Documente Academic
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William Yeoh
Deakin University, Australia
John Talburt
University of Arkansas - Little Rock, USA
Yinle Zhou
IBM Corporation, USA
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HD38.7.I534 2014
658.472--dc23
2013033229
This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Business Strategy and Competitive Advantage (ABSCA)
(ISSN: 2327-3429; eISSN: 2327-3437)
All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the
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Chapter 1
A Conceptual Model of
Metadatas Role in BI Success
Neil Foshay
St. Francis Xavier University, Canada
Andrew Taylor
Bradford University, UK
Avinandan Mukherjee
Montclair State University, USA
ABSTRACT
Modern organizations rely on Business Intelligence (BI) systems to provide the information needed to
support a wide array of decisions, many of which have significant financial and strategic consequences.
As such, information quality is critically important but is also highly contextual, meaning that information
that is of sufficient quality for one purpose may not be so for others. The implication of this fact is that
users must have the ability to assess information for its fitness to specific purposes. The authors submit
that metadata provides this capability. Metadata is information that serves to provide insight into the
meaning, quality, location, and lineage of information resources (for example, data elements, queries,
and reports) provided by BI systems. In this chapter, they describe how organizations can increase the
levels of use of their BI systems by providing the right metadata to users. The authors propose a con-
ceptual model that describes how metadata contributes to the level of BI system use by creating positive
attitudes toward the information available. They validate the model through consultation with experts
in the fields of BI, information quality, and metadata management as well as through a survey of over
250 BI practitioners.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-4892-0.ch001
Copyright 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
A Conceptual Model of Metadatas Role in BI Success
2
A Conceptual Model of Metadatas Role in BI Success
success, as measured by level of use. We validate is dependent upon organizational factors such as
our model through consultation with a panel of management commitment and absorptive capacity
BI, information quality and metadata experts and as well as characteristics of the innovation (the BI
through a survey targeting BI practitioners those system). Isik, Jones & Sidorova (2011) argue that
who design, build and support BI systems. BI system success requires specific BI capabilities,
including effective user access to information and
effective integration with other systems. Popovic,
BACKGROUND AND Hackney, Coelho & Jaklic (2012) highlight BI
CONCEPTUAL MODEL maturity combined with an effective analytical
decision-making culture, as important success
Numerous studies have examined factors that con- factors. Sen, Ramamurthy & Sinha (2012) state
tribute to BI system success. Wixom and Watson that BI process maturity is critically important
(2001) propose that management support, a strong and propose a five stage model covering both
business champion, appropriate resources, user the development and on-going operation of BI
participation, BI team skills and factors related to systems to measure this maturity. It is important
source systems influence organizational, project to note that most of the studies cited above have
and technical implementation success which in acknowledged that data or information quality is
turn positively impact data and system quality. a key BI system success factor. We view metadata
These contribute to higher decision-oriented net as a major component of information quality.
benefits to individuals, groups and the overall Figure 1 presents our proposed conceptual
organization. Yeoh and Koronios (2010) offer a model. We submit that successful BI systems are
similar framework, proposing seven success fac- those that are used extensively and propose that
tors grouped in three categories: organizational, an important factor in determining the level of use
process and technology. Ramamurthy, Sen & Sinha is user attitudes toward the information provided.
(2008) view BI as a major IT infrastructure in- We measure three dimensions of attitudes toward
novation and propose that implementation success information: cognition, affect and conation. We
3
A Conceptual Model of Metadatas Role in BI Success
contend that providing end-users with the right (Sen 2004). In a BI context, metadata has been
metadata (i.e., regarding meaning, quality, loca- observed to improve both decision process effi-
tion and lineage) is a key factor in influencing ciency and the quality of decision outcomes (Even,
end-user attitudes toward information. While we Shankaranarayanan & Watts, 2006; Fisher, Smith
propose that metadata is a key factor in BI system & Ballou, 2003). In its absence, users may need
success, it is important to acknowledge that there to invest excessive effort to gain an understanding
are numerous other factors at play as described of available data, or may avoid using a BI system
later in this section. The remainder of this section entirely (Haley and Watson, 1998).
outlines the theoretical foundation for our model Even within the confines of business intelli-
as well as our research propositions. gence, metadata is a broad concept. To illustrate,
Table 1 presents a non-exhaustive list of BI-related
Metadata Quality information resources that need to be described
by metadata.
We argue that user knowledge of the informa- For the purposes of this study, we focus on the
tion they use for analysis and decision support information resources that are of most interest to
is critically important to BI success and that this BI end users: data elements, reports and docu-
knowledge is facilitated by access to the right ments. The question we must answer is: what
metadata. The concept of metadata has existed specific types of metadata must be provided to
for a very long time. For example, libraries have end users to effectively describe these resources?
been creating metadata for centuries, in the form A review of the available literature makes it clear
of book indexes and catalogs. To illustrate this that there is no consensus regarding a) the types
concept, consider an academic journal article. The of metadata required by BI end-users and b) how
associated metadata might include an abstract, a metadata, holistically, contributes to the success
list of authors, the volume and issue, publication of BI systems. Shankaranarayan and Even (2006)
date and a set of keywords that identify the major state that BI metadata is an enigma that is inher-
themes in the article. ently complex and is not well understood by IT
Metadata is a broad concept, and its defini- professionals who are unclear of its role and
tion varies by context. In general terms, metadata value (p. 88). Synthesizing the available research
can be thought of as a means to describe, locate literature indicates that BI metadata has four
and manage information-based resources within basic purposes i.e. to:
an organization. Tannenbaum (2002) states that
metadata serves to answer a number of important Provide users with clear, standardized
questions regarding information resources which definitions of the business meaning of
allows these resources to be located, understood information;
and placed into their proper context. This, in turn, Explain information quality;
allows the resources to be used (and reused) ap- Allow users to locate information resourc-
propriately for a diverse set of purposes. es; and
Metadata has been present in information sys- Define the lineage of information.
tems since the 1960s (in, for example, database
data dictionaries) but has gained the attention Explaining the business meaning of informa-
of information systems professionals in recent tion to users is the most fundamental purpose
years as organizations have grasped the value of metadata as users need this understanding in
of information as a strategic corporate asset and order to use this information effectively (Gabriel,
have constructed BI systems to unlock its value Hoppe & Pastwa, 2010). This need goes far beyond
4
A Conceptual Model of Metadatas Role in BI Success
Information
Metadata
Resource
The most atomic information resources associated with a BI system are the data elements stored the underlying
data warehouse / data mart and presented on reports and documents. Metadata associated with data elements
include:
Business definition (meaning/interpretation);
Domain (allowable values);
Data elements Technical description (length, type, default values);
Business rules;
Calculations;
Quality information;
Source and lineage;
Data governance information: ownership and stewardship.
Data model-related metadata includes descriptions of fact and dimension entities, subject areas, star-schemas,
Data Models (ERDs)
OLAP cubes and other model related information.
Pre-built reports are an important output from BI systems. Definitions of reports would include statement of
Reports report purpose, intended audience, frequency of publication, last publication date, author and other information
that would allow the report to be located and understood.
Semi-structured and It is common to create semi-structured (e.g., Excel spreadsheets) and unstructured (e.g., Word and PowerPoint)
unstructured documents based on information sourced from a BI system. The metadata for these documents is similar to that
documents of reports.
SQL queries and SQL queries are often used (and reused) to generate reports and other metrics
stored procedures
This class of metadata includes:
Extract, Transform
Relationships/lineage between data element sources and targets. Critical metadata for functions such as impact
and Load (ETL)
analysis;
rules and logic
The rules and logic used to clean transform and aggregate data in the data warehouse.
The ETL process includes all of the steps required to obtain/extract data from source systems, transform and
ETL Process clean the data and load data into the target data warehouse tables. Metadata associated with the ETL process
statistics includes error rate statistics, cycle times, load times, and other statistics important to managing the data
warehouse operational environment and for capacity planning.
what would typically exist in a database data that metadata should be syntactically consistent,
dictionary and must include business-oriented valid and complete, provide a definition of the
definitions, business rules that explain the datas meaning of information that is useful to all us-
context and calculations and logic used to cre- ers of the information and facilitate a consensus
ate derived data in order to fully understand its regarding this meaning.
meaning (Shankaranarayanan & Even, 2004). Information quality is a key BI success factor
The information provided by BI systems is often (Wixom and Watson 2001; Isik, Jones & Sido-
complex and is often obtained from multiple rova, 2011). The most commonly cited purpose
heterogeneous sources where information that is for metadata in a BI context is to provide insight
conceptually similar is defined in different ways into information quality. Shankaranarayan and
(Wells and Hess, 2002). As such, metadata must Even (2004) propose that quality metadata can
provide standardized definitions of the meaning help users assess the quality of information used
of the information in terms users are able to un- in the context of decision making processes.
derstand (Sen and Jacob, 1998). Shanks and Darke Fisher, Smith and Ballou (2003) claim that the
(1998) define the characteristics of metadata that information supplied through BI systems should
provide the meaning of information. They claim be of good quality, but often it is not. Experienced
5
A Conceptual Model of Metadatas Role in BI Success
6
A Conceptual Model of Metadatas Role in BI Success
7
A Conceptual Model of Metadatas Role in BI Success
fourth category, Navigational metadata, provides The business definitions provided are quite
accurate.
a means to allow end-users to search for data and
The business definitions provide all I need in
other information objects in a data warehouse. As order understand the meaning of information.
Definitional
such, the Navigational meta-data quality should Generally, I find the quality of business
be assessed based on its effectiveness in locating definitions to be consistent.
required information rather than describing the Business definitions are presented in a format
that is clear and understandable.
characteristics of the information. Navigational
metadata relates to the concept of locatability Generally, I find the quality information
provided to be accurate.
of data associated with the Task-Technology Fit
I get all the quality data I need to determine if
(TTF) model of technology acceptance devel- information is fit for specific purposes.
oped by Goodhue and Thompson (1995). Table Information The quality information provided is
3 presents the items that can be used to measure Quality dependable.
metadata quality. Quality information is presented in a format
that is clear and understandable.
The quality information provided is generally
Attitudes toward Information up to date
The lineage information provided is accurate.
We propose that metadata, while clearly only
I have access to all of the lineage information
one factor, plays a significant role in facilitating I need.
BI system success. Metadata, when of sufficient The lineage information provided is
Lineage
quality, positively influences user attitudes toward dependable.
the information available through BI systems. Lineage information is presented in an
appropriate format
These positive attitudes, in turn, impact the level
The lineage information is usually up to date.
of use of these systems. In many cases and un-
like other types of operational IS (e.g., Enterprise I know that if I need to find certain
information, the search facility will help me
Resource Planning, Supply Chain Management, do so.
etc.) users are not compelled to use BI systems to The search facility provided is effective in
Navigational
carry out core job functions. As such, BI systems helping me locate data.
are highly volitional; end-users generally have a Generally, it is easy for me to find the
information I need, even if Ive never accessed
choice regarding whether or not they use them it before.
to support their day to day analysis and decision
making activities (Popovic, Hackney, Coelho &
Jaklic, 2012; Shin 2003). Given the volitional work to ensure that the information provided by
nature of BI, it is conceptually meaningful to view BI systems is viewed positively by users.
BI end-users as being analogous to consumers, in An individuals attitude represents a summary
a marketing context, who must be convinced that evaluation of a psychological object captured in
BI systems will provide some benefit to them. A dimensions like: good/bad, pleasant/unpleasant,
major goal of IT teams building and supporting likeable/dislikable (Ajzen, 2001 p. 28). The im-
BI systems should be to actively market BI to portance of user attitudes in information system
end-users in order to make them loyal consum- success is well documented. In particular, user
ers (consistent, frequent users of BI). We propose attitudes play a central role in the Davis (1989)
that a key part of this marketing effort must be to
8
A Conceptual Model of Metadatas Role in BI Success
technology acceptance model (TAM), where user is an important concept for this study. We argue
attitudes toward an information system are seen to that metadata is an important resource for BI
directly impact the intention to use the system, and end-users to use to learn about the information
ultimately the use of the system. Attitude-related that is available to them. Further, as described in
research is extremely important in the marketing section 2.1, we believe that users must understand
field particularly as it relates to consumer behav- the meaning, quality, location and lineage of the
ior. Researchers in marketing seek to understand information they use. We offer the following
the factors that influence buying behavior and propositions:
ultimately, customer loyalty. Given the parallels
between consumers in a marketing context and P1: High quality definitional metadata will
BI end-users, we believe that it is appropriate to positively influence end-users cognition
leverage the marketing perspective on attitudes of information;
and loyalty in this study to model how metadata P2: High quality information quality metadata will
contributes to successful BI implementations. positively influence end-users cognition of
The marketing literature defines loyalty as a information;
deeply held commitment to re-buy or re-patronize P3: High quality navigational metadata will
a preferred product/service consistently in the positively influence end-users cognition
future, thereby causing repetitive same-brand or of information;
same brand-set purchasing (Oliver 1999 p. 34). P4: High quality lineage metadata will positively
There are three stages, or dimensions, of consumer influence end-users cognition of informa-
attitudes that are antecedents of loyalty: cogni- tion.
tion, affect and conation (Dick and Basu 1994;
Oliver 1999; Chiou, Droge and Hanvanich 2002). Affect is the second antecedent of loyalty
Oliver (1999) describes the three dimensions as and describes an individuals emotions or feel-
phases. The first phase is cognition, the second ings toward an object and reflects the degree of
is affect and the third, conation. These phases pleasure/displeasure that an individual associates
can be seen as building blocks, with the earlier with the object (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2000). As
phases supporting the later. Specifically, phase one such, affect towards an object is seen as being
(cognition), is an antecedent of phases two and evaluative in nature. The affective dimension of
three (affect and conation) and phase two (affect) attitude is thought to be stronger than the cognitive
is an antecedent of conation. For the purposes of dimension in influencing loyalty (Oliver 1999).
this study, it is assumed that high quality meta- For the purposes of this research, affect refers to
data serves to positively influence cognition a an end-users positive or negative emotions and
BI users understanding of available information feelings toward the information available through
resources. BI systems.
Cognition is knowledge and perceptions that Agarwal and Karahanna (2000) support the
are acquired by a combination of direct experience notion that affect is an important factor in the ac-
with the attitude object and related information ceptance of technology. They introduce a concept
from various sources (Schiffman and Kanuk 2000 called cognitive absorption as a determinant of
p. 202). In a customer loyalty context, cognition is technology acceptance that is composed of five di-
related to a consumers awareness of the attributes mensions: temporal dissociation, focused immer-
of a brand relative to its competitors and whether sion, heightened enjoyment, control, and curiosity.
or not one brand is preferable to others (Oliver They state that Prior work in individual psychol-
1999). Cognition (understanding) of information ogy, however, suggests that holistic experiences
9
A Conceptual Model of Metadatas Role in BI Success
10
A Conceptual Model of Metadatas Role in BI Success
Table 4. Attitudes toward information items P8: The greater the end-user cognition of infor-
mation, the greater will be the use of the
Category Item Text
BI system;
I feel that I have a solid understanding of the information
from the BI system Ive used in the past. P9: The more positive the end-user affect toward
When using information for the first time, I feel that I information, the greater will be the use of
will be able gain sufficient understanding to use it
appropriately.
the BI system;
Cognition
I understand the information well enough to use it
P10: The greater the intent to use information,
appropriately for analysis and decision making. the greater will be the level of use of the
I can explain the meaning of the information from the BI BI system.
system that I use to others when asked.
I often try to identify new ways to use available In order to assess the usefulness and validity of the
Conation information.
conceptual research model, we engaged thought-
I encourage others to use the information available from
the BI system to support their analysis and decision leaders from the business intelligence, metadata
making activities. management and information quality fields and
conducted a survey targeting BI practitioners. First,
we consulted with a total of eight highly-regarded
BI Success thought leaders. These individuals had one or
more of the following characteristics: they were
A good deal of research has been done to assess noted speakers (at events such as Data Warehouse
IS success. The two most influential models are Institute (TDWI) conferences), authors of books,
the DeLone & McLean (D&M) (1992, 2003) contributors to leading practitioner publications
information systems success model and the Tech- (such as the Business Intelligence Journal) and/
nology Acceptance Model (Davis, 1989). TAM or highly sought after consultants.
views system use as its success measure, while Our panelists were posed a standard set of
the D&M model proposes that net benefits to open ended questions during a series of telephone
individuals and ultimately the organization are interviews, each of which lasted 30 to 60 minutes.
the final success variables. However, the D&M The questions focused on the nature and operation
model recognizes that in order to achieve these
benefits, extensive use of the system in question
is necessary. Further, associating specific benefits Table 5. BI success items
to the use of an IS like a BI system has proven
Category Item Text
to be problematic (Popovic, Hackney, Coelho &
I use the BI system frequently to support
Jaklic, 2012). For this reason, we selected BI sys- decision making activities
tem use as our measure of success. System use is I consider myself to be a heavy user of the BI
assessed by the frequency, duration and intensity BI System system.
of usage. We propose that positive attitudes toward Use Using the BI system to assist me with decision-
related tasks fully absorbs my attention.
information are an important factor in assuring the
level of use of a BI application, which lead to the I usually spend a significant amount of time
using the BI system each time I access it.
following propositions:
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A Conceptual Model of Metadatas Role in BI Success
of end-user metadata in a BI context and allowed (where does the data come from) which
the experts wide latitude in their responses. The allows users to trust the information;
feedback received was instructive, and validated The concept as to why metadata is impor-
the core components of our model. Panelists were tant is pretty simple: it allows users to find,
unanimous in the view that metadata is a key suc- understand and trust the data they need in
cess factor for most BI systems, as illustrated by the data warehouse;
their following comments: when they look at information (e.g.,
on a report) in the absence of metadata
Yes metadata is critical it is part and they are just looking at values having no
parcel of an overall BI solution. Without intrinsic meaning. Metadata provides
metadata, the system is like a person with- context. Content without the context is
out a leg; it can limp along but its activities meaningless;
are constrained; Metadata is important because in its ab-
It not possible to maintain and grow the sence, users will draw their own conclu-
BI system without formal metadata man- sions regarding, for example, the meaning
agement. The basic reason for this is that it and source of the information. This means
is too expensive to train people to use the that information may be misinterpreted
system without it; and that there is potential that different us-
End user metadata is absolutely vital; it is ers will draw different conclusions.
as important as the data itself.
To summarize, our interviews confirmed that
Panelists agreed that in would be rare for BI metadata allows users to comprehend and develop
systems to be successful, in terms of overall levels a comfort level with the information provided by
of use, without metadata: a BI system, thus making them more willing to
use it for more and more varied purposes. This
only if the BI system is simple and users comfort level was characterized as understanding
can easily find and understand the data; and trust which aligns with our attitude constructs
There is a scenario where a BI system can cognition and affect. The concept of willingness
function without metadata. This would be to use information is closely aligned with the
where data is universally understood by all concept of conation.
users. Typically, this would be when there Our second step to validate our conceptual
are a small number of expert users who are model was to engage BI practitioners individuals
intimately familiar with the data. who design, build and manage BI systems - through
an online survey. The goals of the survey were to
Panelists generally agreed that an important confirm that we had identified the correct types
measure of BI success is the extent to which the of metadata to support BI end-users, the types of
system is used. As illustrated by the following metadata currently provided and to assess end-user
comments, panelists also confirmed our hypoth- perceptions of currently available metadata. Over-
eses regarding how metadata fosters use: all, responses were received from BI practitioners
from 266 organizations in the US and Canada.
Metadata allows knowledge workers Table 6 presents a breakdown by industry.
to understand the quality characteristics Regarding the types of metadata required by
(how accurate, how complete) and lineage end-users, BI practitioners were in general agree-
12
A Conceptual Model of Metadatas Role in BI Success
Usefulness* Satisfaction**
Definitional Quality Navigational Lineage Definitional Quality Navigational Lineage
8.0 7.5 6.9 6.6 5.9 5.5 5.1 5.1
*1 = not useful at all5 = neutral 9 = very useful
**1 = very unsatisfied...5 = Neutral9 = very satisfied
13
A Conceptual Model of Metadatas Role in BI Success
from ideal from an access perspective. Less than practical perspective, the categories offer a use-
half of responding organizations leverage the ful framework which can be used for a variety of
metadata capabilities of BI tools (46%) or ETL purposes. First, this framework can be used by BI
tools (26%). practitioners to develop and articulate a metadata
implementation roadmap and to prioritize specific
metadata projects. Additionally, this framework
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION can be used to facilitate more effective commu-
nications regarding metadata within BI project
In this study, we addressed three questions: teams and with BI end-users, as illustrated by this
comment from one of our participants:
1. What types of metadata are required to assist
users gain an appropriate level of knowledge On our side we gained a better appreciation of
about their information? metadata overall. Just clarifying the 4 different
2. Why is this knowledge useful and valuable? types was good for our team. It turns out that each
3. What is metadatas role in the success of BI team member of my BI team had slightly different
systems? definition of metadata from the different roles they
play. For example I was mostly concerned with
Regarding question 1, based on the results of Navigation, whereas my Sr. DW Architect would
our survey, the four types of metadata we hypoth- be thinking from an information quality point of
esized to be useful to end-users were validated by view. Now we can have a common language and
participating BI practitioners. As previously stated, appreciate each others views.
metadata is a concept that is not well defined or
understood in a BI system context. The metadata Based on BI practitioners perception of user
types defined in this study (definitional, informa- satisfaction with available metadata, it seems that
tion quality, navigational and lineage) offer clarity there is significant room for improvement. On a
and a holistic framework that can be leveraged positive note, the vast majority of practitioners
by researchers working in the BI area. From a who participated in the study seem to be aware that
14
A Conceptual Model of Metadatas Role in BI Success
the metadata they provide today is not adequate; the information for important purposes), which
perhaps due to its static nature and because the in turn, influences use.
real metadata needs of end-users are currently not We further propose that metadata plays a
well understood. Practitioner awareness of issues significant role in influencing attitudes toward
with existing metadata is important they know information. Other studies have investigated
they need to make improvements. As presented metadata (most often, quality metadata) in a BI
in section 2, we have developed a set of survey context. However, none has looked at metadata in
items to assess the quality of the four categories a holistic way and examined its role in BI success.
of metadata. These items could provide value to This study offers a clear and concise framework
BI practitioners in surveying their end-user com- for examining metadatas impact on BI system
munities to identify the specific metadata-related success. Good metadata helps users understand
issues that exist in their organizations. their information, thus starting the process of form-
Regarding questions 2 and 3, our interviews ing positive attitudes. Metadata in this context is
with BI, information quality and metadata expert seen as an information resource (a help feature)
practitioners served to validate our conceptual that assists end-users in gaining insight regarding
model. Metadata was stated to be critically impor- the information resources available through BI
tant to success in all but the smallest and simplest systems (for example, data elements that can be
BI systems. Further, our panelists clearly supported used to develop queries, pre-built reports or BI-
our view that attitudes toward information are an sourced documents such as spreadsheets).
important factor in BI system use. Users must From a practical perspective, the implica-
understand and trust data in order to feel willing tions of our conceptual model are significant.
to use it. Given this feedback, we feel confident Our conceptual model strongly suggests that BI
that our conceptual model has validity and offers practitioners can reap large rewards by focusing
both academic and practical contributions. their efforts on shaping user attitudes toward
From an academic perspective, our model information helping them understand and form
serves to extend the information system success positive impressions toward it. It is useful for BI
research area. First of all, our model offers an practitioners to think about the end-users that they
alternative view of the factors that contribute to support as their consumers. They need to think
the success of information systems, specifically of ways to market the information available from
BI systems, as measured by the level of use. The BI systems to these end-users in the same way as
D&M model (1992, 2003) proposes that infor- marketers encourage consumers to consider buy-
mation and system quality, in addition to user ing their product or service. This might be done,
satisfaction are the primary antecedents of system for example, by compiling testimonials and case
use. Davis TAM (1989) views the primary ante- studies that demonstrate the value provided by
cedents to be the perceived usefulness and ease this information.
of use of a system, in addition to the behavioral We believe that our conceptual model offers
intent to use the system. The sole product of a BI a significant contribution to BI research. In the
system is information. We propose that attitudes future, the proposed model needs to be empiri-
toward the information produced by a BI system cally tested in a variety of different contexts. For
are important determinants of use. We hypothesize example, the model should be deployed in differ-
that high degrees of cognition of and affect for ent industry sectors, in organizations of various
information (i.e., understanding and trust) posi- sizes, in different geographies and in varying BI
tively influence conation (user willingness to use system contexts. From an industry perspective,
15
A Conceptual Model of Metadatas Role in BI Success
future research should test the model in different Burns, M. (2005). Business intelligence survey.
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Chiou, J. S., Droge, C., & Hanvanich, S. (2002).
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DeLone, W. H., & McLean, E. R. (2003). The
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
systems success: A ten-year update. Journal of
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Portions of this chapter originally appeared in the
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