a manufacturing or service organization
through the study of concepts from design engineering, operations strategyThe total pattern of decisions that
industrial engineering, management information sys- shape the long-term capabilities of an operation and

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 115


operation time order control

their contribution to overall strategy. Operations strate- demand during the review interval plus the replenish-
gy should be consistent with overall strategy. See: stra- ment lead time. The optional replenishment model is
tegic plan.O sometimes called a hybrid system because it combines
certain aspects of the fixed reorder cycle inventory
operation timeThe total of setup and run time for a
model and the fixed reorder quantity inventory model.
specific task. Syn: operation duration.O
See: fixed reorder cycle inventory model, fixed reorder
operator flexibilityTraining machine workers to per- quantity inventory model, hybrid inventory system, inde-

O form tasks outside their immediate jobs and in problem-


solving techniques to improve process flexibility. This is
pendent demand item management models.O

option overplanningTypically, scheduling extra quanti-


a necessary process in developing a fully cross-trained
workforce.O ties of a master schedule option greater than the ex-
pected sales for that option to protect against
opportunity cost1) The return on capital that could unanticipated demand. This schedule quantity may only
have resulted had the capital been used for some pur- be planned in the period where new customer orders
pose other than its present use. 2) The rate of return are currently being accepted, typically just after the de-
investors must earn to continue to supply capital to a mand time fence. This technique is usually used on the
firm.O second level of a two-level master scheduling approach
optical characterA printed character frequently used in to create a situation where more of the individual op-
utilities billing and credit applications that can be read tions are available than of the overall family. The histor-
by a machine without the aid of magnetic ink.O ical average of demand for an item is quantified in a
planning bill of material. Option overplanning is accom-
optical character recognition (OCR)A mechanized me-
plished by increasing this percentage to allow for de-
thod of collecting data involving the reading of hand-
mands greater than forecast. See: demand time fence,
printed material or special character fonts. If handwrit-
hedge, planning bill of material.O
ten, the information must adhere to predefined rules of
size, format, and locations on the form.O orderA general term that may refer to such diverse
items as a purchase order, shop order, customer order,
optical scanningA technique for machine recognition
planned order, or schedule.O
of characters by their images.O
order backlogSyn: backlog, past due order.O
optimal order periodWithin a fixed order period inven-
tory system, the time between a status check on the order batchingThe process of gathering a group of or-
material that balances ordering costs with carrying ders or data before sending them out to the next
costs.O stage.O
optimizationAchieving the best possible solution to a order complete manufacture to customer receipt of
problem in terms of a specified objective function.O orderThe average time starting when an order is ready
optimization modelsA class of mathematical models for delivery to a customer and when the customer ac-
used when the modeler wishes to find the ideal (maxi- tually receives the delivery.O
mum or minimum) value of some objective function order consolidation profileThe process of filling an en-
subject to a set of constraints.O tire order of one customer by bringing all parts of their
optionA choice that must be made by the customer or order together in one place. These items may or may
company when customizing the end product. In many not come from different places or departments.O
companies, the term option means a mandatory choice
order controlControl of manufacturing activities by in-
from a limited selection. See: feature.O
dividual manufacturing, job, or shop orders, released by
optional replenishment modelA form of independent planning personnel and authorizing production person-
demand item management model in which a review of nel to complete a given batch or lot size of a particular
inventory on hand plus on order is made at fixed inter- manufactured item. Information needed to complete
vals. If the actual quantity is lower than some prede- the order (components required, work centers and op-
termined threshold, a reorder is placed for a quantity M erations required, tooling required, etc.) may be printed
x, where M is the maximum allowable inventory and x on paper or tickets, often called shop orders or work
is the current inventory quantity. The reorder point, R, orders, which are distributed to production personnel.
may be deterministic or stochastic, and in either in- This use of order control sometimes implies an envi-
stance is large enough to cover the maximum expected ronment where all the components for a given order are

116 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


order cost order policy

picked and issued from a stocking location, all at one and ship, billing, and reconciliation of the customer ac-
time, and then moved as a kit to manufacturing before count. Regarding manufacturing orders, order man-
any activity begins. It is most frequently seen in job agement includes order release, routing, manufacture,
shop manufacturing. See: shop floor control.O monitoring, and receipt into stores or finished goods
inventories. Regarding purchasing orders, order man-
order costA direct labor cost incurred when a pur-
agement includes order placement, monitoring, receiv-
chaser places an order.O
ing, acceptance, and payment of supplier.O
order cycleThe progression used by a company start-
ing with receipt of a customers order and ending with
delivery to that customer.O
order multiplesAn order quantity modifier applied after
the lot size has been calculated that increases the order
O
quantity to a predetermined multiple.O
order datingSyn: order promising.O
order-oriented finite loadingA set of finite loading
order entryThe process of accepting and translating techniques to schedule orders according to order-level
what a customer wants into terms used by the manu- priority rules. The techniques aim to either (1) maximize
facturer or distributor. The commitment should be capacity utilization or (2) deliver a high proportion of on-
based on the available-to-promise (ATP) line in the mas- time orders with low work in process. See: constraint-
ter schedule. This can be as simple as creating shipping oriented finite loading, drum-buffer-rope.O
documents for finished goods in a make-to-stock envi-
order penetration pointThe key variable in a logistics
ronment, or it might be a more complicated series of
configuration; the point (in time) at which a product be-
activities, including design efforts for make-to-order
comes earmarked for a particular customer.
products. See: master schedule, order service.O
Downstream from this point, the system is driven by
order entry complete to start manufactureThe average customer orders; upstream processes are driven by
time starting when an order is placed by a customer forecasts and plans. Syn: principle of postponement.
and ending when the manufacturing of that order is See: booked orders.O
completed.O
order pickingSelecting or picking the required quan-
order-fill ratioSyn: customer service ratio.O tity of specific products for movement to a packaging
order fulfillment lead timesThe average amount of area (usually in response to one or more shipping or-
time between the customers order until the customer ders) and documenting that the material was moved
receives delivery; this includes every manufacturing or from one location to shipping. Syn: order selection. See:
processing step in between.O batch picking, discrete order picking, zone picking.O

ordering costUsed in calculating order quantities, the order placementThe commitment of a customer to buy
costs that increase as the number of orders placed in- a product and the subsequent administrative and data
creases. It includes costs related to the clerical work of processing steps followed by the supplier.O
preparing, releasing, monitoring, and receiving orders, order pointA set inventory level where, if the total
the physical handling of goods, inspections, and setup stock on hand plus on order falls to or below that point,
costs, as applicable. See: acquisition cost, inventory action is taken to replenish the stock. The order point is
costs.O normally calculated as forecasted usage during the rep-
order intervalThe time period between the placement lenishment lead time plus safety stock. Syn: reorder
of orders.O point, statistical order point, trigger level. See: fixed
reorder quantity inventory model.O
order level systemSyn: fixed reorder cycle inventory
model.O order point/order quantity systemSyn: fixed reorder
quantity inventory model.O
order losersCapabilities of an organization in which
poor performance can cause loss of business. Failure to order point systemThe inventory method that places
meet customer expectations with delivery of the product an order for a lot whenever the quantity on hand is re-
is an order loser. See: order qualifiers, order winners.O duced to a predetermined level known as the order
point. Syn: statistical order point system. See: fixed
order managementThe planning, directing, monitoring,
reorder quantity inventory model, hybrid system.O
and controlling of the processes related to customer
orders, manufacturing orders, and purchase orders. order policyA set of procedures for determining the lot
Regarding customer orders, order management in- size and other parameters related to an order. See: lot
cludes order promising, order entry, order pick, pack sizing.O

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 117


order policy code organizational development (OD)

order policy codeSyn: lot-size code.O is also typically responsible for responding to customer
inquiries and interacting with the master scheduler on
order preparationAll activities relating to the adminis-
availability of products. In some companies, distribution
tration, picking, and packaging of individual customer or
and interplant requirements are handled separately.
work orders.O
See: order entry, order promising.O
order preparation lead timeThe time needed to ana-
lyze requirements and open order status and to create order shipmentActivity that extends from the time the

O the paperwork necessary to release a purchase order or


a production order.O
order is placed upon the vehicle for movement until the
order is received, verified, and unloaded at the buyers
destination.O
order priorityThe scheduled due date to complete all
the operations required for a specific order.O order-to-delivery cycleThe period of time that starts
when the customer places an order and ends when the
order processingThe activity required to administra-
customer receives the order.O
tively process a customers order and make it ready for
shipment or production.O order-up-to levelSyn: target inventory level.O
order processing and communicationAll activities order winnersThose competitive characteristics that
needed to fill customer orders.O cause a firms customers to choose that firms goods
order promisingThe process of making a delivery and services over those of its competitors. Order
commitment (i.e., answering the question When can winners can be considered to be competitive
you ship?). For make-to-order products, this usually advantages for the firm. Order winners usually focus on
involves a check of uncommitted material and availabil- one (rarely more than two) of the following strategic
ity of capacity, often as represented by the master initiatives: price/cost, quality, delivery speed, delivery
schedule available-to-promise. Syn: customer order reliability, product design, flexibility, after-market
promising, order dating. See: available-to-promise, order service, and image. See: order losers, order qualifiers.O
service.O organizational breakdown structureIn project man-
order qualifiersThose competitive characteristics that agement, a representation of a projects organization
a firm must exhibit to be a viable competitor in the mar- relating work packages to organizational units.O
ketplace. For example, a firm may seek to compete on organizational change managementThe fostering and
characteristics other than price, but in order to qualify support of people who champion new technologies, new
to compete, its costs and the related price must be
operating practices, and new products and services that
within a certain range to be considered by its custom- will transform the organization, maintaining its viability
ers. Syn: qualifiers. See: order losers, order winners.O and improving its competitive position in step with the
order quantitySyn: lot size.O change in the business environment in which it
functions.O
order quantity modifiersAdjustments made to a calcu-
lated order quantity. Order quantities are calculated organizational designThe creation of an organizational
based upon a given lot-sizing rule, but it may be neces- structure to support the strategic business plans and
sary to adjust the calculated lot size because of special goals of an enterprise; (e.g., for-profit and not-for-profit
considerations (scrap, testing, etc.).O companies). Given the mission and business strategy,
order releaseThe activity of releasing materials to a the organizational structure design provides the frame-
production process to support a manufacturing order. work within which the business operational and man-
See: planned order release.O agement activities will be performed.O

order reportingRecording and reporting the start and organizational development (OD)The process of build-
completion of the manufacturing order (shop order) in ing and strengthening core competencies and organiza-
its entirety.O tional capabilities that enable the execution of the
business strategy and provide a sustainable competitive
order schedulingSyn: operations scheduling.O
advantage over time. Organizational development in-
order selectionSyn: order picking.O cludes staffing the organization, building core compe-
tencies and organizational capabilities, and continuous
order serviceThe function that encompasses receiving,
improvement initiatives in response to the changing
entering, and promising orders from customers, distri-
business environment.O
bution centers, and interplant operations. Order service

118 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


organizational environment overall factors

organizational environmentConsists of an external en- out-of-pocket costsCosts that involve direct payments
vironment (e.g., laws and regulations, technology, econ- such as labor, freight, or insurance, as opposed to de-
omy, competition) and an internal environment (e.g., the preciation, which does not.O
domain of products and services to be provided, the
out of stockA situation in which there is no inventory
processes to be executed, the organizational structure).
at a location available for sale to the customer. See:
See: external environment, internal environment.O
stockout.O
organization chartA graphical depiction of relation-
ships between people who work together.O
out of specA term used to indicate that a unit does not
meet a given specification.O O
original equipment manufacturer (OEM)A manufactur- outpartneringThe process of involving the supplier in a
er that buys and incorporates another suppliers prod- close partnership with the firm and its operations man-
ucts into its own products. Also, products supplied to agement system. Outpartnering is characterized by
the original equipment manufacturer or sold as part of close working relationships between buyers and suppli-
an assembly. For example, an engine may be sold to an ers, high levels of trust, mutual respect, and emphasis
OEM for use as that companys power source for its ge- on joint problem solving and cooperation. With outpart-
nerator units.O nering, the supplier is viewed not as an alternative
orthogonal arraysTools that help maintain indepen- source of goods and services (as observed under out-
dence between different iterations of a product design sourcing) but rather as a source of knowledge, exper-
experiment; introduced to quality analysis by Genichi tise, and complementary core competencies.
Taguchi.O Outpartnering is typically found during the early stages
of the product life cycle when dealing with products that
OS&DAbbreviation for over, short, and damaged.O are viewed as critical to the strategic survival of the
OSHAAcronym for Occupational Safety and Health firm. See: customer-supplier partnership, supplier part-
Act.O ner, and customer partner.O

OSIAbbreviation for open systems interconnection.O outputThe product being completed by a process or
facility.O
OTEDAbbreviation for one-touch exchange of die.O
output controlA technique for controlling output where
OTIFAbbreviation for on-time in-full.O actual output is compared to planned output to identify
problems at the work center or facility.O
outbound consolidationThe gathering of a number of
small shipments to a variety of customers into a larger output standardThe expected number of units from a
load, which is then shipped to a point near the custom- process against which actual output will be measured.O
ers where it is broken down for delivery.O
outside shopSuppliers. This term is used to convey the
outbound logisticsEvery process that is involved in the idea that suppliers are an extension of the inside shop
shipping and holding of products after they are com- or the firms production facilities.O
pleted until they are received by the customer.O outsourced cost of goods soldCosts of goods sold that
outbound stockpointThe designated locations near are not created within the producing companys manu-
the point of use on a plant floor to which material pro- facturing process. Instead, they are outsourced to
duced is taken until it is pulled to the next operation.O another company and include the costs of purchasing
the service from another company.O
outlierA data point that differs significantly from other
data for a similar phenomenon. For example, if the av- outsourcingThe process of having suppliers provide
erage sales for a product were 10 units per month, and goods and services that were previously provided inter-
one month the product had sales of 500 units, this nally. Outsourcing involves substitutionthe replace-
sales point might be considered an outlier. See: abnor- ment of internal capacity and production by that of the
mal demand.O supplier. See: subcontracting.O
overall equipment effectiveness (OEE)Measuring the
out-of-control processA process in which the statistical
effectiveness of all of the equipment of a company
measure being evaluated is not in a state of statistical
based on usage, performance and production quality.O
control (i.e., the variations among the observed sam-
pling results can be attributed to a constant system of overall factorsSyn: capacity planning using overall
chance causes). Ant: in-control process.O factors.O

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 119


overhead packing and marking

overheadThe costs incurred in the operation of a over, short, and damaged (OS&D) reportA report sub-
business that cannot be directly related to the individual mitted by a freight agent showing discrepancies in bill-
goods or services produced. These costs, such as light, ing received and actual merchandise received.O
heat, supervision, and maintenance, are grouped in
overstated master production scheduleA schedule
several pools (e.g., department overhead, factory over-
that includes either past due quantities or quantities
head, general overhead) and distributed to units of
that are greater than the ability to produce, given cur-
goods or services by some standard allocation method

P such as direct labor hours, direct labor dollars, or direct


materials dollars. Syn: burden. See: expense.O
rent capacity and material availability. An overstated
MPS should be made feasible before MRP is run.O

overtimeWork beyond normal established working


overhead allocationIn accounting, the process of ap-
hours that usually requires that a premium be paid to
plying overhead to a product on the basis of a prede-
the workers.O
termined rate.O
owners equityAn accounting/financial term (balance
overhead baseThe denominator used to calculate the sheet classification of accounts) representing the
predetermined overhead rate used in applying overhead residual claim by the companys owners or
(e.g., estimated direct labor hours, estimated direct la- shareholders, or both, to the companys assets less its
bor dollars).O liabilities. See: assets, balance sheet, liabilities.O
overhead poolThe collection of overhead costs that
are to be allocated over a specified group of products.O

overissueSyn: excess issue.O


P
PACAcronym for production activity control.P
overlapped productionA method of production in
which completed pieces of a production lot are pacemakerIn lean, the resource that is scheduled
processed at one or more succeeding stations while based on the customer demand rate for that specific
remaining pieces continue to be processed at the origi- value stream. It is that resource which performs an op-
nal workstation. See: overlapped schedule.O eration or process that governs the flow of materials
along the value stream. Its purpose is to maintain a
overlapped scheduleA manufacturing schedule that smooth flow through the manufacturing plant; a larger
overlaps successive operations. Overlapping occurs buffer is provided for the pacemaker than other re-
when the completed portion of an order at one work sources so that it can maintain continuous operation.
center is processed at one or more succeeding work
See: constraint.P
centers before the pieces left behind are finished at the
preceding work centers. Syn: lap phasing, operation pace ratingEstimating the level of effort of a subject of
overlapping, telescoping. See: send ahead. Ant: gapped methods study, where 100 percent would be the sus-
schedule, overlapped production.O tainable pace of an average skilled worker.P

overlap quantityThe number of items that need to be pacing processThe process in a production line used
run and sent ahead to the following operation before to signal all other processes in line of the time to pro-
the following overlap operation can begin. Syn: offset duce another unit. It generally is the final process, but it
quantity. See: process batch, transfer batch.O does not have to be.P

package to orderA production environment in which a


overloadA condition when the total hours of work out-
good or service can be packaged after receipt of a cus-
standing at a work center exceed that work centers
tomer order. The item is common across many different
capacity.O
customers; packaging determines the end product.P
overpackReducing total shipping costs by reducing the
packagingMaterials surrounding an item to protect it
per-item shipping cost. This is done by including mul-
from damage during transportation. The type of packag-
tiple smaller items in one larger box.O
ing influences the danger of such damage.P
overrun1) The quantity received from manufacturing
packing and markingThe activities of packing for safe
or a supplier that is in excess of the quantity ordered. 2)
shipping and unitizing one or more items of an order,
The condition resulting when expenditures exceed the
placing them into an appropriate container, and mark-
budget.O
ing and labeling the container with customer shipping

120 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


packing list Pareto chart

destination data, as well as other information that may paperless purchasingA purchasing operation that does
be required.P not employ purchase requisitions or hard-copy purchase
orders. In actual practice, a small amount of paperwork
packing listA list showing merchandise packed, a copy
usually remains, normally in the form of the supplier
of which is sent to the consignee to help verify the
schedule.P
shipment.P
parallel conversionA method of system implementa-
packing slipA document that itemizes in detail the
contents of a particular package, carton, pallet, or con-
tainer for shipment to a customer. The detail includes a
description of the items, the shippers or customers
tion in which the operation of the new system overlaps
with the operation of the system being replaced. The old
system is discontinued only when the new system is
P
shown to be working properly, thus minimizing the risk
part number, the quantity shipped, and the stockkeep-
and negative consequences of a poor system
ing unit (SKU) of items shipped.P
implementation.P
pack-out departmentThe department that performs
parallel engineeringSyn: participative design/
the final steps (often including packaging and labeling)
engineering.P
before shipment to the customer. See: final assembly
department.P parallel implementation strategyA system implemen-
tation technique whereby the current system and the
pageIn information systems, an internet document
new system are both executed for some period of time.
containing both text and hypertext links to other pages
The results of the two systems are compared to ensure
that are stored on the server.P
that the new system is executing properly. When a level
paired-cell overlapping loops of cards (POLCA)A spe- of confidence is built that the new system is executing
cial material control and replenishment system devel- properly, the old system is turned off and the new sys-
oped to be used with quick-response manufacturing in tem becomes the designated business system.P
cellular manufacturing environments. It is a hybrid
parallel scheduleThe use of two or more machines or
push-pull system where the push authority to proceed is
job centers to perform identical operations on a lot of
generated by high-level manufacturing resources plan-
material. Duplicate tooling and setup are required.P
ning. See: quick-response manufacturing.P
parameterA coefficient appearing in a mathematical
palletA platform designed to be loaded with packages
expression, each value of which determines the specific
and moved by a forklift. Standard pallet size is 48 inch-
form of the expression. Parameters define or determine
es by 40 inches by 4 inches.P
the characteristics or behavior of something, as when
pallet jackA type of materials handling equipment that the mean and standard deviation are used to describe a
combines pallets horizontally but has no lifting set of data.P
capability.P
parameter designSpecifying the product characteris-
pallet positionsA calculation that determines the tics and production process that will create the ex-
space needed for the number of pallets for inventory pected product performance.P
storage or transportation based on a standard pallet
parametric estimatingThe use of statistical and histor-
size. Pallet dimensions vary around the globe, but are
ical data to estimate activity parameters such as time or
typically a constant in regional markets. The term is fre-
budget.P
quently used to quote storage and transportation
rates.P parentSyn: parent item.P
pallet rackA single- or multiple-level structure for sto- parent/child relationshipRefers to the logical linkage
rage used to support high stacking of palletized loads.P between higher and lower level items in the bill of
material.P
pallet ticketA label to track pallet-sized quantities of
end items produced to identify the specific sublot with parent itemThe item produced from one or more com-
specifications determined by periodic sampling and ponents. Syn: parent.P
analysis during production.P
Pareto analysisUse of the Pareto principle in prioritiz-
panel consensusA judgmental forecasting technique ing or ranking a range of items to separate the vital few
by which a committee, sales force, or group of experts from the trivial many.P
arrives at a sales estimate. See: Delphi method, man-
Pareto chartA bar graph that displays the results of a
agement estimation.P
Pareto analysis. It may or may not display the 80-20 var-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 121


Pareto diagram part type

iation, but it does show a distinct variation from the few organization is capable of and willing to help guide and
compared to the many.P direct the organization toward agreed-on goals and
objectives.P
Pareto diagramSyn: Pareto chart.P
Paretos lawA concept developed by Vilfredo Pareto, part master recordSyn: item record.P
an Italian economist, that states that a small percen- partneringThe act of one organization committing to a
tage of a group accounts for the largest fraction of the

P
long-term relationship with another organization based
impact, value, and so on. In an ABC classification, for on trust and a shared concept of how to satisfy the
example, 20 percent of the inventory items may consti- customer.P
tute 80 percent of the inventory value. See: ABC classi-
fication, 80-20.P partnership1) A form of business ownership that is not
organized as a separate legal entity (i.e., unincorpo-
parking lotA meeting device whereby off-agenda items rated business), but entailing ownership by two or more
are noted for possible inclusion in future agendas. persons. See: corporation, private ownership, public
Often a flip chart or whiteboard is used.P ownership, sole proprietorship. 2) In a supply chain, a
par levelIn service operations, the maximum supply relationship based on trust, shared risk, and rewards
volume based on established quotas from previous use aimed toward achieving a competitive advantage.P
for a particular supply item, in a particular department,
part numberSyn: item number.P
for a specified time period.P
part period balancing (PPB)A dynamic lot-sizing
partGenerally, a material item that is used as a com-
technique that uses the same logic as the least total
ponent and is not an assembly, subassembly, blend,
cost method, but adds a routine called look ahead/look
intermediate, etc.P
back. When the look ahead/look back feature is used, a
part coding and classificationA method used in group lot quantity is calculated, and before it is firmed up, the
technology to identify the physical similarity of parts.P next or the previous periods demands are evaluated to
part familyA collection of parts grouped for some ma- determine whether it would be economical to include
nagerial purpose.P them in the current lot. See: discrete order quantity,
dynamic lot sizing.P
partial orderAny shipment received or shipped that is
less than the amount ordered.P part recordSyn: item record.P

partial productivity factorSyn: single-factor parts bank1) In the narrow sense, an accumulation of
productivity.P inventory between operations that serves to keep a
subsequent operation running although there are inter-
participative design/engineeringA concept that refers
ruptions in the preceding operations. See: buffer. 2) In
to the simultaneous participation of all the functional
the larger sense, a stockroom or warehouse. The impli-
areas of the firm in the product design activity.
cation is that the contents of these areas should be
Suppliers and customers are often also included. The
controlled like the contents of a bank.P
intent is to enhance the design with the inputs of all the
key stakeholders. Such a process should ensure that parts listA list of parts, materials, and components re-
the final design meets all the needs of the stakeholders quired to make an item. See: single level bill of
and should ensure a product that can be quickly material.P
brought to the marketplace while maximizing quality
parts plannerSyn: material planner.P
and minimizing costs. Syn: co-design, concurrent
design, concurrent engineering, new product parts requisitionAn authorization that identifies the
development team, parallel engineering, simultaneous item and quantity required to be withdrawn from an in-
design/engineering, simultaneous engineering, team ventory. Syn: requisition. See: purchase requisition.P
design/ engineering. See: early manufacturing
part standardizationA program for planned elimination
involvement.P
of superficial, accidental, and deliberate differences be-
participative managementA system that encompasses tween similar parts in the interest of reducing part and
various activities of high involvement in which subordi- supplier proliferation.P
nates share a significant degree of decision-making
part typeA code for a component within a bill of ma-
power with their immediate superiors. Participative
terial (e.g., regular, phantom, reference).P
management draws on the rationale that everyone in an

122 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


passenger-mile performance and event management systems

passenger-mileOne passenger transported one mile. PDCAAbbreviation for plan-do-check-action.P


For example, a bus carrying forty passengers for one
PDFAbbreviation for portable document format.P
hundred miles would accrue 4,000 passenger miles.P
PDMAbbreviation for product data management.P
passive data gatheringData gathered when a custom-
er initiates the process by filling out a card or sending P:D ratioA ratio where P is the manufacturing lead
an email. The firm develops the feedback form but the time and D is the customer required delivery time. If the

P
customer initiates the use of it.P P:D ratio exceeds 1.00, either a customers order will be
delayed or production will start as the result of a fore-
passive tagA RFID tag which does not send out data
cast (make-to-stock) or an anticipated customer order
and is not self-powered. See: radio frequency identifica-
(make-to-order).P
tion (RFID) tag.P
peak demandA specific time when the quantity de-
past due orderA line item on an open customer order
manded is greater than all other times.P
that has an original scheduled ship date that is earlier
than the current date. Syn: delinquent order, late order, pegged requirementA requirement that shows the
order backlog. See: backlog.P next-level parent item (or customer order) as the source
of the demand.P
patentA legal document giving exclusive rights to the
production, use, sale, or other action regarding a prod- peggingIn MRP and MPS, the capability to identify for
uct or process.P a given item the sources of its gross requirements
and/or allocations. Pegging can be thought of as active
pathIn project management, a set of serially related
where-used information. See: requirements
activities in a network diagram.P
traceability.P
path convergenceIn project management, the point in
penetration pricingIntroducing a product below its
a network diagram where one or more parallel paths
long-run price to secure entry into a market.P
come together. A delay on any of the parallel paths can
conceivably delay network completion.P people involvementSyn: employee involvement.P

path divergenceHaving parallel network paths exiting PE ratioAbbreviation for price to earnings ratio.P
from a single node.P perceived qualityOne of the eight dimensions of quali-
path floatSyn: float.P ty that refers to a subjective assessment of a products
quality based on criteria defined by the observer.P
pattern recognitionClassifying raw data based on ex-
perience or statistical information.P percent chartSyn: P chart.P

paybackA method of evaluating an investment oppor- percent completedA comparison of work completed to
tunity that provides a measure of the time required to the current projection of total work.P
recover the initial amount invested in a project.P percent of fillSyn: customer service ratio.P
payback periodThe period of time required for a percent value-added timeThe percentage of total cycle
stream of cash flows resulting from a project to equal time that is spent on activities that provide value to the
the projects initial investment.P product or customer.P
pay for knowledgeA pay restructuring scheme by perfect orderAn order in which the seven Rs are sa-
which competent employees are rewarded for the know- tisfied: the right product, the right quantity, the right
ledge they acquire before or while working for an organ- condition, the right place, the right time, the right cus-
ization, regardless of whether such knowledge is tomer, the right cost.P
actually being used at any given time.P
performance1) The degree to which an employee or
pay pointSyn: count point.P group applies skill and effort to an operation or task as
P chartA control chart for evaluating the stability of a measured against an established standard. 2) One of
process in terms of the percentage of the total number the eight dimensions of quality that refers to product
of units in a sample in which an event of a given classi- attributes pertaining to the functioning of a product
fication occurs over time. P charts are used where it is (e.g., horsepower, signal-to-noise ratio, decibel output).P
difficult or costly to make numerical measurements or performance and event management systemsSystems
where it is desired to combine multiple types of defects that record and measure the performance of key supply
into one measurement. Syn: percent chart.P chain processes. With these data, employees can de-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 123


performance appraisal perpetual inventory record

termine when the key processes have changed and why performance ratingObservation of worker performance
they have changed. These data then are utilized to ad- to rate the productivity of the workers as a percentage
just the existent data.P in terms of the standard or normal worker
performance.P
performance appraisalSupervisory or peer analysis of
work performance. May be made in connection with performance standardIn a performance measurement
wage and salary review, promotion, transfer, or em- system, the accepted, targeted, or expected value for

P ployee training.P
performance benchmarkingSyn: competitive ben-
the criterion. See: performance criterion, performance
measure, performance measurement system.P
chmarking. See: benchmarking, process performance varianceThe difference between a per-
benchmarking.P formance standard and actual performance.P
performance criterionThe characteristic to be meas- performing organizationThe enterprise directly in-
ured (e.g., parts per million defective, business profit). volved in the execution of work.P
See: performance measure, performance measurement
system, performance standard.P period capacityThe number of standard hours of work
that can be performed at a facility or work center in a
performance efficiencyA ratio, usually expressed as a
given time period.P
percentage, of the standard processing time for a part
divided by its actual processing time. Setups are ex- period costsAll costs related to a period of time rather
cluded from this calculation to prevent distortion. A tra- than a unit of product (e.g., marketing costs, property
ditional definition includes setup time as part of taxes).P
operation time, but significant distortions can occur as
periodic inventoryA physical inventory taken at some
a result of dependent setups.P
recurring interval (e.g., monthly, quarterly, or annual
performance measureIn a performance measurement physical inventory). See: physical inventory.P
system, the actual value measured for the criterion.
periodic maintenanceSyn: preventive maintenance.P
Syn: performance measurement. See: performance cri-
terion, performance measurement system, performance periodic replenishmentA method of aggregating re-
standard.P quirements to place deliveries of varying quantities at
evenly spaced time intervals, rather than variably
performance measurementSyn: performance
spaced deliveries of equal quantities.P
measure.P
performance measurement baselineAn approved plan periodic review systemSyn: fixed reorder cycle invento-
used to compare against actual execution to identify ry model.P
variances for management control.P period order quantityA lot-sizing technique under
performance measurement systemA system for col- which the lot size is equal to the net requirements for a
lecting, measuring, and comparing a measure to a given number of periods (e.g., weeks into the future).
standard for a specific criterion for an operation, item, The number of periods to order is variable, each order
good, service, business, etc. A performance measure- size equalizing the holding costs and the ordering costs
ment system consists of a criterion, a standard, and a for the interval. See: discrete order quantity, dynamic lot
measure. Syn: metrics. See: performance criterion, per- sizing.P
formance measure, performance standard.P perishabilityThe fact that an item has a limited shelf
performance measurement unitsTime, error rates, ac- life and may be fragile and require special handling.P
curacy rates, cost, and other measures of system
permission marketingSyn: relationship marketing.P
performance.P
perpetual inventoryAn inventory recordkeeping system
performance objectivesMeasurements that enable the
where each transaction in and out is recorded and a
firm to monitor whether or not the firms strategy is be-
new balance is computed.P
ing accomplished. Thus, the measurement should be
aligned to strategy. Performance objectives may differ perpetual inventory recordA computer record or ma-
based on the hierarchical level of the firm (e.g., depart- nual document on which each inventory transaction is
ment, business unit, corporation) and should be aligned posted so that a current record of the inventory is
with the corresponding strategy for that level.P maintained.P

124 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


personal discrimination pilot test

personal discriminationIn transportation, charging dif- stock to ship to a distribution warehouse or to a


ferent companies with similar deliveries different rates customer.P
for shipping. This is a policy decision, probably based on
picking listA document that lists the material to be
importance of the customer.P
picked for manufacturing or shipping orders. Syn: dis-
personal fatigue and unavoidable delay allowance bursement list, material list, stores issue order, stores
Factor by which the motion study term normal time is requisition.P
increased to allow for personal needs and unavoidable
delays.P
pick on receiptSimilar to cross-docking, a product is
unloaded from an inbound vehicle and loaded directly P
personnel classA means to describe a grouping of on an outbound vehicle. Product is received and picked
people with similar characteristics for purposes of simultaneously, never becoming set in the warehouse.P
scheduling and planning.P pick-to-lightA pick system that uses software to light
PERTAcronym for program evaluation and review up displays at each pick location and determines how
technique.P much needs to be picked. The picker uses this as their
requirement to pull for that particular order to set of
PFEPAbbreviation for plan for every part.P orders.P
phantom bill of materialA bill-of-material coding and pick-to-trailerAn order picking system that allows the
structuring technique used primarily for transient (non- picker to transfer materials to the trailer from the pick
stocked) subassemblies. For the transient item, lead source without any confirmation/checking stages.P
time is set to zero and the order quantity to lot-for-lot. A
phantom bill of material represents an item that is phys- pickup and delivery costsCarrier charges for each
ically built, but rarely stocked, before being used in the shipment pickup and the weight of that shipment. Costs
next step or level of manufacturing. This permits MRP can be reduced if several smaller shipments are consol-
logic to drive requirements straight through the phan- idated and picked up in one trip.P
tom item to its components, but the MRP system usual- piece partsIndividual items in inventory at the simplest
ly retains its ability to net against any occasional level in manufacturing (e.g., bolts and washers).P
inventories of the item. This technique also facilitates
piece rateThe amount of money paid for a unit of pro-
the use of common bills of material for engineering and
duction. It serves as the basis for determining the total
manufacturing. Syn: blowthrough, transient bill of ma-
pay for an employee working in a piecework system.P
terial. See: pseudo bill of material.P
piece rate pay systemA compensation system based
physical distributionSyn: distribution.P
upon volume of output of an individual worker.P
physical inventory1) The actual inventory itself. 2) The
pieceworkWork done on a piece rate.P
determination of inventory quantity by actual count.
Physical inventories can be taken on a continuous, pe- piggybackSyn: trailer on a flatcar.P
riodic, or annual basis. Syn: annual inventory count, an- pilotSyn: pilot test.P
nual physical inventory. See: periodic inventory.P
pilot lotA relatively small preliminary order for a prod-
physical supplyThe movement and storage of goods uct. The purpose of this small lot is to correlate the
from suppliers to manufacturing. The cost of physical product design with the development of an efficient
supply is ultimately passed on to the customer.P manufacturing process.P
pick and placeEquipment that picks up parts from one pilot orderSyn: experimental order.P
station on an assembly line and places them on the
pilot plantA small-scale production facility used to de-
next.P
velop production processes and to manufacture small
pick dateThe start date of picking components for a quantities of new products for field testing and so forth.
production order. On or before this date, the system Syn: semiworks.P
produces a list of orders due to be picked, pick lists,
pilot test1) In computer systems, a test before final
tags, and turnaround cards.P
acceptance of a new business system using a subset of
pickingThe process of withdrawing from stock the data with engineered cases and documented results. 2)
components to make assemblies or finished goods. In Generally, production of a quantity to verify manufactu-
distribution, the process of withdrawing goods from rability, customer acceptance, or other management

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 125


pipeline inventory planner intervention

requirements before implementation of ongoing produc- item description, and supplier or procurement
tion. Syn: pilot, walkthrough.P information.P
pipeline inventorySyn: pipeline stock.P plan makeEstablishing plans for action over time that
project appropriation of production resources to meet
pipeline stockInventory in the transportation network
production requirements.P
and the distribution system, including the flow through
intermediate stocking points. The flow time through the planned finish dateSyn: scheduled finish date.P

P pipeline has a major effect on the amount of inventory


required in the pipeline. Time factors involve order
transmission, order processing, scheduling, shipping,
planned issueA disbursement of an item predicted by
MRP through the creation of a gross requirement or al-
location. Syn: controlled issue.P
transportation, receiving, stocking, review time, and so
forth. Syn: pipeline inventory. See: distribution system, planned issue receiptA transaction that updates the
transportation inventory.P on-hand balance and the related allocation or open
order.P
placeOne of the four Ps (product, price, place, and
promotion) that constitute the set of tools used to direct planned loadThe standard hours of work required by
the business offering to the customer. Place is the dis- the planned production orders.P
tribution tactic used to provide the product to the cus- planned orderA suggested order quantity, release
tomer. Distribution answers the questions of where, date, and due date created by the planning systems
when, and how the product is made available. See: four logic when it encounters net requirements in processing
Ps.P MRP. In some cases, it can also be created by a master
place utilityUsefulness to the customer created by scheduling module. Planned orders are created by the
having the product delivered to a desired location.P computer, exist only within the computer, and may be
changed or deleted by the computer during subsequent
planA predetermined course of action over a specified processing if conditions change. Planned orders at one
period of time that represents a projected response to level will be exploded into gross requirements for com-
an anticipated environment to accomplish a specific set ponents at the next level. Planned orders, along with
of adaptive objectives.P released orders, serve as input to capacity require-
plan deliverEstablishing plans for action over time that ments planning to show the total capacity requirements
project appropriation of supply resources to meet deli- by work center in future time periods. See: planning
very requirements.P time fence.P

plan-do-check-act cycleSyn: plan-do-check-action.P planned order receiptThe quantity planned to be re-


ceived at a future date as a result of a planned order
plan-do-check-action (PDCA)A four-step process for
release. Planned order receipts differ from scheduled
quality improvement. In the first step (plan), a plan to
receipts in that they have not been released. Syn:
effect improvement is developed. In the second step
planned receipt.P
(do), the plan is carried out, preferably on a small scale.
In the third step (check), the effects of the plan are ob- planned order releaseA row on an MRP table that is
served. In the last step (action), the results are studied derived from planned order receipts by taking the
to determine what was learned and what can be pre- planned receipt quantity and offsetting to the left by the
dicted. The plan-do-check-action cycle is sometimes appropriate lead time. See: order release.P
referred to as the Shewhart cycle (because Walter A. planned receipt1) An anticipated receipt against an
Shewhart discussed the concept in his book Statistical open purchase order or open production order. 2) Syn:
Method from the Viewpoint of Quality Control) and as planned order receipt.P
the Deming circle (because W. Edwards Deming intro-
duced the concept in Japan; the Japanese subsequently planned start dateSyn: scheduled start date.P
called it the Deming circle). Syn: plan-do-check-act planned valueIn project management, the total value
cycle, Shewhart circle of quality, Shewhart cycle. See: (including overhead) of approved estimates for planned
Deming circle.P activities.P
plan for every part (PFEP)Consolidated information plannerSyn: material planner.P
stored in a single record that contains everything
planner/buyerSyn: supplier scheduler.P
needed to know about a part to plan it effectively. It in-
cludes usage, container information, storage location, planner interventionSyn: manual rescheduling.P

126 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


planning point-of-use inventory

planningThe process of setting goals for the organiza- plan sourceEstablishing plans for action over time that
tion and choosing various ways to use the organiza- project appropriation of material resources to meet
tions resources to achieve the goals.P supply chain requirements.P

planning and control processA process consisting of plan stabilityThe percent difference between the pro-
the following steps: plan, execute, measure, and duction that was planned and the production that was
control.P actually completed. The numerator is the difference be-

planning billSyn: planning bill of material.P


tween actual and planned production, divided by the
planned production. This information then is used to
adjust production standards.P
P
planning bill of materialAn artificial grouping of items
or events in bill-of-material format used to facilitate plant finished goodsFinished goods inventory held in
master scheduling and material planning. It may include plant rather than being shipped to a customer.P
the historical average of demand expressed as a per-
plant layoutConfiguration of the plant site with lines,
centage of total demand for all options within a feature
buildings, major facilities, work areas, aisles, and other
or for a specific end item within a product family and is
pertinent data, such as department boundaries.P
used as the quantity per in the planning bill of material.
Syn: planning bill. See: hedge, option overplanning, pro- plant rateThe total value added by a plant divided by
duction forecast, pseudo bill of material.P the total direct labor hours in particular time period.
This percentage allows the scheduling at the rough cut
planning boardSyn: control board.P
and capacity requirements level of the plan.P
planning calendarSyn: manufacturing calendar.P plant within a plantSyn: factory within a factory.P
planning fenceSyn: planning time fence.P platform productsA grouping of products to share
common parts, components, and characteristics (a
planning horizonThe amount of time a plan extends
common platform), so that design and production re-
into the future. For a master schedule, this is normally
sources can be used to reduce cost and time to
set to cover a minimum of cumulative lead time plus
market.P
time for lot sizing low-level components and for capacity
changes of primary work centers or of key suppliers. For PLCAbbreviation for programmable logic controller.P
longer term plans the planning horizon must be long
pledging of accounts receivableThe act of securing a
enough to permit any needed additions to capacity.
loan by pledging a companys accounts receivable.P
See: cumulative lead time, planning time fence.P
PLMAbbreviation for product life cycle management.P
planning time fenceA point in time denoted in the
planning horizon of the master scheduling process that PMBOKAbbreviation for project management body
marks a boundary inside of which changes to the sche- of knowledge. A registered trademark of the Project
dule may adversely affect component schedules, capac- Management Institute, Inc.P
ity plans, customer deliveries, and cost. Outside the point-of-purchase (POP) displayA sales promotion tool
planning time fence, customer orders may be booked located at a checkout counter.P
and changes to the master schedule can be made with-
in the constraints of the production plan. Changes in- point of sale (POS)The relief of inventory and compu-
side the planning time fence must be made manually by tation of sales data at the time and place of sale, gen-
the master scheduler. Syn: planning fence. See: cumu- erally through the use of bar coding or magnetic media
lative lead time, demand time fence, firm planned or- and equipment.P
der, planned order, planning horizon, time fence.P point-of-sale informationInformation about customers
planning valuesValues that decision makers use to collected at the time of sale.P
translate the sales forecast into resource requirements point-of-use deliveryDirect delivery of material to a
to determine the feasibility and costs of alternative specified location on a plant floor near the operation
approaches.P where it is to be used.P

planogramA graph or map of allotted shelf space point-of-use inventoryInventory placed in the produc-
based on an analysis of sales date indicating the best tion process near where it is used. See: dock-to-stock
arrangement of products on a store shelf.P inventory.P

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 127


point-of-use storage predatory pricing

point-of-use storageKeeping inventory in specified lo- such as ERP information, pictures, and documents.
cations on a plant floor near the operation where it is to Unlike exchanges or marketplaces, portals generally
be used.P can display and aggregate data without integration be-
tween application software.P
point reportingThe recording and reporting of miles-
tone manufacturing order occurrences, typically done at portfolioIn project management, a collection of
checkpoint locations rather than operations and easily projects that are grouped to facilitate management.

P controlled from a reporting standpoint.P

Poisson distributionA type of statistical distribution


They are not necessarily interdependent.P
POSAbbreviation for point of sale.P
frequently used to model the arrival of customers or positioning strategyWithin manufacturing, a plan for
entities into a queuing system.P inventory, product design, and production process.P
poka-yoke (mistake-proof)Mistake-proofing tech- possession utilityProduct desirability created by mar-
niques, such as manufacturing or setup activity de- keting efforts.P
signed in a way to prevent an error from resulting in a
product defect. For example, in an assembly operation, post deductIn a JIT system, work in process materials
if each correct part is not used, a sensing device de- used to build finished goods are relieved from inventory
tects that a part was unused and shuts down the opera- by multiplying the number of units completed by the
tion, thereby preventing the assembler from moving the number of parts in the bill of material. Effective only if
incomplete part to the next station or beginning another the bill of material is accurate and manufacturing lead
operation. Sometimes spelled poke-yoke. Syn: failsafe times are short. See: backflushing.P
techniques, failsafe work methods, mistake-proofing.P post-deduct inventory transaction processingSyn:
policiesDefinitive statements of what should be done backflush.P
in the business.P postponementA product design strategy that shifts
product differentiation closer to the consumer by post-
policy constraintA common misnomer. Bad policies
poning identity changes, such as assembly or packag-
are not the constraint, rather they hinder effective
ing, to the last possible supply chain location.P
constraint management by inhibiting the ability to fully
exploit and/or subordinate to the constraint.P post-releaseThe period after the product design has
been released to manufacturing when the product has
political environmentExternal factors related to the
ongoing support and product enhancement.P
political process, including laws and regulations, taxa-
tion codes, and others, at the local, state, federal, and post-transaction elementsCustomer services that are
international levels of government.P provided after a product or service is sold, including
warranties, returns, and complaint resolution.P
pooling1) In transportation, shipments from multiple
companies are placed together in the same shipment in potencyThe measurement of active material in a spe-
order to reduce the costs of each shipment. 2) In pro- cific lot, normally expressed in terms of an active unit.
duction, that action that combines in parallel previously Typically used for such materials as solutions.P
independent processes to reduce the total variance PPAPAbbreviation for production part approval
compared to the variances that would occur when the process.P
processes were independent.P
PPBAbbreviation for part period balancing.P
POPAcronym for point of purchase.P
PPPAbbreviation for public-private partnering.P
populationThe entire set of items from which a sample
is drawn.P precedence relationshipIn the critical path method of
project management, a logical relationship that one
portalA multiservice website that provides access to node has to the succeeding node. The terms prece-
data that may be secured by each users role. Users can dence relationship, logical relationship, and dependen-
aggregate data and perform basic analysis. Portal own- cy are used somewhat interchangeably.P
ership can be independent, private, or consortium-
predatory pricingLowering prices below cost to drive
based. Yahoo! is an example of a consumer portal.
out competition and then raising prices again. In the
Business portals are often connected with a customer
United States, this is a violation of Article 2 of the
relationship management or supplier relationship man-
Sherman Act.P
agement system. Portals can include structured data,

128 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


predecessor activity price break

predecessor activity1) In project management, in an prerequisite tree (PRT)A necessity-based logic diagram
activity-on-arrow network, the activity that enters a that facilitates answering the third question in the
node. 2) In project management, in an activity-on-node change sequence: How do we effect the change? A PRT
network, the node at the tail of the arrow.P shows the relationship between the injections, desirable
effects or ambitious target, and the obstacles that block
pre-deduct inventory transaction processingA method
the implementation of the injections. A PRT includes the
of inventory bookkeeping where the book (computer)
intermediate objectives required to overcome the ob-
inventory of components is reduced before issue, at the
time a scheduled receipt for their parents or assemblies
is created via a bill-of-material explosion. This approach
stacles and shows the sequence in which they must be
achieved for successful implementation.P
P
has the disadvantage of a built-in differential between present valueThe value today of future cash flows. For
the book record and what is physically in stock. See: example, the promise of $10 a year from now is worth
backflush.P something less than $10 in hand today.P
predetermined motion timeAn organized body of in- pre-transaction elementsCustomer service elements
formation, procedures, techniques, and motion times that pertain to the period before a product or service is
employed in the study and evaluation of manual work sold, including flexibility, customer policies, and mission
elements. It is useful in categorizing and analyzing all statement.P
motions into elements whose unit times are computed
prevention costsThe costs caused by improvement
according to such factors as length, degree of muscle
activities that focus on the reduction of failure and ap-
control, and precision. The element times provide the
praisal costs. Typical costs include education, quality
basis for calculating a time standard for the operations.
training, and supplier certification. Prevention costs are
Syn: synthetic time standard.P
one of four categories of quality costs.P
predetermined time standardsA table of times of basic
prevention vs. detectionA term used to contrast two
motions used to prepare artificial standards (i.e., with-
types of quality activities. Prevention refers to those ac-
out direct observation of a worker). See: therbligs.P
tivities designed to prevent nonconformances in goods
predictable maintenanceSyn: predictive and services. Detection refers to those activities de-
maintenance.P signed to detect nonconformances already in goods and
predictionAn intuitive estimate of demand taking into services. Syn: designing in quality vs. inspecting in
account changes and new factors influencing the mar- quality.P
ket, as opposed to a forecast, which is an objective pro- preventive maintenanceThe activities, including ad-
jection of the past into the future.P justments, replacements, and basic cleanliness, that
predictive maintenanceA type of preventive mainten- forestall machine breakdowns. The purpose is to ensure
ance based on nondestructive testing and statistical that production quality is maintained and that delivery
analysis, used to predict when required maintenance schedules are met. In addition, a machine that is well
should be scheduled. Syn: predictable maintenance.P cared for will last longer and cause fewer problems.
Syn: periodic maintenance.P
pre-expeditingThe function of following up on open
orders before the scheduled delivery date, to ensure the priceOne of the four Ps (product, price, place, and
timely delivery of materials in the specified quantity.P promotion) that constitute the set of tools used to direct
the business offering to the customer. Price is the
preferred stockA type of stock entitling the owner to amount charged for the product offering. The price set
dividends before common stockholders are entitled to must take into account competition, substitute prod-
them.P ucts, and internal business costs to return a desirable
preferred supplierThe supplier of choice.P product margin. See: four Ps.P
prepaidA term denoting that transportation charges price analysisThe examination of a sellers price pro-
have been or are to be paid at the point of shipment by posal or bid by comparison with price benchmarks,
the sender.P without examination and evaluation of all of the sepa-
rate elements of the cost and profit making up the price
pre-receivingPaying for materials before receipt to
in the bid.P
prepare for incoming products and goods.P
price breakA discount given for paying early, buying in
prereleaseThe period of product specification, design,
quantity, and so forth. See: discount.P
and design review.P

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 129


price-break model private key

price-break modelSyn: quantity discount model.P primary operationA manufacturing step normally per-
formed as part of a manufacturing parts routing. Ant:
price discriminationSelling the same products to dif-
alternate operation.P
ferent buyers at different prices.P
primary processA process that performs the main
price elasticityThe degree of change in buyer demand
value-added activities of an organization.P
in response to changes in product price. It is calculated
by dividing the percentage of change in quantity bought primary work centerThe work center where an opera-

P by the percentage of change of price. Prices are consi-


dered elastic if demand varies with changes in price. If
tion on a manufactured part is normally scheduled to be
performed. Ant: alternate work center.P
demand changes only slightly when the price changes,
prime costsDirect costs of material and labor. Prime
demand is said to be inelastic. For example, demand for
costs do not include general, sales, and administrative
most medical services is relatively inelastic, but de-
costs.P
mand for automobiles is generally elastic.P
prime operationsCritical or most significant operations
price erosionIncreased competition and efficiencies in
whose production rates must be closely planned.P
production over time cause the price to gradually
reduce.P prime rateThe interest rate charged by banks to their
price pointThe relative price position at which the most preferred customers.P
product will enter the market compared to direct and principalThe party authorizing an agent to act on his or
indirect competitors prices. It is considered within the her behalf.P
context of the price-range options available: high, me-
principle of postponementSyn: order penetration
dium, or low.P
point.P
price prevailing at date of shipmentAn agreement be-
tween a purchaser and a supplier that the price of the prioritization matrixA special type of matrix chart used
goods ordered is subject to change at the suppliers to show the priorities of items by applying criteria and
discretion between the date the order is placed and the weighting factors to each item.P
date the supplier makes shipment and that the then- priorityIn a general sense, the relative importance of
established price is the contract price.P jobs (i.e., the sequence in which jobs should be worked
price protectionAn agreement by a supplier with a on). It is a separate concept from capacity.P
purchaser to grant the purchaser any reduction in price priority controlThe process of communicating start and
that the supplier may establish on its goods before completion dates to manufacturing departments in or-
shipment of the purchasers order or to grant the pur- der to execute a plan. The dispatch list is the tool nor-
chaser the lower price should the price increase before mally used to provide these dates and priorities based
shipment. Price protection is sometimes extended for on the current plan and status of all open orders.P
an additional period beyond the date of shipment.P
priority planningThe function of determining what ma-
price scheduleThe list of prices applying to varying terial is needed and when. Master production schedul-
quantities or kinds of goods.P ing and material requirements planning are the
price skimmingIntroducing a product above its long- elements used for the planning and replanning process
run price to maximize product margin before others can to maintain proper due dates on required materials.
enter the market.P priority reportSyn: dispatch list. private brandA brand
applied by a distributor rather than a manufacturer.P
price to earnings (PE) ratioThe current price of a stock
relative to its earnings per share.P priority reportSyn: dispatch list.P

prima facieLatin for at first sight or on the face of it. priority rulesSimple heuristics used to select the order
Something is presumed to be true.P in which jobs will be processed.P

primary demandThe demand for a category of prod- private carrierA group that provides transportation ex-
ucts rather than for a specific brand.P clusively within an organization. Ant: common carrier.P

primary locationThe designation of a certain storage private keyIn information systems, an encryption key
location as the standard, preferred location for an that is known only by the sender and receiver of the
item.P message. See: public key.P

130 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


private label process capability index

private labelAlso known as store or dealer brands, lead time of an order. Interoperation and administrative
these are products that are designed and produced by lead time components are expanded or compressed by
one company, but carry the name of the store that sells a uniform stretching factor until no difference exists
them. Oftentimes called generic to the purchaser.P between the schedule of operations obtained by for-
ward and backward scheduling. See: lead time
private ownershipA form of business ownership in
scheduling.P
which the business is either owned by a single person
(i.e., proprietorship) or organized under law as a sepa-
rate legal entity but in which the company stock is not
publicly traded. See: partnership, public ownership.P
problem-solving storyboardA technique based on the
plan/do/check/action problem-solving process. The
steps being taken and the progress toward the
P
resolution of a problem are continuously planned and
private trading exchange (PTX)A trade exchange
updated.P
hosted by a single company to facilitate collaborative e-
commerce with its trading partners. As opposed to pub- procedure manualA formal organization and indexing
lic e-marketplaces, a private exchange provides the of a firms procedures. Manuals are usually printed and
host company with control over many factors, including distributed to the appropriate functional areas.P
who may participate (and in what manner), how partici- process1) A planned series of actions or operations
pants may be connected, and what contents should be (e.g., mechanical, electrical, chemical, inspection, test)
presented (and to whom). The ultimate goal might be to that advances a material or procedure from one stage
improve supply chain efficiencies and responsiveness of completion to another. 2) A planned and controlled
through improved process visibility and collaboration, treatment that subjects materials or procedures to the
advanced integration platforms, and customization ca- influence of one or more types of energy (e.g., human,
pabilities.P mechanical, electrical, chemical, thermal) for the time
private warehouseA company-owned warehouse.P required to bring about the desired reactions or
results.P
proactiveA strategy of anticipating issues and present-
ing beneficial solutions to the customer.P process averageExpected value of the percentage de-
fective of a given manufacturing process.P
probabilistic demand modelsStatistical procedures
process batchThe quantity or volume of output that is
that represent the uncertainty of demand by a set of
to be completed at a workstation before switching to a
possible outcomes (i.e., a probability distribution) and
different type of work or changing an equipment setup.P
that suggest inventory management strategies under
probabilistic demands.P process benchmarkingBenchmarking focused on the
target firms business processes, including process
probabilityMathematically, a number between 0 and 1
flows, operating systems, and process technologies.
that estimates the fraction of experiments (if the same
See: benchmarking.P
experiment were being repeated many times) in which a
particular result would occur. This number can be either process capabilityRefers to the ability of the process
subjective or based upon the empirical results of expe- to produce parts that conform to (engineering) specifi-
rimentation. It can also be derived for a process to give cations. Process capability relates to the inherent varia-
the probable outcome of experimentation.P bility of a process that is in a state of statistical control.
See: Cp, Cpk, process capability analysis.P
probability and impact matrixA matrix combining two
dimensions of risk: (1) likelihood of occurrence and (2) process capability analysisA procedure to estimate the
impact if it happens.P parameters defining a process. The mean and standard
deviation of the process are estimated and compared to
probability distributionA table of numbers or a ma-
the specifications, if known. This comparison is the ba-
thematical expression that indicates the frequency with
sis for calculating capability indexes. In addition, the
which each of all possible results of an experiment
form of the relative frequency distribution of the charac-
should occur.P
teristic of interest may be estimated. Syn: capability
probability treeA graphic display of all possible out- study. See: process capability.P
comes of an event based on the possible occurrences process capability indexThe value of the tolerance
and their associated probabilities.P specified for the characteristic divided by the process
probable schedulingA variant of scheduling that con- capability. There are several types of process capability
siders slack time to increase or decrease the calculated indices, including the widely used Cpk and Cp.P

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 131


process chart process improvement

process chartA chart that represents the sequence of for outsourcing, and designs a structure for the activi-
work or the nature of events in process. It serves as a ties of the process that remain to improve productivity.P
basis for examining and possibly improving the way the
process flowchartSyn: flow process chart.P
work is carried out. Syn: operations process chart. See:
flow process chart, process flow.P process flow diagramA graphical and progressive re-
presentation of the various steps, events, and tasks
process control1) The function of maintaining a

P
that make up an operations process. This diagram pro-
process within a given range of capability by feedback,
vides the viewer with a picture of what actually occurs
correction, and so forth. 2) The monitoring of instru-
when a product is manufactured or a service is
mentation attached to equipment (valves, meters, mix-
performed.P
ers, liquid, temperature, time, etc.) from a control room
to ensure that a high-quality product is being produced process flow productionA production approach with
to specification.P minimal interruptions in the actual processing in any
one production run or between production runs of simi-
process control chartSyn: control chart.P
lar products. Queue time is virtually eliminated by inte-
process controllersComputers designed to monitor the grating the movement of the product into the actual
manufacturing cycle during production, often with the operation of the resource performing the work.P
capability to modify conditions, to bring the production
back to within prescribed ranges.P process flow schedulingA generalized method for
planning equipment usage and material requirements
process costingA cost accounting system in which the that uses the process structure to guide scheduling cal-
costs are collected by time period and averaged over all culations. It is used in flow environments common in
the units produced during the period. This system can process industries.P
be used with either actual or standard costs in the
manufacture of a large number of identical units.P process focusedA type of manufacturing organization
in which both plant and staff management responsibili-
process decision program chartA technique used to ties are delineated by production process. A highly cen-
show alternate paths to achieving given goals. tralized staff coordinates plant activities and
Applications include preparing contingency plans and intracompany material movements. This type of organi-
maintaining project schedules.P zation is best suited to companies whose dominant
orientation is to a technology or a material and whose
process designThe design of the manufacturing
manufacturing processes tend to be complex and capi-
method.P
tal intensive. See: product focused, process-focused
process engineeringThe discipline of designing and organization.P
improving the manufacturing equipment and production
process-focused organizationAn organization that is
process to support the manufacture of a product line.
oriented toward executing linked activities that consti-
See: manufacturing engineering.P
tute a given end-to-end business process with a given
process flexibilityThe design of the manufacturing sys- set of resources. Responsibilities of the members of the
tem, including operators and machinery, that allows organization are oriented toward the performance of the
quick changeovers to respond to near-term changes in process that creates the product or service and not to-
product volume and mix. A necessary tool in lean and ward a product or functional silo. See process focused,
just in time.P product focused.P

process flowThe sequence of activities that when fol- process-focused productionThis type of factory opera-
lowed results in a product or service deliverable. See tion requires frequent machine changeover and pro-
flow process chart, process chart.P duces small batches of unique products that flow along
different paths.P
process flow analysisA procedure to evaluate the ef-
fectiveness of a sequence of business activities. The process hoursThe time required at any specific opera-
analysis determines which elements of the flow are tion or task to process the product.P
value-added and eliminates those that are not, deter-
process improvementThe activities designed to identi-
mines which parts of the process can be automated,
fy and eliminate causes of poor quality, process varia-
evaluates activities as to whether they contribute to the
tion, and non-value-added activities.P
core competencies of the business or are candidates

132 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


process industries producers risk ()

process industriesThe group of manufacturers that and machines and sketches of setups and semifinished
produce products by mixing, separating, forming, dimensions.P
and/or performing chemical reactions. Paint
process stepsThe operations or stages within the
manufacturers, refineries, and breweries are examples
manufacturing cycle required to transform components
of process industries.P
into intermediates or finished goods. From a larger
process integrationCoordinating operations and con- perspective, the operations or stages within any busi-
solidating data to simplify processes and increase
efficiency.P
ness required to turn inputs into outputs.P
process stocksRaw ingredients or intermediates avail- P
process layoutSyn: functional layout.P able for further processing into marketable products.P
process listA list of operations and procedures in the process timeThe time during which the material is be-
manufacture of a product. It may also include a state- ing changed, whether it is a machining operation or an
ment of material requirements.P assembly. Syn: residence time.P
process manufacturingProduction that adds value by process trainA representation of the flow of materials
mixing, separating, forming, and/or performing through a process industry manufacturing system that
chemical reactions. It may be done in either batch or shows equipment and inventories. Equipment that per-
continuous mode. See: project manufacturing.P forms a basic manufacturing step, such as mixing or
packaging, is called a process unit. Process units are
process mapA diagram of the flow of a production
combined into stages, and stages are combined into
process or service process through the production
process trains. Inventories decouple the scheduling of
system. Standardized symbols are used to designate
processing, flow directions, branching decisions, sequential stages within a process train.P
input/output, and other aspects of the process.P process yieldSee: yield.P
processor-dominated schedulingA technique that procurementThe business functions of procurement
schedules equipment (processor) before materials. This planning, purchasing, inventory control, traffic, receiv-
technique facilitates scheduling equipment in economic ing, incoming inspection, and salvage operations.P
run lengths and the use of low-cost production se-
procurement credit cardCredit cards with a pre-
quences. This scheduling method is used in some
determined credit limit issued to buyers. Syn: corporate
process industries. See: material-dominated
purchasing cards.P
scheduling.P
procurement cycleSyn: procurement lead time.P
process organization structureAn organizational struc-
ture in which people are removed from their functional procurement lead timeThe time required to design a
departments and placed into a group that works as a product, modify or design equipment, conduct market
single unit to perform the entire linked process. This is research, and obtain all necessary materials. Lead time
in contrast to a functional organization in which the ac- begins when a decision has been made to accept an
tivities that make up the process are performed by order to produce a new product and ends when produc-
people in multiple functionally oriented departments.P tion commences. Syn: procurement cycle, total pro-
curement lead time. See: time-to-market.P
process orientedA characteristic in which the focus is
on the interrelated processes in a business environ- procurement services providerA company that has
ment. It includes the activities to transform inputs into product, sourcing, and supply management knowledge
outputs that have value.P and acts as an outsourced process by other companies
and provides procurement help. They are most often
process planningDetermining the technological steps
used by companies where procurement is a significant
and sequence required to produce a product or service
part of business, but the company lacks the expertise to
at the required quality level and cost.P
effectively manage the process. This is a third-party
process selectionAn economic analysis used to decide process.P
which process should be used when operations can be
producerOne who creates a good or service.P
performed by more than one process.P
producer marketSyn: industrial market.P
process sheetDetailed manufacturing instructions is-
sued to the plant. The instructions may include specifi- producers risk ()For a given sampling plan, the
cations on speeds, feed, temperatures, tools, fixtures, probability of not accepting a lot, the quality of which

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 133


produce-to-order product genealogy

has a designated numerical value representing a level ventory) accounts, product costs become an expense
that is generally desired to accept. Usually the desig- (cost of sales) when the product is sold.P
nated value will be the acceptable quality level (AQL).
product data management (PDM)A system that tracks
See: type I error.P
the configurations of parts and bills of material and also
produce-to-orderSyn: make-to-order.P the revisions and history of product designs. It facilities
produce-to-stockSyn: make-to-stock.P the design release, distributes the design data to mul-

P producibilityThe characteristics of a design that ena-


ble the item to be produced and inspected in the quan-
tiple manufacturing sites, and manages changes to the
design in a closed-loop fashion. It provides the infra-
structure that controls the design cycle and manages
tity required at least cost and minimum time.P change.P
product1) Any good or service produced for sale, bar-
product differentiationA strategy of making a product
ter, or internal use. 2) One of the four Ps (product, price,
distinct from the competition on a nonprice basis such
place, and promotion) that constitute the set of tools for
as availability, durability, quality, or reliability.P
directing the business offering to the customer. The
product can be promoted as a distinctive item. See: four product diversificationA marketing strategy that seeks
Ps.P to develop new products to supply current markets.P
product and market focusDeveloping products based product engineeringThe discipline of designing a
on dimensions like service to similar customers, vo- product or product line to take advantage of process
lume, or customization.P technology and improve quality, reliability, and so
product auditThe reinspection of any product to verify forth.P
the adequacy of acceptance or rejection decisions
product familyA group of products with similar charac-
made by inspection and testing personnel.P
teristics, often used in production planning (or sales
product-based layoutA type of layout where resources and operations planning). Syn: product line.P
are arranged sequentially according to the steps re-
product flexibilityThe ease with which current designs
quired to make a particular complex product.P
can be modified in response to changing market
product benchmarkingThis benchmarking is used for demands.P
new product design or for a product upgrade. This often
includes reverse engineering (dismantling) competing product focusedA type of manufacturing organization
products to determine their strengths and weaknesses. in which both plant and staff responsibilities are deli-
See: benchmarking.P neated by product, product line, or market segment.
Management authority is highly decentralized, which
product configuration catalogA listing of all upper level tends to make the company more responsive to market
configurations contained in an end-item product family. needs and more flexible when introducing new prod-
Its application is most useful when there are multiple ucts. This type of organization is best suited to compa-
end-item configurations in the same product family. It is nies whose dominant orientation is to a market or
used to provide a transition linkage between the end- consumer group and where flexibility and innovation are
item level and a two-level master production schedule. more important than coordinated planning and tight
It also provides a correlation between the various units control. See: process focused, process-focused
of upper level product definition.P organization.P
product configuratorA system, generally rule-based, to
product-focused productionA type of operation de-
be used in design-to-order, engineer-to-order, or make-
signed to process only a few different products, which
to-order environments where numerous product
are usually produced for inventory; production rates
variations exist. Product configurators perform
tend to be greater than the demand rate.P
intelligent modeling of the part or product attributes
and often create solid models, drawings, bills of product genealogyA record, usually on a computer file,
material, and cost estimates that can be integrated into of the history of a product from its introduction into the
CAD/CAM and MRP II systems as well as sales order production process through its termination. The record
entry systems.P includes lot or batch sizes used, operations performed,
inspection history, options, and where-used
product costCost allocated by some method to the
information.P
products being produced. Initially recorded in asset (in-

134 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


product grade production management

product gradeThe categorization of goods based upon production cardIn a just-in-time context, a card or oth-
the range of specifications met during the manufactur- er signal for indicating that items should be made for
ing process.P use or to replace some items removed from pipeline
stock. See: kanban.P
product groupSyn: product line.P
production controlThe function of directing or regulat-
product group forecastA forecast for a number of simi-
ing the movement of goods through the entire manufac-
lar products. See: aggregate forecast, product group.P
product layoutAnother name for flow process layout.
The system is set up for a limited range of similar prod-
turing cycle from the requisitioning of raw material to
the delivery of the finished products.P
production cycleSyn: manufacturing lead time.P
P
ucts. Focused-factory production would also be consi-
dered in this category. See: flow processing, focused production cycle elementsElements of manufacturing
factory.P strategy that define the span of an operation by ad-
dressing the following areas: (1) the established boun-
product life cycle management (PLM)The process of
daries for the firms activities, (2) the construction of
facilitating the development, use, and support of prod-
relationships outside the firms boundaries (i.e., suppli-
ucts that customers want and need. PLM helps profes-
ers, distributors, and customers), (3) circumstances un-
sionals envision the creation and preservation of
der which changes in established boundaries or
product information, both to the customer and along
relationships are necessary, (4) the effect of such
the reverse-logistics portion of the supply chain.P
boundary or relationship changes on the firms competi-
product velocityUnits sold per period.P tive position. The production cycle elements must expli-
productionThe conversion of inputs into finished citly address the strategic implications of vertical
products.P integration in regard to (a) the direction of such expan-
sion, (b) the extent of the process span desired, and (c)
production activity control (PAC)The function of routing
the balance among the resulting vertically linked
and dispatching the work to be accomplished through
activities.P
the production facility and of performing supplier con-
trol. PAC encompasses the principles, approaches, and production environmentSyn: manufacturing
techniques needed to schedule, control, measure, and environment.P
evaluate the effectiveness of production operations. production forecastA projected level of customer de-
See: shop floor control.P mand for a feature (option, accessory, etc.) of a make-
production and inventory managementGeneral term to-order or an assemble-to-order product. Used in two-
referring to the body of knowledge and activities con- level master scheduling, it is calculated by netting cus-
cerned with planning and controlling rates of purchas- tomer backlog against an overall family or product line
ing, production, distribution, and related capacity master production schedule and then factoring this
resources to achieve target levels of customer service, products available-to-promise by the option percentage
backlogs, operating costs, inventory investment, manu- in a planning bill of material. See: assemble-to-order,
facturing efficiency, and ultimately, profit and return on planning bill of material, two-level master schedule.P
investment.P production kanbanA signal, usually a card, used to
production and operations management (POM) trigger the production of a part.P
Managing an organizations production of goods or ser- production lead timeSyn: manufacturing lead time.P
vices; managing the process of taking inputs and creat-
production levelSyn: production rate.P
ing outputs.P
production levelingSyn: level production method.P
production calendarSyn: manufacturing calendar.P
production lineA series of pieces of equipment dedi-
production capability1) The highest sustainable output
cated to the manufacture of a specific number of prod-
rate that could be achieved for a given product mix, raw
ucts or families.P
materials, worker effort, plant, and equipment. 2) The
collection of personnel, equipment, material, and production lotA group of material that is processed in
process segment capabilities. 3) The total of the current one stage of production and put in inventory for further
committed, available, and unattainable capability of the production (or for shipment to customers).P
production facility. The capability includes the capacity
production management1) The planning, scheduling,
of the resource.P
execution, and control of the process of converting in-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 135


production material production report

puts into finished goods. 2) A field of study that focuses of its primary purposes is to establish production rates
on the effective planning, scheduling, use, and control that will achieve managements objective of satisfying
of a manufacturing organization through the study of customer demand by maintaining, raising, or lowering
concepts from design engineering, industrial engineer- inventories or backlogs, while usually attempting to
ing, management information systems, quality man- keep the workforce relatively stable. Because this plan
agement, inventory management, accounting, and other affects many company functions, it is normally prepared
functions as they affect the transformation process.P with information from marketing and coordinated with

P production materialAny material used in the manufac-


turing process.P
the functions of manufacturing, sales, engineering,
finance, materials, and so on. See: aggregate planning,
production plan, sales and operations planning, sales
production materials requisitionSyn: materials plan.P
requisition.P
production planning and control strategiesAn element
production networkThe complete set of all work cen- of manufacturing strategy that includes the design and
ters, processes, and inventory points, from raw mate- development of manufacturing planning and control
rials sequentially to finished products and product systems in relation to the following considerations: (1)
families. It represents the logical system that provides market-related criteriathe required level of delivery
the framework to attain the strategic objectives of the speed and reliability in a given market segment, (2)
firm based on its resources and the products volumes process requirement criteriaconsistency between
and processes. It provides the general sequential flow process type (job shop, repetitive, continuous, etc.) and
and capacity requirement relationships among raw ma- the production planning and control system, (3) organi-
terials, parts, resources, and product families.P zation control levelssystems capable of providing long-
production orderSyn: manufacturing order.P term planning and short-term control capabilities for
strategic and operational considerations by manage-
production part approval process (PPAP)A Big Three ment. Production planning and control strategies help
automotive process outlining requirements for approval firms develop systems that enable them to exploit mar-
of production parts. Its purpose is to measure whether a ket opportunities while satisfying manufacturing
supplier can, with regularity, fulfill these requirements.P process requirements.P
production planThe agreed-upon plan that comes from production planning methodsThe approach taken in
the production planning (sales and operations planning) setting the overall manufacturing output to meet cus-
process, specifically the overall level of manufacturing tomer demand by setting production levels, inventory
output planned to be produced, usually stated as a levels, and backlog. Companies can use a chase, level,
monthly rate for each product family (group of products, or hybrid production planning method. See: chase pro-
items, options, features, and so on). Various units of duction method, hybrid production method, level pro-
measurement can be used to express the plan: units, duction method.P
tonnage, standard hours, number of workers, and so
on. The production plan is managements authorization production processThe activities involved in converting
for the master scheduler to convert it into a more de- inputs into finished goods. See: manufacturing process,
tailed plan, that is, the master production schedule. transformation process.P
See: sales and operations planning, sales plan.P
production rateThe rate of production usually ex-
production planningA process to develop tactical plans pressed in units, cases, or some other broad measure,
based on setting the overall level of manufacturing out- expressed by a period of time (e.g., per hour, shift, day,
put (production plan) and other activities to best satisfy or week). Syn: production level.P
the current planned levels of sales (sales plan or fore-
casts), while meeting general business objectives of production releaseSyn: manufacturing order.P
profitability, productivity, competitive customer lead
production reportA statement of the output of a pro-
times, and so on, as expressed in the overall business
duction facility for a specified period. The information
plan. The sales and production capabilities are com-
normally includes the type and quantity of output; work-
pared, and a business strategy that includes a sales
ers efficiencies; departmental efficiencies; costs of di-
plan, a production plan, budgets, pro forma financial
rect labor, direct material, and the like; overtime
statements, and supporting plans for materials and
worked; and machine downtime.P
workforce requirements, and so on, is developed. One

136 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


production reporting and status control product mix

production reporting and status controlA vehicle to productivity. See: efficiency, labor productivity, machine
provide feedback to the production schedule and allow productivity, utilization. 2) In economics, the ratio of
for corrective action and maintenance of valid on-hand output in terms of dollars of sales to an input such as
and on-order balances. Production reporting and status direct labor in terms of the total wages. This is called
control normally include manufacturing order authoriza- single factor productivity or partial factor productivity.P
tion, release, acceptance, operation start, delay report-
ing, move reporting, scrap and rework reporting, order product layoutLayout of resources arranged sequen-
close-out, and payroll interface. Syn: manufacturing or-
der reporting, shop order reporting.P
tially based on the products routing.P

product liabilityThe responsibility a producer bears


P
production scheduleA plan that authorizes the factory when someone is injured during the use of his or her
to manufacture a certain quantity of a specific item. It is product.P
usually initiated by the production planning
product life cycle1) The stages a new product goes
department.P
through from beginning to end (i.e., the stages that a
production schedulingThe process of developing the product passes through from introduction through
production schedule.P growth, maturity, and decline). 2) The time from initial
production sharingA network of companies that parti- research and development to the time at which sales
cipates in product design, production, marketing, distri- and support of the product to customers are withdrawn.
bution, and service.P 3) The period of time during which a product can be
produced and marketed profitably.P
production standardA time standard to produce piece
parts and assemblies.P product lineA group of products whose similarity in
manufacturing procedures, marketing characteristics,
production systemA system that accepts inputs and
or specifications enables them to be aggregated for
converts them to the desired outputs.P
planning; marketing; or, occasionally, costing. Syn:
production timeSetup time plus total processing time, product family, product group.P
where total processing time is processing time per piece
multiplied by the number of pieces.P product load profileA listing of the required capacity
and key resources needed to manufacture one unit of a
production validationDemonstrating that a production selected item or family. The resource requirements are
process will consistently lead to the expected results.P further defined by a lead-time offset to predict the im-
productive capacityIn the theory of constraints: The pact of the product on the load of the key resources by
maximum of the output capabilities of a resource (or specific time period. The product load profile can be
series of resources) or the market demand for that out- used for rough-cut capacity planning to calculate the
put for a given time period. See: excess capacity, idle approximate capacity requirements of the master pro-
capacity, protective capacity.P duction schedule. See: bill of resources, resource pro-
file, rough-cut capacity planning.P
productive inventoryIn the theory of constraints: The
inventory required to meet production requirements product managerSyn: brand manager.P
without allowance for unplanned delays. See: idle inven-
tory, protective inventory.P product manager conceptA marketing method in
which a manager is given complete responsibility for
productivity1) An overall measure of the ability to pro- managing the introduction, stocking policy, marketing,
duce a good or a service. It is the actual output of pro- and sales of a specific product.P
duction compared to the actual input of resources.
Productivity is a relative measure across time or against product-market-focused organizationA firm in which
common entities (labor, capital, etc.). In the production individual plants are dedicated to manufacturing a spe-
literature, attempts have been made to define total cific product or product group.P
productivity where the effects of labor and capital are
product mixThe proportion of individual products that
combined and divided into the output. One example is a
make up the total production or sales volume. Changes
ratio that is calculated by adding the dollar value of la-
in the product mix can mean drastic changes in the
bor, capital equipment, energy, and material, and so
manufacturing requirements for certain types of labor
forth and dividing it into the dollar value of output in a
and material.P
given time period. This is one measure of total factor

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 137


product-mix flexibility profit center

product-mix flexibilityThe ability to change over quickly product structureThe sequence of operations that
to other products produced in a facility, as required by components follow during their manufacture into a
demand shifts in mix.P product. A typical product structure would show raw ma-
terial converted into fabricated components, compo-
product numberSyn: item number.P
nents put together to make subassemblies,
product or service liabilityThe obligation of a company subassemblies going into assemblies, and so forth.P
to make restitution for loss related to personal injury,

P property damage, or other harm caused by its goods or


services.P
product structure recordA computer record defining
the relationship of one component to its immediate
parent and containing fields for quantity required, engi-
product planSyn: market plan.P neering effectivity, scrap factor, application selection
product-positioned strategyLocating operations close switches, and so forth.P
to the sources of supply. See: market-positioned product treeA graphical (or tree) representation of the
strategy.P bill of material such as is shown below:
product-positioned warehouseThe warehouse located A Parent
close to the manufacturing plants that acts as a consol- |
idation point for products.P ______________________
| | |
product positioningThe marketing effort involved in
B C(2) D(5) Components
placing a product in a market to serve a particular niche
(Quantities per parent)P
or function. Syn: service positioning.P
profit1) Gross profitearnings from an ongoing busi-
product profiling1) A graphical device used to ascer-
ness after direct costs of goods sold have been de-
tain the level of fit between a manufacturing process
ducted from sales revenue for a given period. 2)
and the order-winning criteria of its products. Product
Operating profitearnings or income after all expenses
profiling can be used at the process or company level to
(selling, administrative, depreciation) have been de-
compare the manufacturing capabilities with the market
ducted from gross profit. 3) Net profitearnings or in-
requirements to determine areas of mismatch and iden-
come after adjusting for miscellaneous income and
tify steps needed for realignment. 2) Removing material
expenses (patent royalties, interest, capital gains) and
around a predetermined boundary by means of numeri-
tax from operating profit. Syn: income.P
cally controlled machining. The numerically controlled
tool path is automatically generated on the system.P profitabilityA measure of the excess income over ex-
penditure during a given period of time.P
product qualityAttribute that reflects the capability of a
product to satisfy customers needs.P profitability analysisIn activity-based cost accounting,
the examination of profit received from cost objects to
product segmentsThe shared information between a
attempt to optimize profitability. A variety of views may
plan-of-resources and a production rule for a specific
be examined including customer, distribution channel,
product. It is a logical grouping of personnel resources,
product, and regions.P
equipment resources, and material specifications re-
quired to carry out the production step.P profitability indexIn financial management, the net
present value of a projected stream of income from a
product/service hierarchyIn sales and operations
project (potential investment) divided by the investment
planning, a general approach to dividing products or
in the project. It is used to select among competing po-
services into families, brands, and subfamilies for
tential investments.P
various planning levels. This ensures that a correct top-
down or bottom-up approach is taken to grouping (or profitability ratioAn indicator of whether or not a com-
aggregating) demand at each subsequent level. pany is generating profits at an acceptable rate. It in-
Forecasts are more accurate the higher up the product cludes such measurements as return on total assets,
hierarchy they are developed; consequently, forecasts return on equity, and profit margin.P
should usually be driven down from the top.P
profit centerAn assigned responsibility center that has
product specificationA statement of acceptable authority to affect both the revenues earned and the
physical, electrical, and/or chemical properties or an costs incurred by and allocated to the center.
acceptable range of properties that distinguish one Operational effectiveness is evaluated in terms of the
product or grade from another.P amount of profit generated.P

138 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


profit margin project life cycle

profit margin1) The difference between the sales and program managerA person assigned program man-
cost of goods sold for an organization, sometimes ex- agement responsibilities for the implementation activi-
pressed as a percentage of sales. 2) In traditional ac- ties associated with a new or ongoing product or service
counting, the product profit margin is the product selling offering to customers. See: program management.P
price minus the direct material, direct labor, and allo-
progressive operationsPassing work from station to
cated overhead for the product, sometimes expressed
station.P
as a percentage of selling price.P

profit ratioProfit divided by sales.P


progress paymentsPayments arranged in connection
with purchase transactions requiring periodic payments
in advance of delivery for certain amounts or for certain
P
profit sharingA plan by which employees receive com-
pensation, above their normal wages, based on compa- percentages of the purchase price.P
ny profitability. The purpose is to motivate employees projectAn endeavor with a specific objective to be met
and recognize their efforts.P within predetermined time and dollar limitations and
pro forma financial statementsFinancial statements that has been assigned for definition or execution. See:
that are based on an assumed scenario rather than an project manufacturing, project management.P
actual experience.P project-based layoutA type of layout where the good or
profound knowledgeA quality-related concept created product is stationary and the workers come to the site
by W. Edwards Deming. The four aspects of profound to work on it.P
knowledge are appreciation of a system, knowledge project calendarA calendar of working days and non-
about variation, theory of knowledge, and psychology.P working days that shows when scheduled activities are
programIn project management, a coordinated set of idle. Typically, it includes holidays and weekends. See:
related projects usually including ongoing work.P resource calendar.P
project costingAn accounting method of assigning val-
program directiveA report by the program manager to
uations that is generally used in industries where ser-
inform supporting departments concerning an active or
vices are performed on a project basis. Each
planned program or project.P
assignment is unique and costed without regard to oth-
program evaluation and review technique (PERT)In er assignments. Examples are shipbuilding, construc-
project management, a network analysis technique in tion projects, and public accounting firms. Project
which each activity is assigned a pessimistic, most like- costing is opposed to process costing, where products
ly, and optimistic estimate of its duration. The critical to be valued are homogeneous.P
path method is then applied using a weighted average
project durationThe elapsed duration from project
of these times for each node. PERT computes a stan-
start date through project finish date.P
dard deviation of the estimate of project duration. See:
critical path method, graphical evaluation and review projected available balanceAn inventory balance pro-
technique, and network analysis.P jected into the future. It is the running sum of on-hand
inventory minus requirements plus scheduled receipts
programmable logic controller (PLC)An electronic de-
and planned orders. Syn: projected available
vice that is programmed to test the state of input
inventory.P
process data and to set output lines in accordance with
the input state, thus providing control instructions or projected available inventorySyn: projected available
branching to another set of tests. Programmable con- balance.P
trollers provide factory floor operations with the ability projected finish dateThe current estimate of the date
to monitor and rapidly control hundreds of parameters, when an activity will be completed.P
such as temperature and pressure.P
projected on handProjected available balance, exclud-
program managementThe activities involved in the ing planned orders.P
realization of a product or service offered to customers.
projected start dateThe current estimate of the date
The responsibilities include planning, directing, and
when an activity will begin.P
controlling one or more projects of a new or continuing
nature; initiating any acquisition processes necessary to projectionSyn: extrapolation.P
get the project work under way; and monitoring perfor-
project life cycleIn project management, a set of
mance. See: program manager.P
project phases (objectives definition, requirements de-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 139


project management protection time

finition, external and internal design, construction, sys- and minimizing the likelihood and effect of negative
tem test, and implementation and maintenance), whose events.P
definition is determined by the needs of those control-
project scheduleIn project management, a list of activ-
ling the project.P
ities and their planned completion dates that collective-
project managementThe use of skills and knowledge ly achieve project milestones.P
in coordinating the organizing, planning, scheduling, di-
project scopeIn project management, the work re-

P recting, controlling, monitoring, and evaluating of pre-


scribed activities to ensure that the stated objectives of
a project, manufactured good, or service are achieved.
quired to create a product with given features and
options.P

See: project.P project summary work breakdown structureA work


breakdown structure that is developed down to the
Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK)All
subproject level of detail. See: work breakdown
the knowledge within the project management profes-
structure.P
sion; this includes all published and unpublished ma-
terial, knowledge that rests with practitioners and project teamAn inclusive term incorporating the work-
academics, and practices that range from traditional to ers assigned to the project, the project managers, and
innovative.P sometimes the project sponsor.P

project management teamIn project management, the project team directoryA list of team member names,
personnel assigned to a project who are directly in- roles, and communication information.P
volved in management activities.P
promissory noteAn agreement to pay a stipulated
project manufacturingA type of manufacturing process amount during an agreed time period.P
used for large, often unique, items or structures that
promotionOne of the four Ps (product, price, place,
require a custom design capability (engineer-to-order).
and promotion) that constitute the set of tools used to
This type of process is highly flexible and can cope with
direct the business offering to the customer. Promotion
a broad range of product designs and design changes.
is the mechanism whereby information about the prod-
Product manufacturing usually uses a fixed-position
uct offering is communicated to the customer and in-
type layout. See: batch (fourth definition), continuous
cludes public relations, advertising, sales promotions,
production, job shop (second definition), process manu-
and other tools used to persuade customers to pur-
facturing, project, repetitive manufacturing.P
chase the product offering. See: four Ps.P
project modelA time-phased project planning and con-
promotional productA product that is subject to wide
trol tool that itemizes major milestones and points of
fluctuations in sales because it is usually sold at a re-
user approval.P
duced price or with some other sales incentive.P
project networkA diagram showing the technological
proof of deliveryCarriers records indicating the person
relationships among activities in a project.P
signing for delivery with the date, time, and other re-
project phaseIn project management, a set of related lated information.P
project activities that usually go together to define a
proportional rateA lower rate given to specific parts of
project deliverable.P
a shipment, instead of the entire rate being charged for
project planIn project management, a document that only one part of the shipment.P
has been approved by upper management that is to be
proprietary assemblyAn assembly designed by a man-
used in executing and controlling a project. It docu-
ufacturer that may be serviced only with component
ments assumptions, facilitates communication, and
parts supplied by the manufacturer and whose design is
documents the approved budget and schedule. It may
owned or licensed by its manufacturer.P
exist at a summary or a detailed level.P
proprietary dataAny financial, technical, or other in-
project productionProduction in which each unit or
formation developed at the expense of the person or
small group of units is managed by a project team
other entity submitting it, deemed to be of strategic or
created especially for that purpose.P
tactical importance to the company. It may be offered to
project risk managementIn project management, a customers on a restricted-use basis.P
systematic process of controlling project risk. It includes
protection timeSyn: safety lead time.P
maximizing the likelihood and effect of positive events

140 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


protective capacity pup

protective capacityThe resource capacity needed to phantom bill of material, planning bill of material, super
protect system throughputensuring that some capacity bill of material.P
above the capacity required to exploit the constraint is
psychographicsThe grouping of consumers according
available to catch up when disruptions inevitably occur.
to their behavior patterns and lifestyles.P
Nonconstraint resources need protective capacity to
rebuild the bank in front of the constraint or capacity- public keyIn information systems, a system where one
constrained resource (CCR) and/or on the shipping person holds a private key (an encryption code defining
dock before throughput is lost and to empty the space
buffer when it fills.P
access rights) but shares another key with a set of
people with whom that person will communicate. See:
private key.P
P
protective inventoryIn the theory of constraints, the
amount of inventory required relative to the protective publicly traded corporationA corporation whose stock
capacity in the system to achieve a specific throughput is available on a national exchange.P
rate at the constraint. See: limiting operation.P public ownershipA business formed under law as a
separate legal entity and where stock is publicly traded.
protective packagingWrapping or covering of material
See: partnership, private ownership.P
that provides containment, protection, and identifica-
tion of inventory in a warehouse. The material must be public-private partneringCooperation between a gov-
contained in such a way that will support movement ernment entity and one or more private enterprises to
and storage and will fit into the dimension of storage perform work or utilize facilities.P
space and transportation vehicles.P public relationsThe function that oversees a program
protocolIn information systems, a set of rules for de- to earn public understanding and acceptance.P
fining the format and relationships for sharing informa- public warehouseThe warehouse space that is rented
tion between devices. These rules govern the or leased by an independent business providing a varie-
transmission of data across a network and serve as the ty of services for a fee or on a contract basis.P
grammar of data communication languages.P
pull signalAny signal that indicates when to produce or
prototype1) A product model constructed for testing transport items in a pull replenishment system. For ex-
and evaluation to see how the product performs before ample, in just-in-time production control systems, a
releasing the product to manufacture. 2) Model consist- kanban card is used as the pull signal to replenish parts
ing of all files and programs needed for a business to the using operation. See: pull system.P
application.P
pull system1) In production, the production of items
prototyping1) A specialized product design and devel- only as demanded for use or to replace those taken for
opment process for developing a working model of a use. See: pull signal. 2) In material control, the with-
product. 2) A specialized system development process drawal of inventory as demanded by the using opera-
for performing a determination where user needs are tions. Material is not issued until a signal comes from
extracted, presented, and developed by building a work- the user. 3) In distribution, a system for replenishing
ing model of the system. Generally, these tools make it field warehouse inventories where replenishment deci-
possible to create all files and processing programs sions are made at the field warehouse itself, not at the
needed for a business application in a matter of days or central warehouse or plant.P
hours for evaluation purposes.P pull-through distributionsSupply chain activities that
provisioningThe process of identifying and purchasing are started by the consumer. Instead of the manufac-
the support items and determining the quantity of each turer pushing products to stores, in a pull-through dis-
support item necessary to operate and maintain a tribution consumers purchase items, which signals the
system.P manufacturer to produce more of that product. This is
effectively the consumer pulling products to the
proxy1) A written document authorizing an agent to store.P
vote a shareholders stock at a shareholder meeting. 2)
The agent designated in 1).P punitive damagesThe money awarded a plaintiff, not
as payment for the plaintiff s losses, but as punishment
PRTAbbreviation for prerequisite tree.P for the defendants conduct.P
pseudo bill of materialAn artificial grouping of items pupA 28-foot trailer, usually used in trucking
that facilitates planning. See: modular bill of material, enterprises.P

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 141


purchase consolidation pyramid forecasting

purchase consolidationThe pooling of purchasing re- pure monopolyA market in which only one firm pro-
quirements by multiple areas in a company, or even vides a particular product or service within a given area.
across companies.P The monopoly may be regulated or unregulated. See:
industry structure types.P
purchased partAn item sourced from a supplier.P
pure oligopolyA market in which a few companies pro-
purchase orderThe purchasers authorization used to
duce essentially the same product or service and mar-
formalize a purchase transaction with a supplier. A pur-

P chase order, when given to a supplier, should contain


statements of the name, part number, quantity, descrip-
ket it within a given area. A company is forced to price
its product at the going rate unless it can differentiate
its product. See: industry structure types.P
tion, and price of the goods or services ordered; agreed-
to terms as to payment, discounts, date of perfor- pure servicesServices that result in few or no tangible
mance, and transportation; and all other agreements products to the customer (e.g., education).P
pertinent to the purchase and its execution by the push-back rackPalletized materials are stored on a
supplier.P wheeled rack structure and pushed up a slightly sloping
purchase price discountA pricing strategy in which a ramp from which they can eventually slide down to an
seller offers a customer a cheaper price in exchange for aisle.P
purchasing more goods.P push system1) In production, the production of items
purchase price varianceThe difference in price be- at times required by a given schedule planned in ad-
tween the amount paid to the supplier and the planned vance. 2) In material control, the issuing of material ac-
or standard cost of that item.P cording to a given schedule or issuing material to a job
order at its start time. 3) In distribution, a system for
purchase requisitionAn authorization to the purchas-
replenishing field warehouse inventories where reple-
ing department to purchase specified materials in spe-
nishment decision making is centralized, usually at the
cified quantities within a specified time. See: parts
manufacturing site or central supply facility. See: pull
requisition.P
system.P
purchasingThe term used in industry and manage-
push technologyThe automatic updates in selected
ment to denote the function of and the responsibility for
services, such as news or weather, that occur periodi-
procuring materials, supplies, and services.P
cally as information is sent via the internet. The source
purchasing agentA person authorized by the company of the information pushes it upon the customer. Syn:
to purchase goods and services for the company.P webcasting.P

purchasing capacityThe act of buying capacity or ma- put-awayRemoving the material from the dock (or oth-
chine time from a supplier. A company can then sche- er location of receipt), transporting the material to a sto-
dule and use the capacity of the machine or a part of rage area, placing that material in a staging area and
the capacity of the machine as if it were in its own then moving it to a specific location, and recording the
plant.P movement and identification of the location where the
material has been placed.P
purchasing lead timeThe total lead time required to
obtain a purchased item. Included here are order prep- put-away timeThe lead time between when a raw ma-
aration and release time; supplier lead time; transporta- terial or component arrives and when the items are
tion time; and receiving, inspection, and put-away time. available in the store. Syn: dock-to-stock time.P
See: lead time, supplier lead time, time-to-product.P put-to-lightA process that uses lights to ensure mate-
purchasing performance measurementSyn: supplier rials are placed in the correct locations. Also, it is used
measurement.P to ensure that picked items are placed correctly.P

purchasing unit of measureSyn: unit of measure (pur- pyramid forecastingA forecasting technique that
chasing).P enables management to review and adjust forecasts
made at an aggregate level and to keep lower level
pure competitionA market in which many competitors
forecasts in balance. The procedure begins with the roll
offer undifferentiated products or services within a giv-
up (aggregation) of item forecasts into forecasts by
en geographical area. Competitors are forced to accept
product group. The management team establishes a
the market price for their product. See: industry struc-
(new) forecast for the product group. The value is then
ture types.P
forced down (disaggregation) to individual item fore-

142 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


QCD quality, cost, delivery (QCD)

casts so that they are consistent with the aggregate satisfaction with a products characteristics and
plan. The approach combines the stability of aggregate features.Q
forecasts and the application of management judgment
quality assurance/controlTwo terms that have many
with the need to forecast many end items within the
interpretations because of the multiple definitions for
constraints of an aggregate forecast or sales plan. See:
the words assurance and control. For example,
management estimation, planning bill of material,
assurance can mean the act of giving confidence, the
product group forecast.P
state of being certain, or the act of making certain;
control can mean an evaluation to indicate needed Q
Q corrective responses, the act of guiding, or the state of
a process in which the variability is attributable to a
constant system of chance causes. One definition of
QCDAbbreviation for quality, cost, delivery.Q quality assurance is all the planned and systematic
Q chartA control chart for evaluating the stability of a activities implemented within the quality system that
process in terms of a quality score. The quality score is can be demonstrated to provide confidence that a good
the weighted sum of the count of events of various or service will fulfill requirements for quality. One
classifications, where each classification is assigned a definition for quality control is the operational
weight. Syn: quality chart, quality score chart.Q techniques and activities used to fulfill requirements for
quality. Often, however, quality assurance and quality
QFDAbbreviation for quality function deployment.Q control are used interchangeably, referring to the
actions performed to ensure the quality of a good,
QRMAbbreviation for quick-response manufacturing.Q
service, or process. See: quality control.Q
QRPAbbreviation for quick-response program.Q
quality at the sourceA producers responsibility to pro-
QS 9000A variation of ISO 9000 certification with vide 100 percent acceptable quality material to the
additional requirements tailored for the automobile consumer of the material. The objective is to reduce or
industry, including suppliers. QS 9000 is being eliminate shipping or receiving quality inspections and
superseded by ISO/ TS 16949, which incorporates line stoppages as a result of supplier defects.Q
many European standards. See: ISO 9000, ISO/TS
quality auditA systematic, independent examination
16949.Q
and review to determine whether quality activities and
qualifiersSyn: order qualifiers. See: order losers, order related results comply with planned arrangements and
winners.Q whether these arrangements are implemented effec-
tively and are suitable to achieve the objectives.Q
qualitative forecasting techniquesAn approach to fo-
recasting that is based on intuitive or judgmental evalu- quality characteristicA property of a product or service
ation. It is used generally when data are scarce, not that is important enough to count or measure. See: per-
available, or no longer relevant. Common types of qua- formance measurement system.Q
litative techniques include: personal insight, sales force quality chartSyn: Q chart.Q
estimates, panel consensus, market research, visionary
forecasting, and the Delphi method. Examples include quality circleA small group of people who normally
developing long-range projections and new product in- work as a unit and meet frequently to uncover and solve
troduction.Q problems concerning the quality of items produced,
process capability, or process control. Syn: quality con-
qualityConformance to requirements or fitness for trol circle. See: small group improvement activity.Q
use. Quality can be defined through five principal ap-
proaches: (1) Transcendent quality is an ideal, a condi- quality controlThe process of measuring quality
tion of excellence. (2) Product-based quality is based on conformance by comparing the actual with a standard
a product attribute. (3) User-based quality is fitness for for the characteristic and acting on the difference. See:
use. (4) Manufacturing-based quality is conformance to quality assurance/control.Q
requirements. (5) Value-based quality is the degree of quality control circleSyn: quality circle.Q
excellence at an acceptable price. Also, quality has two
quality, cost, delivery (QCD)Key measurements of cus-
major components: (1) quality of conformancequality
tomer satisfaction. Kaizen activity strives to improve
is defined by the absence of defects, and (2) quality of
these measurements.Q
designquality is measured by the degree of customer

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 143


quality costs queue length

quality costsThe overall costs associated with preven- quality treeAn analytical tool that visualizes that quali-
tion activities and the improvement of quality through- ty is composed of four layers of achievement: (1) in-
out the firm before, during, and after production of a spection, (2) process measurement and improvement,
product. These costs fall into four recognized catego- (3) process control, and (4) design for quality.Q
ries: internal failure costs, external failure costs, ap-
quality trilogyA three-pronged approach to managing
praisal costs, and prevention costs. Internal failure
quality proposed by Joseph Juran. The three legs are
costs relate to problems before the product reaches the

Q customer. These usually include rework, scrap, down-


grades, reinspection, retest, and process losses.
quality planning (developing the products and
processes required to meet customer needs), quality
control (meeting product and process goals), and quali-
External failure costs relate to problems found after the
ty improvement (achieving unprecedented levels of per-
product reaches the customer. These usually include
formance). Syn: Juran trilogy.Q
such costs as warranty and returns. Appraisal costs are
associated with the formal evaluation and audit of qual- quantitative forecasting techniquesAn approach to
ity in the firm. Typical costs include inspection, quality forecasting where historical demand data are used to
audits, testing, calibration, and checking time. project future demand. Extrinsic and intrinsic tech-
Prevention costs are those caused by improvement ac- niques are typically used. See: extrinsic forecasting me-
tivities that focus on reducing failure and appraisal thod, intrinsic forecasting method.Q
costs. Typical costs include education, quality training, quantity-based order systemSyn: fixed reorder quantity
and supplier certification.Q inventory model.Q
quality engineeringThe engineering discipline con- quantity discountA price reduction allowance deter-
cerned with improving the quality of products and mined by the quantity or value of a purchase.Q
processes.Q
quantity discount modelA variation of the economic
quality function deployment (QFD)A methodology de- order quantity model in which the assumption of a sin-
signed to ensure that all the major requirements of the gle price is relaxed and there is a schedule of prices
customer are identified and subsequently met or ex- based on specific volumes. Syn: price-break model.Q
ceeded through the resulting product design process quantity perThe quantity of a component to be used in
and the design and operation of the supporting produc- the production of its parent. This value is stored in the
tion management system. QFD can be viewed as a set bill of material and is used to calculate the gross re-
of communication and translation tools. QFD tries to quirements for components during the explosion
eliminate the gap between what the customer wants in process of MRP.Q
a new product and what the product is capable of deli-
vering. QFD often leads to a clear identification of the quarantineThe setting aside of items from availability
major requirements of the customers. These expecta- for use or sale until all required quality tests have been
tions are referred to as the voice of the customer (VOC). performed and conformance certified.Q
See: house of quality.Q quasi manufacturingA type of service operation that
closely resembles a manufacturing process; focus is on
quality loss functionA parabolic approximation of the
production process, technology, costs, and quality.Q
quality loss that occurs when a quality characteristic
deviates from its target value. The quality loss function question markIn marketing, a slang term for a low
is expressed in monetary units: The cost of deviating market share but high growth rate product. See: growth-
from the target increases quadratically as the quality share matrix.Q
characteristic moves farther from the target. The formu-
queueA waiting line. In manufacturing, the jobs at a
la used to compute the quality loss function depends on
given work center waiting to be processed. As queues
the type of quality characteristic being used. The quality
increase, so do average queue time and work-in-
loss function was first introduced in this form by Genichi
process inventory.Q
Taguchi.Q
queue disciplineA parameter in queuing theory that
quality policyA top-management statement of the determines the order in which customers are to be
overall quality direction of an organization as required served.Q
by ISO 9001.Q
queue lengthThe quantity of items in a queue that are
quality score chartSyn: Q chart.Q awaiting service.Q

144 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


queue management random-location storage

queue managementTactics to deal with an excess quotationA statement of price, terms of sale, and de-
number of items, such as products or customers, wait- scription of goods or services offered by a supplier to a
ing in line for service.Q prospective purchaser; a bid. When given in response to
an inquiry, it is usually considered an offer to sell. See:
queue ratioThe ratio of the hours of slack within the
bid.Q
job to the queue originally scheduled.Q
quotation expiration dateThe date on which a quoted

R
queue timeThe amount of time a job waits at a work price is no longer valid.Q
center before setup or work is performed on the job.

R
Queue time is one element of total manufacturing lead
time. Increases in queue time result in direct increases
to manufacturing lead time and work-in-process
inventories.Q rackA storage device for handling material in pallets. A
rack usually provides storage for pallets arranged in ver-
queuing analysisThe study of waiting lines. See:
tical sections with one or more pallets to a tier. Some
queuing theory.Q
racks accommodate more than one-pallet-deep
queuing theoryThe collection of models dealing with storage.R
waiting line problems; for example, problems for which rackingA function performed by a rack-jobber, a full-
customers or units arrive at some service facility at function intermediary who performs all regular ware-
which waiting lines or queues may build. Syn: waiting housing functions and some retail functions, typically
line theory. See: queuing analysis.Q stocking a display rack.R
quick asset ratioA measure of a firms financial stabili- radio frequency identification (RFID)A system using
ty. It is defined as (current assets inventory)/current electronic tags to store data about items. Accessing
liabilities. A value greater than one is desirable. Syn: these data is accomplished through a specific radio fre-
quick ratio, acid test, acid test ratio.Q quency and does not require close proximity or line-of-
sight access for data retrieval. See: active tag, passive
quick changeoverThe ability to shorten machine se-
tag, semi-passive tag.R
tups between different machine operation requirements
to increase process flexibility. Most concentration is on RAMAbbreviation for responsibility assignment
reducing external setup time first, then on internal se- matrix.R
tup issues. This reduces economic order quantity, ramp rateThe speed at which a company expands or
queue and manufacturing lead times, and work in grows. Syn: growth trajectory.R
process inventory; it improves quality, process, and ma-
terial flows.Q R&DAbbreviation for research and development.R
R&D orderSyn: experimental order.R
quick ratioSyn: quick asset ratio.Q
random accessA manner of storing records in a com-
quick-response manufacturing (QRM)A manufacturing
puter file so that an individual record may be accessed
technique based on time-based competition to drive
without reading other records.R
continuous improvement. With its roots in the strategies
adopted by the Japanese in the 1980s and developed random causeSyn: common causes.R
further by the University of Wisconsin, quick-response random componentA component of demand usually
manufacturing focuses on the relentless pursuit of lead describing the impact of uncontrollable variation on
time reduction. Using manufacturing resources planning demand. See: decomposition, time series analysis.R
for higher-level planning, it often uses a replenishment
random events1) occurrences that have no discerna-
technique called paired-cell overlapping loops of cards,
ble pattern. 2) In statistics, unexplained movements oc-
which combines the best of push and pull strategies.
curring in historical (time series) data. See: random
See: paired-cell overlapping loops of cards.Q
variation.R
quick-response program (QRP)A system of linking final
random-location storageA storage technique in which
retail sales with production and shipping schedules
parts are placed in any space that is empty when they
back through the chain of supply; employs point-of-sale
arrive at the storeroom. Although this random method
scanning and electronic data interchange, and may use
requires the use of a locator file to identify part loca-
direct shipment from a factory to a retailer.Q
tions, it often requires less storage space than a fixed-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 145


random numbers reasonable rate

location storage method. Syn: floating inventory location rated capacityThe expected output capability of a re-
system, floating storage location. See: fixed-location source or system. Capacity is traditionally calculated
storage.R from such data as planned hours, efficiency, and utiliza-
tion. The rated capacity is equal to hours available
random numbersA sequence of integers or group of
efficiency utilization. Syn: calculated capacity, effec-
numbers (often in the form of a table) that show abso-
tive capacity, nominal capacity, standing capacity.R
lutely no relationship to each other anywhere in the se-

R quence. At any point, all values have an equal chance of


occurring, and they occur in an unpredictable fashion.R
random sampleA selection of observations taken from
rate of return on investmentThe efficiency ratio relat-
ing profit or cash flow incomes to investments. Several
different measures of this ratio are in common use.R
all the observations of a phenomenon in such a way rate varianceThe difference between the actual output
that each chosen observation has the same possibility rate of product and the planned or standard output
of selection.R rate.R
random variationA fluctuation in data that is caused
ratificationThe situation wherein a principal, failing to
by uncertain or random occurrences. See: random
repudiate an agents unauthorized conduct, is bound by
events.R
the conduct.R
rangeIn statistics, the spread in a series of observa-
tions. For example, the anticipated demand for a par- rationalization exerciseA process of reducing the pop-
ticular product might vary from a low of 10 to a high of ulation of figures such as stockkeeping unit counts or
500 per week. The range would therefore be 500 10, supplier lists.R
or 490.R rationingThe allocation of product among consumers.
range chartSyn: R chart.R When price is used to allocate product, it is allocated to
those willing to pay the most.R
rapid prototyping1) The transformation of product de-
signs into physical prototypes. Rapid prototyping relies raw materialPurchased items or extracted materials
on techniques such as cross-functional teams, data that are converted via the manufacturing process into
sharing, and advanced computer and communication components and products.R
technology (e.g., CAD, CAM, stereolithography, data
raw materials inventoryInventory of material that has
links). Rapid prototyping involves producing the proto-
not undergone processing at a facility.R
type on production equipment as often as possible. It
improves product development times and allows for RCCPAbbreviation for rough-cut capacity planning.R
cheaper and faster product testing, assessment of the
R chartA control chart in which the subgroup range, R,
ease of assembly and costs, and validation before ac-
is used to evaluate the stability of the variability within a
tual production tooling. 2) The transformation of system
designs into computer system prototypes with which the process. Syn: range chart.R
users can experiment to determine the adequacy of the reachThe percentage of target customers who receive
design to address their needs. See: 3D printing.R an advertising message.R
rapid replenishmentA replenishment strategy in which reactive maintenanceSyn: breakdown maintenance.R
the supplier prepares shipments at predetermined in-
tervals and varies the quantity based on recent sales reactorA special vessel to contain a chemical
data. Sales data may be supplied via a point-of-sale sys- reaction.R
tem. See: continuous replenishment.R
real propertyLand and associated rights improve-
rate-based schedulingA method for scheduling and ments, utility systems, buildings, and other structures.R
producing based on a periodic rate (e.g., daily, weekly,
real timeThe technique of coordinating data
monthly). This method has traditionally been applied to
processing with external related physical events as they
high-volume and process industries. The concept has
occur, thereby permitting prompt reporting of condi-
also been applied within job shops using cellular layouts
tions. See: online service.R
and mixed-model level schedules where the production
rate is matched to the selling rate.R reasonable rateA pricing strategy that allows a com-
rate basis pointThe center of shipping in a specific pany to profit, but not to achieve monopolistic profits.
area; used to determine shipping rates.R Normally determined by industry pricing analysis.R

146 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


receipt relational database

receipt1) The physical acceptance of an item into a errors than another; management should instead im-
stocking location. 2) Often, the transaction reporting of prove the system, making it possible for everyone to
this activity.R achieve higher quality.R
receivables conversion periodThe length of time re- redundancy1) A backup capability, coming either from
quired to collect sales receipts. Syn: average collection extra machines or from extra components within a ma-
period.R chine, to reduce the effects of breakdowns. 2) The use
receivingThe function encompassing the physical re-
ceipt of material, the inspection of the shipment for
conformance with the purchase order (quantity and
of one or more extra or duplicating components in a
system or equipment (often to increase reliability).R R
redundant componentA backup part of a machine or
damage), the identification and delivery to destination, product.R
and the preparation of receiving reports.R
reference capacity modelA simulation model with ac-
receiving pointThe location to which material is being
curate operational details and demand forecasts that
shipped. Ant: shipping point.R
can provide practical capacity utilization predictions.
receiving reportA document used by the receiving Various alternatives for system operation can be eva-
function of a company to inform others of the receipt of luated effectively.R
goods purchased.R
refurbished goodsSyn: remanufactured parts.R
recency, frequency, monetary (RFM)Giving customers
refurbished partsSyn: remanufactured parts.R
the highest rating who have bought recently, bought
many times, and bought in large amounts.R regenSlang abbreviation for regeneration MRP.
reconciling inventoryComparing the physical inventory Pronounced ree-jen.R
figures with the perpetual inventory record and making regeneration MRPAn MRP processing approach where
any necessary corrections.R the master production schedule is totally reexploded
reconsignmentPermission by a carrier to alter the down through all bills of material, to maintain valid
destination and/or consignee after the shipment has priorities. New requirements and planned orders are
reached its original destination.R completely recalculated or regenerated at that time.
Ant: net change MRP.R
record1) A collection of data fields arranged in a pre-
defined format. 2) A set of related data that a computer registration to standardsA process in which an accre-
program treats as a unit.R dited, independent third-party organization conducts an
on-site audit of a companys operations against the re-
record accuracyA measure of the conformity of rec-
quirements of the standard to which the company
orded values in a bookkeeping system to the actual val-
wants to be registered. Upon successful completion of
ues; for example, the on-hand balance of an item
the audit, the company receives a certificate indicating
maintained in a computer record relative to the actual
that it has met the standard requirements.R
on-hand balance of the items in the stockroom.R
recovery timeIn periods of insufficient capacity, jobs regression analysisA statistical technique for deter-
back up indefinitely. This leads to increased lead times mining the best mathematical expression describing the
and missed due dates. Recovery time is a period of time functional relationship between one response and one
when capacity exceeds demand to allow the system to or more independent variables. See: least-squares
empty out. If there is not enough recovery time before method.R
the next episode of insufficient capacity, in-process in- regularized scheduleA schedule having certain items
ventory and lead times continue to grow.R produced at regular intervals.R
recycle1) The reintroduction of partially processed
rejected inventoryInventory that does not meet quality
product or carrier solvents from one operation or task
requirements but has not yet been sent to rework,
into a previous operation. 2) A recirculation process.R
scrapped, or returned to a supplier.R
red bead experimentAn experiment developed by W.
rejectionThe act of identifying an item as not meeting
Edwards Deming to illustrate the impossibility of putting
quality specifications.R
employees in rank order of performance. The experi-
ment shows that it would be a waste of managements relational databaseA software program that allows us-
time to try to find out why one worker produced more ers to obtain information drawn from two or more data-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 147


relationship map repetitive industries

bases that are made up of two-dimensional arrays of ronment where worn-out products are restored to like-
data.R new condition.R

relationship mapA graphic map of the relationship be- remanufacturing resource planningA manufacturing
tween the business functions. It shows the inputs and resource planning system designed for remanufacturing
outputs flow across functions. It is useful to show how facilities.R
processes are currently performed, disconnections in
remedial maintenanceUnscheduled maintenance per-

R processes, and proposed processes. Relationship maps


show the products and services of a given unit, how
work flows through organizational boundaries, and the
formed to return a product or process to a specified per-
formance level after a failure or malfunction.R

relationships between functions represented by boxes remote diagnosticsThe capability of determining the
in the map.R cause of a problem from an off-site location.R

relationship marketingA form of target marketing in renegingA queuing theory term for leaving a line after
which the type and time of communications are deter- entering it but before receiving service. See: balking.R
mined by the customer. Syn: permission marketing.R reorder cycleSyn: replenishment lead time.R
releaseThe authorization to produce or ship material reorder pointSyn: order point.R
that has already been ordered.R
reorder quantity1) In a fixed-reorder quantity system of
released orderSyn: open order.R inventory control, the fixed quantity that should be or-
dered each time the available stock (on-hand plus on-
release-to-start manufacturingThe time it takes from
order) falls to or below the reorder point. 2) In a variable
when an order is released until the beginning of the
reorder quantity system, the amount ordered from time
manufacturing process. This delay occurs because of
period to time period will vary. Syn: replenishment order
the movement of materials and the changing of lines. It
quantity.R
is non-productive time that increases lead time.R
repairablesItems that are technically feasible to repair
relevant costsThose costs incurred because of a deci-
economically.R
sion. The costs would not have resulted unless the de-
cision was made and implemented. They are relevant to repair bill of materialIn remanufacturing, the bill of
the decision.R material defining the actual work required to return a
product to service. This bill is constructed based on in-
relevant rangeThe range of activity planned for a
spection and determination of actual requirements.
firm.R
See: disassembly bill of material.R
reliabilityThe probability that a product will perform its repair factorThe percentage of time on average that
specified function under prescribed conditions without an item must be repaired for return to a serviceable
failure for a specified period of time. It is a design pa- condition. The repair factor is also expressed as a per-
rameter that can be made part of a requirements centage applied to the quantity per assembly on the bill
statement. See: mean time between failures, mean of material. It is useful for forecasting materials and ca-
time for failures.R pacity requirements for planning purposes. Syn: fre-
reliability engineeringThe function responsible for the quency of repair. See: occurrence factor, replacement
determination and application of appropriate reliability factor.R
tasks and criteria during the design, development, repair orderSyn: rework order.R
manufacture, test, and support of a product that will
result in achieving of the specified product reliability.R repair partsSyn: service parts.R

remanufactured partsComponents or assemblies that repair parts demandSyn: service parts demand.R
are refurbished or rebuilt to perform the original func- repeatability of measurementThe variation in mea-
tion. Syn: refurbished goods, refurbished parts.R surements obtained when one measurement instru-
ment is used several times by an appraiser while
remanufacturing1) An industrial process in which
measuring the identical characteristic on the same
worn-out products are restored to like-new condition. In
part.R
contrast, a repaired product normally retains its identity,
and only those parts that have failed or are badly worn repetitive industriesThe group of manufacturers that
are replaced or serviced. 2) The manufacturing envi- produce high-volume, low-variety products such as

148 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


repetitive manufacturing rerouting flexibility

spark plugs, lawn mowers, and paper clips. See: repeti- replenishment lead timeThe total period of time that
tive manufacturing.R elapses from the moment it is determined that a prod-
uct should be reordered until the product is back on the
repetitive manufacturingThe repeated production of
shelf available for use. Syn: reorder cycle.R
the same discrete products or families of products.
Repetitive methodology minimizes setups, inventory, replenishment order quantitySyn: reorder quantity.R
and manufacturing lead times by using production lines,
replenishment periodThe time between successive
assembly lines, or cells. Work orders are no longer ne-
cessary; production scheduling and control are based
on production rates. Products may be standard or as-
replenishment orders. Syn: replenishment interval. See:
review period.R R
sembled from modules. Repetitive is not a function of reprocessed materialGoods that have gone through
speed or volume. Syn: repetitive process, repetitive pro- selective rework or recycle.R
duction. See: project manufacturing.R
reproducibilityA production programs ability to regu-
repetitive processSyn: repetitive manufacturing.R larly produce products of the correct quantity and
quality.R
repetitive productionSyn: repetitive manufacturing.R
replacement costA method of setting the value of in- request for information (RFI)An inquiry to a potential
ventories based upon the cost of the next purchase.R supplier about that suppliers product or service for po-
tential use in the business. The inquiry can provide cer-
replacement cost systemsA method of inventory valu- tain business requirements or be of a more general
ation that assigns an item cost based on the next item exploratory nature. See: request for proposal (RFP).R
price incurred.R
request for proposal (RFP)A document used to solicit
replacement factorThe percentage of time on average vendor responses when the functional requirements
that an item will require replacement. The replacement and features are known but no specific product is in
factor is also expressed as a percentage applied to the mind. Syn: invitation for bid (IFB). See: request for in-
quantity per assembly on the bill of material. It is useful formation (RFI).R
for forecasting materials and capacity requirements for
planning purposes. See: occurrence factor, repair request for quote (RFQ)A document used to solicit
factor.R vendor responses when a product has been selected
and price quotations are needed from several
replacement orderAn order for the replacement of ma- vendors.R
terial that has been scrapped.R
required capacitySyn: capacity required.R
replacement partsParts that can be used as substi-
tutes that differ from completely interchangeable ser- requirements definitionsSpecifying the inputs, files,
vice parts in that they require some physical processing, and outputs for a new system, but without
modification (e.g., boring, cutting, drilling) before they expressing computer alternatives and technical
can replace the original part.R details.R

replan cycleThe time it takes to implement a new pro- requirements explosionThe process of calculating the
duction plan into the plants actual production plan. demand for the components of a parent item by multip-
Done after completion of the last cycle and is a rolling lying the parent item requirements by the component
document.R usage quantity specified in the bill of material. Syn:
explosion.R
replanning frequencyIn an MRP system, the amount of
time between successive runs of the MRP model. If the requirements traceabilityThe capability to determine
planner does not run MRP frequently enough, the ma- the source of demand requirements through record lin-
terial plan becomes inaccurate as material require- kages. It is used in analyzing requirements to make ad-
ments and inventory status change with the passage of justments to plans for material or capacity. See:
time.R pegging.R

replenishmentRelocating material from a bulk storage requisitionSyn: parts requisition.R


area to an order pick storage area, and documenting
rerouting flexibilityAccommodating unavailability of
this relocation.R
equipment by quickly and easily using alternate ma-
replenishment intervalSyn: replenishment period.R chines in the processing sequence.R

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 149


rescheduling resource management

reschedulingThe process of changing order or opera- useful for plan resource schedules, including human
tion due dates, usually as a result of their being out of resources.R
phase with when they are needed.R
resource calendarA calendar of working days and
rescheduling assumptionA fundamental assumption nonworking days that shows when resources are idle.
of MRP logic that existing open orders can be resche- Typically, the calendar includes holidays and weekends.
duled in nearer time periods far more easily than new See: manufacturing calendar.R

R orders can be released and received. As a result,


planned order receipts are not created until all sche-
duled receipts have been applied to cover gross
resource-constrained scheduleSyn: resource-limited
schedule. See: drum-buffer-rope.R

requirements.R resource contentionSimultaneous need for a common


resource. Syn: concurrency.R
rescheduling noticeA message from planning system
software to change the planned start and/or finish date resource driverThe objects that are linked to an activi-
of an order. This often is the result of a change in plans ty that consumes resources at a specified rate. For ex-
of a parent item. See: nervousness.R ample, a resource driver is a purchase order (the object)
that when placed (the activity) consumes hours (the
research and development (R&D)A function that per-
rate) of purchasing (the resource).R
forms basic and applied research and develops poten-
tial new products.R resource levelingThe process of scheduling (and re-
scheduling) the start and finish dates of operations (or
resellersOrganizations intermediate in the manufac-
activities) to achieve a consistent rate of resource
turing and distribution process, such as wholesalers
usage so that resource requirements do not exceed re-
and retailers.R source availability for a given time period. Syn:
reservationThe process of designating stock for a spe- leveling.R
cific order or schedule. See: allocation.R resource limited scheduleProject schedule with no
reserveContingency funds set aside to mitigate risk.R early or late start or finish dates. The activity, and sche-
duled start and finish dates, show the expected availa-
reserved materialMaterial on hand or on order that is
bility of resources. Syn: resource-constrained
assigned to specific future production or customer or-
schedule.R
ders. Syn: allocated material, assigned material, obli-
gated material.R resource-limited schedulingThe scheduling of activi-
ties so that predetermined resource availability pools
reserve stockSyn: safety stock.R
are not exceeded. Activities are started as soon as re-
residence timeSyn: process time.R sources are available (with respect to logical con-
straints), as required by the activity. When not enough
residual incomeThe net operating income that an in-
of a resource exists to do all tasks on a given day, a
vestment center earns above the minimum required
priority decision is made. Project finish may be delayed,
return on its operating assets.R
if necessary, to alter schedules constrained by resource
residual inventoryInventory created by the canceling usage.R
or rescheduling of an order or left over because of lot
resource management1) The planning and validation
sizing.R
of all organizational resources. 2) The effective identifi-
resiliencyResiliency in the supply chain is the ability to cation, planning, scheduling, execution, and control of
return to a position of equilibrium after experiencing an all organizational resources to produce a good or ser-
event that causes operational results to deviate from vice that provides customer satisfaction and supports
expectations. Resiliency is increased by strategically the organizations competitive edge and, ultimately, or-
increasing the number of response options and/or ganizational goals. 3) An emerging field of study em-
decreasing the time to execute those options. phasizing the systems perspective, encompassing both
Resiliency is improved by risk monitoring and control.R the product and process life cycles, and focusing on the
integration of organizational resources toward the effec-
resourceAnything that adds value to a good or service
tive realization of organizational goals. Resources in-
in its creation, production, or delivery.R
clude materials; maintenance, repair, and operating
resource breakdown structureA hierarchical structure supplies; production and supporting equipment; facili-
that breaks resources into categories and types; can be ties; direct and indirect employees; staff; administrative

150 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


resource planning returns inventory costs

and professional employees; information; knowledge; percentage based on retail markup to the retail price, to
and capital. Syn: integrated resource management.R determine its inventory value based on cost.R

resource planningCapacity planning conducted at the retainageA percentage of a contract value that is
business plan level. The process of establishing, mea- withheld pending project completion and approval.R
suring, and adjusting limits or levels of long-range ca-
retention efficiencyIn marketing, a measurement of
pacity. Resource planning is normally based on the
how well a company creates repeat customers.R
production plan but may be driven by higher level plans
beyond the time horizon for the production plan (e.g.,
the business plan). It addresses those resources that
retirement of debtThe termination of a debt obligation
by appropriate settlement with the lender. Understood
R
take long periods of time to acquire. Resource planning to be in full amount unless partial settlement is
decisions always require top management approval. specified.R
Syn: resource requirements planning. See: capacity retrofitAn item that replaces components originally
planning, long-term planning.R installed on equipment; a modification to in-service
resource profileThe standard hours of load placed on equipment.R
a resource by time period. Production lead-time data return disposal costsThe costs that occur from dis-
are taken into account to provide time-phased projec- carding or recycling products that are returned because
tions of the capacity requirements for individual produc- they have reached the end of their useful life or are ob-
tion facilities. See: bill of resources, capacity planning solete. Commonplace in consumer goods industry.R
using overall factors, product load profile, rough-cut ca-
pacity planning.R return goods handlingThe work a company puts into
accepting returned goods from their customers.R
resource requirements planningSyn: resource
planning.R return material authorization (RMA)1) A form that
must be completed that describes the product returned
response timeThe elapse of time or average delay be- and why it was returned. 2) A number given to authorize
tween the initiation of a transaction and the results of the acceptance of returned items. 3) Should require
the transaction.R signatory authorization to return the goods.R
responsibility assignment matrix (RAM)A tool to ensure return merchandise authorizationSyn: return material
that each component of work in a project is assigned to authorization.R
a responsible person.R
return on assets (ROA)Net income for the previous 12
responsible landfillLandfill operations designed to turn months divided by total assets. See: return on owners
waste into recoverable resources, minimize the amount equity (ROE).R
of space consumed, and maximize the operational life
return on investment (ROI)A relative measure of finan-
of the landfill.R
cial performance that provides a means for comparing
responsible procurementAssuring the use of ethical various investments by calculating the profits returned
sources of goods and services to bring about a positive during a specified time period. In the theory of con-
impact and minimize the negative impact on societies straints, ROI is calculated as throughput minus operat-
and environments, including reduce, reuse, and recycle ing expense divided by investment.R
of materials, where a firm does business. It includes return on net assetsProfit divided by assets excluding
processes for identifying, assessing, and managing the depreciation.R
environmental, social, and ethical risk in the supply
chain. Syn: environmentally responsible purchasing.R return on owners equity (ROE)A financial measure-
ment of how successful a company is in creating in-
responsivenessA dimension of service quality referring come for the owners of the organization. A comparison
to the promptness and helpfulness in providing a of the ROE with the ROA indicates the effectiveness of
service.R financial leverage employed by the firm. The measure-
retailerA business that takes title to products and re- ment is calculated by dividing the net income by aver-
sells them to final consumers.R age owners equity. See: return on assets (ROA).R

returns inventory costsAll of the costs associated with


retail methodA method of inventory valuation in which
handling returned inventory.R
the value is determined by applying a predetermined

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 151


returns management process risk pooling

returns management processA process of handling rework lead timeThe time required to rework material
returns that includes environmentally sound disposal or in-house or at a suppliers location.R
recycling, composing repair instructions, warranty re-
rework orderA manufacturing order to rework and sal-
pairs, and collecting return data.R
vage defective parts or products. Syn: repair order,
returns processing costAll of the costs associated with spoiled work order.R
dealing with returned items after they have been re- RFIDAbbreviation for radio frequency identification.R

R ceived. These costs occur when returned items are re-


paired, discarded, or replaced.R RFMAbbreviation for recency, frequency, monetary.R
RFPAbbreviation for request for proposal.R
return to supplierMaterial that has been rejected by
the buyers inspection department and is awaiting RFQAbbreviation for request for quote.R
shipment back to the supplier for repair or right the first timeA term used to convey the concept
replacement.R that it is beneficial and more cost-effective to take the
revenueThe income received by a company from sales necessary steps the first time to ensure that a good or
or other sources, such as stock owned in other service meets its requirements than to provide a good
companies.R or service that will need rework or not meet customers
needs. In other words, an organization should engage in
reverse auctionAn internet auction in which suppliers defect prevention rather than defect detection.R
attempt to underbid their competitors. Company identi-
ties are known only by the buyer.R right-to-work stateA state that allows workers to
choose whether or not to join a union.R
reverse engineeringThe process of disassembling,
risk acceptanceA decision to take no action to deal
evaluating, and redesigning a competitors product for
with a risk or an inability to format a plan to deal with
the purpose of manufacturing a product with similar
the risk.R
characteristics without violating any of the competitors
proprietary manufacturing technologies.R risk adjusted discount rateA discount rate that is
higher for more risky projects and lower for less risky
reverse flow schedulingA scheduling procedure used
projects.R
in some process industries for building process train
schedules that starts with the last stage and proceeds risk analysisA review of the uncertainty associated
backward (countercurrent to the process flow) through with the research, development, and production of a
the process structure.R product, service, or project.R

reverse logisticsA complete supply chain dedicated to risk avoidanceChanging a plan to eliminate a risk or to
the reverse flow of products and materials for the protect plan objectives from its impact.R
purpose of returns, repair, remanufacture, and/or risk breakdown structureA tool that helps identify po-
recycling.R tential project risks, organized by risk categories and
subcategories.R
reverse logistics serviceA service that arranges for the
disposal of returned products.R risk categoryA cluster of risk causes with a label such
as external, environmental, technical, or
reverse supply chainThe planning and controlling of
organizational.R
the processes of moving goods from the point of con-
sumption back to the point of origin for repair, reclama- risk management planningThe process of defining
tion, recycling, or disposal. See: reverse logistics.R how to identify and minimize risk factors for a project.R

review periodThe time between successive evalua- risk mitigationReducing the exposure to risk, either by
tions of inventory status to determine whether to reord- its likelihood or its impact.R
er. See: replenishment period.R risk poolingA method often associated with the man-
agement of inventory risk. Manufacturers and retailers
revision levelA number or letter representing the num-
that experience high variability in demand for their
ber of times a part drawing or specification has been
products can pool together common inventory compo-
changed.R
nents associated with a broad family of products to buf-
reworkReprocessing to salvage a defective item or fer the overall burden of having to deploy inventory for
part.R each discrete product.R

152 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


risk register run-out list

risk registerA report that has summary information on ROROAcronym for roll-on/roll-off container ship.R
qualitative risk analysis, quantitative risk analysis, and
rough-cut capacity planning (RCCP)The process of
risk response planning. This register contains all identi-
converting the master production schedule into re-
fied risks and associated details.R
quirements for key resources, often including labor;
risk response planA document defining known risks machinery; warehouse space; suppliers capabilities;
including description, cause, likelihood, costs, and pro- and, in some cases, money. Comparison to available or
posed responses. It also identifies current status on
each risk.R
risk response planningThe process of developing a
demonstrated capacity is usually done for each key re-
source. This comparison assists the master scheduler in
establishing a feasible master production schedule.
R
plan to avoid risks and to mitigate the effect of those Three approaches to performing RCCP are the bill of
that cannot be avoided.R labor (resources, capacity) approach, the capacity plan-
ning using overall factors approach, and the resource
RMAAbbreviation for return material authorization.R profile approach. See: bill of resources, capacity plan-
ROAAbbreviation for return on assets.R ning, capacity planning using overall factors, product
load profile, resource profile.R
roboticsReplacing activities previously performed by
humans with mechanical devices or robots that can be route sheetSyn: routing.R
either operated by humans or run by computer. Difficult-
routing1) Information detailing the method of manu-
to-do, dangerous, or monotonous tasks are likely candi-
facture of a particular item. It includes the operations to
dates for robots to perform.R
be performed, their sequence, the various work centers
robust designType of design for a product or service involved, and the standards for setup and run. In some
that plans for intended performance even in the face of companies, the routing also includes information on
a harsh environment.R tooling, operator skill levels, inspection operations and
robustnessThe condition of a product or process de- testing requirements, and so on. Syn: bill of operations,
sign that remains relatively stable with a minimum of instruction sheet, manufacturing data sheet, operation
variation even though factors that influence operations chart, operation list, operation sheet, route sheet,
or usage, such as environment and wear, are constantly routing sheet. See: bill of labor, bill of resources. 2) In
changing.R information systems, the process of defining the path a
message will take from one computer to another
ROEAbbreviation for return on owners equity.R computer.R
ROIAbbreviation for return on investment.R
routing sheetSyn: routing.R
rolling forecastMoving the forecast horizon forward to
runA quantity of production being processed.R
new periods by adding recent data (and perhaps drop-
ping the oldest data).R run chartA graphical technique that illustrates how a
process is performing over time. By statistically
rolling wave planningA form of planning where the
analyzing a run chart, a process can be determined to
work to be performed in the near term is planned in de-
be under or out of control. The most common types of
tail and longer term work is planned at a lesser level of
data used to construct the charts are ranges, averages,
detail.R
percentages/counts, and individual process attributes
roll-on/roll-off container shipA ship that allows trailers (e.g., temperature). Syn. run diagram. See: C chart, P
to be driven on and off without the use of cranes.R chart, R chart, U chart, X-bar chart.R
root cause analysisAnalytical methods to determine run diagramSyn: run chart.R
the core problem(s) of an organization, process, prod-
uct, market, and so forth. See: current reality tree, five running sum of forecast errorsThe arithmetic sum of
whys, stratification analysis.R the differences between actual and forecasted demand
for the periods being evaluated.R
ropeOne of the three devices required for proper
management of operations. (The other two are drum run orderSyn: manufacturing order.R
and buffer.) The rope is the information flow from the run-out list1) A list of items to be scheduled into pro-
drum to the front of the line (material release), which duction in sequence by the dates at which the present
chokes the release of materials to match the flow available stock is expected to be exhausted. 2) A
through the constraint.R statement of ingredients required to use up an available

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 153


run-out method sales order number

resource (e.g., how much a resource is required to safety stock1) In general, a quantity of stock planned
consume 300 pounds of x).R to be in inventory to protect against fluctuations in de-
mand or supply. 2) In the context of master production
run-out methodA method of assigning available pro-
scheduling, the additional inventory and capacity
duction or storage capacity to products based on the
planned as protection against forecast errors and short-
products demand and inventory level.R
term changes in the backlog. Overplanning can be used
run sheetA log-type document used in continuous to create safety stock. Syn: buffer stock, reserve stock.

S processes to record raw materials used, quantity pro-


duced, in-process testing results, and so on. It may
serve as an input document for inventory records.R
See: hedge, inventory buffer.S
safety timeSyn: safety lead time.S
salable goodsA part or assembly authorized for sale to
run sizeSyn: standard batch quantity.R
final customers through the marketing function.S
run standardsSyn: run time.R
sale-and-leasebackAn agreement by which a firm first
run timeThe time required to process a piece or lot at sells its assets to a financial institution and then leases
a specific operation. Run time does not include setup these same assets from the financial institution.S
time. Syn: run standards.R
sales and operations planning (S&OP)A process to de-
rush orderAn order that for some reason must be ful- velop tactical plans that provide management the ability
filled in less than normal lead time.R to strategically direct its businesses to achieve competi-
tive advantage on a continuous basis by integrating

S customer-focused marketing plans for new and existing


products with the management of the supply chain. The
process brings together all the plans for the business
safety capacityIn the theory of constraints: The (sales, marketing, development, manufacturing, sourc-
planned amount by which the available capacity ex- ing, and financial) into one integrated set of plans. It is
ceeds current productive capacity. This capacity pro- performed at least once a month and is reviewed by
vides protection from planned activities, such as management at an aggregate (product family) level. The
resource contention, and preventive maintenance and process must reconcile all supply, demand, and new-
unplanned activities, such as resource breakdown, poor product plans at both the detail and aggregate levels
quality, rework, or lateness. Safety capacity plus pro- and tie to the business plan. It is the definitive state-
ductive capacity plus excess capacity is equal to 100 ment of the companys plans for the near to interme-
percent of capacity. Syn: capacity cushion. See: protec- diate term, covering a horizon sufficient to plan for
tive capacity.S resources and to support the annual business planning
safety factor1) The ratio of average strength to the process. Executed properly, the sales and operation
worst stress expected. It is essential that the variation, planning process links the strategic plans for the busi-
in addition to the average value, be considered in de- ness with its execution and reviews performance mea-
sign. 2) The numerical value used in the service func- surements for continuous improvement. See: aggregate
tion (based on the standard deviation or mean absolute planning, executive sales and operations planning, pro-
deviation of the forecast) to provide a given level of cus- duction plan, production planning, sales plan, tactical
tomer service. For example, if the item MAD is 100 and planning.S
a .95 customer service level (safety factor of 2.06) is sales cycle timeTime from a product entering a floor
desired, then a safety stock of 206 units should be car- until it is completely sold out.S
ried. This safety stock must be adjusted if the forecast
sales forecastSyn: forecast accuracy, forecast.S
interval and item lead times differ. Syn: service factor.
See: service function.S sales mixThe proportion of individual product-type
sales volumes that make up the total sales volume.S
safety lead timeAn element of time added to normal
lead time to protect against fluctuations in lead time so sales order configurationSyn: customer order servicing
that an order can be completed before its real need system.S
date. When used, the MRP system, in offsetting for lead
sales order numberA unique control number assigned
time, will plan both order release and order completion
to each new customer order, usually during order entry.
for earlier dates than it would otherwise. Syn: protection
It is often used by order promising, master scheduling,
time, safety time.S
cost accounting, invoicing, and so forth. For some

154 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


sales plan Scanlon plan

make-to-order products, it can also take the place of an sampleA portion of a universe of data chosen to esti-
end item part number by becoming the control number mate some characteristics about the whole universe.
that is scheduled through the finishing operations.S The universe of data could consist of sizes of customer
orders, number of units of inventory, number of lines on
sales planA time-phased statement of expected cus-
a purchase order, and so forth.S
tomer orders anticipated to be received (incoming
sales, not outgoing shipments) for each major product sample averageA key measure that represents the
family or item. It represents sales and marketing man-
agements commitment to take all reasonable steps
necessary to achieve this level of actual customer or-
central tendency of a sample.S

sample rangeThe largest value in a sample minus the


S
smallest value in the sample.S
ders. The sales plan is a necessary input to the produc-
tion planning process (or sales and operations planning sample sizeThe number of elements selected for anal-
process). It is expressed in units identical to those used ysis from the population.S
for the production plan (as well as in sales dollars). See:
sample standard deviationA key measure that
aggregate planning, production plan, production plan-
represents the spread or dispersion of a sample.S
ning, sales and operations planning.S

sales planningThe process of determining the overall sampling1) A statistical process where generalizations
sales plan to best support customer needs and opera- regarding an entire body of phenomena are drawn from
tions capabilities while meeting general business objec- a relatively small number of observations. 2) In market-
tives of profitability, productivity, competitive customer ing, the delivery of free trial goods to consumers.S
lead times, and so on, as expressed in the overall busi- sampling distributionThe distribution of values of a
ness plan. See: production planning, sales and opera- statistic calculated from samples of a given size.S
tions planning.S
sampling planWithin acceptance sampling, the deter-
sales promotion1) Sales activities that supplement mination of the sample size and the number of defec-
both personal selling and marketing, coordinate the tives that will trigger rejection of a lot.S
two, and help to make them effective (e.g., displays). 2)
More loosely, the combination of personal selling, ad- sawtooth diagramA quantity-versus-time graphic
vertising, and all supplementary selling activities. 3) representation of the order point/order quantity
Promotion activitiesother than advertising, publicity, inventory system showing inventory being received and
and personal sellingthat stimulate interest, trial, or then used up and reordered.S
purchase by final customers or others in the marketing SBQAbbreviation for standard batch quantity.S
channel.S
SBTAbbreviation for scan-based trading.S
sales quotaThe level of sales that an individual or
group is expected to meet.S SBUAbbreviation for strategic business unit.S

sales representativeAn employee authorized to accept scalability1) How effectively a company can grow its
a customers order for a product. Sales representatives business in order to meet demand. 2) How effectively
usually go to the customers location when industrial the solution to a problem can be scaled up as the prob-
products are being marketed.S lems size increases.S

salvageProperty that, because of its worn, damaged, scan-based trading (SBT)As an item is sold, scanned
deteriorated, or incomplete condition or specialized na- information is sent to the manufacturer and creates a
ture has no reasonable prospect of sale or use as servi- replacement order of that item. Used often in large re-
ceable property without major repairs or alterations, but tail store chains as well as large volume product
that has some value in excess of its scrap value.S producers.S

salvage value1) The cost recovered or that could be Scanlon planA system of group incentives on a
recovered from used property when removed, sold, or company-wide or plant-wide basis that sets up one
scrapped. A factor in appraisal of property value and in measure that reflects the results of all efforts. The uni-
computing depreciation. 2) The market value of a ma- versal standard is the ratio of labor costs to sales value
chine or facility at any point in time. Normally, an esti- added by production. If there is an increase in produc-
mate of an assets net value at the end of its estimated tion sales value with no change in labor costs, produc-
life.S tivity has increased while unit cost has decreased.S

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 155


scanner scope change

scannerAn electronic device that optically converts scheduled downtimePlanned shutdown of equipment
coded information into electrical control signals for data or plant to perform maintenance or to adjust to soften-
collection or system transaction input.S ing demand.S
scarcityA concept central to economics that means scheduled finish dateIn project management, an activ-
less of a good is freely available than consumers would itys planned finish time, normally between the early
like.S finish time and the late finish time. It may reflect re-

S scatter chartA graphical technique to analyze the rela-


tionship between two variables. Two sets of data are
source limitations. Syn: planned finish date.S
scheduled loadThe standard hours of work required by
scheduled receipts (i.e., open production orders).S
plotted on a graph, with the y axis used for the variable
to be predicted and the x axis used for the variable to
scheduled receiptAn open order that has an assigned
make the prediction. The graph will show possible rela-
due date. See: open order.S
tionships (although two variables might appear to be
related, they might not bethose who know most about scheduled start dateIn project management, an activi-
the variables must make that evaluation). The scatter tys planned start time, normally between the early start
chart is one of the seven tools of quality. Syn: cross plot, time and the late start time. It may reflect resource limi-
scatter diagram, scatterplot.S tations. Syn: planned start date.S

scatter diagramSyn: scatter chart.S schedule harmonyIn supply chains, the arrival of
goods at a transfer point with a small buffer time in
scatterplotSyn: scatter chart.S front of their departure via a different transportation
SCEMAbbreviation for supply chain event mode.S
management.S schedule performance index (SPI)Earned value (EV)
scenario forecastsPlans for how an organization will divided by planned value (PV), which measures a
respond to anticipated future situations.S projects schedule efficiency.S

scenario planningA planning process that identifies schedulerA general term that can refer to a material
critical events before they occur and use this knowledge planner, dispatcher, or a combined function.S
to determine effective alternatives.S schedule variance (SV)Earned value (EV) minus
scheduleA timetable for planned occurrences (e.g., planned value (PV), which measures a projects sche-
shipping schedule, master production schedule, main- dule performance.S
tenance schedule, supplier schedule). Some schedules schedulingThe act of creating a schedule, such as a
include the starting and ending time for activities (e.g., shipping schedule, master production schedule, main-
project schedule).S tenance schedule, or supplier schedule.S
schedule activityDuring a project, a specific piece of scheduling algorithmSyn: scheduling rules.S
work performed that has estimated costs, duration, and
resource requirements.S scheduling rulesBasic rules that can be used consis-
tently in a scheduling system. Scheduling rules usually
schedule boardSyn: control board.S specify the amount of time to allow for a move, queue,
schedule chartUsually a large piece of graph paper load calculation, and so forth. Syn: scheduling
used in the same manner as a control board. Where the algorithm.S
control board often uses strings and markers to scientific inventory controlSyn: statistical inventory
represent plans and progress, the schedule chart is typ- control.S
ically filled in with pencil. See: control board.S
scientific managementManaging a production system
schedule controlControl of a plant floor by schedules using scientific principles. Usually refers to the prin-
rather than by job orders (called order control). ciples established by Frederick Taylor.S
Schedules are derived by taking requirements over a
scopeIn project management, the totality of products
period of time and dividing by the number of workdays
to be created by a project.S
allowed to run the parts or assemblies. Production
completed is compared with the schedule to provide scope changeIn project management, a change to a
control. This type of control is most frequently used in projects scope, usually requiring an adjustment to the
repetitive and process manufacturing.S projects budget and schedule.S

156 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


scope definition seiri

scope definitionIn project management, subdividing a seasonal indexA number used to adjust data to sea-
project into smaller components to facilitate sonal demand. Syn: seasonal adjustment. See: base
management.S series.S

SCORAn acronym for Supply Chain Operations seasonal inventoryInventory built up to smooth pro-
Reference-model.S duction in anticipation of a peak seasonal demand. Syn:
seasonal stock.S

S
scorecardThis is a performance measurement tool
used by a company that summarizes its key perfor- seasonalityA repetitive pattern of demand from year to
mance indicators. Another use of scorecard is to meas- year (or other repeating time interval) with some periods
ure the supply chain members and ensure that their considerably higher than others. Syn: seasonal varia-
performance is meeting company standards.S tion. See: base series.S

scrapMaterial outside of specifications and possess- seasonal stockSyn: seasonal inventory.S


ing characteristics that make rework impractical.S
seasonal variationSee: seasonality.S
scrap factorA factor that expresses the quantity of a SECAbbreviation for the Securities and Exchange
particular component that is expected to be scrapped Commission (U.S.).S
upon receipt from a vendor, completion of production,
or while that component is being built into a given as- secondary highwaysHighways that are predominantly
sembly. It is usually expressed as a decimal value. For a rural in nature.S
given operation or process, the scrap factor plus the second-order smoothingA method of exponential
yield factor is equal to one. If the scrap factor is 30 per- smoothing for trend situations that employs two pre-
cent (or .3), then the yield is 70 percent (or .7). In man- viously computed averages, the singly and doubly
ufacturing planning and control systems, the scrap smoothed values, to extrapolate into the future. Syn:
factor is usually related to a specific item in the item double smoothing.S
master, but may be related to a specific component in
the product structure. For example, if 50 units of a second-tier suppliers (or customers)A supplier's sup-
product are required by a customer and a scrap factor pliers (or customer's customers).S
of 30 percent (a yield of 70 percent) is expected, then secular trendThe general direction of the long-run
72 units (computed as 50 units divided by .7) should be change in the value of a particular time series.S
started in the manufacturing process. Syn: scrap rate.
See: yield, yield factor.S secure electronic transaction (SET)In e-commerce, a
system for guaranteeing the security of financial trans-
scrap rateSyn: scrap factor.S actions conducted over the internet.S
s-curveIn project management, graphic display of cu- secure serverIn e-commerce, a web server that pro-
mulative project attributes such as costs, labor hours, tects users messages from interception while being
or percentage of work. The name derives from the typi- transmitted over the internet.S
cal shape of the curve.S
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)A U.S. gov-
SDSAbbreviation for single-digit setup.S ernment agency that has primary responsibility for en-
forcing the federal securities laws and regulating the
search enginesWeb software that enables a user to
securities industry. The SEC was created by the
find a page or website devoted to a particular topic.S
Securities Exchange Act of 1934 with a mission to pro-
search modelsOperations research models that at- tect investors; maintain fair, orderly, and efficient mar-
tempt to find optimal solutions with adaptive searching kets; and facilitate capital formation.S
approaches.S
segment customersGrouping customers by common
seasonal adjustmentSyn: seasonal index.S characteristics to facilitate sales.S
seasonal componentA component of demand, usually seiketsuA term that refers to standardization (e.g.,
describing the impact of variations that occur because standard locations for tools and equipment). See: five
of the time of year (quarter, month, week) on demand. Ss.S
See: decomposition, time series analysis.S
seiriA term that refers to organizing or throwing away
seasonal harmonicsSyn: harmonic smoothing.S things that are not needed. See: five Ss.S

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 157


seiso server

seisoA term that states that a productive workplace is of sending material ahead is to reduce the manufactur-
found through cleanliness. See: five Ss.S ing lead time. See: overlapped schedule.S

seitonA term that refers to neatness in the workplace senseiA Japanese word meaning teacher or one with
that is achieved by straightening offices and work experience.S
areas. See: five Ss.S
sensitivity analysisA technique for determining how
self-directed work teamGenerally, a small, indepen- much an expected outcome or result will change in re-

S dent, self-organized, and self-controlling group in which


members flexibly plan, organize, determine, and man-
sponse to a given change in an input variable. For ex-
ample, given a projected level of resources, what would
age their duties and actions, as well as perform many be the effect on net income if variable costs of produc-
other supportive functions. It may work without imme- tion increased 20 percent?S
diate supervision and can often have authority to select,
sensorsDevices that can monitor differences in condi-
hire, promote, or discharge its members.S
tions to control equipment on a dynamic basis.S
sellers marketA market condition in which goods separable costA cost that is assignable to a given por-
cannot easily be secured (purchased) and when the tion of a business.S
economic forces of business tend to cause goods to be
priced at the suppliers estimate of value.S sequencingDetermining the order in which a manufac-
turing facility is to process a number of different jobs in
selling and administrative costThose costs that are order to achieve certain objectives.S
associated with the marketing, sales, and administra-
tive functions for a plant or company. This is a function sequentialIn numeric sequence, normally in ascending
of overhead costing and is an important number in the order.S
COGS (costs of goods sold) calculation.S sequential development processA process in which
selling expenseAn expense or class of expense in- the product or services idea must clear specific hurdles
curred in selling or marketing (e.g., salespersons sala- before it can go on the next development phase.S
ries and commissions, advertising, samples, shipping sequential-sampling planControlling quality by repeat-
costs).S edly sampling units and each time making a decision to
selling, general, and administrative (SG&A) expenses accept or reject a batch or to continue sampling.S
The fixed costs associated with a company. Examples serial numberA unique number assigned for identifica-
are salaries, marketing costs, customer service, occu- tion to a single piece that will never be repeated for sim-
pancy expenses, and other overhead. In retail this is ilar pieces. Serial numbers are usually applied by the
called the cost of selling.S manufacturer but can be applied at other points, includ-
semifinished goodsProducts that have been stored ing by the distributor or wholesaler.S
uncompleted awaiting final operations that adapt them serial shipping container codeAn 18-character desig-
to different uses or customer specifications.S nation identifying boxes or pallets that are part of a
shipment covered by an automated shipment notice.S
semipassive tagAn RFID tag that sends out data, is
self-powered, and widens its range by harnessing power serpentine pickingA picking technique aimed at reduc-
from the reader. See: radio frequency identification ing travel time by 50 percent and improving the flow of
(RFID).S pickers down each aisle. This technique involves picking
from both sides of each aisle as the picker goes down it.
semiprocess flowA manufacturing configuration in
This is in contrast to picking from one side of the aisle
which most jobs go through the same sequence of op-
and then crossing to the other side.S
erations even though production is in job lots.S
serverA computer, or software package, that provides
semivariable costsCosts that change in increments.
a specific kind of service to client software running on
They remain fixed over a given range, and outside that
other computers. The term can refer to a particular
range, the cost changes to a new level.S
piece of software, for example a web server, or to the
semiworksSyn: pilot plant.S machine on which the software is running. A single
server machine could have several different server
send aheadThe movement of a portion of a lot of ma-
software packages running on it, thus providing many
terial to a subsequent operation before completion of
different servers to clients on the network.S
the current operation for all units of the lot. The purpose

158 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


server address servo system

server addressThe internet address of a server.S and social services; and local, state, and federal
governments.S
server factoryA facility making minor improvements to
products; set up primarily to avoid the host countrys service levelSyn: level of service.S
barriers to trade.S service level agreement (SLA)A document that
serviceSometimes used to describe those activities represents the terms of performance for organic
support.S

S
that support the production or distribution functions in
any organization, such as customer service and field service-oriented architecture (SOA)A style of informa-
service.S tion technology (IT) design that guides all aspects of
creating and using business services throughout their
serviceability1) Design characteristic that facilitates
life cycles, as well as defining and provisioning the IT
the easy and efficient performance of service activities.
infrastructure that enables different computer applica-
Service activities include those activities required to
tions to exchange data and participate in business
keep equipment in operating condition, such as lubrica-
processes, regardless of the operating systems or pro-
tion, fueling, oiling, and cleaning. 2) A measurement of
gramming languages underlying those applications.S
the degree to which servicing of an item will be accom-
plished within a given time under specified conditions. service partsThose modules, components, and ele-
See: maintainability. 3) The competitive advantage ments that are planned to be used without modification
gained when an organization focuses on aspects such to replace an original part. Syn: repair parts, spare
as the speed and courtesy in which customer com- parts.S
plaints and questions are answered, following up with
service parts demandThe need or requirement for a
customers after the sale to ensure satisfaction, and of-
component to be sold by itself, as opposed to being
fering on-site service for product repairs. 4) Measure of
used in production to make a higher level product. Syn:
repairs and maintenance based on cost, speed, and
repair parts demand, spare parts demand.S
convenience.S
service parts revenueThe value of sales of replace-
service blueprintA service analysis method that allows ment parts to external and internal customers, net of
service designers to identify processes involved in the discounts and coupons.S
service delivery system, isolate potential failure points
in the system, establish time frames for the service de- service phasesThe number of phases necessary to
livery, and set standards for each step that can be service a new arrival in the system.S
quantified for measurement.S service positioningSyn: product positioning.S

service bureau modelA business strategy in which a service rateIn queuing theory, the rate at which arriv-
company outsources certain products and services from als are processed through the production or service sys-
another company. The company prefers to concentrate tem, in arrivals per unit of time. See: queuing theory.S
on its core business rather than expending resources service reliabilityA dimension of service quality refer-
on the outsourced item.S ring to the capability of a service provider to perform
service capacityThe number of daily customers a firm dependably and accurately.S
is designed to serve; actual throughput may be larger or service response logisticsObtaining, producing, and
smaller.S distributing material for wholesaling and retailing;
service factorSyn: safety factor.S supply chain management is focused on location, ser-
vice, and capacity issues. Syn: integrated logistics.S
service functionA mathematical relationship of the
service timeThe time taken to serve a customer (e.g.,
safety factor to service level (i.e., the fraction of demand
the time required to fill a sales order or the time re-
routinely met from stock).S
quired to fill a request at a tool crib).S
service industry1) In its narrowest sense, an organiza-
service vs. investment chartA curve showing the
tion that provides an intangible product (e.g., medical or
amount of inventory that will be required to give various
legal advice). 2) In its broadest sense, all organizations
levels of customer service.S
except farming, mining, and manufacturing. This defini-
tion of service industry includes retail trade; wholesale servo systemA control mechanism linking a systems
trade; transportation and utilities; finance, insurance, input and output, designed to feed back data on system
and real estate; construction; professional, personal, output to regulate the operation of the system.S

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 159


SET shitsuke

SETAcronym for secure electronic transaction.S shelf lifeThe amount of time an item may be held in
inventory before it becomes unusable.S
setup1) The work required to change a specific ma-
chine, resource, work center, or line from making the shelf life controlA technique of physical first-in, first-
last good piece of item A to making the first good piece out usage aimed at minimizing stock obsolescence.S
of item B. 2) The refitting of equipment to neutralize the
Shewhart circle of qualitySyn: plan-do-check-action.S
effects of the last lot produced (e.g., teardown of the

S just-completed production, preparation of the equip-


ment for production of the next scheduled item). Syn:
changeover, turnaround, turnaround time.S
Shewhart cycleSyn: plan-do-check-action.S

Shingos seven wastesShigeo Shingo, a pioneer in the


Japanese just-in-time philosophy, identified seven bar-
setup costsCosts such as scrap costs, calibration riers to improving manufacturing. They are the waste of
costs, downtime costs, and lost sales associated with overproduction, waste of waiting, waste of transporta-
preparing the resource for the next product. Syn: chan- tion, waste of stocks, waste of motion, waste of making
geover costs, turnaround costs.S defects, and waste of the processing itself.S

setup flexibilityThe ability for a change to a different ship-age limitThe date after which a product cannot be
product to be made with little delay.S shipped to a customer.S

setup lead timeSyn: setup time.S shipper-carriersCompanies that ship goods in their
own vehicles. Many large retailers are shipper-carriers
setup timeThe time required for a specific machine,
as they own their own fleets.S
resource, work center, process, or line to convert from
the production of the last good piece of item A to the shippingThe function that performs tasks for the out-
first good piece of item B. Syn: setup lead time.S going shipment of parts, components, and products. It
includes packaging, marking, weighing, and loading for
seven new tools (N7)A set of quality improvement
shipment.S
tools developed by the Japanese Society for QC
Technique Development. The N7 are affinity diagram, shipping laneA specific route that ocean liners take
interrelationship digraph, matrix diagram, tree diagram, between ports to help traffic flow and to avoid the most
prioritization matrix, process decision program chart, dangerous areas of the ocean.S
and activity network diagram. See: basic seven tools of
shipping lead timeThe number of working days nor-
quality.S
mally required for goods to move between a shipping
seven tools of qualitySyn: basic seven tools of and receiving point, plus acceptance time in days at the
quality.S receiving point.S

seven zerosThe seven zeros are an essential part of shipping manifestA document that lists the pieces in a
the Toyota Production System. They are zero defects, shipment. A manifest usually covers an entire load re-
zero excess lot size, zero setups, zero breakdowns, zero gardless of whether the load is to be delivered to a sin-
excess handling, zero lead time, and zero surging.S gle destination or too many destinations. Manifests
usually list the items, piece count, total weight, and the
SG&AAbbreviation for selling, general and
destination name and address for each destination in
administrative.S
the load.S
shapeAn element of variability results that measures
shipping order debit memoThe document used to au-
the output of a process. If a process results in product
thorize the shipment of rejected material back to the
dimensions falling within a bell-shaped curve, then the
supplier and create a debit entry in accounts payable.S
process is running normally.S
shipping pointThe location from which material is sent.
shared servicesConsolidation of support processes to
Ant: receiving point.S
form a separate unit to provide services to the parent
company and external customers. This lowers costs and shipping toleranceAn allowable deviation that the
may improve support because the shared-services unit supplier can ship over or under the contract quantity.S
is more focused.S
shitsukeThe effort and discipline required to continual-
shareholder wealthThe present value of all anticipated ly enforce changes made in an organization. See: five
payments to the shareholders of a firm.S Ss.S

160 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


shojinka SIC

shojinkaContinually balancing the number of workers times used interchangeably with dispatching, although
in a work center to meet demand with a minimum num- dispatching does not necessarily include shop planning.
ber of workers. It requires a line design, such as U- For example, the selection of jobs might be handled by
shaped, that supports varying the number of workers.S the centralized dispatching function, while the actual
shop planning might be done by the foreman or a rep-
shop calendarSyn: manufacturing calendar.S
resentative.S
shop committeeThat committee that represents the
union in its relations and negotiations with a company
or plant. This is the first stage for the unionized em-
shop schedulingSyn: operations scheduling.S
shop travelerSyn: traveler.S S
ployees to vet complaints.S shortage costThe marginal profit that is lost when a
shop floor controlA system for using data from the customer orders an item that is not immediately availa-
shop floor to maintain and communicate status infor- ble in stock.S
mation on shop orders (manufacturing orders) and on shortage gamingWhen suppliers ration or apportion
work centers. Shop floor control can use order control supplies, and buyers, in response, inflate their orders in
or flow control to monitor material movement through an attempt to receive what they actually need.S
the facility. The major subfunctions of shop floor control
short-cycle manufacturingSyn: just in time.S
are (1) assigning priority of each shop order; (2) main-
taining working-process quantity information; (3) con- shortest processing time (SPT) ruleA dispatching rule
veying shop order status information to the office; (4) that directs the sequencing of jobs in ascending order
providing actual output data for capacity control pur- by processing time. If this rule is followed, the most jobs
poses; (5) providing quantity by location by shop order at a work center per time period will be processed. As a
for work-in-process inventory and accounting purposes; result, the average lateness of jobs at that work center
and (6) providing measurement of efficiency, utilization, is minimized, but some jobs will be very late. Syn: smal-
and productivity of the workforce and machines. The lest processing time rule.S
major subfunctions for flow control are based primarily short-haul discriminationA pricing strategy in which
on production rates and feeding work into production to more is charged for a shorter haul than for a longer
meet these planned rates, then monitoring and control- haul, when the route and the delivery are the same.
ling production. See: flow control, order control, produc- Used to push the long-haul process.S
tion activity control.S
short-range planning horizonA planning/forecasting
shop orderSyn: manufacturing order.S time frame encompassing a few days to at most a few
shop order close-out stationA stocking point on the weeks.S
shop floor where completed production of components short shipmentA situation in which a piece of freight
is transacted (received) into and subsequently trans- designated by the shipping document is missing from
acted (issued) to assembly or other downstream opera- delivery.S
tions. This technique is used to reduce material
short-term planningThe function of adjusting limits or
handling by avoiding the need to move items into and
levels of capacity within relatively short periods of time,
out of stockrooms, while simultaneously enabling a high
such as parts of a day, a day, or a week.S
degree of inventory record accuracy.S
shrinkageReductions of actual quantities of items in
shop order reportingSyn: production reporting and sta-
stock, in process, or in transit. The loss may be caused
tus control.S
by scrap, theft, deterioration, evaporation, and so
shop packetA package of documents used to plan and forth.S
control the shop floor movement of an order. The pack-
shrinkage factorA percentage factor used to compen-
et may include a manufacturing order, operations
sate for the expected loss during the manufacturing
sheets, engineering blueprints, picking lists, move tick-
cycle of an item. This factor differs from the scrap factor
ets, inspection tickets, and time tickets.S
in that it affects all components of the item, where the
shop planningThe function of coordinating the availa- scrap factor relates to only one components usage.
bility of material handling, material, resources, setup, Syn: shrinkage rate.S
and tooling so that an operation or job can be done on a
shrinkage rateSyn: shrinkage factor.S
particular machine. Shop planning is often part of the
dispatching function. The term shop planning is some- SICAbbreviation for standard industrial classification.S

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 161


sigma single-source supplier

sigmaA Greek letter () commonly used to designate simultaneous engineeringSyn: participative design/
the standard deviation of a population.S engineering.S
signed messageIn information systems, a message for single-card kanban systemSyn: one-card kanban
which the sender can be authenticated.S system.S

significant part numberA part number that is intended single-channel, single-phase systemA queuing system
to convey certain information, such as the source of the that has only one channel for arrivals to enter and only

S part, the material in the part, or the shape of the part.


Using numbers to represent this information usually
one phase to completely service the arrival.S
single-digit setup (SDS)The idea of performing setups
makes these part numbers longer than corresponding in less than 10 minutes. See: single-minute exchange of
nonsignificant part numbers. Ant: nonsignificant part die.S
number.S
single exponential smoothingSyn: first-order
significant variancesThose differences between smoothing.S
planned and actual performance that exceed estab-
lished thresholds and that require further review, analy- single-factor productivityThe average amount of a giv-
sis, and action.S en product (output) attributed to a unit of a given re-
source (input). Factors include labor and capital. Syn:
silo effectA departmental organization with poor partial productivity factor. See: multiple-factor
communication between departments.S productivity.S
simple interest1) Interest that is not compounded (i.e., single integrator solutionAn enterprise resources
interest not added to the income-producing investment planning implementation chosen entirely from one
or loan). 2) The interest charged under the condition vendor.S
that interest in any time period is only charged on the
single-level backflushA form of backflush that reduces
principal.S
inventory of only the parts used in the next level down in
simple moving averageA moving average where the an assembly or subassembly.S
oldest data point is dropped and the newest data point
single-level bill of materialA display of components
is included in the calculation. All data points are as-
that are directly used in a parent item. It shows only the
signed equal weights. See: moving average, weighted
relationships one level down.S
moving average.S
single-level where-usedSingle-level where-used for a
simple regressionRegression analysis involving only
component lists each parent in which that component is
one independent variable.S
directly used and in what quantity. This information is
simplex algorithmA procedure for solving a general usually made available through the technique known as
linear programming problem.S implosion.S
simplex methodAn approach to solving linear pro- single-minute exchange of die (SMED)The concept of
gramming models.S setup times of less than 10 minutes, developed by
simplificationImproving quality and cutting costs by Shigeo Shingo in 1970 at Toyota. See: single-digit
removing complexity from a product or service.S setup.S
single-period inventory modelsInventory models used
simulation1) The technique of using representative or
to define economical or profit maximizing lot-size quan-
artificial data to reproduce in a model various condi-
tities when an item is ordered or produced only once
tions that are likely to occur in the actual performance
(e.g., newspapers, calendars, tax guides, greeting cards,
of a system. It is frequently used to test the behavior of
or periodicals) while facing uncertain demands. Syn:
a system under different operating policies. 2) Within
static inventory models.S
MRP II, using the operational data to perform what-if
evaluations of alternative plans to answer the question, single-sampling planA quality control method of taking
Can we do it? If yes, the simulation can then be run in only one sample and then making a decision to accept
the financial mode to help answer the question, Do we or reject a batch of items.S
really want to? See: what-if analysis.S
single smoothingSyn: first-order smoothing.S
simultaneous design/engineeringSyn: participative
single-source supplierA company that is selected to
design/engineering.S
have 100 percent of the business for a part although

162 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


single sourcing smoothing inventories

alternate suppliers are available. See: sole-source SKUAbbreviation for stockkeeping unit. Pronounced as
supplier.S "skew."S

single sourcingA method whereby a purchased part is SLAAbbreviation for service level agreement.S
supplied by only one supplier. Traditional manufacturers slackSyn: float, slack time.S
usually have at least two suppliers for each component
part they purchase to ensure continuity of supply and slack timeIn project management, the amount of time

S
(more so) to foster price competition between the sup- that an activity may be delayed from its early start with-
pliers. A JIT manufacturer will frequently have only one out delaying the project finish date. Syn: slack.S
supplier for a purchased part so that close relationships slack time ruleA dispatching rule that directs the
can be established with a smaller number of suppliers. sequencing of jobs based on slack time. Slack time is
These close relationships (and mutual interdepen- equal to (days left until due date hrs/day) minus
dence) foster high quality, reliability, short lead times, standard hours of work left on this specific job; for
and cooperative action. Ant: multisourcing. See: sole example, (5 8) 12 = 28 hours of slack. The lower
source.S the amount of slack time, the higher the priority in
SIPOCAn acronym for supplier, input, process, output, sequencing of jobs.S
customer (pronounced sye-pahk).S slot based productionA term used in lean manufactur-
six sigmaA methodology that furnishes tools for the ing that describes a production schedule that is held
improvement of business processes. The intent is to level, but leaves some openings to meet unexpectedly
decrease process variation and improve product high levels of demand. This is a part of the extra capac-
quality.S ity planning process.S
slow-moving itemsThose inventory items with a low
six sigma qualityThe six sigma approach is a set of
turnover; items in inventory that have a relatively low
concepts and practices that key on reducing variability
rate of usage compared to the normal amount of inven-
in processes and reducing deficiencies in the product.
tory carried.S
Important elements are (1) Producing only 3.4 defects
for every one million opportunities or operations; (2) smallest processing time ruleSyn: shortest processing
Process improvement initiatives striving for six sigma- time rule.S
level performance. Six sigma is a business process that
small group improvement activityAn organizational
permits organizations to improve bottom-line perfor-
technique for involving employees in continuous im-
mance, creating and monitoring business activities to
provement activities. See: quality circle.S
reduce waste and resource requirements while increas-
ing customer satisfaction.S SMARTAbbreviation for simple, measurable, achieva-
ble, reasonable, and trackable.S
skewThe degree of nonsymmetry shown by a frequen-
cy or probability distribution.S smart labelA label with an embedded radio frequency
identification tag.S
skill-based compensationA method of employee com-
pensation that bases the employees wage rate on the SMEDAbbreviation for single-minute exchange of die.S
number of skills the employee is qualified to perform. smoothingThe process of averaging data by a mathe-
People who are qualified to do a wider variety of skills matical process or by curve fitting, such as the least-
are paid more. See: labor grade.S squares method or exponential smoothing.S
skills inventoriesAn organized file of information on smoothing constantIn exponential smoothing, the
each employees skills, abilities, knowledge, and expe- weighting factor that is applied to the most recent de-
rience, usually maintained by a personnel office. See: mand, observation, or error. In this case, the error is de-
labor grade.S fined as the difference between actual demand and the
forecast for the most recent period. The weighting factor
skills matrixA visual tool to show the skills/skill levels
is represented by the symbol . Theoretically, the range
of employees. This is mostly used when forming a team
of is 0.0 to 1. Syn: alpha factor, smoothing factor.S
so the leader knows what skills are necessary to
accomplish the teams goals. This also is used when smoothing inventoriesInventories used when up-
using a full-cross training process to ensure that all stream production levels are less than downstream
workers are cross trained to the same levels.S demand.S

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smoothing factor spend management

smoothing factorSyn: smoothing constant.S Southern Common Market (Mercosur)A market/ cus-
toms alliance between Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and
SOAAbbreviation for service-oriented architecture.S
Uruguay created by the Treaty of Ascuncion (1991).S
social responsibilityCommitment by top management
space bufferPhysical space immediately after the con-
to behave ethically and to contribute to community de-
straint that can accommodate output from the con-
velopment. This may also entail improving the work-
straint when there is a stoppage downstream that
forces quality of life.S

S softwareThe programs and documentation necessary


to make use of a computer.S
would otherwise force the constraint to stop too.S
spare partsSyn: service parts.S

smoothing modelsAnother name for forecasting mod- spare parts demandSyn: service parts demand.S
els that utilize moving averages. The forecast is SPCAbbreviation for statistical process control.S
smoothed in the sense that averages have less varia-
special causeSyn: assignable cause.S
bility than individual periods.S
specializationProducing a limited product line in order
software as a serviceComputer services are provided
to focus on a product or a process. Specialization is of-
by a third party that keeps all of the software and hard-
ten intended to improve productivity and reduce costs.S
ware in its place of business and the company using the
services accesses them via the internet. A very common special-purpose machineryMachines that are de-
technique used to outsource technological state-of-the- signed to perform a small number of activities. They are
art costs that can be avoided.S not as flexible as general purpose machinery but they
may be faster and more accurate.S
sole proprietorshipA form of business in which one
person has ownership and control. See: corporation, special warrantyAn assurance that the product is fit
partnership.S for the specific purpose for which the product will be
used. See: general warranty, warranty.S
sole sourceThe situation where the supply of a prod-
uct is available from only one organization. Usually specificationA clear, complete, and accurate state-
technical barriers such as patents preclude other sup- ment of the technical requirements of a material, an
pliers from offering the product. See: single sourcing.S item, or a service, and of the procedure to determine if
the requirements are met.S
sole-source supplierThe only supplier capable of meet-
ing (usually technical) requirements for an item. See: specification limitsSyn: tolerance limits.S
single-source supplier.S specific identificationThis method keeps track of the
sortingThe function of physically separating a homo- units of the beginning inventory and the units pur-
geneous subgroup from a heterogeneous population of chasedthat is, specific identification of the purchase
items.S cost of each item. This may be done through a coding
method or serial number identification.S
source documentAn original written or printed record
of some type that is to be converted into machine- specific performanceA contract remedy requiring de-
readable form.S fendants to do what they have contracted to do.S

source inspectionInspection at the source of supply or speculative buyingPurchasing an item not immediately
production (e.g., the supplier or the work center) as op- needed in anticipation of future price increase. See:
posed to inspection following receipt from the supplier buying down, hedge, hedging.S
or following transfer of the items from one work center speed of design processThe time frame that a product
to another.S or service is designed to satisfy customer needs and
sourcingThe process of identifying a company that regulations and be field-tested before entering a
provides a needed good or service.S market.S
sourcing decisionsHigh-level decisions regarding spend analysisA purchasing activity in which a firm
which products or services will be produced within a explores its spending patterns to identify opportunities
company and which will be purchased from external to reduce costs or improve quality. This process is a
supply chain partners. These decisions normally are part of value analysis as well as cost-benefit analysis.S
based on supplier cost and capability by comparison to
spend managementManaging the outflow of funds in
producing the product in house.S
order to buy goods and services. The term is intended to

164 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


SPI standard costs

encompass such processes as outsourcing, procure- staged materialSyn: kit.S


ment, e-procurement, and supply chain management.S
stagingPulling material for an order from inventory be-
SPIAbbreviation for schedule performance index.S fore the material is required. This action is often taken
split-case order pickingA process for filling less-than- to identify shortages, but it can lead to increased prob-
full-case orders. This requires items to be picked from a lems in availability and inventory accuracy.S
case or other container.S staging and consolidationPhysically moving material
split deliveryA method by which a larger quantity is or-
dered on a purchase order to secure a lower price, but
from the packing area to a staging area, based on a
prescribed set of instructions related to a particular S
delivery is divided into smaller quantities and spread outbound vehicle or delivery route, often for shipment
out over several dates to control inventory investment, consolidation purposes.S
save storage space, and so forth.S stakeholdersPeople with a vested interest in a com-
split lotA manufacturing order quantity that has been pany, including managers, employees, stockholders,
divided into two or more smaller quantities, usually after customers, suppliers, and others.S
the order has been released. The quantities of a split lot standard1) An established norm against which
may be worked on in parallel, or a portion of the original measurements are compared. 2) An established norm
quantity may be sent ahead to a subsequent operation of productivity defined in terms of units of output per
to be worked on while work on the remainder of the set time (units/hour) or in standard time (minutes per
quantity is being completed at the current operation. unit). 3) The time allowed to perform a specific job
The purpose of splitting a lot is to reduce the lead time including quantity of work to be produced. See:
of the order.S standard time.S
spoiled work orderSyn: rework order.S standard allowanceThe established or accepted
sponsorA person who provides financial support, in amount by which the normal time for an operation is
cash or in kind.S increased within an area, plant, or industry to compen-
sate for the usual amount of personal, fatigue, and un-
spot buyA purchase made for standard off-the-shelf
avoidable delay times.S
material or equipment, on a one-time basis.S
standard batch quantity (SBQ)The quantity of a parent
spot demandDemand, having a short lead time, that is
that is used as the basis for specifying the material re-
difficult to estimate. Usually supply for this demand is
quirements for production. The quantity per is ex-
provided at a premium price.S
pressed as the quantity to make the SBQ, not to make
spot stock warehousingPositioning seasonal items in only one of the parent. Often used by manufacturers
proximity to the market. When the season ends, these that use some components in standard quantities or by
items are either disposed or relocated to a more centra- process-related manufacturers. Syn: run size.S
lized location.S
standard componentsComponents of a finished prod-
spreadVariability of an action. Often measured by the uct that are easy to manufacture and are made by
range or standard deviation of a particular dimension.S many suppliers, making them more of commodity to buy
SPTAbbreviation for shortest processing time rule.S at low cost.S

SQCAbbreviation for statistical quality control.S standard containersPredetermined, specifically sized


containers used for storing and moving components.
SQLAbbreviation for structured query language.S
These containers protect the components from damage
SRMAbbreviation for supplier relationship and simplify the task of counting components.S
management.S
standard cost accounting systemA cost accounting
stabilization stockAn inventory that is carried on hand system that uses cost units determined before produc-
above the base inventory level to provide protection tion for estimating the cost of an order or product. For
against incurring overtime or downtime.S management control purposes, the standards are com-
stable demandProducts that keep a similar demand pared to actual costs, and variances are computed.S
pattern no matter what the season or time. Staple standard costsThe target costs of an operation,
products fall into this category.S process, or product including direct material, direct la-
stacked lead timeSyn: cumulative lead time.S bor, and overhead charges.S

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standard deviation statement of work

standard deviationA measurement of dispersion of sonal rest to overcome fatigue and unavoidable delays.
data or of a variable. The standard deviation is com- It is also frequently used as a basis for incentive pay
puted by finding the differences between the average systems and as a basis of allocating overhead in cost
and actual observations, squaring each difference, add- accounting systems. Syn: standard hours. See:
ing the squared differences, dividing by n 1 (for a standard.S
sample), and taking the square root of the result. See:
standing capacitySyn: rated capacity.S
estimate of error.S

S standard errorA measurement of the variability of sta-


tistics such as the sample mean. See: estimate of
standing orderSyn: blanket purchase order.S
starA slang term used to refer to a high-growth, high-
error.S profit-margin product. See: growth-share matrix.S
start dateIn project management, the time an activity
standard hoursSyn: standard time.S
begins; this may be defined as an actual start date or a
standard industrial classification (SIC)Classification planned start date.S
codes that are used to categorize companies into indus-
start manufacture to order complete manufactureThe
try groupings.S
time from when the manufacturing of an order starts
standardization1) The process of designing and alter- until an order is ready to be shipped to the customer.S
ing products, parts, processes, and procedures to es-
start-to-finishIn project management, a network re-
tablish and use standard specifications for them and
quirement that activity A must start before subsequent
their components. 2) Reduction of the total numbers of
activity B can finish. See: logical relationship.S
parts and materials used and products, models, or
grades produced. 3) The function of bringing a raw in- start-to-startIn project management, a network re-
gredient into standard (acceptable) range per the speci- quirement that activity A must start before subsequent
fication before introduction to the main process.S activity B can start. See: logical relationship.S

standardized ingredientA raw ingredient that has been startupThat period starting with the date of initial op-
preprocessed to bring all its specifications within stan- eration during which the unit is brought up to accepta-
dard ranges before it is introduced to the main process. ble production capacity and quality within estimated
This preprocessing minimizes variability in the produc- production costs. Startup is the activity that commences
tion process.S on the date of initial activity and has significant duration
on most projects, but is often confused (used inter-
standardized productA product that can be made in changeably) with date of initial operation.S
large quantities, or continuously, because of very few
product designs.S startup auditThe technique of having an implementa-
tion team tour or visit the implementation site on a fre-
standard outputAn estimate of what should be pro- quent basis and use the "management by walking
duced, given a certain level of resources. Can be stated around" technique to identify problems and solutions.S
in units per hour or units per period (day, shift, etc.).S
startup costsThe extra operating costs to bring the
standard ratioA relationship based on a sample distri- plant or product on-stream incurred between the com-
bution by value for a particular company. When the pletion of construction and the start of normal opera-
standard ratio for a particular company is known, cer- tions. In addition to the difference between actual
tain aggregate inventory predictions can be made (e.g., operating costs during that period and normal costs,
the amount of inventory increase that would be required they include employee training, equipment tests,
to provide a particular increase in customer service).S process adjustments, salaries and travel expense of
standard serviceService that is the same for most temporary labor staff and consultants, report writing,
customers.S post-startup monitoring, and associated overhead.
Additional capital required to correct plant problems
standard timeThe length of time that should be re- may be included. Startup costs are sometimes
quired to (1) set up a given machine or operation and capitalized.S
(2) run one batch or one or more parts, assemblies, or
statement of cash flowsSyn: funds flow statement.S
end products through that operation. This time is used
in determining machine requirements and labor re- statement of work1) A description of products to be
quirements. Standard time assumes an average worker supplied under a contract. 2) In projection manage-
following prescribed methods and allows time for per- ment, the first project planning document that should

166 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


static budget stockless purchasing

be prepared. It describes the purpose, history, delive- statistical thinkingThe ability to draw conclusions
rables, and measurable success indicators for a project. based on data.S
It captures the support required from the customer and
statute of limitationsA statute restricting the length of
identifies contingency plans for events that could throw
time in which a lawsuit may be filed.S
the project off course. Because the project must be sold
to management, staff, and review groups, the state- steady stateWaiting lines are subject to wide fluctua-
ment of work should be a persuasive document.S tions when they first are created in a simulation model.

static budgetSyn: master budget.S


A less variable (steady) state emerges after the line has
existed for some time. Usually data are not collected S
static inventory modelsSyn: single-period inventory from the simulation until after steady state is reached.
models.S See: transient state.S

statistical controlThe situation where variations step budgetA budget that establishes anticipated tar-
among the observed samples can be attributed to a gets at which an operation will perform for each step or
constant system of chance causes.S level of production. A step budget can be likened to
several different fixed budgets. This method of budget-
statistical control chartsData are collected from physi- ing is useful because most of the manufacturing over-
cal measurements, or customer surveys, and plotted on head expenditures vary in steps, not as a straight line.
a chart so that conformance to specifications or cus- See: flexible budget.S
tomer satisfaction can be tracked and improved.S
step-function schedulingScheduling logic that recog-
statistical inventory controlThe use of statistical me- nizes run length to be a multiple of the number of
thods to model the demands and lead times expe- batches to be run rather than simply a linear relation-
rienced by an inventory item or group of items. Demand ship of run time to total production quantity.S
during lead time and between reviews can be modeled,
stickeringPlacing manufacturer-or customer-requested
and reorder points, safety stocks, and maximum inven-
stickers on the boxes of the product being sent to them.
tory levels can be defined to strive for desired customer
These are typically done so that the customer, typically
service levels, inventory investments, manufacturing
a retailer, can more effectively track its inventory. Bar
and distribution efficiency, and targeted returns on in-
coding is commonly a part of the stickering process.S
vestments. Syn: scientific inventory control. See: fixed
reorder quantity inventory model.S stochastic modelsModels where uncertainty is explicit-
ly considered in the analysis.S
statistical order pointSyn: order point.S
stock1) Items in inventory. 2) Stored products or ser-
statistical order point systemSyn: order point system.S vice parts ready for sale, as distinguished from stores,
statistical process control (SPC)The application of sta- which are usually components or raw materials.S
tistical techniques to monitor and adjust an operation. stockchaseSyn: expedite.S
Often the term statistical process control is used inter-
changeably with statistical quality control.S stock codeSyn: item number.S
stock dividendA dividend paid to shareholders in stock
statistical quality control (SQC)The application of sta-
rather than cash.S
tistical techniques to control quality. Often the term sta-
tistical process control is used interchangeably with stockkeeping unit (SKU)1) An inventory item. For ex-
statistical quality control, although statistical quality ample, a shirt in six colors and five sizes would
control includes acceptance sampling as well as statis- represent 30 different SKUs. 2) In a distribution system,
tical process control.S an item at a particular geographic location. For exam-
ple, one product stocked at the plant and at six different
statistical safety stock calculationsThe mathematical
distribution centers would represent seven SKUs.S
determination of safety stock quantities considering
forecast errors, lot sizes, desired customer service le- stockless productionSyn: just in time.S
vels, and the ratio of lead time to the length of the fore-
stockless purchasingBuying material, parts, supplies,
cast period. Safety stock is frequently the product of the
and so on, for direct use by the departments involved,
appropriate safety factor and the standard deviation or
as opposed to receiving them into stores and subse-
mean absolute deviation of the distribution of demand
quently issuing them to the departments. The intent is
forecast errors.S
to reduce inventory investment, increase cash flow, re-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 167


stock number strategic performance measurements

duce material handling and storage, and provide better stores1) Stored materials used in making a product.
service. See: dock-to-stock inventory.S 2) The room where stored components, parts, assem-
blies, tools, fixtures, and so forth are kept.S
stock numberSyn: item number.S
stores issue orderSyn: picking list.S
stock orderAn order to replenish stock, as opposed to
a production order to make a particular product for a stores ledger cardA card on which records of the items
specific customer.S on hand and on order are maintained.S

S stockoutA lack of materials, components, or finished


goods that are needed. See: backorder.S
stores requisitionSyn: picking list.S
straight-line depreciationA method of depreciation
stockout costsThe costs associated with a stockout. whereby the amount to be recovered (written off as an
Those costs may include lost sales, backorder costs, expense) is spread uniformly over the estimated life of
expediting, and additional manufacturing and purchas- the asset in terms of time periods. See: depreciation.S
ing costs.S straight-line scheduleSyn: gapped schedule.S
stockout percentageA measure of the effectiveness strategic allianceA relationship formed by two or more
with which a company responds to actual demand or organizations that share information (proprietary), par-
requirements. The stockout percentage can be a mea- ticipate in joint investments, and develop linked and
surement of total orders containing a stockout to total common processes to increase the performance of both
orders, or of line items incurring stockouts to total line companies. Many organizations form strategic alliances
items ordered during a period. One formula is: stockout to increase the performance of their common supply
percentage = (1 customer service ratio) 100 per- chain.S
cent. Ant: customer service ratio.S
strategic benchmarkingBenchmarking how others
stockout probabilitySyn: cycle service level.S compete. It often involves benchmarking across indus-
stockpointA designated location in an active area of tries. See: benchmarking.S
operation into which material is placed and from which strategic business unit (SBU)An approach to strategic
it is taken. Not necessarily a stockroom isolated from planning that develops a plan based on products. A
activity, it is a way of tracking and controlling active companys products are typically grouped into strategic
material.S business units (SBUs) with each SBU evaluated in terms
stock record cardA ledger card that contains inventory of strengths and weaknesses vis--vis similar business
status for a given item.S units made and marketed by competitors. The units are
evaluated in terms of their competitive strengths, their
stock splitThe issuance of new shares to stockholders
relative advantages, life cycles, and cash flow
without requiring additional equity.S
patterns.S
stock statusA report showing the inventory on hand
strategic deploymentSee hoshin planning.S
and usually showing the inventory on order and some
sales or usage history for the products that are covered strategic driversFactors that influence business unit
in the stock status report.S and manufacturing strategies.S

stop sequenceA loading procedure in which the first strategic missionA statement of the future business
stop is loaded last.S scope of an enterprise. The statement incorporates
what is being satisfied (customer needs), who is being
stop work orderSyn: hold order.S
satisfied (customer groups), and how the company
storageThe retention of parts or products for future creates value for the customer (processes, technolo-
use or shipment.S gies, and core competencies).S
storage costsA subset of inventory carrying costs, in- strategic partnershipsAlliances with top supplier and
cluding the cost of warehouse utilities, material han- buyer performers to enhance a firms performance.S
dling personnel, equipment maintenance, building
strategic performance measurementsMeasurements
maintenance, and security personnel.S
that relate to the long-term goals of a business.
storeA storage point located upstream of a work sta- Examples include profitability, market share, growth,
tion intended to make it easier to see customer and productivity. See: global performance measure-
requirements.S ments, operational performance measurements.S

168 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


strategic plan summarized bill of material

strategic planThe plan for how to marshal and deter- structured problem solvinga defined process applied
mine actions to support the mission, goals, and objec- to determine, evaluate and resolve an identified prob-
tives of an organization. Generally includes an lem. The methodology includes (1) the collection of fac-
organizations explicit mission, goals, and objectives tual data, (2) defining why the situation is a problem, (3)
and the specific actions needed to achieve those goals defining a concise definition of what the problem is, (4)
and objectives. See: business plan, operational plan, generation of possible solutions, without discussing so-
strategic planning, strategy, tactical plan.S lutions at this time, and (5) evaluation of the pros and

strategic planningThe process of developing a strateg-


ic plan. See: operational planning, strategic plan, tactic-
cons of each option within the organizations objectives
and feasibility, (6) implementation of the solution
S
selected.S
al planning.S
subassemblyAn assembly that is used at the next level
strategic quality planningWeaving quality considera-
of the bill of material to build another assembly.S
tions into strategic business plans.S
subcontractingSending production work outside to
strategic sourcingA comprehensive approach for locat-
another manufacturer. See: outsourcing.S
ing and sourcing key material suppliers, which often in-
cludes the business process of analyzing total-spend- subcontractor and supplier networksCreating long-
for-material spend categories. There is a focus on the term contracts between a manufacturer and several
development of long-term relationships with trading suppliers of parts and components.S
partners who can help the purchaser meet profitability
suboptimizationA solution to a problem that is best
and customer satisfaction goals. From an information
from a narrow point of view but not from a higher or
technology applications perspective, strategic sourcing
overall company point of view. For example, a depart-
includes automation of request for quote (RFQ), request
ment manager who would not have employees work
for proposal (RFP), electronic auctioning (e-auction or
overtime to minimize the departments operating ex-
reverse auction), and contract management
pense may cause lost sales and a reduction in overall
processes.S
company profitability.S
strategic variablesThe most important variables that
subplantAn organizational structure within a factory,
effect the business environment and business strategy.
consisting of a compact entrepreneurial unit, either
These are typically the economic situation, population
process-oriented or product-oriented and structured to
demographics, changes in technology, and government
achieve maximum productivity.S
policies.S
substitutabilityWhen a buyer can purchase similar
strategyThe strategy of an enterprise identifies how a
products from different suppliers. This increases the
company will function in its environment. The strategy
buyers power as the buyer doesn't have to rely on just
specifies how to satisfy customers, how to grow the
one supplier.S
business, how to compete in its environment, how to
manage the organization and develop capabilities with- substitutionThe use of a nonprimary product or com-
in the business, and how to achieve financial objectives. ponent, normally when the primary item is not
See: strategic plan.S available.S

stratification analysisA statistical tool for determining sub-tier supplierA supplier who delivers a product to a
root causes in which observed historical data are sepa- direct supplier to the customer.S
rated by particular characteristics to determine the ef-
successor activity1) In project management, in an
fect of each characteristic upon the observed results.
activity-on-arrow network, the activity (arrow) that de-
See: root cause analysis.S
parts a node. 2) In project management, in an activity-
strict liabilityA tort doctrine requiring those engaging in on-node network, the activity at the tip of the arrow.S
very hazardous activities or those manufacturing very
summarized bill of materialA form of multilevel bill of
hazardous items be held to a high standard of
material that lists all the parts and their quantities re-
conduct.S
quired in a given product structure. Unlike the indented
strict performanceThe performance of a contract good bill of material, it does not list the levels of manufacture
enough for the contractor to be paid full price less the and lists a component only once for the total quantity
other partys losses.S used.S

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 169


summarized where-used supplier measurement

summarized where-usedA form of an indented where- purchased, but is usually approved to supply those
used bill of material that shows all parents in which a items.S
given component is used, the required quantities, and
supplier auditAuditing supplier processes as part of a
all the next-level parents until the end item is reached.
supplier development system.S
Unlike the indented where-used, it does not list the le-
vels of manufacture.S supplier baseThe group of suppliers from which a firm

S
acquires goods and services. Syn: supply base.S
summary judgmentA judicial ruling that no essential
facts are in dispute and that one party to the suit merits supplier certificationCertification procedures verifying
judgment as a matter of law.S that a supplier operates, maintains, improves, and doc-
uments effective procedures that relate to the custom-
sum of deviationsSyn: cumulative sum.S
ers requirements. Such requirements can include cost,
sunk cost1) The unrecovered balance of an invest- quality, delivery, flexibility, maintenance, safety, and ISO
ment. It is a cost, already paid, that is not relevant to quality and environmental standards.S
the decision concerning the future that is being made.
supplier clusteringDeliberately sole sourcing remote
Capital already invested that for some reason cannot be
suppliers within a small geographical area to facilitate
retrieved. 2) A past cost that has no relevance with re-
joint shipments of what would otherwise be less-than-
spect to future receipts and disbursements of a facility
truckload quantities.S
undergoing an economic study. This concept implies
that since a past outlay is the same regardless of the supplier developmentTechnical and financial
alternative selected, it should not influence the choice assistance given to existing and potential suppliers to
between alternatives.S improve quality and/or due date/performance.S
super bill of materialA type of planning bill, located at supplier footprintDescribes the supply base for a par-
the top level in the structure, that ties together various ticular material, component, or service. When stratified
modular bills (and possibly a common parts bill) to de- properly for leverage, cost impact, risk, and perfor-
fine an entire product or product family. The quantity mance can lead to a supplier footprint transition plan
per relationship of the super bill to its modules for consolidated leverage, supply-base reduction, and
represents the forecasted percentage of demand of focused effort.S
each module. The master-scheduled quantities of the
supplier-input-process-output-customer (SIPOC)
super bill explode to create requirements for the mod-
diagramA high-level process map that shows substan-
ules that also are master scheduled. See: pseudo bill of
tial subprocesses in an organizations process together
material.S
with the structure of the process represented by the
superflushA technique to relieve all components down suppliers, inputs, outputs, and customers. A SIPOC dia-
to the lowest level using the complete bill of material, gram defines the critical aspects of a process without
based on the count of finished units produced or trans- losing the overall perspective.S
ferred to finished goods inventory.S
supplier lead timeThe amount of time that normally
supermarket approachA way of managing inventory elapses between the time an order is received by a
and improving picking by making all parts easy to take supplier and the time the order is shipped. Syn: vendor
off of a shelf, much like the shelves of a supermarket. lead time. See: purchasing lead time.S
Inventory is then restocked in such a way that em-
supplier-managed inventoryA relationship where the
ployees always have easy access.S
buyer maintains inventory usually at its facility and pro-
supervisor estimateAn estimate, made by a knowled- vides the supplier information about the amount of
geable manager, of the labor required for an stock on hand. It is the responsibility of the supplier to
operation.S monitor this information and send replacement items
when the inventory reaches a particular level.S
supplier1) Provider of goods or services. See: vendor.
2) Seller with whom the buyer does business, as op- supplier measurementThe act of measuring the sup-
posed to vendor, which is a generic term referring to all pliers performance to a contract. Measurements usual-
sellers in the marketplace.S ly cover delivery reliability, lead time, and price. Syn:
purchasing performance measurement. See: vendor
supplier alternateA seller other than the primary one.
measurement.S
The supplier alternate may or may not supply the items

170 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


supplier number supply chain event management (SCEM)

supplier numberA numerical code used to distinguish resolve problems, and advise other planners and the
one supplier from another.S master scheduler when purchased items will not arrive
on time to support the schedule. The supplier
supplier-owned inventoryA system in which the suppli-
schedulers are normally organized by commodity, as are
er not only controls the inventory, but owns it and keeps
the buyers. By using the supplier scheduler approach,
in close to the consumer until it is purchased by the
the buyers are freed from day-to-day order placement
consumer. Falls within the supplier managed inventory
and expediting, and therefore have the time to do cost
umbrella.S

supplier partnerA supplier organization with which a


reduction, negotiation, supplier selection, alternate
sourcing, and so forth. Syn: planner/buyer, vendor
S
company has formed a customer-supplier partnership. scheduler.S
See: outpartnering.S
supplier schedulingA purchasing approach that pro-
supplier partnershipThe establishment of a working vides suppliers with schedules rather than with individ-
relationship with a supplier organization whereby two ual hard-copy purchase orders. Normally, a supplier
organizations act as one. Syn: collaborative supply scheduling system will include a business agreement
relationship.S (contract) for each supplier, a weekly (or more frequent)
schedule for each supplier extending for some time into
supplier performance evaluationMonitoring and eva-
the future, and individuals called supplier schedulers.
luating key suppliers on cost, quality, engineering, pur-
Also required is a formal priority planning system that
chasing, and so on, based on an agreed set of
works well, because it is essential in this arrangement
measurements.S
to provide the supplier with valid due dates. Syn: vendor
supplier quality assuranceThe confidence that a sup- scheduling.S
pliers goods or services will fulfill its customers needs. suppliesMaterials used in manufacturing that are not
This confidence is achieved by creating a relationship normally charged to finished production, such as cutting
between the customer and supplier that ensures that and lubricating oils, machine repair parts, glue, or tape.
the product will be fit for use with minimal corrective Syn: general stores, indirect materials.S
action and inspection. According to J.M. Juran, nine
primary activities are needed: (1) define product and supply1) The quantity of goods available for use. 2)
program quality requirements, (2) evaluate alternative The actual or planned replenishment of a product or
suppliers, (3) select suppliers, (4) conduct joint quality component. The replenishment quantities are created
planning, (5) cooperate with the supplier during the ex- in response to a demand for the product or component
ecution of the contract, (6) obtain proof of conformance or in anticipation of such a demand.S
to requirements, (7) certify qualified suppliers, (8) con- supply baseSyn: supplier base.S
duct quality improvement programs as required, and (9)
create and use supplier quality ratings.S supply chainThe global network used to deliver prod-
ucts and services from raw materials to end customers
supplier relationship management (SRM)A compre- through an engineered flow of information, physical dis-
hensive approach to managing an enterprises interac- tribution, and cash.S
tions with the organizations that supply the goods and
supply chain communityThe set of trading partners
services the enterprise uses. The goal of SRM is to
and nominal trading partners that define a complete
streamline and make more effective the processes be-
supply chain.S
tween an enterprise and its suppliers. SRM is often as-
sociated with automating procure-to-pay business supply chain designThe determination of how to struc-
processes, evaluating supplier performance, and ex- ture a supply chain. Design decisions include the selec-
changing information with suppliers. An e-procurement tion of partners, the location and capacity of warehouse
system often comes under the umbrella of a supplier and production facilities, the products, the modes of
relationship management family of applications.S transportation, and supporting information systems.S
supplier schedulerA person whose main job is working supply chain event management (SCEM)A term asso-
with suppliers regarding what is needed and when. ciated with supply chain management software applica-
Supplier schedulers are in direct contact with both MRP tions, where users have the ability to flag the
and the suppliers. They do the material planning for the occurrence of certain supply chain events to trigger
items under their control, communicate the resultant some form of alert or action within another supply chain
schedules to their assigned suppliers, do follow-up, application. SCEM can be deployed to monitor supply

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 171


supply chain execution sustainability

chain business processes such as planning, transporta- supply chain planningThe determination of a set of
tion, logistics, or procurement. SCEM can also be ap- policies and procedures that govern the operation of a
plied to supply chain business intelligence applications supply chain. Planning includes the determination of
to alert users to any unplanned or unexpected event.S marketing channels, promotions, respective quantities
and timing, inventory and replenishment policies, and
supply chain executionExecution-oriented software
production policies. Planning establishes the parame-
applications for effective procurement and supply of
ters within which the supply chain will operate.S

S goods and services across a supply chain. It includes


manufacturing, warehouse, and transportation execu-
tion systems, and systems providing visibility across the
supply chain resilienceThe ability of a supply chain to
anticipate, create plans to avoid or mitigate, and/or to
supply chain.S recover from disruptions to supply chain functionality.S

supply chain integrationWhen supply chain partners supply chain riskThe variety of possible events and
interact at all levels to maximize mutual benefit.S their outcomes that could have a negative effect on the
flow of goods, services, funds, or information resulting
supply chain inventory visibilitySoftware applications
in some level of quantitative or qualitative loss for the
that permit monitoring events across a supply chain.
supply chain.S
These systems track and trace inventory globally on a
line-item level and notify the user of significant devia- supply chain visibilityThe ability of supply chain part-
tions from plans. Companies are provided with realistic ners to access demand and production information
estimates of when material will arrive.S from trading partners.S

supply chain managementThe design, planning, ex- supply rateProduction rate, or quantity of units per
ecution, control, and monitoring of supply chain activi- unit of time, sent to inventory.S
ties with the objective of creating net value, building a supply uncertaintyThe risk of interruptions in the flow
competitive infrastructure, leveraging worldwide logis- of components from upstream suppliers.S
tics, synchronizing supply with demand, and measuring
support costsIn activity-based cost accounting, activity
performance globally.S
costs not directly related with producing a product, such
supply chain masteryA firms ability to achieve supe- as the cost of the information system.S
rior results through exceptional management of reve-
support functionsActivities such as accounting and
nue generation, segmented supplier and customer
information systems that do not directly participate in
management, collaboration and information sharing,
production but that are nevertheless essential.S
risk management, data analysis, and appropriate use of
technology.S surge capacityThe ability to meet sudden, unexpected
increases in demand by expanding production with ex-
supply chain network design systemsSystems created
isting personnel and equipment.S
among all members of the supply chain in order to get
all members on the same page and with the same goals surge tankA container to hold output from one process
in order to promote efficiency.S and feed it to a subsequent process. It is used when
line balancing is not possible or practical or only on a
Supply Chain Operations Reference (SCOR) modelA
contingency basis when downstream equipment is non-
process reference model developed and endorsed by
operational.S
the Supply Chain Council as the cross-industry, stan-
dard diagnostic tool for supply chain management. The surplusA situation in which an oversupply exists.S
SCOR model describes the business activities asso- surrogate driverIn activity-based cost accounting, a
ciated with satisfying a customers demand, which in- substitute for the best possible driver that is useful be-
clude plan, source, make, deliver, and return. Use of the cause it is less costly and almost as accurate.S
model includes analyzing the current state of a compa-
survey researchA form of research (frequently used in
nys processes and goals, quantifying operational per-
marketing research) where data are collected by mailing
formance, and comparing company performance to
questionnaires to a group of people within a target au-
benchmark data. SCOR has developed a set of metrics
dience. See: marketing research.S
for supply chain performance, and Supply Chain Council
members have formed industry groups to collect best sustainabilityActivities that provide present benefit
practices information that companies can use to eva- without compromising the needs of future
luate their supply chain performance.S generations.S

172 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


sustaining activity tactical plan(s)

sustaining activityIn activity-based cost accounting, an systems analysis1) The analyzing in detail of the in-
activity that is not directly beneficial to any specific cost formation needed for an organization, the characteris-
object but does benefit the organization as a whole.S tics and components of the current information system,
and the requirements of any proposed changes to the
sweepstakesA marketing promotion in which prizes
information system. 2) A method of problem solving that
are awarded, usually by chance.S
encompasses the identification, study, and evaluation
of interdependent parts and their attributes that func-

T
SWOTAbbreviation for strengths, weaknesses, oppor-
tunities, and threats.S tion in an ongoing process and that constitute an organ-
ic whole.S
SWOT analysisAn analysis of the strengths, weak-
nesses, opportunities, and threats of and to an organi- systems auditThe audit of any activity that can affect
zation. SWOT analysis is useful in developing strategy.S final product quality.S

synchronized productionA manufacturing manage- systems conceptAn attempt to create the most effi-
ment philosophy that includes a consistent set of prin- cient complete system as opposed to the most efficient
ciples, procedures, and techniques where every action individual parts. A whole process or whole company
is evaluated in terms of the global goal of the system. operating system that is driven by cause and effect.S
Both kanban, which is a part of the JIT philosophy, and systems networkA group of interconnected nodes. This
drum-buffer-rope, which is a part of the theory of con- implies redundancy in connections and some means
straints philosophy, represent synchronized production (e.g., machines) for implementing the connection.S
control approaches. Syn: synchronous manufacturing.
systems rollupIntegrating computer systems; this
See: drum-buffer-rope, kanban, synchronous
enables faster data retrieval and better information sys-
scheduling.S
tem responsiveness.S
synchronous controlA pull-type production control sys-
systems thinkingA school of thought that focuses on
tem that is based on setting production rates and feed-
recognizing the interconnections between the parts of a
ing work into production to meet the planned rates,
system and synthesizing them into a unified view of the
then monitoring and controlling production.S
whole.S
synchronous manufacturingSyn: synchronized systems viewA holistic approach to management that
production.S considers how actions impact the production process.
synchronous schedulingScheduling processes (kan- Included within the system are suppliers, product de-
ban in just in time and drum-buffer-rope in theory of sign, process design, the production process, distribu-
constraints environments) that focus on synchronizing tion, and customers.S
all operations to the constraint of the system. See: syn-
chronized production.S

synthetic time standardSyn: predetermined motion


T
time.S tactical buyingThe purchasing process focused on
transactions and nonstrategic material buying. It is
systemA regularly interacting or interdependent group
closely aligned with the ordering portion of executing
of items forming a unified whole toward the achieve-
the purchasing transaction process. The characteristics
ment of a goal.S
for tactical buying include stable, limited fluctuations,
system constraintIn supply chain management, the defined standard specifications, noncritical to produc-
supply chain is viewed as the complete system. The sys- tion, no delivery issues, and high reliability concerning
tem constraint is the resource at any one of the trading quality-standard material with very little concern for re-
partners that is most limiting the end-to-end throughput jects. See: strategic sourcing.T
of the supply chain.S
tactical plan(s)The set of functional plans (e.g., pro-
system layout planning (SLP)A facility layout metho- duction plan, sales plan, marketing plan) synchronizing
dology that develops the layout of a facility by consider- activities across functions that specify production le-
ing the importance of proximity of each department to vels, capacity levels, staffing levels, funding levels, and
the other departments.S so on, for achieving the intermediate goals and objec-
tives to support the organizations strategic plan. See:
system nervousnessSee: nervousness.S
aggregate planning, operational plan, production plan-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 173


tactical planning team design/engineering

ning, sales and operations planning, strategic plan, tac- increases are not directly correlated to the increase in
tical planning.T the distance shipped.T

tactical planningThe process of developing a set of tardinessFor jobs that are late, the delivery date mi-
tactical plans (e.g., production plan, sales plan, market- nus the due date. See: earliness, lateness.T
ing plan). Two approaches to tactical planning exist for tare weightThe weight of a substance, obtained by de-
linking tactical plans to strategic plansproduction ducting the weight of the empty container from the

T planning and sales and operations planning. See: oper-


ational planning, strategic planning, tactical plan.T
gross weight of the full container.T
target costingThe process of designing a product to
tact timeSyn: takt time.T meet a specific cost objective. Target costing involves
Taguchi methodologyA concept of off-line quality con- setting the planned selling price, subtracting the de-
trol methods conducted at the product and process de- sired profit as well as marketing and distribution costs,
sign stages in the product development cycle. This thus leaving the required manufacturing or target cost.T
concept, expressed by Genichi Taguchi, encompasses target inventory levelIn a min-max inventory system,
three phases of product design: system design, para- the equivalent of the maximum. The target inventory is
meter design, and tolerance design. The goal is to re- equal to the order point plus a variable order quantity. It
duce quality loss by reducing the variability of the is often called an order-up-to inventory level and is used
products characteristics during the parameter phase of in a periodic review system. Syn: order-up-to level.T
product development. Syn: Taguchi methods.T
target market1) A fairly homogeneous group of cus-
Taguchi methodsSyn: Taguchi methodology.T tomers to whom a company wishes to appeal. 2) A de-
finable group of buyers to which a marketer has
takt timeSets the pace of production to match the rate
decided to market.T
of customer demand and becomes the heartbeat of any
lean production system. It is computed as the available target marketingThe process of focusing marketing
production time divided by the rate of customer de- activities specifically on those people who are most like-
mand. For example, assume demand is 10,000 units ly to buy a companys products and services. Data ga-
per month, or 500 units per day, and planned available thered on people who use the internet are enabling
capacity is 420 minutes per day. The takt time = 420 companies to identify and focus on more likely
minutes per day/ 500 units per day = 0.84 minutes per candidates.T
unit. This takt time means that a unit should be planned tariffAn official schedule of taxes and fees imposed by
to exit the production system on average every 0.84 a country on imports or exports.T
minutes. Syn: tact time.T
task1) In project management, the lowest level to
tamperingAction taken to compensate for variation which work can be subdivided on a project. 2) In
within the control limits of a stable system. Tampering activity-based cost accounting, a task, a subdivision of
increases rather than decreases variation, as evidenced an activity, is the least amount of work. Tasks are used
in the funnel experiment. See: funnel experiment.T to describe activities.T
T&MAbbreviation for time and materials.T task interleavingAn attempt at reducing/eliminating
deadheading, or driving an empty material handling
tangiblesThings that can be quantitatively measured
vehicle. A warehouse management system directs a
or valued, such as the costs of physical assets. A di-
material carrying vehicle to put away materials as it
mension of service quality referring to the physical ap-
goes to pick up other materials.T
pearance of the service facility, including the personnel
and equipment.T TBCAbbreviation for time-based competition.T

tank inventoryGoods stored in tanks. These goods TBLAbbreviation for triple bottom line.T
may be raw materials, intermediates, or finished goods. TCOAbbreviation for total cost of ownership.T
The description of inventory as tank inventory indicates
the necessity of calculating the quantity on hand from TCP/IPAbbreviation for transmission control protocol/
the levels within the tanks.T internet protocol.T
team design/engineeringSyn: participative design/
tapering rateA rate structure in which a shipping rate
engineering.T
increases as the distance shipped increases, but the

174 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


teardown therbligs

teardownAll work items required between the end of terminal valueThe value of an operation or entity at
one operation or job and the start of setup for the next the end of the period considered.T
operation or job, both jobs requiring the same machi-
terminalsIn transportation, locations where carriers
nery or facilities. See: teardown time.T
load and unload goods to and from vehicles. Also used
teardown bill of materialSyn: disassembly bill of to make connections between local pickup and delivery
material.T service and line-haul service. Functions performed in

teardown timeThe time needed to remove a setup


from a machine or facility. Teardown is an element of
terminals include weighing connections with other
routes and carriers, vehicle routing, dispatching, main-
tenance, paperwork, and administration. Terminals may
T
manufacturing lead time, but it is often allowed for in
be owned and operated by the carrier or the public.T
setup or run time rather than separately. See:
teardown.T terms and conditionsAll the provisions and agree-
ments of a contract.T
technical componentsParts that are difficult to make,
have long lead times, and require expert knowledge to TEUAbbreviation for twenty-foot equivalent unit.T
produce. They are parts that are produced by only a few
theoretical capacityThe maximum output capability,
suppliers because of these characteristics. Tooling to
allowing no adjustments for preventive maintenance,
produce these products usually is owned by the cus-
unplanned downtime, shutdown, and so forth.T
tomer to avoid proprietary or patent issues.T
theoretical cycle timeThe amount of time, eliminating
technical/office protocol (TOP)An application-specific all stops, waiting, and additional time due to error, that
protocol based on open systems interconnection (OSI) is needed for one item to go through an entire process.T
standards. It is designed to allow communication
between computers from different suppliers in the theory of constraints (TOC)A holistic management phi-
technical development and office environments.T losophy developed by Dr. Eliyahu M. Goldratt that is
based on the principle that complex systems exhibit in-
technologiesThe terms, concepts, philosophies, hard- herent simplicity. Even a very complex system compris-
ware, software, and other attributes used in a field, in- ing thousands of people and pieces of equipment can
dustrial sector, or business function.T have, at any given time, only a very, very small number
technology transferThe transmission of technology of variablesperhaps only one, known as a constraint
(e.g., knowledge, skills, software, hardware) from one that actually limit the ability to generate more of the
country, organization, business, or entity to another systems goal.T
country, organization, business, or entity.T theory of constraints accountingA cost and managerial
TEIAbbreviation for total employee involvement.T accounting system that accumulates costs and reve-
nues into three areasthroughput, inventory, and oper-
telecommunicationsTransmission of voice and image ating expense. It does not create incentives (through
data at a distance by electronic means.T allocation of overhead) to build up inventory. The sys-
telescopingSyn: overlapped schedule.T tem is considered to provide a truer reflection of actual
revenues and costs than traditional cost accounting. It
telnet (TN)Software that enables a user to log on to
is closer to a cash flow concept of income than is tradi-
remote computers.T
tional accounting. The theory of constraints (TOC) ac-
tender offerAn offer by an organization to buy a block counting provides a simplified and more accurate form
of shares directly from shareholders of another of direct costing that subtracts true variable costs
organization.T (those costs that vary with throughput quantity). Unlike
traditional cost accounting systems in which the focus
terminal delivery allowanceA discount provided if
is generally placed on reducing costs in all the various
freight is delivered to or picked up from the carriers
accounts, the primary focus of TOC accounting is on ag-
terminal.T
gressively exploiting the constraint(s) to make more
terminal-handling costsCarrier charges dependent on money for the firm. Syn: constraint accounting,
the number of times a shipment must be loaded, han- throughput accounting.T
dled and unloaded. Cost can be reduced by consolidat-
therbligsThe 17 basic movements identified by Frank
ing shipments into fewer parcels or by shipping in
and Lillian Gilbreth. (The name of the term is essentially
truckload quantities.T
Gilbreth spelled backwards.) Examples of movements

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 175


third-order smoothing time-based order system

include grasp, move, release, select, and position. See: expressed for a given time periodsuch as, per month,
predetermined time standards.T week, day, or even minute. If the goal units are money,
throughput will be an amount of money per time period.
third-order smoothingSyn: triple smoothing.T
In that case, throughput is calculated as revenues re-
third-party logistics (3PL)A buyer and supplier team ceived minus totally variable costs divided for the cho-
with a third party that provides product delivery servic- sen time period.T
es. This third party may provide added supply chain

T expertise.T
third-party logistics companyA company that manages
throughput accountingA management accounting me-
thod that is based on the belief that because every sys-
tem has a constraint that limits global performance, the
all or part of another companys product delivery most effective way to evaluate the impact that any pro-
operations.T posed action will have on the system as a whole is to
third-party registration systemUsing an outside party look at the expected changes in the global measures of
(rather than the buyer) to determine the adequacy of a throughput, inventory, and operating expense.T
sellers product quality. If several buyers use the same
throughput timeSyn: cycle time (second definition).T
third party system, such as ISO9000, the seller avoids
having multiple audits.T tiered workforceA strategy used to vary workforce le-
vels, where additional full-time or part-time employees
third-party transportation servicesOutside firms provid-
are hired during peak demand periods, while a smaller,
ing transportation of goods.T
permanent staff is maintained year-round. This tech-
third-party warehousingThe outsourcing of the ware- nique is used heavily in perishable seasonal goods in-
housing function by the seller of the goods.T dustries (e.g. chocolate production, nursery plants,
Thomas RegisterA privately produced reference set etc.).T
that includes a listing of part suppliers by product type tier oneThe group of suppliers that are directly re-
and geographic area.T sponsible for not only product supply but product
three-bin kanbanSimple kanban structure that development.T
focuses on cycling three bins of material continually and
tiger teamsTeams that attempt to achieve a specific
provides a visible method to align replenishment with
goal within a short time period.T
consumption. One bin is ready to ship from the supplier
at all times, while two are back to back in time and attendanceA collection of data relating to an
manufacturing/production at or near point of use. As employees record of absences and hours worked.T
the front bin empties, a signal is sent to the supplier to
time and materials (T&M) contractA type of contract
send a full bin and the back bin is issued forward into
that is a hybrid between cost-reimbursable and fixed-
production. See: kanban.T
time contracts.T
3D printingThe process of layering materials to make
products and components using computer data. Syn: time-based competition (TBC)A corporate strategy that
additive manufacturing. See: rapid prototyping.3 emphasizes time as the vehicle for achieving and
maintaining a sustainable competitive edge. Its
3PLAbbreviation for third-party logistics.3 characteristics are (1) it deals only with those lead
three-point estimateA project management technique times that are important to the customers; (2) the lead-
that uses three cost or duration estimates to stand for time reductions must involve decreases in both the
the optimistic (O), most likely (M), and pessimistic (P) mean and the variance; and (3) the lead-time
situation. The mean value (MV) is often found using reductions must be achieved through system/process
MV=(O+4M+P)/6. This technique can improve the accu- analysis (the processes must be changed to reduce
racy of cost or duration estimates when underlying as- lead times). TBC is a broad-based strategy. Reductions
sumptions are uncertain.T in lead times are achieved by changing the processes
and the decision structures used to design, produce,
threshold costsA companys variable costs, which
and deliver products to the customers. TBC involves
must be covered for a company to continue to stay in
design, manufacturing, and logistical processes.T
business.T
time-based order systemSyn: fixed reorder cycle inven-
throughputThe rate at which the system generates
tory model.T
goal units. Because throughput is a rate, it is always

176 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


time bucket time utility

time bucketA number of days of data summarized into patterns of demand must be considered in time series
a columnar or row-wise display. A weekly time bucket analysis: seasonal, trend, cyclical, and random.T
would contain all of the relevant data for an entire
time series analysisAnalysis of any variable classified
week. Weekly time buckets are considered to be the
by time in which the values of the variable are functions
largest possible (at least in the near and medium term)
of the time periods. Time series analysis is used in fore-
to permit effective MRP.T
casting. A time series consists of seasonal, cyclical,
time bufferProtection against uncertainty that takes
the form of time.T
time cardA document recording attendance time, of-
trend, and random components. See: cyclical compo-
nent, random component, seasonal component, trend
component.T
T
ten used for indicating the number of hours for which time series forecastingA forecasting method that
wages are to be paid. Syn: clock card.T projects historical data patterns into the future. It in-
time-definite servicesDelivery of goods and services volves the assumption that the near-term future will be
where an agreement has been reached on the day and like the recent past.T
time of the delivery.T times interest earnedRatio of profits before payment
time fenceA policy or guideline established to note of interest and income taxes (EBIT) to interest on debt.T
where various restrictions or changes in operating pro-
time stampingTracking with each transaction the time
cedures take place. For example, changes to the master
of occurrence. It is used in period closings and to tie
production schedule can be accomplished easily
end items to samples for certification of item
beyond the cumulative lead time, while changes inside
properties.T
the cumulative lead time become increasingly more dif-
ficult to a point where changes should be resisted. Time time standardThe predetermined times allowed for
fences can be used to define these points. See: de- the performance of a specific job. The standard will of-
mand time fence, hedge, planning time fence.T ten consist of two parts, that for machine setup and
that for actual running. The standard can be developed
time-now dateSyn: data date.T
through observation of the actual work (time study),
time period safety stockA safety stock that is based on summation of standard micromotion times (predeter-
usage over a designated time frame. The period can be mined or synthetic time standards), or approximation
set as days, weeks, or months. Safety stock varies di- (historical job times).T
rectly with the demand. This differs from statistical-
based safety stocks in that the amount is not based on time studyTiming employees as they accomplish jobs
deviation from demand.T for the purpose of setting time standards.T

time-phased order point (TPOP)MRP-like time planning timetablesSchedules that are organized by starting
logic for independent demand items, where gross re- location/destination and show the times for departures
quirements come from a forecast, not via explosion. and arrivals.T
This technique can be used to plan distribution center time ticketAn operator-entered labor claim. Syn: job
inventories as well as to plan for service (repair) parts, ticket.T
because MRP logic can readily handle items with de-
pendent demand, independent demand, or a combina- time-to-marketThe total time required to design, build,
tion of both. Time-phased order point is an approach and deliver a product (timed from concept to delivery).
that uses time periods, thus allowing for lumpy with- See: procurement lead time.T
drawals instead of average demand. When used in dis-
time-to-productThe total time required to receive, fill,
tribution environments, the planned order releases are
and deliver an order for an existing product to a cus-
input to the master schedule dependent demands. See:
tomer, timed from the moment that the customer plac-
fixed reorder quantity inventory model.T
es the order until the customer receives the product.
time phasingThe technique of expressing future de- See: purchasing lead time.T
mand, supply, and inventories by time period. Time
time to reliably replenish (TRR)The time in which a
phasing is one of the key elements of material require-
part can reliably be obtained if necessary.T
ments planning.T
time utilityWhen a delivery gets to a customer at exact-
time seriesA set of data that is distributed over time,
ly the right time (not early, not late).T
such as demand data in monthly time periods. Various

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 177


time value of money total cost of ownership (TCO)

time value of money1) The cumulative effect of tool orderA document authorizing issue of specific
elapsed time on the money value of an event, based on tools from the tool crib or other storage. Syn: tool issue
the earning power of equivalent invested funds. See: order.T
future worth, present value. 2) The interest rate that
TOPAcronym for technical/office protocol.T
capital is expected to earn.T
tipping pointThe moment when something unique be- top management commitment (quality)In the total

T comes common. The term often refers to the popular quality management philosophy, participation of the
acceptance of new technologies. The concept has been highest-level official in the organizations quality im-
applied to any process in which beyond a certain point, provement efforts. Participation includes establishing
the rate at which the process (chemical, sociological, and serving on a quality committee, establishing quality
environmental, etc.) proceeds increase dramatically.T policies and goals, deploying those goals to lower levels
of the organization, providing the resources and training
TMSAbbreviation for transportation management that the lower levels need to achieve the goals, partici-
system.T pating in quality improvement teams, reviewing
TNAbbreviation for telnet.T organization-wide progress, recognizing those who have
performed well, and revising the current reward system
TOCAbbreviation for theory of constraints.T
to reflect the importance of achieving the quality goals.T
TOC performance measuresIn the theory of con-
straints, throughput, inventory, and operating expense total annual material receiptsThe amount (in dollars)
are considered performance measures that link opera- of all direct materials that were received in a calendar
tional decisions to organizational profit.T year. This number should fall very close to the direct
material dollars that were used in a calendar year in a
TOFCAbbreviation for trailer on a flatcar.T lean environment.T
toleranceAllowable departure from a nominal value
total cost analysisIn purchasing, a process by which a
established by design engineers that is deemed ac-
firm seeks to identify and quantify all of the major costs
ceptable for the functioning of the good or service over
associated with various sourcing options.T
its life cycle.T
total cost conceptIn logistics, the idea that all logistical
tolerance limits1) The upper and lower extreme values
decisions that provide equal service levels should favor
permitted by the tolerance. 2) In work measurement,
the option that minimizes the total of all logistical costs
the limits between which a specified operation time val-
and not be used on cost reductions in one area alone,
ue or other work unit will be expected to vary. See: lower
such as lower transportation charges.T
specification limit, upper specification limit. Syn: speci-
fication limits.T total cost considerationConsidering all cost impacts,
tolerance stack upWhen two or more components, all rather than just one cost impact, on customer service
within tolerance limits but some distance from the spe- improvement.T
cification itself, are assembled together the assembly total cost curve1) In cost-volume-profit (breakeven)
may be subject to early failure because of the interac- analysis, the total cost curve is composed of total fixed
tion between the components.T and variable costs per unit multiplied by the number of
ton-mileA way to measure the transportation of freight. units provided. Breakeven quantity occurs where the
It is the multiplication of weight being transported (in total cost curve and total sales revenue curve intersect.
tons) by the distance it is being transported (in miles). See: break-even chart, break-even point. 2) In inventory
Heavily used in rail and ship transportation mode.T theory, the total cost curve for an inventory item is the
sum of the costs of acquiring and carrying the item.
toolAny instrument, such as a saw blade, that is the
See: economic order quantity.T
working part of a machine.T
total cost of ownership (TCO)In supply chain manage-
tool calibration frequencyThe recommended length of
ment, the total cost of ownership of the supply delivery
time between tool calibrations. It is normally expressed
system is the sum of all the costs associated with every
in days.T
activity of the supply stream. The main insight that TCO
tool issue orderSyn: tool order.T offers to the supply chain manager is the understanding
tool numberThe identification number assigned to ref- that the acquisition cost is often a very small portion of
erence and control a specific tool.T the total cost of ownership.T

178 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


total cost of quality touch labor

total cost of qualityA sum that includes costs asso- total procurement lead timeSyn: procurement lead
ciated with rework, scrap, warranty costs, and other time.T
costs associated with preventing or resolving quality
problems.T total productive maintenance (TPM)Preventive main-
tenance plus continuing efforts to adapt, modify, and
total cost of quality curveA curve that suggests there is refine equipment to increase flexibility, reduce material
some optimal quality level, Q*. The curve is calculated handling, and promote continuous flows. It is operator-
by adding costs of internal and external failures, pre-
vention costs, and appraisal costs. The optimal quality
level occurs where this curve reaches a minimum point.
oriented maintenance with the involvement of all quali-
fied employees in all maintenance activities. Syn: total
preventive maintenance.T
T
It is a single turning point curve that always has a
minimum.T total quality control (TQC)The process of creating and
producing the total composite good and service charac-
total costsConsidering all cost impacts, rather than
teristics (by marketing, engineering, manufacturing,
just one cost impact, on customer service
purchasing, etc.) through which the good and service
improvement.T
will meet the expectations of customers.T
total cumulative manufacturing cycle timeAverage
time between a part entering a manufacturing system total quality engineering (TQE)The discipline of design-
and completion of final packaging.T ing quality into the product and manufacturing
processes by understanding the needs of the customer
total employee involvement (TEI)An empowerment
and performance capabilities of the equipment. See:
program in which employees are invited to participate in
design for quality.T
actions and decision making that were traditionally re-
served for management.T total quality management (TQM)A term coined to de-
total factor productivityA measure of productivity (of a scribe Japanese-style management approaches to qual-
department, plant, strategic business unit, firm, etc.) ity improvement. Since then, total quality management
that combines the individual productivities of all its re- (TQM) has taken on many meanings. Simply put, TQM is
sources, including labor, capital, energy, material, and a management approach to long-term success through
equipment. These individual factor productivities are customer satisfaction. TQM is based on the participa-
often combined by weighting each according to its tion of all members of an organization in improving
monetary value and then adding them. For example, if processes, goods, services, and the culture in which
material accounts for 40 percent of the total cost of they work. The methods for implementing this approach
sales and labor 10 percent of the total cost of sales, are found in teachings of such quality leaders as Philip
etc., total factor productivity = .4 (material productivity) B. Crosby, W. Edwards Deming, Armand V. Feigenbaum,
+ .1 (labor productivity) + etc.T Kaoru Ishikawa, J.M. Juran, and Genichi Taguchi.T

total fixed costsCosts that remain constant in total re- total value analysisA method of economic analysis in
gardless of changes in activity.T which a model expresses the dependent variable of in-
total floatIn project management, the length of time terest as a function of independent variables, some of
an activity can be late without delaying succeeding ac- which are controllable.T
tivities. See: float, free float, independent float.T
total variable costsCosts that vary in total in propor-
total lead timeSyn: lead time.T tion to changes in activity.T
total line-haul costBasic costs of carrier operation to
total waste management (TWM)A methodology that
move a container of freight, including driver's wages
enables finding solutions to waste issues while keeping
and usage depreciation, which vary with the distance
in mind financial elements and the business case.T
shipped and the cost per mile.T
total make cycle timeAverage cumulative processing touchesA statistic that is used to determine efficiency
time between a part entering a manufacturing system for costing/pricing functions. A touch is anytime that a
and completion of manufacturing activities (not includ- labor activity is utilized during the manufacturing or
ing packaging).T service creation process. This brought about the term
touch labor for direct labor personnel.T
total preventive maintenanceSyn: total productive
maintenance.T touch laborSyn: direct labor.T

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Toyota Production System (TPS) transformation process

Toyota Production System (TPS)A manufacturing me- trading companyA company that introduces foreign
thodology developed at Toyota that has evolved into the buyers and sellers and arranges all product
concepts of just in time and lean manufacturing.T export/import details, documentation, and
transportation.T
TPMAbbreviation for total productive maintenance.T
trading partnerAny organization external to the firm
TPOPAbbreviation for time-phased order point.T
that plays an integral role within the supply chain com-

T TPSAbbreviation for Toyota Production System.T

TQCAbbreviation for total quality control.T


munity and whose business fortune depends on the
success of the supply chain community.T
trading partner agreementA contract between trading
TQEAbbreviation for total quality engineering.T partners that describes all facets of their business to-
TQMAbbreviation for total quality management.T gether. This is a legal and binding agreement suitable
for legal purposes as well as standard working
traceability1) The attribute allowing the ongoing loca- agreements.T
tion of a shipment to be determined. 2) The registering
trafficA department or function charged with the re-
and tracking of parts, processes, and materials used in
sponsibility for arranging the most economic classifica-
production, by lot or serial number.T
tion and method of shipment for both incoming and
tracerA request to a transportation line to trace a outgoing materials and products.T
shipment to expedite its movement or to verify
traffic departmentThe area of an organization that
delivery.T
plans and executes shipping requirements.T
tracingIn activity-based cost accounting, connecting traffic managementControl of transportation carriers,
resources to activities to cost objects using underlying
modes, and services.T
causal drivers to understand how costs occur during
normal business activities.T trailer on a flatcar (TOFC)A specialized form of contai-
nerization in which motor and rail transport coordinate.
tracking capacity strategyAdding capacity in small Syn: piggyback.T
amounts to attempt to respond to changing demand in
real time in the marketplace. This approach may satisfy training aidAn item to enhance training, usually minor
total demand and help minimize unit costs, but it can in nature. Training aids may include charts, graphs,
be difficult in some situations to add incremental slides, and schematics.T
amounts of capacity, especially if the facility has no transaction channelA distribution network that deals
more space available.T with change of ownership of goods and services includ-
ing the activities of negotiation, selling, and
tracking signalThe ratio of the cumulative algebraic
contracting.T
sum of the deviations between the forecasts and the
actual values to the mean absolute deviation. Used to transactionsIndividual events reported to the system
signal when the validity of the forecasting model might (e.g., issues, receipts, transfers, adjustments).T
be in doubt. See: forecast error, mean absolute transfer batchThe quantity of an item moved between
deviation.T sequential work centers during production. See: batch,
trade blocAn agreement between countries intended overlap quantity.T
to reduce or remove barriers to trade within member transfer pricePrice that one segment (subunit, de-
countries. Frequently, but not always, those countries partment, division, etc.) of an organization charges for a
are geographically close. Examples of trade blocs are good or service supplied to another segment of the
the European Economic Community and the North same organization.T
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Syn: trading
transfer pricingThe pricing of goods or services trans-
bloc.T
ferred from one segment of a business to another. See:
trade secretKnowledge of a manufacturing process interplant transfer.T
that gives the owner an advantage over competitors
transformation processThe process of converting in-
who do not have it. Trade secrets are legally
puts into finished goods or services. In a service firm,
protectable.T
the input may be a customer. Syn: transformation sys-
trading blocSyn: trade bloc.T tem. See: manufacturing process, production process.T

180 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


transformation system trend adjusted exponential smoothing forecasting

transformation systemSyn: transformation process.T transportation legal classificationsLegal regulatory


classification of transportation by product, shipping
transient bill of materialSyn: phantom bill of material.T
size, rates, carriers, and types of services.T
transient stateIn waiting line models, early behavior of
transportation management system (TMS)A computer
a characteristic of the model, such as line length, is
application system designed to manage transportation
more erratic than eventual performance of the line.
operations. These systems typically offer modules
Data are usually not collected from the model until less
erratic behavior emerges. See: steady state.T
transit inventoryInventory in transit between manufac-
focused on specific functions, such as intermodal
transportation, import/export management, fleet
service management, and load planning and
T
turing and stocking locations. See: transportation optimization.T
inventory.T
transportation methodA linear programming model
transition tree (TRT)In the theory of constraints, a concerned with minimizing the costs involved in supply-
logic-based tool for identifying and sequencing actions ing requirements to several locations from several
in accomplishing an objective. The transitions represent sources with different costs related to the various com-
the states or stages in moving from the present situa- binations of source and requirement locations.T
tion to the desired objective.T
transportation modeThe way an item is transported.T
transit privilegeA service provided by a shipper that
transportation requirements planning (TRP)Using ex-
allows the purchasing company to stop a shipment mid-
isting MRP, DRP, or ERP databases to plan transporta-
route to allow changes to the delivery, but pay the non-
tion requirements based on actual demand.T
stop rate.T
transport stocksA carrier material to move solids in
transit timeA standard allowance that is assumed on
solution or slurry or to dilute ingredients to safe levels
any given order for the movement of items from one
for reaction.T
operation to the next. Syn: travel time.T
travelerA copy of the manufacturing order that actually
translation softwareSoftware that converts business
moves with the work through the shop. Syn: shop
data into an electronic data interchange standard for-
traveler.T
mat and vice versa.T
traveling purchase requisitionA purchase requisition
transmission acknowledgementThe receiver of a
designed for repetitive use. After a purchase order has
transmission notifies the sender that the transmission
been prepared for the goods requisitioned, the form is
was received error free.T
returned to the originator, who holds it until a repur-
transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/ chase of the goods is required. The name is derived
IP)The communication protocol used by the internet.T from the repetitive travel between the originating and
purchasing departments. Syn: traveling requisition.T
transparencyA company allows outsiders, typically
customers, to see some internal information, typically traveling requisitionSyn: traveling purchase
regarding an order, without giving any more than the requisition.T
outsider requires.T
travel timeSyn: transit time.T
transportationThe function of planning, scheduling,
treasury stockCommon stock that has been repur-
and controlling activities related to mode, vendor, and
chased by the issuing company.T
movement of inventories into and out of an
organization.T tree diagram1) A management technique used to ana-
lyze a situation in increasing detail. The full range of
transportation brokersFirms that find shipments for
tasks to be accomplished to achieve a primary goal and
carriers for a fee.T
supporting subgoal may be illustrated. 2) In the theory
transportation cycle timeA logistics performance of constraints, a diagram relating effects to underlying
measure of the lead time required for a product to causes. See: current reality tree, future reality tree.T
reach its final destination; the time between leaving a
trendGeneral upward or downward movement of a va-
warehouse and arriving at the destination.T
riable over time (e.g., demand, process attribute).T
transportation inventoryInventory that is in transit be-
trend adjusted exponential smoothing forecastingA
tween locations. See: pipeline stock, transit inventory.T
form of exponential smoothing forecasting that includes

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 181


trend analysis type II error

a factor for increasing or decreasing tendencies in the turnover1) Syn: inventory turnover. 2) In the United
data due to things such as population growth or income Kingdom and certain other countries, annual sales
changes.T volume.T
trend analysisAn analysis to determine whether trend
turnover ratioAn indicator of whether or not a compa-
(general upward or downward change) exists in data.
ny is using its assets efficiently. It is measured by divid-
See: trend forecasting models.T
ing sales by average assets during a particular period.T

T trend componentA component of demand, usually de-


scribing the impact of increasing or decreasing growth
on demand. See: time series analysis.T
turnsSyn: inventory turnover.T

twenty-foot equivalent unit (TEU)A measure of cargo


trend control chartA control chart in which the devia-
capacity equivalent to a standard container (i.e., 20-feet
tion of the subgroup average, X-bar, from an expected
long, 8-feet wide, and approximately 8-feet high).T
trend in the process level is used to evaluate the stabili-
ty of a process.T
TWMAbbreviation for total waste management.T
trend forecasting modelsMethods for forecasting
sales data when a definite upward or downward pattern two-bin inventory systemA type of fixed-order system
exists. Models include double exponential smoothing, in which inventory is carried in two bins. A replenish-
regression, and triple smoothing. See: trend analysis.T ment quantity is ordered when the first bin (working) is
empty. During the replenishment lead time, material is
trigger levelSyn: order point.T
used from the second bin. When the material is re-
triple bottom line (TBL)An approach that measures the ceived, the second bin (which contains a quantity to
economic, social, and environmental impact of an or- cover demand during lead time plus some safety stock)
ganization's activities with the intent of bringing value is refilled and the excess is put into the working bin. At
for both its shareholders and society.T this time, stock is drawn from the first bin until it is
triple smoothingA method of exponential smoothing again exhausted. This term is also used loosely to de-
that accounts for accelerating or decelerating trends, scribe any fixed-order system even when physical bins
such as would be experienced in a fad cycle. Syn: third- do not exist. Syn: bin reserve system. See: visual review
order smoothing.T system.T

TRPAbbreviation for transportation requirements two-card kanban systemA kanban system where a
planning.T move card and production card are employed. The
TRRAbbreviation for time to reliably replenish.T move card authorizes the movement of a specific num-
ber of parts from a source to a point of use. The move
TRTAbbreviation for transition tree.T
card is attached to the standard container of parts dur-
truckload carriersCarriers that deliver/charge only for ing movement to the point of use of the parts. The pro-
full truckload shipments.T duction card authorizes the production of a given
truckload lotA truck shipment that qualifies for a lower number of parts for use or replenishment. Syn: dual-
freight rate because it meets a minimum weight and/or card kanban system. See: one-card kanban system.T
volume.T
two-level master scheduleA master scheduling ap-
trustA fiduciary relationship in which the trustee holds proach in which a planning bill of material is used to
ownership for the benefit of another party (benefactor).T master schedule an end product or family, along with
TS 16949Syn: ISO/TS 16949.T selected key features (options and accessories). See:
hedge, multilevel master schedule, production
turnaroundSyn: setup.T
forecast.T
turnaround costsSyn: setup costs.T
type I errorAn incorrect decision to reject something
turnaround timeSyn: setup.T
(such as a statistical hypothesis or a lot of products)
turnkey system1) Computer packages that are already when it is acceptable. See: producers risk.T
prepared by a hardware manufacturer or software
house and are ready to run. 2) Any system of machines type II errorAn incorrect decision to accept something
that is ready for immediate use.T when it is unacceptable. See: consumers risk.T

182 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


ubiquity unit load

suring, and communicating the United Nations Global

U Compact and its principles.U

uniform-delivered pricingA type of geographic pricing


ubiquityIn inventory control, a raw material that is policy in which all customers pay the same delivered
found at all locations.U price regardless of their location. A company allocates
the total transportation cost among all customers.U
U chartA control chart for evaluating the stability of a
process in terms of the average count of events of a
given classification per unit occurring in a sample. Syn:
uniform plant loadingIn lean, the distribution of work
between work stations so that the time required for
U
count-per-unit chart.U each station to complete all tasks is as close to equal
UCLAbbreviation for upper control limit.U as possible. See: line balancing.U

UDEAbbreviation for undesirable effect. uniform product codeA retail product numbering and
Pronouncedoodee.U bar coding system that identifies the item and the man-
ufacturer.U
U-linesProduction lines shaped like the letter U. The
shape allows workers to easily perform several nonse- uniform resource locator (URL)A means of locating
quential tasks without much walk time. The number of web pages regardless of where they are on the
workstations in a U-line is usually determined by line internet.U
balancing. U-lines promote communication.U
uniform warehouse receipts actAn act that regulates
unattainable capabilityThe portion of the production public warehousing; it sets up the legal responsibilities
capability that cannot be attained. This is typically of warehouse managers and determines the receipts
caused by factors such as equipment unavailability, that can be issued.U
suboptimal scheduling, or resource limitations.U
union contractA formal contract, usually covering two-
uncertaintyUnknown future events that cannot be to-six years, between a union representing employees
predicted quantitatively within useful limits; for exam- and their company that covers all aspects of pay, work-
ple, an accident that destroys facilities, a major strike, ing conditions, and strike options.U
or an innovation that makes existing products
union freeA designation that indicates that a company
obsolete.U
or operation does not have a union contract.U
uncontrollable factorsIn the environment of a produc-
tion system, those factors that cannot be changed (e.g., union shopA facility in which all hourly employees are
temperature, natural causes, weather, vibration).U unionized, or more formally a clause in a collective bar-
gaining agreement under which membership in the un-
under-capacity schedulingAllowing more time than ion is required as a condition of employment. Union
should be necessary to complete a days work. As a re- shops are illegal in some regions.U
sult, a daily quota is met more often and workers have
time to cross-train or perform maintenance on their unit costTotal labor, material, and overhead cost for
tools and machines.U one unit of production (e.g., one part, one gallon, one
pound).U
undertimeA condition occurring when more personnel
are on the payroll than are required to produce the United Nations Global CompactA voluntary initiative
planned output.U whereby companies embrace, support, and enact, with-
in their sphere of influence, a set of core values in the
undesirable effects (UDE)In theory of constraints:
areas of human rights, labor standards, the environ-
Those negative aspects of an environment that are
ment, and anticorruption.U
noted so that a current reality tree may be
constructed.U unitizationIn warehousing, the consolidation of several
units into larger units for fewer handlings.U
unfair labor practiceActivities by management or labor
that violate the National Labor Relations Act. Failure to unit loadA shipping unit made up of a number of
bargain in good faith is an example.U items, or bulky material, arranged or constrained so the
mass can be picked up or moved as a single unit.
UN Global Compact Management ModelA framework
Reduces material handling costs. Often shrink-packed
for guiding companies through the process of formally
on a pallet before shipment.U
committing to, assessing, defining, implementing, mea-

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 183


unit load concept utilization

unit load conceptWaiting for a container or pallet to be upchargesAdditional charges that are added to a deli-
filled before the material is moved.U vered bill that are not included in the original contract.
These occur because of unforeseen increases to the
unit of driver measureThe common unit of measure
deliverers cost base.U
used to group similar processes, so that comparisons
can be made easily.U upgradeImprovement in operating characteristics.U
unit of issueThe standard issue quantity of an item upper control limit (UCL)Control limit for points above

U from stores (e.g., pounds, each, box of 12, package of


20, case of 144).U
the central line in a control chart.U
upper specification limit (USL)In statistical process
unit of measureThe unit in which the quantity of an control, the line that defines the maximum acceptable
item is managed (e.g., pounds, each, box of 12, pack- level of random output. See: tolerance limits.U
age of 20, case of 144).U
upside flexibilityThe ability of a facility to increase their
unit-of-measure conversionA standard conversion ra- output and ability to deliver, for the foreseeable future,
tio that a company or its computer system uses to because of a non-forecasted increase in demand. The
quickly enter in the amount delivered based on a known main drivers of this flexibility are the availability of direct
quantity within each unit of measure (e.g., a case of so- labor and/ or direct materials and the actual production
da contains 24 cans).U capacity of the facility.U
unit of measure (purchasing)The unit used to pur- upstreamUsed as a relative reference within a firm or
chase an item. This may or may not be the same unit of supply chain to indicate moving in the direction of the
measure used in the internal systems. For example, raw material supplier.U
purchasing buys steel by the ton, but it may be issued
URLAbbreviation for uniform resource locator.U
and used in square inches. Syn: purchasing unit of
measure.U usageThe number of units or dollars of an inventory
item consumed over a period of time.U
unit-sizeTo combine a number of packages into one
unit by attaching them together.U usage varianceDeviation of the actual consumption of
materials as compared to the standard.U
units-of-production depreciationA method of deprecia-
tion whereby the amount to be recovered (written off as usage rateDemand per product per unit of time.U
a period expense) is calculated based on estimated life use as isClassification for material that has been de-
of the equipment in units to be produced over the life clared to be unacceptable per the specifications, yet
and the number of units produced in a given time pe- can be used.U
riod. See: depreciation.U
user-friendlyCharacteristic of computer software or
universalityThe strategy of designing a product initially hardware that makes it easy for the user or operator to
intended for one market in such a way that it can also use the programs or equipment with a minimum of spe-
be sold in other markets. It is a form of cialized knowledge or recourse to operating manuals.U
standardization.U
user interfaceThe portion of a computer system
universeThe population, or large set of data, from through which the end user interacts with the system. It
which samples are drawn. Usually assumed to be infi- may include the keyboard, mouse, touch-screen, and
nitely large or at least very large relative to the sample.U other devices.U
unplanned issueAn issue transaction that updates the USLAbbreviation for upper specification limit.U
quantity on hand but for which no allocation exists.U
utilization1) A measure (usually expressed as a per-
unplanned orderAfter a forecast has been developed, centage) of how intensively a resource is being used to
an unplanned order is any order outside of this produce a good or service. Utilization compares actual
forecast.U time used to available time. Traditionally, utilization is
unplanned receiptA receipt transaction that updates the ratio of direct time charged (run time plus setup
the quantity on hand but for which no order exists.U time) to the clock time available. Utilization is a percen-
tage between 0 percent and 100 percent that is equal
unplanned repairRepair and replacement require-
to 100 percent minus the percentage of time lost due to
ments that are unknown until remanufacturing tear-
the unavailability of machines, tools, workers, and so
down and inspection.U
forth. See: efficiency, lost time factor, productivity. 2) In

184 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


valid schedule value stream

the theory of constraints, activation of a resource that value-based management (VBM)The concept of satis-
productively contributes to reaching the goal. Over- fying customers to create shareholder wealth.V
activation of a resource does not productively utilize a
value chainThe functions within a company that add
resource. See: available time.U
value to the goods or services that the organization
sells to customers and for which it receives payment.V

V
V
value chain analysisAn examination of all links a com-
pany uses to produce and deliver its products and ser-
valid scheduleA detailed, feasible calendar of specific vices starting from the origination point and continuing
items flowing into and through a factory.V through delivery to the final customer.V
valuationThe technique of determining worth, typically
value chain initiativeThis initiative combines software,
of inventory. Valuation of inventories may be expressed
hardware, and supply chain companies to develop an
in standard dollars, replacement dollars, current aver-
integrated system to support software sharing among
age dollars, or last-purchase-price dollars.V
diverse applications.V
valueThe worth of an item, good, or service.V
value-driven enterpriseAn organization that is de-
value added1) In accounting, the addition of direct signed and managed to add utility from the viewpoint of
labor, direct material, and allocated overhead assigned the customer in the transformation of raw materials into
at an operation. It is the cost roll-up as a part goes a finished good or service.V
through a manufacturing process to finished inventory.
2) In current manufacturing terms, the actual increase value engineering and/or analysisA disciplined
of utility from the viewpoint of the customer as a part is approach to the elimination of waste from products or
transformed from raw material to finished inventory. It processes through an investigative process that focuses
is the contribution made by an operation or a plant to on the functions to be performed and whether such
the final usefulness and value of a product, as seen by functions add value to the good or service.V
the customer. The objective is to eliminate all non- value indexA measure that uses the performance and
value-added activities in producing and providing a importance scores for various dimensions of perfor-
good or service.V mance for an item or service to calculate a score that
value-added network (VAN)A network, often supporting indicates the overall value of an item or service to a
EDI, providing services additional to those provided by customer.V
common carriers.V
value-of-service pricingAllowing the market to deter-
value-added productivity per employeeA measure that mine the price.V
is determined by three things: total output of a compa-
ny, materials purchased, and total employment. To value of transfersThe amount transferred, in a fiscal
come up with this number, one must subtract materials year, from one stage of the manufacturing process to
purchased from total output and then divide that num- another. For example, it is the amount of raw materials
ber by total employment. It allows a company to under- that are transformed into work in process.V
stand easily how much production the typical employee value perspectiveA quality perspective that holds that
is producing.V quality must be judged, in part, by how well the charac-
value-adding/non-value-addingThe assessment of teristics of a particular product or service align with the
each of the companys activities to determine if that needs of a specific user.V
activity adds value to the organization or its customers.
value streamThe processes of creating, producing,
If an activity is considered non-value-adding it should be
and delivering a good or service to the market. For a
eliminated to increase an organizations efficiency.V
good, the value stream encompasses the raw material
value analysisThe systematic use of techniques that supplier, the manufacture and assembly of the good,
identify a required function, establish a value for that and the distribution network. For a service, the value
function, and finally provide that function at the lowest stream consists of suppliers, support personnel and
overall cost. This approach focuses on the functions of technology, the service producer, and the distribution
an item rather than the methods of producing the channel. The value stream may be controlled by a single
present product design.V business or a network of several businesses.V

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 185


value stream map vendor-managed inventory (VMI)

value stream mapA graph displaying the sequence of a measurement of dispersion of data. See: estimate of
operations needed to produce and deliver a product or error.V
service.V
variationA change in data, a characteristic, or a func-
value stream mappingA lean production tool to visual- tion that is caused by one of four factors: special caus-
ly understand the flow of materials from supplier to cus- es, common causes, tampering, or structural variation.V
tomer that includes the current process and flow as well
VATI AnalysisIn the theory of constraints, a procedure

V as the value-added and non-value-added time of all the


process steps. Used to lead to reduction of waste, de-
crease flow time, and make the process flow more effi-
for determining the general flow of parts and products
from raw materials to finished products (logical product
structure). A V logical structure starts with one or a few
cient and effective.V
raw materials, and the product expands into a number
valve inventoryIn a just-in-time context, inventory at a of different products as it flows through divergent points
stockpoint that is too large to be located next to the in its routings. The shape of an A logical structure is
point of use of the material, and from which material is dominated by converging points. Many raw materials
drawn by a pull system. The valve inventory is often lo- are fabricated and assembled into a few finished prod-
cated at a stockpoint in the plants receiving area.V ucts. A T logical structure consists of numerous similar
finished products assembled from common assemblies,
VANAcronym for value-added network.V
subassemblies, and parts. An I logical structure is the
variableA quantity that can assume any of a given set simplest of production flows, where resources are
of values. Ant: constant.V shared between different products and the flow is in a
straight line sequence, such as an assembly line. Once
variable costAn operating cost that varies directly with
the general parts flow is determined, the system control
a change of one unit in the production volume (e.g., di-
points (gating operations, convergent points, divergent
rect materials consumed, sales commissions).V
points, constraints, and shipping points) can be identi-
variable costingAn inventory valuation method in fied and managed.V
which only variable production costs are applied to the
VBMAbbreviation for value-based management.V
product; fixed factory overhead is not assigned to the
product. Traditionally, variable production costs are di- vehicleCarrying and power unit to move goods over
rect labor, direct material, and variable overhead costs. ways. Includes all forms of transportation means except
Variable costing can be helpful for internal manage- pipeline. The carrier generally owns or leases the ve-
ment analysis but is not widely accepted for external hicles, but a shipper also may own or lease.V
financial reporting. For inventory order quantity purpos-
velocity1) The rate of change of an item with respect
es, however, the unit costs must include both the varia-
to time. See: inventory turnover, lead time. 2) In supply
ble and allocated fixed costs to be compatible with the
chain management, a term used to indicate the relative
other terms in the order quantity formula. For make-or-
speed of all transactions, collectively, within a supply
buy decisions, variable costing should be used rather
chain community. A maximum velocity is most desirable
than full absorption costing. Syn: direct costing.V
because it indicates higher asset turnover for stock-
variable overheadAll manufacturing costs, other than holders and faster order-to-delivery response for
direct labor and direct materials, that vary directly with customers.V
production volume. Variable overhead is necessary to
vendorAny seller of an item in the marketplace. See:
produce the product, but cannot be directly assigned to
supplier.V
a specific product.V
vendor lead timeSyn: supplier lead time.V
variables dataMeasurement information. Control
charts based on variables data include average (X-bar) vendor-managed inventory (VMI)A means of optimizing
charts, range (R) charts, and sample standard devia- supply chain performance in which the supplier has
tions charts.V access to the customers inventory data and is respon-
sible for maintaining the inventory level required by the
variable yieldThe condition that occurs when the out-
customer. This activity is accomplished by a process in
put of a process is not consistently repeatable either in
which resupply is done by the vendor through regularly
quantity, quality, or combinations of these.V
scheduled reviews of the on-site inventory. The on-site
variance1) The difference between the expected (bud- inventory is counted, damaged or outdated goods are
geted or planned) value and the actual. 2) In statistics, removed, and the inventory is restocked to predefined

186 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


vendor measurement virtual organization

levels. The vendor obtains a receipt for the restocked vertical marketplaceAn online marketplace connecting
inventory and accordingly invoices the customer. See: buyers and sellers within the same industry. It enables
continuous replenishment.V lower prices by lowering transaction costs.V
vendor measurementThe act of measuring the ven- vertical mergerAn alliance of two firms where one firm
dors performance to a contract. Measurements usually is a supplier to the other.V
cover delivery reliability, lead time, quality, and price.

V
See: supplier measurement.V vestibule trainingA variant of job rotation in which a
separate work area is set up for a trainee so that the
vendor-owned inventory (VOI)Syn: consigned stocks.V actual work situation does not pressure the trainee.
vendor schedulerSyn: supplier scheduler.V Examples are cockpit simulators and other machine si-
mulators.V
vendor schedulingSyn: supplier scheduling.V
venture teamA set of individuals assigned outside viral marketingAn advertisement that is embedded
normal channels to develop ideas for new products.V into web-based technology, e.g., email or pop-up ads,
that can easily move through the internet and get in
vertical dependencyThe relationship between a parent front of the target audience who may never have seen it
item and a component in its bill of material that defines otherwise.V
the need for the component based on producing the
parent, without regard to the availability of other com- virtual cellA logical rather than physical grouping of
ponents at the same level in the bill of material. See: manufacturing resources. Resources in virtual cells can
horizontal dependency.V be dispersed throughout a facility. Product mix changes
may change the layout of a virtual cell. This technique is
vertical displayA method of displaying or printing out-
used when it is not practical to move the equipment.V
put from an MRP system where requirements, sche-
duled receipts, projected balance, and so forth are virtual corporationThe logical extension of outpartner-
displayed vertically. Vertical displays are often used in ing. With the virtual corporation, the capabilities and
conjunction with bucketless systems. Ant: horizontal systems of the firm are merged with those of the sup-
display.V pliers, resulting in a new type of corporation where the
boundaries between the suppliers systems and those
vertical integrationThe degree to which a firm has de-
of the firm seem to disappear. The virtual corporation is
cided to directly produce multiple value-adding stages
dynamic in that the relationships and structures formed
from raw material to the sale of the product to the ulti-
change according to the changing needs of the
mate consumer. The more steps in the sequence, the
customer.V
greater the vertical integration. A manufacturer that de-
cides to begin producing parts, components, and mate- virtual factoryA changed transformation process most
rials that it normally purchases is said to be backward frequently found under the virtual corporation. It is a
integrated. Likewise, a manufacturer that decides to transformation process that involves merging the capa-
take over distribution and perhaps sale to the ultimate bilities and capacities of the firm with those of its sup-
consumer is said to be forward integrated. See: back- pliers. Typically, the components provided by the
ward integration, forward integration.V suppliers are those that are not related to a core com-
vertically integrated firmAn organization with functions petency of the firm, while the components managed by
that were previously performed by suppliers but are now the firm are related to core competencies. One ability
done internally. See: horizontally integrated firm.V found in the virtual factory is that it can be restructured
quickly in response to changing customer demands and
vertical marketingA coordinated product marketing needs.V
system, with activities undertaken by one company, for
a supply chain.V virtual inventory systemsA virtual system that enables
supply chain partners to share data in a central
vertical marketing systemA marketing system that fo-
database.V
cuses on the means to reduce the traditional indepen-
dence of indirect channels. The system strategically virtual organizationShort-term alliances between in-
seeks to increase the integration and interdependence dependent organizations in a potentially long-term rela-
of channels by uniting them with common objectives tionship to design, produce, and distribute a product.
and team management (e.g., franchising, cooperatives, Organizations cooperate based on mutual values and
vertical integration).V act as a single entity to third parties.V

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 187


virtual reality wall-to-wall inventory

virtual realityHardware and software that create an lems are trivial in quality assurance, he changed it to
apparently real environment.V useful many.V

virtual supply chainA collection of firms that typically VMIAbbreviation for vendor-managed inventory.V
exists for only a short period. Virtual supply chains are VOCAbbreviation for voice of the customer.V
more flexible than traditional supply chains, but less
efficient.V VOIAbbreviation for vendor-owned inventory.V

W virtual trading exchangeAn online trading exchange


that enables both information integration and collabora-
voice of the customer (VOC)Actual customer descrip-
tions in words for the functions and features customers
desire for goods and services. In the strict definition, as
tion between multiple trading partners.V
relates to quality function deployment (QFD), the term
visibilityThe ability to view important information customer indicates the external customer of the supply-
throughout a facility or supply chain no matter where in ing entity.V
the facility or supply chain the information is located.V
volume flexibilityThe ability of the transformation
visionThe shared perception of the organizations fu- process to quickly accommodate large variations in
turewhat the organization will achieve and a support- production levels.V
ing philosophy. This shared vision must be supported by
voluntary layoffLayoffs where the employees are given
strategic objectives, strategies, and action plans to
the option of taking a non-paid leave from their work for
move it in the desired direction. See: vision statement.V
a short, specified period of time.V
vision statementAn organizations statement of its vi- voucherA written document that bears witness to, or
sion. See: vision.V vouches for, something. A voucher generally is an in-
visitsIn e-commerce, the set of requests made by one strument showing services performed or goods pur-
user at one website. If there is no activity within a given chased and authorizing payment to the supplier.V
time frame (usually 30 minutes), the visit is considered
closed.V

visual controlThe control of authorized levels of activi-


W
ties and inventories in a way that is instantly and visibly Wagner-Whitin algorithmA mathematically complex,
obvious. This type of activity and inventory control is dynamic lot-sizing technique that evaluates all possible
used in a workplace organization where everything has ways of ordering to cover net requirements in each pe-
an assigned place and is in its place.V riod of the planning horizon to arrive at the theoretically
optimum ordering strategy for the entire net require-
visual inspectionInspection performed without test
ments schedule. See: discrete order quantity, dynamic
instruments.V
lot sizing.W
visual review systemA simple inventory control system
waiting line theorySyn: queuing theory.W
where the inventory reordering is based on actually
looking at the amount of inventory on hand. Usually wait timeThe time a job remains at a work center after
used for low-value items, such as nuts and bolts. See: an operation is completed until it is moved to the next
two-bin inventory system.V operation. It is often expressed as a part of move
time.W
vital few, useful manyA term used by J.M. Juran to de-
scribe his use of the Pareto principle in quality man- waiverAuthorization to accept an item that, during
agement, which he first described in 1950. (The production or upon inspection, is found to depart from
principle was used much earlier in economics and in- specified requirements, but nevertheless is considered
ventory control methodologies.) The principle suggests suitable for use as is or after rework.W
that most effects come from relatively few causes; that walkthroughSyn: pilot test.W
is, 80 percent of the effects come from 20 percent of
wall-to-wall inventoryAn inventory management tech-
the possible causes. The 20 percent of the possible
nique in which material enters a plant and is processed
causes are referred to as the vital few; the remaining
through the plant into finished goods without ever hav-
causes are referred to as the useful many. When
ing entered a formal stock area. Syn: four-wall
Juran first defined this principle, he referred to the re-
inventory.W
maining causes as the trivial many, but since no prob-

188 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


WAN weighted-point plan

WANAcronym for wide area network.W Scrap is typically not planned and may result from the
same production run as waste. See: hazardous waste.W
wandA device connected to a bar-code reader to iden-
tify a bar code.W waterspiderAn expert worker who makes the rounds of
workstations and provides assistance, as needed. The
wandering bottleneckAn undesirable effect in which
waterspider knows all processes well enough to take
the bottleneck moves relatively frequently from one re-
over if needed. At Toyota, this position is a prerequisite
source to another.W

warehouseA place to receive, store, and ship


materials.W
to supervision and management positions.W
wave pickingA method of selecting and sequencing W
picking lists to minimize the waiting time of the deli-
warehouse demandThe need for an item to replenish vered material. Shipping orders may be picked in waves
stock at a branch warehouse. Syn: branch warehouse combined by common carrier or destination, and manu-
demand.W facturing orders in waves related to work centers.W

warehouse management and transportation execution waybillA document containing a list of goods with
systemsLogistics information systems that initiate and shipping instructions related to a shipment.W
control the movement of materials between supply
waysPaths over which a carrier operates, including
chain partners.W
right-of-way, roadbed, tracks, and other physical facili-
warehouse management system (WMS)A computer ties. May be owned by the government or privately held
application system designed to manage and optimize by the carrier or provided by nature.W
workflows and the storage of goods within a warehouse.
webcastingSyn: push technology.W
These systems often interface with automated data
capture and enterprise resources planning systems.W web directoryA list of web pages that is structured hie-
rarchically.W
warehouses (distribution centers)Facilities used to
store inventory. Decisions driving warehouse manage- webpageA document containing hypertext links to cer-
ment include site selection, number of facilities in the tain other documents including multimedia
system, layout, and methods of receiving, storing, and documents.W
retrieving goods.W web servicesA common internet or intranet framework
warehousingThe activities related to receiving, storing, that enables the movement of data from one applica-
and shipping materials to and from production or distri- tion to another, without the requirement for a direct
bution locations.W connection between two supply chain applications and
without regard to the underlying operating system for
warrant of merchantabilityAn implied warranty that those applications.W
goods are fit for the use to which they are generally
applied.W weight confirmationThe process of confirming a ship-
ment arrival only by confirming the correct weight has
warrantyA commitment, either expressed or implied, been delivered.W
that a certain fact regarding the subject matter of a con-
tract is presently true or will be true. The word should be weighted-factor rating modelA method to analyze the
distinguished from guarantee, which means a contract advantages of various locations along several qualita-
or promise by an entity to answer for the performance tive and quantitative dimensions.W
of a product or person. See: general warranty, guaran- weighted moving averageAn averaging technique in
tee, special warranty.W which the data to be averaged are not uniformly
warranty costsAll of the costs associated with a war- weighted but are given values according to their impor-
ranty; these include shipping, receiving, repairing, re- tance. See: moving average, simple moving average.W
placement, and the materials needed for repair or weighted-point planA supplier selection and rating ap-
replacement.W proach that uses the input gathered in the categorical
plan approach and assigns weights to each evaluation
waste1) Any activity that does not add value to the
category. A weighted sum for each supplier is obtained
good or service in the eyes of the consumer. 2) A by-
and a comparison made. The weights used should sum
product of a process or task with unique characteristics
to 100 percent for all categories. See: categorical
requiring special management control. Waste produc-
plan.W
tion can usually be planned and somewhat controlled.

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 189


what-if analysis workplace organization

what-if analysisThe process of evaluating alternate work center where-usedA listing (constructed from a
strategies by answering the consequences of changes routing file) of every manufactured item that is routed
to forecasts, manufacturing plans, inventory levels, and (primary or secondary) to a given work center.W
so forth. See: simulation.W
worker efficiencyA measure (usually computed as a
what-if simulationAn approach to conducting a what-if percentage) of worker performance that compares the
analysis usually found in MRP II and ERP systems.W standard time allowed to complete a task to the actual

W what you see is what you get (WYSIWYG)Computer


speak that means what the file appears to the editor
worker time to complete it. Syn: labor efficiency.W
worker productivityThe value of total goods and ser-
vices produced by an employee divided by the labor
appears the exact same way to the end user.W
hours required to produce those goods and services.W
where-used listA listing of every parent item that calls
for a given component, and the respective quantity re- workers compensationThe replacement of an em-
quired, from a bill-of-material file. See: implosion.W ployees loss of earnings capacity caused by an occupa-
tional injury or disease. Formerly known as workmens
wholesalerSyn: distributor.W compensation.W
wide area network (WAN)A public or private data working capitalSyn: net working capital.W
communication system for linking computers distri-
working stockStock located in a facility which is used
buted over a large geographic area.W
to fulfill demand.W
will callA service process that allows customers to
work in process (WIP)A good or goods in various stag-
walk up to the sellers facility and pick up the parts they
es of completion throughout the plant, including all ma-
have previously ordered.W
terial from raw material that has been released for
WIPAcronym for work in process.W initial processing up to completely processed material
awaiting final inspection and acceptance as finished
withdrawal1) Removal of material from stores. 2) A
goods inventory. Many accounting systems also include
transaction issuing material to a specific location, run,
the value of semifinished stock and components in this
or schedule.W
category. Syn: in-process inventory.W
withdrawal kanbanAn indicator that a container can workloadSyn: load.W
be transported between work areas.W
workmans compensationThis is a state-administered
WMSAbbreviation for warehouse management program whereby employees are guaranteed medical
system.W coverage in case they are injured on the job and com-
workaroundA project management technique that panies are limited as to their liability for such job-related
provides a response to a negative risk that has hap- injuries.W
pened. A workaround is different from a contingency work measurementEstimating how long it takes for an
plan because a workaround is not planned before the employee to produce one unit of output.W
risk event occurs.W
work order1) An order to the machine shop for tool
work breakdown structureIn project management, a manufacture or equipment maintenance; not to be con-
hierarchical description of a project in which each lower fused with a manufacturing order. Syn: manufacturing
level is more detailed. See: project summary work order, work ticket. 2) An authorization to start work on
breakdown structure.W an activity (e.g., maintenance) or product.W
work cellDissimilar machines grouped together into a work packageIn project management, a deliverable at
production unit to produce a family of parts having simi- the bottom of a work breakdown structure. This may be
lar routings.W treated as a subproject to be assigned to a project
manager to plan and execute, in which case this man-
work centerA specific production area, consisting of
ager will define new activities.W
one or more people and/or machines with similar
capabilities, that can be considered as one unit for workplace organizationThe arrangement of tools,
purposes of capacity requirements planning and equipment, materials, and supplies according to their
detailed scheduling. Syn: load center.W frequency of use. Those items that are never used are
removed from the workplace, and those items that are
work center scheduleSyn: dispatch list.W
used frequently are located for fast, easy access and

190 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


work rules zero inventories

replacement. This concept extends the idea of a place yellow beltOne who has completed six sigma training
for everything and everything in its place.W in certain hands-on tools.Y
work rules1) Compensation rules concerning such is- yieldThe amount of good or acceptable material avail-
sues as overtime, vacation, and shift premiums. 2) able after the completion of a process. Usually com-
Employee and employer job rights and obligation rules, puted as the final amount divided by the initial amount
such as performance standards, promotion procedures, converted to a decimal or percentage. In manufacturing
job descriptions, and layoff rules. Work rules are usually
a part of a union contract and may include a code of
conduct for workers and language to ensure decent
planning and control systems, yield is usually related to
specific routing steps or to the parent item to determine
how many units should be scheduled to produce a spe-
Z
conditions and health standards.W cific number of finished goods. For example, if 50 units
work samplingThe use of a number of random sam- of a product are required by a customer and a yield of
ples to determine the frequency with which certain ac- 70 percent is expected then 72 units (computed as 50
tivities are performed.W units divided by .7) should be started in the manufactur-
ing process. Syn: material yield. See: scrap factor, yield
work sequenceOrdered activities performed to ac-
factor.Y
complish work.W
workstationThe assigned location where a worker per- yield factorA measurement of the yield of a process.
forms the job; it could be a machine or a workbench.W For a specific process or operation, yield factor + scrap
factor = 1. See: scrap factor, yield.Y
work teamsTeams of employees formed to shepherd a
particular work area or function.W yield managementAn approach commonly used by
services with highly perishable products, in which prices
work ticketSyn: work order.W
are regularly adjusted to maximize total profit.Y
world-class qualityA term used to indicate a standard
of excellence: the best of the best.W YMSAbbreviation for yard management system.Y

world-class companyAn organization that has reached yokotenA Japanese word meaning sharing
a level of excellence due to superior products or servic- information.Y
es and customer satisfaction; best of the best.W
World Trade Organization (WTO)The successor to the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); the in-
ternational agency overseeing trade between nations.W
Z
write-offIn accounting, the process of removing an as- zero-based budgetingA budget procedure used primar-
set from an organizations books through the expensing ily by governmental agencies, in which managers are
process.W required to justify each budgetary expenditure anew, as
if the budget were being initiated for the first time ra-
WTOAbbreviation for World Trade Organization.W ther than being based on an adjustment of prior-year
WYSIWYGAcronym for what you see is what you get.W data.Z

zero defectsA performance standard developed by

X Philip B. Crosby to address a dual attitude in the


workplace: People are willing to accept imperfection in
X-bar chartSyn: average chart.X some areas, while in other areas, they expect the num-
ber of defects to be zero. This dual attitude has devel-
XMLAbbreviation for extensible markup language.X oped as a result of the conditioning that people are
human and humans make mistakes. However, the zero-

Y defects methodology states that if people commit


themselves to watching details and avoiding errors, they
can move closer to the goal of zero defects. The per-
yard management system (YMS)A system that orga- formance standard that must be set is zero defects,
nizes and directs the traffic of all vehicles in the parking not close enough.Z
yards located at various industrial buildings, like ware-
houses, distribution centers and manufacturing plants.Y zero inventoriesSyn: just in time.Z

APICS Dictionary, 14th edition 191


zone zone price

zone1) A warehouse location methodology that


includes some of the characteristics of fixed and
random location methods. Zone locations hold certain
kinds of items, depending on physical characteristics or
frequency of use. 2) The specific warehouse location
assigned to an order picker. In picking items for an
order, the stock picker gets only the items for each

Z order that are within his/her zone. The picker then fills
the next order for items from his/her zone.Z
zone of freedomLegal authority for transportation
companies to charge, within limits, more than their va-
riable costs.Z
zone pickingA method of subdividing a picking list by
areas within a storeroom for more efficient and rapid
order picking. A zone-picked order must be grouped to a
single location before delivery or must be delivered to
different locations, such as work centers. See: batch
picking, discrete order picking, order picking.Z
zone priceA standard product price which applies to all
geographic locations within a zone.Z

192 APICS Dictionary, 14th edition


apics.org Stock #01102-2013

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