0-Physical Geography Features

NEW WORLD-World Geography and Society (2017) by K.
Siddhartha
1
GEOLOGY & PHYSIOGRAPHY
GEOLOGY: SHIELDS OF THE WORLD

What is a shield?
Shields are a regional surface of low relief having an elevation within a few hundred metres above sea level.
Shields are broadly convex and relatively immobile regions, usually constructed of Precambrian metamorphic
and igneous rocks.
The gentle, low relief is broken by resistant rock formations that rise a few tens of metres above the surrounding
less resistant rocks. On a regional basis, shields are flat, slightly convex and almost featureless.
Shields are composed of a highly deformed sequence of Precambrian metamorphic rocks and granitic intrusions
known as basement complexes. Most of the rocks are of the Precambrian age and are formed under
conditions of high temperature and pressure, many kilometres below the surface. These rocks are traversed by
faults and joints expressed at the surface by linear depressions. The sedimentary volcanic rocks of the shield are
highly deformed and as such have been converted to complex metamorphic rocks. These rocks were at a later
stage intruded by granitic magmas. The upper cover of sedimentary and metamorphic terrain has been removed
by erosion, exposing what we now see at the surface. These complex igneous and metamorphic rocks form the
nucleus of every continent.
Distribution of Shields
Although, Precambrian exposures are common in cores of mountain ranges and canyons of plateaus, the most
obvious and largest areas of Precambrian rocks are the erosionally stripped, regionally upwarped, geologically
stable regions of the continents. These regions are called Precambrian shields because of their broadly convex
shape (after Greeco-Roman shields). Although, shield rocks are exposed over only about 20% of the Earths
land surface, they represent about 75% of the observable time span accounted for by crustal rocks. Every
continent has one or more Precambrian shields rimmed by Phanerozoic mobile belts.
The Indian Shield

The Indian shield is the most important geological region of India, apart from the Himalayan region and the
Gangetic plain. There are a number of recognisable separate provinces in the Indian shield. The oldest is the
Dharwar Province (2.4 b.y.), which acted as a nucleus around which other provinces became attached. It is
predominantly granitic in character with intrusions of gneisses and is exposed along the eastern side of the
Indian Peninsula. Towards the northeast is the Eastern Ghats province, which is (1.6 b.y.) composed of similar
1 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
NEW WORLD-World Geography and Society (2017) by K. Siddhartha
rocks. The Satpura province, which lies at its northeastern edge stabilised about 1000 million years ago.
Northeast of Satpura is the Aravalli province, again composed of crystalline rocks while the Vindhyan province
contains stratified shales, sandstones and limestones resting unconformably over the Precambrian basement.
Over 500,000 sq.km of the Indian Peninsula is covered by early Cretaceous-Cenozoic basalt.
The African Shield

Africa is basically a vast platform of abutting shield segments. Precambrian rocks are exposed over half the
surface of Africa and elsewhere lie beneath the layer of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks. It is a stable continent
with only its eastern edge having been affected by epeirogenic movements producing faulting and fracturing,
manifested in the African rift valleys.
The Early Precambrian events (before 2600 m.y) are found in the Berberton Mountain Land of South Africa,
Transvaal and Rhodesian volcanics and granitic intrusion (2.6 and 3.1 b.y) that constitute the crystalline
basement of South Africa. The Middle Precambrian, which began about 2.6 b.y ago and ended 1.1 to 1.8 b.y.
ago, led to the evolution of four stable crustal segments. These are the West African bulge, two of which are in
Central Africa and the remaining two are in South Africa. Quartzites, shales, conglomerates and lavas
characterise the Middle Precambrian rocks. The Late Precambrian phase of Africa is characterised by the
deposition of sedimentary rocks and widespread orogenies in the regions that bordered the old crustal
segments. Strips of metamorphosed granitic crust formed between the segments welded them into a unified
shield.
The South American Shields

There are three shields in South Americathe Guianan, the Brazilian, and the Patagonian Shield. Gneisses and
schists form the oldest sequence, i.e., Early Precambrian. The Middle Precambrian consists of metamorphosed
sediments, volcanic intrusions, and although metamorphic effects are less profound in the Late Precambrian,
slates and phyllites are still evidenced along with quartzites, conglomerates, volcanic flows and ash beds.
Because of the presence of a covering of younger sediments over parts of the shield as well as dense forests
that cover many regions, the Precambrian rocks of South America are still little known in comparison to the
relatively barren shields of Canada and Scandinavia.
The Angaran Shield

The Angaran shield is not exposed over a vast region, instead it is revealed as small exposed patches that
elsewhere are covered by younger sedimentary rocks of the Siberian Platform. This shield forms the nucleus of
Asia as it is around this shield that Asia has grown. The Himalayas and the Urals have actually got welded on to
this shield. Like the Precambrian or other shields, the Angaran Shield too has an older complex of gneisses,
schists and granites and also a younger sequence of sedimentary rocks, volcanics and granitic intrusives that
date back to about 1600 m.y. ago. These have been called Riphaean.
The most extensive exposure of Precambrian rocks, forms the surface of the Baltic shield. There have been four
major episodes of mountain building in the Precambrian history of the shield. In each of these episodes, there
were accumulations of great thickness of sediments, which were later subjected to severe compression,
metamorphism and massive granitic intrusion. In the first two episodes, schists and gneisses were formed
followed by greenstones, slates, ripple marked sandstone and dolostones. In the third phase, the youngest
consists of lavas and sandstones that were later intruded by granite.
The Canadian Shield

The Canadian Shield extends from the Arctic islands southward to the Great Lakes area and westward to the
plains of western Canada. Most of the Canadian Shield is less than 300 m above sea level. The Canadian Shield
represents the first stable and resistant granitic crust in North America. This shield was 20% to 60% larger in the
past than at present because the trends of the metamorphic structures were terminated abruptly by younger
provinces. The rocks in the younger province were also metamorphosed but the original sediment was quite
different from the sediment that formed in the earlier one. The concentric pattern of the provinces is a strong
evidence that the continents grew by accretion of material around its margins.
The Australian Shield

Structurally Australia is composed of a vast Precambrian shield occupying most of the central and western parts
of the continent. Mobile belts occur along the eastern part of the continent. As in other shields, the Precambrian
surface is partially covered by younger sedimentary rocks. The most remarkable feature of the Australian
Precambrian is the presence of thick sequences of relatively unaltered sedimentary rocks spanning over 1.5 b.y.
The Australian shield comprises two regions Archean group comprises igneous and metamorphic rocks over
2.5 b.y., represented by two episodes of mountain building. The Proterozoic rocks rests over worn roots of
Archean Mountains. It consists of three great systems of quartzitic sandstones, basaltic lava flows and siliceous
rocks.
The Antarctican Shield

Most of the eastern half of Antarctica consists of Precambrian shield. Archean rocks occupy the most extreme
eastern edge while Proterozoics occupy remainder of the shield. Most of the western part of Antarctica consists
of fold belts of Late Cretaceous and younger age.
The belts of metamorphic rocks together with igneous intrusions shows that shields are composed of a series of
zones that were once mobile and tectonically active. Great mountain ranges once traversed parts of the shield
but the mountains have since then got eroded and only the roots of these old ranges remain.
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE: ASIA

Asia is not only the largest of the continents but also the most complex in geological terms. In the course of the
Earth's history. Asia has been built up in many stages by the coalescence of numerous blocks of continental
crust of various ages and geological structures, fringed with island arcs, ultimately constituting a huge
composite continent that achieved its present configuration in very recent geological time; the building process
continues at its south-western, southern, and eastern margins. In the Palaeozoic, the ancient Precambrian nuclei
of igneous and metamorphic crust (the central Siberian shield, the northern Chinese platform, and the southern
plate, interrupted by broad sedimentary basins) aggregated to form the supercontinent Laurasia, now
dismembered into the two continental masses of North America and Eurasia. This formed the present- day core
of the continent, comprising northern, central, and western Asia; these structures represent the most extensive
igneous and metamorphic remains of the ancient supercontinent, now joined by the huge basin embracing the
western Siberian and Turanian lowlands. In the Mesozoic and Cainozoic other blocks of crust became attached
to Asia: the Lut, Iran, and Tibet blocks joined from the southeast, and as they collided with the larger landmass
they pushed up the mountain ranges of central Asia, interspersed with variously deformed sedimentary basins.
In the late Mesozoic and the Cainozoic two other plates, the Arabian block and the Indian subcontinent,
migrated from Africa, which in turn had detached from the ancient southern landmass called Gondwanaland,
ultimately welding onto Asia. The pressure of the Indian block raised the Himalayas, bounded by the Hindustan
basin to the south. The eastern and south-eastern edges of Asia exhibit different structural conditions: bordered
by the expanding ocean floor, the continental margins consist of long active volcanic arcs of islands, stretching
from the Kamchatka peninsula in the Arctic through Japan and the Philippines to the great archipelagoes of
southeast Asia, traversed by the equator. These island arcs are separated from the continent itself by an
uninterrupted necklace of great sedimentary basins, and by the marginal seas of western China and Indochina.
PHYSIOGRAPHY: ASIA
The varied geomorphology of Asia is closely linked to its complex geology. In general, the ancient and stable
igneous cores of Siberia, east-central Asia, Mongolia, Manchuria, and China have been worn down over time by
erosion, and form vast rolling plateaus or uplands of moderate or even modest height; the central plateaus which
are arid or actual desert. Similar geomorphological conditions characterize the ancient continental nuclei of the
Arabian peninsula and the Deccan, in southern India: they consist of denuded hills, flat or slightly rolling, and
often arid. Asia Minor and Iran are also characterized by mountain ranges and plateaus with similar
characteristics.
The highest mountains, often flanked by deep depressions filled with sediment, occupy central Asia north of the
Indian peninsula. The most recent of these collision- related ranges are the highest and most rugged; the Hindu
Kush, Pamir, Karakorum, Himalaya, and Kunlun ranges constitute the tallest mountain system on Earth; between
the latter two, the great Tibetan plateau dominates central Asia at an average elevation of 4000-5000 m. Eight
peaks in these mountains soar to over 8000 m, and many others exceed 7000 m. The Himalayan system
continues westward through Afghanistan, Iran, and Anatolia as numerous other bands of mountains, the highest
of which are the Elburz and the Caucasus. The landscapes of these larger ranges are typically Alpine,
characterized by glacial erosion near the peaks and by deep, rapid river erosion on the intermediated and lower
slopes. Changes in elevation in the eastern and southern regions are very significant (both above and below sea
level) in the island arcs. The great chains of islands dotted with active volcanoes, still undergoing rapid tectonic
evolution and subject to earthquakes can exceed elevations of 3500-4000m in Japan, Java, and Sumatra. The
island chains are flanked by coastal plains inland and marginal seas, and by the world's deepest oceanic
trenches.
Measuring Mt Everest
Mount Everest, at 8,848 m, is the tallest mountain on Earth. But how high is it? Two years ago, China
said the peak should be measured from its rock surface and not snow surface, making Everest shorter
by 3.57 m. Nepal decided to undertake its own survey to resolve the issue but acknowledged recently
that this effort was floundering. Measuring mountains might seem an easy task, with technology at hand.
But here is why it's an arduous process:
Historical Measurement
Before the advent of modern technology, height was measured using three techniques
Geodetic method
It's the oldest known method but one of the most accurate. Early scientific measurements of mountains
were made by Greek authors Dicaearchus, Eratosthenes and Xenagoras.
It uses three processes-Levelling, measurement of triangles and determination of distance of a mountain
visible at sea.
Method : Similar triangles, usually right triangles, are compared using a hodometer. Other distance
measuring instruments include Dioptra, Quadrant, ancient astrolabe, ancient cross-staff and Gnomon.
Barometric method
This is based on the premise that if a mercury column is held up by air pressure, the column is shorter at
higher altitudes. Eventually Edmund Haley devised a formula: 0.0144765 H = 900 (log 30-logh), where
30 inches is the height of mercury at sea-level; 'h' is its height at the place of observation; and 'H' is the
elevation. However, the method could never accurately link mountain height to barometric height.
Thermometric Method
This is based on the concept of boiling point of water at different altitudes; the boiling point of water falls
with a rise in height.
Henri Victor Rouault constructed an instrument called hypsometer for thermometric measurement. The
formula used was: h = 295 (100-t), where h is expressed in metres, t in degrees centigrade.
In 1854, Mount Washington was measured by all 3 methods. It came to 1,917 m by primary triangulation
used by the US Coast Survey, to 1,914 m by the process of levelling, 1891.5 m by barometer method,
and 1864 m by boiling point method. It was determined that the results given by the barometer, however
erratic, wander less from those by the levelling instrument than the other results.
Modern Measurement
Photogrammetry
An alternative method, it is commonly used by the UK to measure its hills and peaks. It involves flying
over the area to be measured and taking overlapping, high-resolution photos from which a 3D
representation is created. Measurements can then be taken that translate directly to positions and
heights in the real world. This method allows large areas to be surveyed quickly and safely and to an
accuracy of 3-4m.
GPS
The most accurate method, which Nepal is using for Mount Everest, involves using GNSS (Global
Navigation Satellite System). An instant position is determined but the height is not very accurate. For
greater accuracy, the GNSS unit has to remain stationary and record data for a period of time.
GPS Second Method
A GPS receiver is planted on top of the mountain. Scientists then time how long it takes for radio signals
to travel between the receiver and orbiting satellites. This yields enough data to determine-to within a
centimetre- the elevation of the receiver relative to the satellite, which sits at a known distance from the
centre of the Earth. But that doesn't determine the height above sea level. The height of the ocean
surface is believed to differ by more than 100 m across the globe. So scientists try to estimate where
the sea level would be if the water were lapping up against or indeed flowing through the base of the
mountain. The final calculation may not be that precise
Mountains can be measured from different base points
From Sea Level: Measuring elevation from the sea level is one of the most widely accepted techniques.
When measuring from sea level, Mount Everest is the uncontested tallest mountain of the world, with a
peak that rises 8,848 m above sea level.
From Surrounding Terrain: When measuring Mount Everest, the elevation of the plateau-on which it is
situated-from the sea level is also included in the mountain's height. But if its vertical rise was measured
from the surrounding terrain, Everest would lose to Mount McKinley, whose elevation from the sea level
is otherwise lower than Mount Everest, but it's vertical rise is about 5,500 m, compared to Mount
Everest's 3,700 m.
From Its Base: Some measurements are taken from the base of the mountain itself, even if the base is
above sea level. Measured in this manner, Mauna Kea, whose base is at the bottom of the Pacific
Ocean, is the world's tallest at 10,203 m. This beats Mount Everest even though Mauna Kea's elevation
is only 4,205 m at its peak.
Mount Lamlam, whose base is deep in the Mariana Trench in the Pacific, is another mountain, which
could be tallest when measured from the base. Though reports about its height differ, one report puts its
height, when measured from the base, at 11,527 m, making it taller than Mauna Kea.
From Centre Of Earth: When measured from the centre of the Earth, the world's tallest mountain is
Chimborazo, which is 6,384 km at its peak. However, its elevation is only 6,268 m above sea level. It is
located in Ecuador, near the equator, which gives it an advantage, because the Earth bulges slightly in
the middle.
PHYSIOGRAPHY OF ERSTWHILE U.S.S.R/CIS

Although there is great variation in the landscape of the CIS, the topography may be described in relatively
simple terms. For the most part, the variation is found along the southern margins of the country. Within the
interior, there are vast areas with similar topography.
Physiographic Divisions
The general landforms of the CIS can be considered in four sections: (1) the East European Plain, located west
of Ural Mountains and bordered on the south by the Carpathian, Crimean, and Caucasus mountains; (2) the
West Siberian Lowlands, between the Urals and the Yenisey River, and its southern extensionthe Turan
Lowlandwhich is bordered by the high central Asian mountains; (3) the east Siberian Highlands, and (4) the
middle Asian Mountains.
East European Plain

The East European Plain, or Russian Plain, is rolling lowland in which the elevations never exceed 457m. This
vast lowland undulates from the western boundary of the country to the Ural Mountains. Glacial ice radiating
from Scandinavia once covered the northwestern and middle sections of the plain, as well as the adjoining
Polish and German lowlands. The advancing and retreating ice scoured, polished, and denuded the underlying
rocks and deposited huge amounts of clay, sand, gravel, and even builders. Parallel series of terminal moraines
lie across the northwestern portion of the plain. Thick deposits of loessthe wind blown, finegrained, dustlike
clay called limon cover large areas of the plain. Because the loess is easily eroded, many ravines and gullies
have been created on the otherwise rolling surface. After the Ice Age, the large amounts of meltwater created an
inland sea that covered most of the plain and connected the Arctic Ocean with the Caspian Sea.
The Ural Mountains

The Ural Mountains forms a narrow, linear north-south trending range that bounds the East European Plain on
the east. The mountains are not tallthe tallest peak is Naradnaya, at 1,894 mbut they stand out from the
lowlands on either side. The linear formation has been used as the dividing line between the continents of
Europe and Asia. The Ural Mountains region is noted for the large variety and amount of minerals found there.
The Caucasus Mountains

The Caucasus Mountains is located on the Crimea peninsula between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. The
range is about 1,126 km long and is mostly of volcanic origin. Many peaks exceed 5633 m, and the tallest, Mt.
Elbruz, is 5,633 m. The range is crossed by high mountain passes, and the two best known are the Daryal Pass
and the Mamison Pass.
West Siberian Lowlands

South of the Urals, the East European Plain joins with another vast level area known as the Turan Lowland. That
plain continues northward along the eastern side of the Urals and merges with the west Siberian Lowlands. This
vast lowland is the largest nearly flat plain on earth. The Ob River, and its major tributary the Irthysh, drain most
of the West Siberian Lowlands. The huge, flat plain would seem to be ideal for agriculture, but it is largely
unproductive because of the severe dry and cold climate. The ground is frozen for many months, and then turns
swampy when it does warm up during the brief summer forming bogs and puddles, and deranged drainage
pattern.
East Siberian Highlands

The Yenisey River forms a natural boundary between the West Siberian Lowlands and the East Siberian
highlands. Eastward from the Yenisey, the ground elevations begin to rise and land becomes low mountain and
hill country. The region is interlaced with broad, fluvial lowlands along the Siberian rivers. In the far eastern
section of Siberia, the mountains become taller and more rugged. The tallest peak in the eastern part of the
country is Gora Chen, at 3,100 m located just south of the Arctic Circle at about 142 degrees east longitude in
the Khrebet Cherskogo range.
Middle Asian Mountains

The Asian Mountain section of the CIS stretches along the southern boundary of the country from the Caspian
Sea to the sea of Okhotsk. The topography along this section is extremely complex. The mountain crests form
the international boundaries between the CIS and its southern neighbours. The tallest mountain in the country is
Communism Peak, once called Stalin Peak, which rises to 7,497 m. It is located in the Pamir Mountains near
the Afghanistan border. The boundary between the CIS and China follows the crest of the Tien Shan Mountains
north and east from the Pamirs. Then, farther north, the Soviet Chinese and Mongolia boundaries converge near
Belukha Peak, the highest point in the Altai Mountains (4,507 m). Eastward from Belukha, most of the border
area between the CIS and Mongolia is rugged mountain country. Lake Baikal is nestled in one of the mountain
valleys and is notable because it is the deepest inland body of water in the world and contains more fresh water
than any other lake.
Although there is great variation in the landscape of the CIS, the topography may by described in relatively
simple terms. For the most part, the variation is found along the southern margins of the country. Within the
interior, there are vast areas with similar topography.
LINKING ASIA AND EUROPE THROUGH TUNNEL

Envisioned by an Ottoman Sultan in the 1860s, Turkey's undersea rail link between its European and
Asian sides rail link is called Marmaray. The name derives from 'Marmara' Sea near Turkey and 'ray',
the Turkish word for rail. The tunnel passes under the Bosphorus Strait. However, as Turkey is an
earthquake-prone country, the engineering challenges faced in building the tunnel were immense. A
brief look at the engineering marvel and the dangers it faces:
Features
1. It is the world's deepest underwater tunnel (at a depth of 60 metres)
2. It connects the Yenikapi (Europe) and skdar (Asia) districts of Istanbul
3. Length of the tunnel is 13.6 km
4. Submerged section measures around 1.4 km
5. Short-term aim is to ease traffic on the two bridges and ferries that allow people to cross the Strait
6. Long-term aim is to extend rail links to Gebze (Asia) and Halkal (Europe) by 2015 -around 91 km by
road
7. It is expected to increase use of railways in Turkey to 27 percent, up from roughly 3.6 per cent
Challenges
Turkey is one of the world's most earthquake-prone countries
Has been witness to 12 major earth-quakes since 1939
Rail link is located 18 km from the faultline. All 12 earthquakes have been recorded over this faultline
Engineering Challenges
An earthquake leads to liquefaction of soil, meaning that the otherwise solid earth begins behaving like a
liquid. Many times, underground structures such as storage tanks have been found on the surface after
an earthquake due to this. The Marm
aray undersea tunnel is built to resist earthquakes up to 7.5 on Richter Scale.
To stop the tunnel from being dislodged by earthquakes, engineers had to ensure that the soil around
the tunnel was dense. A National Geographic report says this was done by using grout, which is
essentially concrete without sand. Engineers drilled holes into the soil and injected 3,000 grout columns
at high pressure. The report says the Marmaray tunnel was built in 11 sections, with each connected by
a flexible joint to prevent leakage. The tunnel could be one of the safest places in the city in a quake
PHYSIOGRAPHY AND RELIEF: WESTERN EUROPE

Although Europe's topography is complex, a basic pattern becomes clear when one recognizes only four general
physiographic provinces. Each province is composed of many small units, but there is enough internal uniformity
for each to be called a region. The basic component of uniformity is the geologic structure. Most of Europe lies
in an unstable zone of the earth's crust, which means that there has been much tectonic activity in the past. The
four physiographic provinces are the Northwestern Uplands, the Central Lowlands, the Central Plateaus, and the
Alpine System.
The Northwestern Uplands. The Northwestern Uplands include the mountainous terrain of Scandinavia and
Finland, northwestern Great Britain, Ireland, and western France. Although these regions are separated by
bodies of water, their underlying rock structures are similar, and in many places the landscapes are similar too.
The regions all face the Atlantic Ocean on the west.
The surface configuration of the Northwestern Uplands is more plateau like than mountainous, but
dissection from both rivers and glaciers has created steep slopes and rugged terrain, giving the area a
mountainous appearance. Flat land occurs only along the larger rivers. The highest part of the region is about
2,440 m above sea level, in southern Norway. Most of the coastline is extremely irregular, partly the result of
rising ocean water after the ice sheets melted and partly the result of the land sinking from the weight of the
glacial ice. Fiords- former river valleys, once deepened by glaciers and now invaded by sea water-exist all along
the Norwegian coast and reach far inland. In Brittany on the west coast of France and in Cornwall on the west
coast of Great Britain, rocky promontories shelter numerous bays and inlets. In Scotland, narrow lochs (lakes)
extend inland much like the fiords (glacier valleys) on Norway.
The Central Lowlands. The Central Lowlands (the North European Plain) consist of low-lying terrain where
elevations rarely exceed 150 m and the local relief is never greater than 30 m. The lowland extends from the
Pyrenees Mountains northward through western France, the low countries (Belgium, Luxembourg, and the
Netherlands), and Germany and Poland, from where it broadens into the plains of the CIS. The ancient ice
sheets left the rocks bare in the north, but most of the region has soils sufficiently deep to sustain agriculture. In
small but important regions, coal, iron ore, and other minerals have been found. The level landscape has made
extensive transportation systems possible.
The Garonne Basin connects with the Paris Basin, where a gently rolling plain is dominated by the city of Paris.
The basin itself is circular, and a series of concentric escarpments slope gently toward the city but have steep
sides pointing outward. Both the Loire and the Seine rivers Flow through the basin and find their way
independently to the Atlantic coast.
The Lowland of Brabant, which includes the Flanders Plain, is located in Belgium, but it resembles the
physical landscape of the Paris Basin.
The lowland of France and Belgium reappears in England. The shallow English Channel and North Sea are
drowned portions of the same physical structure.
Back on the mainland, the Central Lowlands also include the coastal lowlands along the North sea, and the
glacial moraine areas of southern Scandinavia. The polders of the Netherlands coast are old lake beds next to
the sea that have been reclaimed by building dikes and pumping out the sea water. The Baltic Lake Plain
extends eastward through Germany and Poland. The name indicates that the plain contains numerous lakes and
is located along the Baltic Sea. The lakes are indicators of past glaciations in the region. The coastal lowlands
are cut by some of the great rivers of North Europe, including the Rhine, the Elbe, the Oder, and the Vistula. The
glacial moraines created more local relief than that found on the coastal lowlands. The east-west trending hills
are similar to those found in the moraine areas of North America. The Central Lowlands broaden on the east and
extend from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to the Black Sea and the Caucasus Mountains. Most of this part of
the region is in the CIS.
The Central Plateaus. The central upland region, or the Central Plateaus, lies between the Central Lowlands on
the north and the Alpine System on the south. It is and almost continuous zone of basins, plateaus, and low
mountain ranges, but the sections are separated from each other. The region extends from the Iberian Peninsula
on the south-west to Poland on the northeast. Although it is an upland region, it has never been a barrier to
transportation because it is dissected in numerous places by great river valleys.
The Spanish portion of the Central Plateau region is called the Spanish Meseta and is made up of the Plateau
of Castile, the Sierra de Guadar-rama, and the Cantabrian Mountains. The plateau quality of the Meseta is
shown by the steep escarpment that surrounds the region on the north, east, and south. In France, the Central
Plateau region is called the Central Massif and is outlined by a steep escarpment on the south. This southern
wall, called the Cevennes, runs parallel to the Mediterranean coast and about 80 km inland from the coast. On
the north and west this large limestone plateau slopes gently away from the southern crest. The Central Massif is
dissected in numerous places by deeply eroded, steep-sided canyons. The Tarn River, for example, runs
through one such canyon.
The Central Plateau region runs northeastward from the Central Massif to include the Jura Mountains, the
Central German Upland, the Bavarian Plateau, and the Bohemian Massif. The Jura Mountains extend about 322
km along the French-Swiss border. The highest peak in the range is Mount Reculet, at 1,665 m. The Central
Cerman Upland is a region of glaciated granite where clear glacial lakes are surrounded by stretches of conifers.
Old volcanoes dot the landscape and can be recognized under their covers of pine trees by their conical shape.
The Central Europe. The Muese borders it on the west, and the Oder on the east. The Weser and EIbe are
largely products of the upland, but the most important river is the Rhine. It flows through a graben, or rift valley
created by diastrophism rather than by erosion.
The Bavarian Plateau is a large, elevated basin between the Jura Mountains and the Alps. Drainage out of the
basin is toward the east because it contains the headwaters of the Danube River. The city of Munich is located in
the middle of the basin.
The Bohemian. Massif includes the Bohemian Massif includes the Bohemain Basin and the low mountains
surrounding it. The crests of these mountains form the boundaries between Czechoslovakia and Austria,
Germany, and Poland. The city of Prague is located in the basin between the mountains.
The Alpine System. The Alpine System includes most of southern Europe and contains great complexities of
relief. Mountains are the dominant feature, but plateaus, basins, wide fertile valleys wide fertile valleys, and
coastal plains also are numerous throughout the region. Geologically, the Alpine System is a region, but isolated
mountain chains break the region into numerous parts. The mountains give a complexity to the distribution of
people. The highly populated coastal lowlands and intermountain basins contrast sharply with the emptiness of
the high mountain ranges.
Effect of Alps on European Society

The western edge of the mountain ranges in the Alpine System begins with the Sierra Nevada of
southern Spain. These mountains were the last stronghold of the land still reflects the influence of the
Arab invader from Africa. Orchards are common in the valleys, and grove after grove of dates and olives
can be seen. This is the citrus region of Spain, but sugar cane also is produced. The Iberian Peninsula
is separated from the remainder of Europe by the wall of the Pyrenees Mountains. Here the French and
Spanish cultures tend to merge, but they are kept separated by the mountains. The tiny country of
Andorra is located in one of the mountain valleys. In the western part of the mountains, the Basques, a
racial remnant of ancient times, continue to exist as a thorn in the side of the Spanish government as
they push from time to time for independence. Neither Andorra nor the Basques would have survived as
separate entities if the mountains had not been there.
The Alps are Europe's greatest mountain range. They lift upward out of the Mediterranean, with the south-facing
slopes along the Riviera coast, and extend into higher elevations to the north and east. The northeastern
extension of the mountains stops where the Danube Valley separates the Alps from the Carpathians. The Alps
carry a blanket of snow all summer, and many peaks are mantled with a coat of glacial ice. The Vienna Basin
marks the transition of the Alps to the Carpathians, and the depression allows the Danube to flow eastward
toward the Black Sea. The Carpathians form a large loop that encloses the Hungarian and Transylvanian basins,
and meets the Balkan range at the Iron Gate. The gate is another gorge of the Danube River and has been used
as a transportation route for centuries. At the eastern end of the Alps proper, the mountains extend
southeastward, making up the Dinaric Alps, which run through Yugoslavia and the Pindus Mountains of Greece.
From the Riviera coast eastward, a narrow coastal mountain range broadens into the which forms the backbone
of Italy.
PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA

The Physiography of North America is divided into twelve major sections. Each of these regions have their own
assemblage.
1 The Canadian Shield

(a) The Main Part of the Shield consists of vast areas of ancient igneous and metamorphic rock, covered
in places with uneven sheets of till and other materials dumped by the retreating ice-sheets. The
monotony of the landscape is varied only by occasional rounded ridges of bare rock rising to 30.5 or 61
m above the general level and by innumerable lakes, most of which occupy hollows gouged out by the
ice.
(b) The drainage pattern is chaotic; and, indeed, some streams have so gentle a gradient that is it difficult to
tell in which direction they are flowing. Elsewhere they are interrupted by low waterfalls or rapids.
(c) The Hudson Bay Lowlands. In a 482.8-km wide strip around the southern shores of Hudson Bay, the
ancient rocks are masked by a layer of sands and clays laid down in a shallow sea which covered the
areas at the close of the Ice Age. During the last few thousand years the floor of this sea has been
slightly uplifted to form dry land.
(d) The Arctic Islands. These irregularly-shaped islands represent the partly submerged northern portions
of the Shield, with a total area of half a million square miles. The largest, Baffin Island, is nearly twice the
size of the British Isles and contains several rugged granite peaks exceeding 2438.4 m, but the
landscape in general much resembles that of the mainland. The Baffin is the best example of Ice Dome
(e) The Superior Uplands. A number of low hills to the west and south of Lake Superior (the Mesabi and
Marquette Ranges, for example) forms a southward extension of the Shield into the U.S.A. They are of
considerable economic importance because they contain extensive deposits of iron ore.
(f) The Superior Uplands. A number of low hills to the west and south of Lake Superior (the Mesabi and
Marquette Ranges, for example) forms another extension of the Shield into the U.S.A., joined to it
geologically by hard crystalline rocks which formerly obstructed the channel of the St. Lawrence in the
area of the Thousand Islands.
2 The Appalachian Area

(a) The Appalachians Proper. South of the Hudson- Mohawk Valley is a region of uplands which in Mount
Mitchell attain a maximum height of 2037.2 m. It is the result of a most complicated sequence of
geological events, which has involved denudation, uplift and then renewed denudation. Four parallel
zones may be clearly distinguished
The Appalachian Plateau. This most westerly section of the Appalachian area is about 320 km wide in
the north, but tapers to about 48.2 km in Tennessee. Various parts have their own local names: in the
north are the Catskill Mountains, in West Virginia is the Allegheny Plateau, and farther south is the
Cumberland Plateau. The Appalachian Plateau is an uplifted peneplain with a remarkably uniform
surface, deeply scored by valleys. Its eastern edge is in places so imposing that it is known as the
Allegheny Front. Beneath the sandstone and shale of which it is mainly composed of thick and relatively
undisturbed seams of coal; some are easily mined because they outcrop on the sides of the valleys.
In the aptly-named Ridge and Valley section, long ridge crests of resistant sandstone and quartzite
alternate with valleys worn in the weaker shales and limestones. In eastern Pennsylvania the underlying
coal-seams have been so acutely folded by earth-movements that the coal has been metamorphosed
into anthracite. The most easterly of the valleys, occupied for part of its length by the River Shenandoah,
is deeper and wider than the others; for this reason it is commonly referred to as the Great Valley.
The Blue Ridge. East of the Great Valley the land rises abruptly to the Blue Ridge, a distinct line of hills
formed of hard crystalline rocks, which extends southwards for about 885 km. The widest part, in North
Carolina, is known as the Great Smoky Mountains, which includes Mount Mitchell and 45 other peaks
exceeding 1828.8 m in height. In places the continuity of the Ridge is broken by 'water-gaps', such as
those of the Rivers Potomac and James, and by 'dry-gaps' which once contained rivers now' captured'
by others.
The Piedmont varies in width from about 48 km in the north to 201 km in North Carolina. Its undulating
surface is diversified by a few rounded hills and by the "valleys of numerous streams flowing to the
Atlantic. To the east the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont are covered by the newer, sedimentary rocks
of the coastal plain. The geological boundary between the two areas is marked by the so-called Fall
Line, a zone of waterfalls (or more usually rapids) which are close to Philadelphia,Washington, Raleigh
and Macon.
(b) New England and the Maritime Provinces of Canada. The crystalline Piedmont is continued
northward beyond the Hudson-Mohawk Valley, and here, too, individual uplands have their own
distinctive names: for example, the Green Mountains, the White Mountains and the Notre Dame
Mountains. The generally level surface of the uplands is interrupted where rivers have cut deep valleys
or where areas of especially hard rock have resisted erosion, forming isolated peaks.
Mount Monadnock, which rises 952.5 m has given its name to this type of feature. The Quaternary Ice
Age has left its mark upon the landscape in the form of U-shaped valleys and cirques; while the valleys
and the coastal plain are covered with clay and outwash sands and gravels.
(c) Newfoundland represents the north-eastern extremity of the Appalachians, although it is separated
from the main body of mountains by a sunken area occupied by the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The island
consists essentially of a bare, ice-worn tableland, mostly below 304.8 m (1000 feet) above sea-level.
3 The Atlantic Coastal Plain

(a) From Cape Cod to Florida the Atlantic coast is bordered by a plain composed of young, sedimentary
rocks which dip gently eastward. Where the more resistant bands of sandstone and limestone outcrop,
low escarpments (cuestas), with their steep slopes facing west, rise above the general level, and there
are many examples of river capture.
The rise in sea-level after the Ice Age submerged the margins of the plain, with the result that some
drumlins became rounded islands (for example, in Boston Harbor) and moraines were converted into
peninsulas (Cape Cod) or islands (Nan tucket, Long Island). Numerous spits (Cape Hatteras and Cape
Farewell) and offshore bars are other prominent features of the coastline.
(b) Florida. The 482 km long Florida peninsula is a low platform composed of limestone, in which solution
has produced many features characteristic of every (cave-systems, sink-holes). The water-table is,
however, high, and in the south the peninsula is largely covered with lakes and swamps. Off the
southern tip of the peninsula is the long string of islands known as the Florida Keys.
4 The Gulf Coastal Plain

(a) East and West of the Mississippi Flood-plain. This landscape much resembles that of the Atlantic
coastal plain described in 3a. Sedimentary rocks dip gently southward and low escarpments formed by
outcrops of hard sandstone face inland, producing the same type of' belted' country. The intervening
clay-lands are covered with rich, dark-coloured soils containing a high proportion of humus. The coast,
too, with its sand-bars, sand-spits, swamps and lagoons, is reminiscent of the Atlantic coastal plain.
In the gently folded sedimentary strata of southern Texas vast deposits of oil and natural gas have
collected. There are in addition about 300 salt-domes, sometimes associated with sulphur.
(b) The Mississippi Flood-Plain forms a rough triangle with its apex some 965 km north of New Orleans.
The extremely gentle gradient of the river has led to the deposition of enormous quantities of sediment,
with the result that widespread flooding is an ever-present danger, despite the construction of artificial
banks (levees) to contain the flood-waters. The area between the levees (the' bottomlands') has been
largely drained, though there are still areas of swamp. At the mouth of the Mississippi deposition of the
very fine water-borne sediment has built out a 'bird's foot' delta which now occupies an area larger than
that of Wales.
(c) The Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico resembles Florida in that it has many karst features, but there is one
important difference. In Yucatan the water-table is as much as 121.9 m below the surface, which is,
therefore, dry and rocky.
5 The Interior Uplands

On each side of the northern part of the Mississippi flood plain, between Memphis and St. Louis, is a group
of low plateau-like areas with distinctive characteristics.
(a) The Eastern Interior Uplands, in Kentucky and Tennessee, consist of a broad, gentle upfold in the
sedimentary rocks which were laid down in the shallow Palaeozoic sea immediately west of the
Appalachian Plateau. The removal of the overlying sandstones by erosion has revealed broad basins. In
the limestones such features as the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky.
(b) The Western Interior Uplands. Similar karst features are found in the Ozark Plateau, together with a
number of knob-like summits composed of Pre-Cambrian granites. South of this, across the River
Arkansas, are the Ouachita Mountains, which rise abruptly to 914.4 m and form an isolated extension of
the Ozarks.
6 The Central Lowlands

These lowlands form the agricultural 'heart' of North America and consist chiefly of rolling plains, in general rising
to no more than 152.4 m above sea-level. They are separated from the High Plains to the west by a low but
distinct 'step', referred to in North Dakota as the Missouri Coteau. The underlying rocks, which have been very
little disturbed since they were deposited in the Palaeozoic sea, are covered by a variety of fertile soils. Some of
these, in the northern half of the region, are derived from glacial deposits (for example, the 'till plains' of Ohio,
Indiana and Illinois). Some in Manitoba and North Dakota are lacustrine in origin, having been laid down on the
floors of former lakes. Others in Oklahoma and Texas, which were never at any time covered by the ice-sheets,
are derived from alluvium and loess.
The Great Lakes area is marked by a pronounced escarpment (cuesta), formed by a long outcrop of sandstone
and dolomite, into which the Niagara River has 'cut back', so producing the famous Falls. The escarpment
divides into two almost equal parts the wedge-shaped area between the Canadian Shield and Lakes Huron, Erie
and Ontario, commonly referred to as the 'Lake Peninsula'.
7 The High Plains

Between the Missouri Coteau and the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, the land rises from about 548.6 m to
about 1524 m. Although much consists of flat, monotonous country, some parts have quite striking features.
Fast-flowing streams from the Rockies have cut steep-sided valleys, so that the land is in places deeply
dissected. The Missouri 'Trench' in Montana, the gullies, buttes and pinnacles of the Badlands of South
Dakota, and the Black Hills of Dakota are further examples of the variety of scenery in the High Plains.
The Western Cordillera

This extensive region, sometimes referred to as 'The Mountain West', consists of two main lines of mountains,
roughly parallel with the Pacific coast, together with a series of high intermont plateaus between them. Strictly
speaking, the term 'Rocky Mountains' should be reserved for the ranges east of the plateaus.
8 The Eastern Ranges

These include the Brooks Range in Alaska and the Sierra Madre Oriental in Mexico , but the greater part is
occupied by the Canadian Rockies, which in Mount Robson reach a maximum height of 3953.8 m, and the
American Rockies, which contain no less than 346 summits exceeding 3962.4 m. This rugged and spectacular
line of mountains, many areas of which have been set aside as National Parks, is the result of complicated
folding movements combined with faulting, uplift and tilting. The almost continuous line of lofty peaks is
interrupted in only a few places by such high notches as the Yellowhead, Kicking Horse and Crowsnest
Passes." which are used by the Canadian National and Canadian Pacific Railways.
West of the main Canadian Rockies and parallel with them are several deep, trench-like valleys, one of which,
the Rocky Mountain Trench, a thousand miles long, contains sections of the Peace, Kootenay, Fraser and
Columbia Rivers. It has been called 'the most continuous gash in the surface of the North American continent'.
9 The Intermontane Plateaus

The Yukon Plateau and the British Columbia Plateau are at about 914.4 m above sea-level, though deeply
dissected by the Yukon, Nelson, Peace, Skeena and Fraser Rivers.
In the Columbia-Snake Lava Plateau the existing land was smothered in Cainozoic times by repeated
outpourings of basaltic lava. Into this igneous covering the Columbia River and its tributary, the Snake, have cut
deep valleys, with a succession of waterfalls and canyons. During the Ice Age the Columbia changed its course
several times and eroded temporary channels, which it later abandoned. One of these, the Grand Coulee, has
been dammed as part of an important hydro-electric scheme.
The Great Basin, which covers an area slightly larger than that of the British Isles, is a region of semi-desert
between the Sierra Nevada and the Wasatch Mountains. It really consists of a number of individual basins
separated by fault-blocks.
The intervening basins are filled with material eroded from these blocks (or 'ranges'), hence the name' Basin and
Range Country'.
The northern part of the Great Basin contains numerous areas of inland drainage (bolsons), where intermittent
streams peter out in small lakes (playas), salt-swamps, or beds of sand and gravel. The Great Salt Lake is all
that remains of 'Lake Bonneville', an extensive lake of the glacial period.
The Colorado Plateau lies to the east and south-east of the Wasatch Mountains. Except where the remains of
volcanoes rise above the general level, the surface reveals all the characteristic features of a hot desert. Water
draining from the eastern rim of mountains is carried south-westwards by the Colorado and its tributaries in a
series of narrow, steep-sided valleys (canyons), which in places are over a mile deep. In some parts of the
Plateau are flat-topped tablelands known as mesas and buttes.
The Central Plateau of Mexico is a lofty, triangular area between the Sierra Madre Occidental and the Sierra
Madre Oriental. Some parts have a 'basin and range' landscape similar to that of the Great Basin.
The Pacific Ranges And Depressions

If the structural lines along the west coast are compared with a detailed physical map of North America, it will be
seen that the areas west of the intermont are plateaus consist of two long lines of mountains, separated by a
trench-like depression, of which the northern and southern parts have been inundated by a rise of sea-level.
10 The Inner Line Of Mountains

This is made up of the Alaska Range, the Coast Mountains of British Columbia, the Cascades in Washington
and Oregon, the Sierra Nevada in California, and the Sierra Madre Occidental in Mexico, together with a
branch which forms the Peninsula of Lower California. It includes Mount McKinley 6193.5 m the highest peak
in North America, and many other impressive summits. Through it three main gaps have been cut by the Fraser,
the Columbia and the Colorado Rivers.
North of the 49th Parallel, the mountains are heavily glaciated, and in Alaska and British Columbia there are still
extensive permanent snowfields and glaciers (the Malaspina and the Athabasca Glaciers, for instance). Many of
the numerous U-shaped valleys have been inundated by a rise in sea-level to form long deep fiords.
Another notable feature of these mountain ranges is the very large number of volcanoes, many of which are still
active (Aniakchak in Alaska, and Popocatepetl in Mexico, for example). Others, such as Mount Lassen in
California, which last erupted in 1914-15, appear to be dormant. Paricutin, about 321 km from Mexico City,
began to form in 1943 and apparently ceased activity in 1952. Crater Lake, in the Cascades, occupies the
caldera of a long-extinct volcano.
11 The Depression
Though inundated by the sea, the depression can be traced in British Columbia along a line through the 'sounds
'(or 'inside passages') between the mainland and the Islands and in the U.S.A. as Puget Sound. Farther south
are the Willamette Lowlands, and then the Central Valley of California, a narrow lowland area almost
completely enclosed by mountains. This is drained by two main rivers, the Sacramento and the San Joaquin,
which have laid down in the valley vast quantities of gravel, sand and slit.
12 The Outer Line of Mountain Ranges

This is represented in the U.S.A. by the Coast Ranges of Oregon and California. In the north the ranges have
been partially inundated, converting them into a string of hilly islands; the largest is Vancouver Island. Apart from
the northern areas, the line is interrupted in a number of places, notably by the Golden Gate, the narrow
entrance to San Francisco Bay (Fig. 102). This is a particularly unstable part of the earth's crust, and along the
line of the San Andreas Fault, which lies just west of San Francisco, earth-movements are frequent; one such
movement was responsible for the disastrous earthquake of 1906.
PHYSIOGRAPHY: SOUTH AMERICA

Andes
The landscape of western South America is dominated by the Andes Mountains, a lofty mountain range that
extends almost unbroken by low passes from the Caribbean to the Strait of Magellan. The Andes are the world's
longest continuous mountain barrier, and they effectively separate eastern South America from the western part
of the continent. The mountains form a long but narrow chain. They are only 322 km wide, except in Bolivia and
northern Argentina, where they bulge to about twice that width. The Andes' geologic formation occurred
primarily through folding and faulting of the earth's crust, but some areas were created through volcanism. Three
distinct areas of volcanic activity include the two border regions between Colombia and Ecuador and between
Peru and Bolivia, and the central region of Chile.
The tallest mountain in the Andes, and the highest point in the southern hemisphere, is Cerro Aconcagua,
located about 120 km west of the city of Mendoza in Argentina. Aconcagua is about 6,962 m high, but the
Andes contain 47 other peaks that rise above 6,098 m. By comparison, Mountain in North America over 6096 m.
Most of the very tall mountains in the Andes are located in northwestern Argentina along the international
boundary with Chile.
Western Coastal Plain

West of the Andes, a narrow coastal plain runs for the entire length of the continent. South of about 40 degrees
latitude, however, the plain breaks into hundreds of islands. This region of southern Chile was heavily glaciated
during the Pleistocene ice ages. The ice created hundreds of fiords and cut the deep troughs that separate the
islands. Glaciers still exist in the region, but they are confined to the higher elevations. Most of the higher peaks
in the Andes contain glaciers, but as one moves from southern Chile northward toward the equator, the ice is
found at higher and higher elevations and in lesser amounts. At the higher elevations along the equator, there are
still small remnant glaciers. All the rivers along the western slope of the Andes cascade the short distance to the
Pacific Ocean; none of these rivers is notable outside its local region.
Guyana Plateau
East of the Andes, however, the landscape is dominated by the great drainage systems. The Magdalena River in
Colombia flows out of the frazzled northern edge of the Andes and empties into the Caribbean Sea. The
Magdalena and its tributaries are heavily utilized for irrigation and navigation and are important to the Colombian
economy. The Rio Orinoco is the great drainage system of Venezuela. The main course of the Orinoco flows
eastward and empties into the Atlantic Ocean near Trinidad, but the river's tributaries drain the Guiana
Highlands. The Guianas are low, worn-down mountains that are quite empty of people and still largely
unexplored. They and the Plateau of Brazil to the south form the remnants of the eastern upland regions of the
continent. These two landforms rose above the primeval waves long before the younger Andes, but the process
of erosion has made them mere highlands.
Brazilian Plateau
South of the Orinoco, between the Guianas and the plateau of Brazil, is the mighty Amazon and its many
tributaries. The world's great rivers and the longest the Amazon is about 6,200 km long and carries more water
than any other river. At its mouth it is too wide for a person to see both banks from a boat, and the fresh water it
carries flows on the surface of the salty ocean for many km into the Atlantic. the Amazon is mostly in Brazil, but
its tributaries drain parts of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and even a small section of Venezuela.
Parana Paraguay
The Paraguay-Parana-Plata system rises in the swampy interior of the continent near 15 degrees south latitude
and flows south to an estuary near Buenos Aires, Argentina. The Paraguay joins the Parana at the elbow where it
turns south, and the Pilcomayo flows into the Paraguay at Asuncion, the capital city of Paraguay. Another large
river, the Uruguay, flows from the southern part of the Brazilian highlands and enters the Plata just above the
mouth of the Parana. Numerous tributaries also flow into these rivers. Frequently, the names of the major rivers
are hyphenated, for example, the Plata-Parana or the Paraguay-Parana.
The three major river systems of the eastern part of South America all flow through vast lowland regions. In
Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay the lowland is a grassy plain, but in northern Brazil the lowland is covered
with tropical rainforest; the grass appears again in Venezuela. These vegetation patterns are associated with the
climates of the regions, especially with the rainfall patterns.
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY:

AFRICA
Africa constitutes one of the great masses of ancient Pangaea, of which it probably formed the centermost core.
Its composition reveals a great diffusion of compact rocks, predominantly granite and gneiss, dating back to the
oldest geological eras, such as the Archeozoic and Paleozoic. These rocks still form the basement complex of
the entire continental mass, even if more recent rocks have sometimes been superimposed (as a result of
submerging by the sea and major volcanic effusions). In this it is similar to other large continental masses of the
Earth, such as Siberia, the Deccan, the Canadian Shield, and the Brazilian Plateaus. But Africa is the only part of
the world that has not been affected by great tectonic movements which elsewhere have assailed the primitive
land masses and raised large mountainous folding at their edges. The only zones assailed by tectonic
paroxysms are north of the Atlas chain, which has experienced recent orogenic movements from the
Mediterranean syncline, and the elevated margin of the Cape ranges, displaced above the high continental
slope, at the southern tip.
Elsewhere, Africa has undergone mostly vertical movements, which have fractured the rigid crustal mass,
causing folding, collapses, and fissures. The most notable tectonic element is the series of fractures which open
in the eastern part, from Mozambique to the Ethiopian plateau, circling the tableland of Lake Victoria, and
connecting to the Danakil depression. The bottom of these rift valleys are in part filled by lakes (Malawi,
Tanganyika, Kivu and Albert) which clearly outline their course. North of the Danakil Desert, the Great Rift
Valley continues into the Red Sea, whose African and Arabian shores exhibit the same geological features,
ending in the Syrian and Palestinian grabens of the Dead Sea depression.
The enormous cracks, which formed on the ancient Gondwanaland continent between the Mesozoic and
Cenozoic eras and gave rise to great volcanic effusions of lava (the Ethiopia plateau and Mounts Ruwenzori,
Kenya, and Kilimanjaro) divide the African land mass lengthwise in two parts which are distinguished by their
different altitudes. Southeast of the imaginary line connecting the Gulf of Benguela (in Angola) to Massaua (in
Eritrea) lies "high" Africa with a mean elevation of 1000-1200 m. to the northwest, the rest of the continent has a
mean elevation of 400-600 m.
Except for the volcanic cones (Kilimanjaro is the highest peak in Africa 5895 m and the Atlas Mountains, the
continent's relief exhibits tablelands interrupted by clear-cut shelves: grandiose and yet at the same time
monotonous landscapes which reflect their ancient geology. Even the lowlands are in most cases the result of
sodlike crust depressions shaped like broad basins where the waters of the great rivers collect or settle in vast
marshlands (Lake Chad and the Niger's inland delta), or evaporate to form large arheic areas. The edges of
these basins, as well as of the large tablelands of southern and eastern Africa, are marked by an arrangement of
gridlike reliefs in relation to the meridians and parallels, reflecting in the landscape as well the direction of the
fractures which produced the fractures which produced the tectonic displacements in the rigid continental mass.
Northern Africa
The three major Physical features of Northern Africa are the Nile River on the northeast, the Atlas Mountains on
the northwest, and the great expanse of the Sahara Desert between. The Nile, one of the great rivers of the
world, flows northward from the rainy highlands of Tropical Africa through the dry areas of Sudan and Eqypt.
Once it leaves the upper reaches, it picks up very little water from tributary streams. After the Blue Nile and the
White Nile join near Khartoum, no other permanent stream flows into the river until it reaches the delta, a
distance of more than 1,931 km.
Atlas Mountains
The Atlas Mountains are divided into five separate ranges that run parallel to each other and to the northwest
African coast. The highest and most prominent range in the group is the Great Atlas Mountains, located almost
entirely in Morocco. The Anti-Atlas and Middle Atlas ranges fuse into the southwest and northeast sections
respectively of the Great Atlas range gives way to the Saharan Atlas and the Maritime Atlas. The names
indicate the locations of the ranges with respect to the desert and the sea. The tallest single peak in Northern
Africa is Toubkal, at 4,165 m, located in the Great Atlases approximately 322 km south of Casablanca. The peak
can be seen from the nearby city of Marrakech.
The Sahara, spreads over 9.1 million km2 of Northern Africa. It covers nearly one-third of the entire continent.
The Sahara covers about the same land area as all 50 of the United States, and Algeria is more than three times
larger than Texas. The Sahara is not without variety, but there is also km after monotonous km of nothing but
bare rocks or desiccated dunes. Individual sand dunes reach windblown heights of 183-213 m and extend for
km. Land completely covered with sand dunes is called an erg, but sand cover extends over only about 10
percent of the Sahara. The remainder consists of barren rocky type landscape (hammada) or has a sparse cover
of highly specialized xerophytic-type vegetation.
The mostly flat plateau of the desert is interrupted by two mountain ranges located deep in the interior. The
Hoggar Range in southeastern Algeria rises to a height of 3,002 m at Mount Tahat, and the Tibesti Range in
northern Chad is topped by Emi Koussi (3,414 m). Both mountain ranges run east to west. The Hoggar Range is
approximately 644 km long by 322 km wide, and the Tibesti Range is about half as large, but buried as they are
in the vastness of the Sahara, they seem insignificant in size.
Tropical Africa
No outstanding landscape feature ties Tropical Africa together, as the Sahara does for Northern Africa, although
the tropical rainforest covers much of the region. Swampy lowlands are found along the west coast, large lakes
and mountains on the east, and km after km of savanna grasslands surround the rainforest on all sides.
Probably the most notable features of Tropical Africa are the great rivers, but some individual mountains and
lakes are impressive. The Zaire River (Previously known as the Congo River) and its lesser known tributaries
flow generally westward from the eastern highlands to the Atlantic coast. The sources of the Nile flowing
northward to the Mediterranean Sea, and the Zaire are very near each other in the eastern highland region. The
Ubangi River, the largest tributary of the Zaire, begins less than 161 km from the source of the White Nile. The
Zaire itself begins near Lake Tanganyika, makes a large loop northward through the country of Zaire, and
eventually empties into the Atlantic Ocean near Cabinda. It is one of the largest rivers in the world, both in length
and in amount of discharge.
The Niger is another great river of Tropical Africa. It may not be as well known as the Zaire, but it is nearly as
long and carries nearly as much water. The Niger begins near the Atlantic coast in Sierra Leone, flows northeast
through Guinea and Mali, turns southeast and flows through Niger and Nigeria, and finally empties into the Gulf
of Guinea. The two largest rivers of Tropical Africa begin thousands of km apart, and both make large northern
loops, flow generally toward each other, and empty into the Atlantic only a few hundred km apart.
A series of large fresh-water lakes in situated in the eastern highland region. Most of the lakes fill parts of rift
valleys between the mountains and therefore are long, narrow, and deep. Lake Victoria, the largest of the lakes
and not in a rift valley, is more circular in shape and much more shallow than the others. About the size of the
state of West Virginia, it is shared by Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania and is the Caspian Sea and Lake Superior).
Other smaller lakes near Victoria reflect the names of the House of Hanover: Rudolf (now Turkana), Albert,
George, and Edward. Stretching southward from Lake Victoria are Lakes Tanganyika and Nyasa, the second and
third largest of the region. Lake Tanganyika is (644 km) long, or roughly the distance between Los Angeles and
San Francisco yet it is never more than 81 km wide.
The tallest mountain peak on the African continent is located in the eastern highlands of Tropical Africa. Mount
Kibo, probably better known by its former name of Kilimanjaro, stands in northeastern Tanzania. The mountain
is near the border with Kenya and rises to 5,895 m. Kibo is a unique mountain because it is situated only 322 km
from the equator but is snowcapped the entire year. Also, the mountain is different from other tall peaks because
it stands alone; it is not part of a range of tall mountains. Mount Kenya, the second tallest peak (5,199 m) in
Africa, is located in Kenya directly north of Mount Kibo. It straddles the equator and also in snow-and glacier-
covered near the top. Both these peaks are volcanic in origin, which explains their large circular base and
isolation from mountain chains.
The highlands of eastern Tropical Africa contain some of the most spectacular scenery in Africa. The beauty of
the high mountain peaks and large lakes is reinforced by active volcanoes in the Mufumbiro Range (also known
as the Virunga Mountains), immense grasslands containing great herds, and huge flocks of birds along the lakes.
In contrast, the western portion of Tropical Africa contains little noteworthy scenery. The land is very flat and
covered with trees, so no open areas and few high covered with trees, so no open areas and few high places are
available for viewing the landscape. The only exception is Cameroon Peak, located about 40 km from the
Atlantic coast in Cameroon. The mountain top is (4,069 m) above sea level, but the peak is like a lonely sentinel
standing guard over the swampy coastal lowlands.
Southern Africa
Southern Africa is mostly a high plateau. The narrow coastal plain widens somewhat on the east in Mozambique,
but all the other parts of the region are above 914 m in elevation and about one-fourth of the region is above
1,372 m. Mountains are not common, but the Drakensberg Range, near the southeastern coast in South Africa,
is significant. The tallest peak in the range is Thabana Ntlenyana at 3,482 m. The highlands of Namibia drop to
the Atlantic Ocean on the west in only a few km, and the coastal plain averages about 240 km wide.
The island of Madagascar has a low ridge running through its middle and for nearly its entire length. The ridge is
approximately 1,372 m in elevation and is fringed by coastal plains. Numerous rivers flow in all directions off the
highlands and into the Indian Ocean.
The two largest rivers in Southern Africa are the Zambezi and the Orange. The Zambezi begins near the Katanga
region of southern Zaire, and is used as the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe. Located along this stretch
of the river is the famous Victoria Falls, where forming a waterfall that is three times wider than Niagara Falls and
more than twice as high.
The second noteworthy feature along the Zambezi is the Kariba Dam, built in the Kariba Gorge in 1959. The dam
is 128 m high, and Lake Kariba backs up for 240 km behind it. After the dam, the river continues on through the
plains of Mozambique, eventually emptying into the Indian Ocean. The Orange River and the Vaal, its major
tributary, begin in the Drakensberg Mountains and flow westward through South Africa. The Orange, used as the
boundary between South Africa and Namibia, empties into the Atlantic Ocean.
AUSTRALIA
Situation: The continent of Australia is the smallest continent and the largest island in the world.
Australia is the flattest of the continent in the world. It is the driest continent, It has the least diversified zoological
life, along with many other absolutes, and a continent with the least habitation of all the continents in the world.
The tropic of Cancer
traverses Australia into
two halves.
Australia can be
explained from three
different maps and from
three different angles.
Geologically, Australia
comprises of a craton-
the Western Australian
craton, a highland and a
plain. Physiographically,
it comprises of three
distinct regions-The
Great Diving Range, as
its highland, The Murray
Darling basin and
Artesian Basin as the
plain and Western
Australian Plateau,
comprising of many
uplands and ranges such
as Darling ranges,
Hammersley ranges,
MacDonell ranges,
Kimberley Plateau and
Arnhem land and
lowlands comprising of
the deserts of Australia
and Nullarbor Plains.
From a physiographic viewpoint it is possible to distinguish three large regions.
(i) The Great Western Plateau, or Western Australian Shield.
The Australian Shield, also called the Western Australian Shield or Western Plateau, occupies more than half of
the continent of Australia.
The word shield is used because it refers to ancient, molten rock, which has cooled and solidified.
The Australian Shield has a characteristic depth of 4.5 km and an estimated age of 2.8 to 3.5 billion years. In
places younger sedimentary rock covers the shield's Precambrian surface.
The shield is fractured into a number of distinct blocks, including two cratons
the Pilbara Craton in the North and the
Yilgarn Craton in the Southwest.
These two cratons are the oldest part of the shield, both of which have been dated at more than 2.3 billion years
old.
Some of these blocks have been raised to form uplands; others have been depressed, forming lowlands and
basins.
The uplands include, the Hamersley, King Leopold ranges and the Darling Range. The MacDonnell Ranges lie in
the southern part of the Northern Territory and the Stuart and Musgrave Ranges are located in the north of the
state of South Australia.
The lowlands include the Great Sandy Desert, the Gibson Desert, the Great Victoria Desert and the Nullarbor
Plain, which are located in the north-western, central, southern and south-eastern shield areas respectively.
Erosion and weathering have created striking, isolated rock formations called mesas or buttes in many parts of
the shield, including the Kimberleys and Pilbara districts of Western Australia and Arnhem Land in the Northern
Territory.
Darling Ranges are One of the oldest ranges in the world, part of Australian craton.
Lake Disappointment (Kumpupirntily) is an ephemeral salt lake in Western Australia, which typically is dry except
during very wet periods such as the 1900 floods and in many recent tropical wet seasons since 1967.
The Hamersley Range is a mountainous region of the Pilbara, Western Australia. Geologically, they are some of
the most ancient regions of the earth's crust known as the Pilbara craton.
The range contains large deposits of iron ore, the source of a large proportion of Australia's iron ore. It is
predominately in the Banded Iron Formation (BIF) -
Kimberley Plateau is one of Australias bioregion as well as a region known for iron ore reserves.
Musgrave Ranges refer to Range of mountains in central Australia, along the northwestern border of the state of
South Australia and the southwestern border of the Northern Territory. Northern extension called as McDonell
Ranges.
Uluru
Uluru also known as Ayers Rock and officially gazetted as Uluru/Ayers Rock,is a large sandstone rock formation
in the southern part of the Northern Territory in central Australia.
Uluru is one of Australia's most recognisable natural landmarks. The sandstone formation stands 348 m high,
rising 863 m above sea level with most of its bulk lying underground, and has a total circumference of 9.4 km.
Uluru is also often referred to as a monolith. the rock strata making up is Arkose, a sedimentary rock.
Uluru is an inselberg, literally "island mountain".
The remarkable feature of Uluru is its homogeneity and lack of jointing and parting at bedding surfaces, leading
to the lack of development of scree slopes and soil. These characteristics led to its survival, while the
surrounding rocks were eroded.
Australian Deserts
The interior of Australia is occupied by many deserts. This includes Great Victorian Desert, Great Sandy Desert,
Gibson Desert, Tanami Desert, and Simpson Desert
Great Victorian Desert

The Great Victoria is the largest desert in Australia and consists of many small sandhills, grassland plains, areas
with a closely packed surface of pebbles (called desert pavement or gibber plains) and salt lakes. Human activity
has included some mining and nuclear weapons testing. Wildlife adapted to these harsh conditions includes few
large birds or mammals. However, the desert does sustain many types of lizard
Great Sandy Desert

Great Sandy Desert is an erg. Its notable for The wolf Creek meteorite impact crater which is located in its north-
east. Also, it has a native population that is of indigenous Australians.
Gibson Desert
The Gibson Desert, an interim Australian bioregion, is still largely in an almost "pristine" state.
Large portions of the desert are characterized by gravel-covered terrains covered in thin desert grasses and it
also contains extensive areas of undulating red sand plains and dunefields, low rocky/gravelly ridges and
substantial upland portions with a high degree of laterite formation. The sandy soil of the lateritic buckshot plains
is rich in iron. Several isolated salt-water lakes occur in the centre of the region and to the southwest a system of
small lakes follow palaeo-drainage features.
Tanami Desert
The Tanami Desert is a desert in northern Australia situated in the Northern Territory. It has a rocky terrain with
small hills. The desert is also a World Wildlife Fund ecoregion of Western Australia extending into the Northern
Territory
Simpson Desert
The Simpson Desert, is one of Australia's great wilderness areas containing giant red sand dunes and interesting
rock formations such as Chambers Pillar and Rainbow Valley. The Simpson Desert is an erg which contains the
world's longest parallel sand dunes. These north-south oriented dunes are static, held in position by vegetation.
Since, The desert is underlain by the Great Artesian Basin,
one of the largest inland drainage areas in the world. Water
from the basin rises to the surface at numerous natural
springs. The Native vegetation is largely intact as the desert is
uninhabitable. Therefore, habitats are not threatened by
agriculture, but are damaged by introduced species,
particularly rabbits and feral camels.
Nullarbor Plain
The Nullarbor Plain has been derived from two words: nullus,
"no", and arbor, "tree", meaning it is almost treeless, arid or
semi-arid country of southern Australia, located on the Great
Australian Bight coast.
The Nullarbor Plain which borders much of the length of the
Bight's coastline, is a former seabed, uplifted during the
Miocene.
It is the world's largest single exposure of limestone bedrock,
It is very flat, and has an arid or semi-arid climate with very
little rainfall, and high summer temperatures and high
evaporation rates. It has no surface drainage, but has a karst
drainage system through cave formation in the underlying limestone.
The Nullarbor is known for extensive meteorite deposits, which are extremely well preserved in the arid climate.
In particular, many meteorites have been discovered, some up to several tonnes in weight.
A large part of the Nullarbor Plain is now a National Park.
The East-Central Lowlands
The East-Central Lowlands extends from the Gulf of Carpentaria in the north to Spencer Gulf in the south,
with an average elevation below 150 m.
This depression is divided in two parts by the Grey Range, with the basin of the Murray and Darling rivers
stretching to the southeast, and the Great Artesian Basin to the northwest. The Great Artesian Basin, located
within Australia, is the largest and deepest artesian basin in the world.
The basin provides the only reliable source of fresh water through much of inland Australia.
The Basin underlies 23% of the continent, including the states and territories of Queensland (most of), the
Northern Territory (the south-east corner of), South Australia (the north-east part of), and New South Wales
(northern part of).
The basin is 3,000 metres deep in places and is estimated to contain 64,900 cubic kilometres of groundwater.
The water of the GAB is held in a sandstone layer laid down by continental erosion of higher ground. The
sandstone was then covered by a layer of marine sedimentary rock shortly afterward, which formed a confining
layer, thus trapping water in the sandstone aquifer. The eastern edge of the basin was uplifted when the Great
Dividing Range formed.
Most recharge water enters the rock formations from relatively high ground near the eastern edge of the basin
and very gradually flows toward the south and west. Because the sandstones are permeable, water gradually
makes its way through the pores between the sand grains. When a well is sunk in this layer, because the liquids
maintain their level, and because of the confining pressure, the water in the sandstone gushes out on the
surface. Discharge water eventually exits through a number of springs and seeps, mostly in the southern part of
the basin;
The Eastern Uplands

The Eastern Uplands Consist of the Great Dividing Range, or Great Divide, formed by a group of plateaus, the
remains of ancient eroded relief formations. The Great Dividing Range slopes gently from the east to west and
stretches southward into the Australian Alps in Victoria and exists as the Blue Mountains in the North South
Wales.
The Great Dividing Range, or the Eastern Highlands, is Australia's most substantial mountain range and the third
longest land-based range in the world.
The range stretches more than 3,500 kilometres from Dauan Island off the northeastern tip of Queensland, to the
Grampians in western Victoria.
The sharp rise between the coastal lowlands and the eastern uplands has affected Australia's climate, mainly
due to orographic precipitation, and these are areas of high relief having gorges and ridges.
The Dividing Range does not consist of a single mountain range. It consists of a complex of mountain ranges,
plateaus, upland areas and escarpments with an ancient and complex geological history. The physiographic
division name for the landmass is called the East Australian Cordillera.
The term "Great Dividing Range" may refer specifically to the watershed crest of the range or boundary between
the drainage basins of rivers, which drain directly eastward into the Pacific Ocean, or southward into Bass Strait,
The Great Dividing Range held the earlier coastal settlement towards the eastern part until passes were
discovered which finally led to the exploration of the entire interior.
Mt. Kosciuszko is the highest peak of the Great Dividing Range. Interestingly, It is not actually peak like as the
paeks generally look like, but is a flat top and of course having a higher elevation than the surrounding regions.
The area around it is covered under snow for a small part of the year and is called as Australian Alps.
Australian Alps is the source of several rivers and the discontinuous extension of it in Tasmania island is known
as Kradul range
Cosgrove Volcanic Chain

Cosgrove volcanic chain, is it the longest known trail of a hot spot under a continental landmass. This volcanic
chain was created over the past 33 million years, as Australia moved north-northeast over a mantle plume
hotspot which is believed to be now located in Bass Strait.
Australia slowly moved away over this mantle plume and created a 2,000 kilometers long track volcanic activity.
The Australian mantle plume is probably still active. Because Australia is moved further to the north, it actually
lies northwest of Tasmania in the sea. This is supported by the elevated jacket temperatures and increased
seismic activity.
2
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY : DRAINAGE
ASIA, ERSTWHILE SOVIET UNION/CIS

Many of the important rivers of the CIS flow northward because the high mountains are on the southern border
and the flat plains on the north gradually slope toward the north. The Ob, the Yenisey, and the Lena are among
the longest rivers in the world, and together with their tributaries they drain vast regions of the eastern part of the
country. This means that more than half the territory of the CIS is drained into seas that are frozen during the
greater part of the year. Another one-quarter of the country is drained by rivers that flow into inland basins, such
as the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea. Despite the thousands of miles of coastline, the CIS is essentially a
landlocked country as far as outlets to world ports are concerned, and this has been a problem throughout its
history.
Some other Soviet rivers should be mentioned, because of their importance to the country. Historically, the rivers
have served as navigation routes for opening the country, and most major cities are built along the banks of
rivers. The Danube is considered a European river, but it does form the boundary between the Ukrainian S.S.R.
and Romania. It flows into the Black Sea, as do both the Dnieper and the Dniester. The Dnieper and its
tributaries drain most of the Ukraine, and the great city of Kiew is located along its banks. The Caspian Sea, the
world's largest saltwater lake, receives the waters of the Volga River and the Ural River. The Volga is the most
important river in the CIS. It drains the heartland, and it is used as a transportation artery, for generating
hydroelectricity, and for irrigation. The capital and largest city of Russia, Moscow, is located along the banks of
the Moskva (or Moscow) River, which is connected by means of canals to the Volga, the Baltic Sea, and the
Arctic Ocean. The Volga also is connected to the Black Sea by canal route to the Don River. In the far east, the
Amur River forms much of the boundary between the CIS and China and is one of the principal rivers of the
world.
TIBETAN DRAINAGE
Mountains, hills, and highlands cover about 66 percent of the nation's territory, impeding communication and
leaving limited level land for agriculture. Most ranges, including all the major ones, trend eastwest. In the
southwest, the Himalayas and the Kunlun Mountains enclose the Qing Zang Plateau, which encompasses most
of Xizang Autonomous Region (also known as Tibet) and part of Qinghai Province. It is the most extensive
plateau in the world, where elevations average more than 4,000 meters above sea level and the loftiest summits
rise to more than 7,200 meters.
From the Qing Zang Plateau, other less-elevated highlands, rugged east-west trending mountains, and plateaus
interrupted by deep depressions fan out to the north and east. A continental scarp marks the eastern margin of
this territory extending from the Greater Hinggan Range in northeastern China, through the Taihang Shan (a
range of mountains overlooking the North China Plain) to the eastern edge of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau in the
south. Virtually all of the low-lying areas of China--the regions of dense population and intensive cultivation--are
found east of this scarp line.
East-west ranges include some of Asia's greatest mountains. In addition to the Himalayas and the Kunlun
Mountains, there are the Gangdise Shan (Kailas) and the Tian Shan ranges. The latter stands between two great
basins, the massive Tarim Basin to the south and the Junggar Basin to the north. The largest inland basin in
China, the Tarim Basin measures 1,500 kilometers from east to west and 600 kilometers from north to south at
its widest parts.
The spine of the Kunlun Mountains separates into several branches as it runs eastward from the Pamir
Mountains. The northernmost branches, the Altun Shan and the Qilian Shan, rim the Qing Zang Plateau in west-
central China and overlook the Qaidam Basin, a sandy and swampy region containing many salt lakes. A
southern branch of the Kunlun Mountains divides the watersheds of the Huang He and the Chang Jiang
(Yangtze River). The Gansu Corridor, west of the great bend in the Huang He, was traditionally an important
communications link with Central Asia.
Inland drainage involving a number of upland basins in the north and northeast accounts for about 40 percent of
the country's total drainage area. Many rivers and streams flow into lakes or diminish in the desert. Some are
useful for irrigation.
AUSTRALIA: DRAINAGE
Murray-Darling Basins
Australias only important river basin is the Murray-Darling (910,000 km2), located west of the Great Divide.
The Murray and Darling Rivers (which, after merging, flow into the Indian Ocean near Adelaide) are torrential in
nature, and subject to prolonged dry and sudden full periods.
Inland Drainage Basin

The central depression region, which actually lacks surface water, is dotted with large closed basins, generally
occupied by temporary shallow lakes, and for most of the year made up of vast muddy surface covered with
salty incrustations. The largest is Lake Eyre, the area of which averages around 9000 km2.
NORTH AMERICA
Great Lakes
The Great Lakes (also called the Laurentian Great Lakes, or the Great Lakes of North America) are a series of
interconnected freshwater lakes located in northeastern North America, on the CanadaUnited States border,
which connect to the Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lawrence River. Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan,
Huron, Erie, and Ontario, they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth, containing 21% of the world's
surface fresh water by volume. The total surface is 244,106 km2, and the total volume (measured at the low
water datum) is 22,671 km3. Due to their sea-like characteristics (rolling waves, sustained winds, strong currents,
great depths, and distant horizons) the five Great Lakes have also long been referred to as inland seas. Lake
Superior is the second largest lake in the world by area, and Lake Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely
within one country.
The Great Lakes began to form at the end of the last glacial period around 14,000 years ago, as retreating ice
sheets carved basins into the land and they became filled with meltwater. The lakes have been a major highway
for transportation, migration and trade, and they are home to a large number of aquatic species. Many invasive
species have been introduced due to trade, and some threaten the region's biodiversity.
It has been estimated that the foundational geology that created the conditions shaping the present day upper
Great Lakes was laid from 1.1 to 1.2 billion years ago when two previously fused tectonic plates split apart and
created the Midcontinent Rift, which crossed the Great Lakes Tectonic Zone. A valley was formed providing a
basin that eventually became modern day Lake Superior. When a second fault line, the Saint Lawrence rift,
formed approximately 570 million years ago, the basis for Lakes Ontario and Erie were created, along with what
would become the Saint Lawrence River.
The Great Lakes are estimated to have been formed at the end of the last glacial period (the Wisconsin glaciation
ended 10,000 to 12,000 years ago), when the Laurentide ice sheet receded. The retreat of the ice sheet left
behind a large amount of meltwater that filled up the basins that the glaciers had carved, thus creating the Great
Lakes as we know them today. Because of the uneven nature of glacier erosion, some higher hills became Great
Lakes islands. The Niagara Escarpment follows the contour of the Great Lakes between New York and
Wisconsin.
LATIN AMERICA
The Hamza River
The Hamza River is an unofficial name for what seems to be a slowly flowing aquifer in Brazil, approximately
6,000 kilometres (3,700 mi) long. Its discovery was announced in 2011. The unofficial name is in honour of
scientist Valiya Mannathal Hamza, of Brazil's National Observatory who has undertaken research on the region
for four decades.
The Hamza and the Amazon are the two main drainage systems for the Amazon Basin. The reported flow rate of
the Hamza, at approximately 3,000 cubic metres (110,000 cu ft) per second, is 3% of the Amazon's. It runs west
to east, some 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) below the Earth's surface, and follows roughly the path of the Amazon
river. The Hamza empties in the Atlantic Ocean, deep under the surface. Its own water has a high salt content.
The underground river starts in the Acre region under the Andes and flows through the Solimes, Amazonas and
Maraj basins before opening out directly into the depths of the Atlantic Ocean.
The Amazon flows much faster than the Hamza, however, draining a greater volume of water. Around 133,000m3
of water flow through the Amazon per second at speeds of up to 5 metres per second. The underground river's
flow rate has been estimated at around 3,900m3 per second and it barely inches along at less than a millimetre
per hour.
The researchers used a mathematical model to predict the presence of the underground river, based on the
measured changes in temperature down the wells. In the presentation, Piementel said that the flow of
groundwater was almost vertical through the rocks to depths of around 2,000m. After this, the water flow
changes direction and becomes almost horizontal.
According to the researchers, the presence of the Rio Hamza river might account for the relatively low salinity of
the waters around the mouth of the Amazon.
3
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY: CLIMATE
EUROPE
For Western Europe, the Alps can be viewed as a climatic divide. To the north, area enjoys a temperate and
moist marine climate. South of the Alps is the dramatically different dry summer subtropical climate. The marine
climate in the north normally produces a lush, green landscape.
Factors influencing the Europe's Climate

(i) Latitudinal influences
(ii) Relief: absence of mountain system from north to south, allow the on shore westerlies to blow deeper in
to the land and modify the temperature
(iii) Proximity to the seas: keep the winters very mild and summers cool.
(iv) Westerlies: under the permanent influence of westerlies, fairly well distributed rainfall throughout the
year, rainfall heavy in the west and decreases towards the east.
(v) North Atlantic Drift: The warm waters of the North Atlantic Drift keep the seas along the western
Europe ice free.
Climate
Located almost entirely within the north temperate zone, Europe is characterized by extremely changeable
climatic conditions, accompanied by a great variety of plant communities. The overall picture reveals quite
distinct climate domains associated with particular atmospheric circulation patterns, marked in some places by a
predominance of winds arriving from the north Atlantic anticyclone region (Azores), and in others by oscillations
of polar and tropical fronts. Depending on the season, these fronts bring the effects of corresponding air
masses, originating in the Arctic and northern Africa, respectively. The latter directly influence all of southern
Europe along the Mediterranean shore. This sea, with its great depth, represents a huge reservoir of heat that
greatly attenuates temperature swings during both the rainy winter and the often prolonged summer drought,
providing a substantial amount of moisture to the atmosphere as well. The essential features of the
Mediterranean climate are therefore not only moderate annual temperature swings, but also a concentration of
precipitation in winter (average annual values of about 30-50 in. [800-1300 m]), with average monthly
temperatures ranging from 46-54 F [8-12C] in January to 72-75 F [22-24C] in July.
The entire western littoral of Europe, from Portugal to Norway, faces the Atlantic and is characterized by oceanic
climatic conditions, with precipitation throughout the year (annual totals ranging from 47-59 in. but temperatures
that are rarely extreme since they are mitigated, especially in the North Sea and the Norwegian Sea, by the effect
of the Gulf Stream, which prevents vary from a few degrees above freezing in January to a little less than 20C in
July.
A markedly continental climate dominates all of eastern Europe, from the Finnish and Baltic regions to the
Sarmatian Plain, with relatively rainy summers and winters that are fairly dry (average annual precipitation about
23-39 in. [600-1000 mm]) but extremely harsh: average monthly temperatures range from [15-18C] in July to [-5
to -10C] in January. An intermediate situation, and one thus characterized by considerable variability (referred to
as a transitional climate), is found in central Europe- Germany, the Po plain, and the Danube basin where
precipitation depends on latitude, tending spring and fall. A generally continental climate also characterized
several extensive upland regions, such as Iberia and Transylvania, while the effects of altitude become
predominant in the higher mountain ranges (Alps, Pyrenees, Caucasus, etc.).
The various climates of Europe are controlled by factors such as Latitude, elevation and location with respect to
bodies of water and to moving air currents all play a part in determining the amounts of both precipitation and
heat energy received from the sun. Located between 35 degrees and 70 degrees north latitude, and positioned
on the west side of a continental land mass, most of Europe lies in the zone of prevailing westerly winds. The
winds bring the marine influences far inland and tend to soften the severity of the winters and diminish the
summer heat. The marine influences are controlled by offshore warm waters brought by the Gulf Stream from
tropical areas. The zone of the westerly winds also is where cyclonic storms develop. These whorls of air are
born from the contact between the cold arctic air and warm subtropical air and are effective producers of
precipitation.
CIS CLIMATE OF RUSSIA

The very size of the territory would suggest the existence of great climatic difference. However, the fact that
Russia is much larger east to west than north to south, and that most of it is located far north of the Equator,
means that the varieties of climate encountered are confined to the cold temperate and cold range.
Climatic Characteristics
A long and harsh winter grips the entire country due to its extension in the northern latitudes with the
exception of short stretches of coastline along the Caspian and Black Seas.
The average January temperature is below 0C everywhere. It drops rapidly as one moves farther north and
also as one move east away from the residual influence of Atlantic air masses. As a result, most of European
Russia experiences average January temperatures of 10 to 20C.
In western Siberia the average temperature ranges from 15 to 30C, and in east central Siberia it ranges
from 25 to 50C.
On the Pacific coasts, the presence of the sea raises temperatures somewhat, but the January average is
still only a little above 10C.
The intermediate seasons are of limited importance, and spring in particular is practically non-existent in
Russia, since the increase in solar radiation is almost all absorbed by melting and evaporation.
Average summer temperatures can be quite high in the more southerly plains with 20C or even 25C in the
lower Volga, and are still pleasant up to the Arctic Circle (12 to 15C), dropping only in the northern Pacific.
In the mountains, and of course, on the Arctic coasts and islands, where in July the thermometer barely
creeps above freezing.
The extreme annual temperature swings in terms of both absolute and average readings clearly characterise
the Russian and Siberian climates as highly continental.
The continental type of climate is characterised by relatively uniform climatic conditions with snowfall all over
the country.
A large part of country receives rainfall mostly in summer due to convection motion.
Despite the fact that winter is a predominantly dry season, Russian territory is covered for long periods (at
least four months in European Russia, and from six to nine months in Siberia) with a substantial mantle of
snow.
The amount of rainfall decreases from west to east. Total precipitation amounts to 35-70 cm [14-28 in] per
year over most of the territory (with readings that are higher in the mountains and lower on the Arctic coasts
and in eastern Siberia), providing almost every region of the country with more than sufficient moisture, given
the low average temperatures.
In addition to the north-to-south increase in average temperatures in the Soviet Union, there is also a gradual
increase in average winter temperatures from east to west. Cities along the Baltic, for example, have January
averages of 32 F (O C), but the eastern interior cities have temperatures far below zero. The coldest
permanently inhabited places in the world are the northeastern Siberian communities of Verkhoyansk and
Oymyakon, where temperatures have reached 0 108 F (- 78 C). Summer temperatures in northeastern Siberia,
however, often average above 60 F (16 C).
Most of the precipitation throughout the Soviet Union occurs during the six summer months. During the winter,
extreme high pressure, referred to as the "Siberian High," builds up over the Asian landmass. This dense, stable
air does not allow cyclonic storms to penetrate the interior. Both the summer rain and the winter snow decrease
from west to east across the country. It can snow anywhere in the Soviet Union and, in large areas of the
country, snow is possible during any month. However, the heavy snow covers are generally found west of the
Urals because the moisture supply from the Atlantic Ocean is closer to the region.
The continental influence on the Soviet climate is weakest in the East European Plain. The region receives the
most direct effect of the moderating cyclones from the Atlantic Ocean: Because precipitation usually averages
about 30 inches (76 cm) annually, the area is the most dependable agricultural region in the Soviet Union.
ASIA
The great size of Asia, its length from the extreme Arctic to the equator, the presence of large mountain systems,
the remoteness from the ocean of the central regions, and conversely the presence of island arcs along the great
oceans, all produce a great variety of climates.
In most of Asia north of the Himalayas, four cold and cold-to-temperate climatic bands are encountered as one
proceeds from north to south.
Polar Climate
The polar climate, with extremely harsh temperatures and essentially no solar illumination for half the year,
characterizes the Arctic Ocean archipelagos and the northern coast of Siberia. Farther south a huge and
continuous sub-Arctic band, with climates characterized by dominant high pressure areas, very low
temperatures, and little precipitation, occupies the remainder of Siberia from the Urals to the Pacific; the coldest
temperatures on Earth (outside Antarctica) occur in the mountains of east-central Siberia, and nowhere are
seasonal temperature swings greater than in northeastern Asia as a whole.
Continental Asia
In continental Asia temperatures remain cold or moderately cold, and precipitation is sparse due to distance
from the oceans which generated atmospheric moisture; consequently the cold-to-temperate zone that crosses
the center of the continent is semi-arid with with steppe vegetation. The central high plateaus are cold and arid,
with less than 10 in. of precipitation per year: a succession of cold deserts and arid steppes extends from the
Caspian Sea depression through the Tien Shan plateaus and mountains to Mongolia and the Gobi Desert. On
the great mountains of the Himalayan system the climate is cold and snowy: the high peaks of the ranges, which
intercept moisture coming from the south, are perennially snow-covered, and feed huge glaciers that run
through the larger valleys.
Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian peninsula and southwestern Asia have the highest temperatures, with summer averages that often
exceed 86 F (30C), and very little rainfall (less than 10 in. (250 mm) per year on average). The dominant climate
is a subtropical or tropical desert, which in the mountains and in Asia Minor merges into temperate due to
elevation or proximity to the sea. The prevalent climate in the Indian subcontinent is tropical: semi-arid in the
west and becoming gradually wetter to the east.
Monsoon land
In the India plain, the Bay of Bengal region, southeastern India, and Sri Lanka rainfall follows a monsoon pattern,
shared by the other Asian regions with moist equatorial and tropical climates and caused by dominant low-
pressure areas (Malay Archipelago, Indochina, and the Philippines).
Maritime Climates
Humid climates, with annual precipitation exceeding 60-80 in. (1500-2000 mm), in fact dominate all of
southeastern and eastern Asia. Maritime subtropical climates, again with a monsoon rainfall pattern, are present
in the coastal regions of southern China; moving northward we find the temperate and cool maritime climates of
eastern China and Japan, where precipitation is still fed by the Pacific and the marginal seas, but is more evenly
distributed throughout the year.
Climate of South East Asia

Climates throughout Southeast Asia are remarkably consistent from place to placepersistently hot and wet.
Temperature conditions in SE Asia
Near the Equator and along the coastal lowlands, the temperature never varies more than one or two degrees
from the 27C (80F) average.
Farther inland and northward, temperature ranges of 9 to 10 degrees are common. Such temperature figures are
for monthly averages; daily ranges are frequently greater than the ranges between July and December. A daily
high of 38C (100F) or more may be encountered in the northern part of the region.
Precipitation pattern
In both seasons, the islands receive copious amounts of precipitation. The uplift, caused by the mountains,
cools the warm, moist air, resulting in constant condensation and the resulting rain.
The mainland, however, receives its moisture primarily during the Northern Hemisphere summer from the South
East Trade winds. Only the exposed east coast of the mainland and part of the Malay Peninsula receive winter
rain.
The overall rainfall patterns may be summarised thus:
(1) Constantly rainy on the islands,
(2) summer monsoon conditions on most of continental portion of the region,
(3) both summer and winter monsoons over Vietnam and western Malaysia. A large part of the region receives
more than 80 inches (200 cm) of rain annually.
Effect of Typhoon in Southeast Asian Region
Between June and November, when the South East Trade winds prevail over Southeast Asia, tropical storms
develop in the western Pacific. They are called typhoons and are similar to hurricanes that move over the
Atlantic Ocean.
These storms break off the intertropical front and are pushed by the South East Trade winds in a
northwestwardly area across the Philippines towards Japan.
They can be violent and often rake coastal areas with winds of more than 100 miles per hour.
Typhoons usually dump huge amounts of rain along their paths, and the ocean churns and surges from the wind.
The rain and ocean surges often cause flooding in coastal areas, sometimes causing many deaths.
North America: Climate

Climatic patterns in North America are the result of interaction of numerous geographical factors, including
topography.
1. The most important locational control on climate is latitude, since the amount of annual heat energy from the
sun that a place receives is directly to its latitudinal location. Because Angle-America stretches across 50
degrees of latitude from key West, Florida, to Point Barrow, Alaska, this variation in latitude produces
variation in the climates. Places in the lower latitudes have long hot summers and short mild winters; in the
higher latitudes the summers are short and cool and the winters are long and severe. Places located
between the two extremes (mid-latitude) experience both severely cold winters and hot summers.
2. Relationship between land and water. Land, being a solid surface, will heat up and cool down faster than
water. As a liquid, water tends to absorb the sun's rays and diffuse them internally, so the heat is retained.
This means that water bodies tend to stabilize the temperature of the air that lies over it, and in turn
moderate the climate of nearby land. The farther away from the oceans, then, the more severe the climate, in
both the cold season and the warm season. This is called the continental influence on climate. In addition,
the larger the land mass, the greater the influence becomes. North America is a very large land mass, so the
interior of the continent experiences annual temperature differences much greater than coastal locations at
the same latitude. Large bodies of water also influence precipitation levels. Coastal locations almost always
receive more rain than places inland (See Figure 5.3) Thus, temperature and precipitation are related to
continentality.
3. Topography also influences climate, causing higher elevations to be cooler than the surrounding lowlands.
Heat decreases with elevation at an average rate of 6.5 C per km. This is called the normal lapse rate.
Besides the influence on temperature, topography may also affect the flow of air, which in turn affects the
distribution of precipitation. If a mountain chain lies perpendicular to the flow of air, the wind will be forced to
rise over it. This rising causes cooling, and in turn may cause condensation of the water vapor that the wind
carries. The result is that the windward side of the mountain chain may receive moisture, while the leeward
side is drier. Because air movement across North America is from west to east, the western deserts of North
America lie on the eastern (or leeward) side of the mountain chains.
The mountains of British Columbia, which lie across the path of westerly winds, provide an example. These
also, incidentally, prevent cold air from the chilled interior reaching the Pacific coastlands in winter.
The Appalachians are of less significance than the Rockies as a climatic barrier. For one reason, the
movement of air in this part of the continent is only rarely across the mountains, and for another, the
Appalachians are not so high. They do, nevertheless, in conjunction with the Rockies, create a vast north-
south central channel for air movement extending from the Arctic to the Gulf of Mexico.
In the mountains themselves altitude and configuration (the general `lie of the land) are more important than
any other factor. Exposure to or shelter from winds, the direction in which a slope is facing, and other such
local features affect both temperature and precipitation, and lead to a great variety of climates, often within
quite a small area.
4. Ocean currents also play an important part. Air moving off the comparatively warm waters of the North
Pacific Drift gives the coastal areas of British Columbia a warmer climate than might be expected in view of
their latitude, and keeps the sea free from ice as far north as the Bering Strait. Air passing eastwards over
the cool, south-flowing California Current has a cooling effect in summer on such places as a San Francisco.
But the cold Labrador Current and the warm Gulf Stream have very little influence on the climates of the
eastern coastlands, because the main movement of air over them is away from the land. The sudden chilling
of the warm, moisture laden air over the Gulf Stream, when it meets the cold air over the Labrador Current
along the `cold wall, does, however, lead to numerous fogs, which are a perpetual menace to shipping;
5. The Gulf of Mexico forms a large bay of warm water projecting into the landmass and thus provides a
supply a warm, intensely humid air, which affects the climates of south-eastern U.S.A. The Great Lakes
prevent the surrounding areas from having such marked continental characteristics as other central
regions.
6. In comparatively recent years air-masses have figured largely in the study of climate. An air-mass is an
extensive body of air which has acquired certain characteristics of temperature and humidity while situated
over its `source-region. It can reasonably be regarded as a climatic factor, since it may move away from the
source-region, `transporting its acquired characteristics elsewhere.
Air-masses move in accordance with the overall pattern of atmospheric pressure which exists at the time,
and in the course of this movement their original characteristics may be modified. A mass of warm, moist Tm
air may, for instance, travel over a comparatively cool region; this will cause its relative humidity to increase
and may ultimately result in precipitation. The boundary zone or front, where two air-masses meet and
`battle for supremacy, is usually a scene of great atmospheric activity, especially in the centre of the
continent to the east of the Rockies. Individual low-pressure areas, called depressions or lows, may develop,
in which the warmer, lighter air of one air-mass may rise over the colder, denser air of another. This too may
cause precipitation.
LATIN AMERICA
The major portion of South America is tropical. Hot, humid weather characterizes the lowlands from southern
Brazil northward to Middle America. Rainfall is copious, especially along the equator in the interior, and in
coastal regions from the equator north to Venezuela. Most of this area receives over 80 inches (200 cm) of
rainfall each year. Precipitation south of the equator averages about 60 inches (150 cm) a year, but excesses of
80 inches are not unusual. Near the equator two rainy seasons are the rule. They come at the time of the
equinoxes, when the sun is directly overhead at noon. These rainy periods a actually blend into each other, with
the result that periods of dryness are very short. Much of the area will have rain every day at such regular
intervals that people make appointments in relation to the daily rain rather than according to the clock.
With increasing distances north and south of the equator, the rainy season, becomes a once-a-year occurrence.
Rainy seasons occur during the periods of high sun at the time of the solstices, but the season becomes shorter
as distance from the equator increases, and total precipitation also decreases.
South of 30 degrees south latitude, the lowlands of eastern South America are temperate in climate.
Precipitation decreases to a 20-to-40 inch (50-100 cm) range in Uruguay and in the Argentine pampas. The
vegetation is a luxuriant, tall prairie grass growing from deep, rich soils, but beyond the 20-inch isohyet the
vegetation changes to steppe grass and, as the precipitation amounts decrease, eventually to desert shrub. this
dry section is located about 640 km inland and stretches from Bolivia on the north to the coast sout of the
pampas near Bahia Blanca. It includes all of Patagonia south to and including part of Tierra del Fuego.
The climates in the western part of the continent are dominated by the Andes. Vertical zonation of both
temperature and precipitation result in the vertical zones of agriculture usage discussed previously for Middle
America. Besides the vertical zones, mountain climates are also characterized by numerous micro-climatic
areas. Often each side of the same valley will have a different climate-due to the angle of the sun or the effect of
windward or leeward location with regard to the prevailing winds. The northern parts of the mountains are similar
to other tropical locations in that they have very little seasonal fluctuation of temperature. Sea-level temperatures
average near 27 C, and permanent ice begins near 4,270 m. The coastal lowlands west of the Andes are hot
and humid in the north, but the rains abruptly cease near the Peruvian boundary with Ecuador. Southward from
there, desert conditions prevail for the next 1,800 miles (2,880 km) in northern Chile very dry conditions prevail.
In fact, the Atacama Desert of the region is the driest desert in the world. often without a trace of rain for years.
Farther south in central Chile, winter rains fall. The climate is Mediterranean, or similar to that in southern
California and the Mediterranean countries. Beyond 40 degrees south latitude, average temperatures drop to
near freezing conditions and the precipitation increases.
HIGH RAINS IN AMAZON BASIN

The Amazon Basin in South America is the largest land area receiving very high amount of rainfall. Most
of the region receives 200 cm of rain each year. The coastal regions and the upper basin at the foot of
the Andes receive up to 300 cm but the narrower basin of the east has less than 200 cm. The North-East
Trades blow into this region after a long passage over the North Atlantic and the convergence zone
(ITCZ) is marked by wave and eddy disturbances which have maximum effect in the air movements
some thousand metres up. Rainfall in the Amazon basin is seasonal with less rainfall in the months of
June - July because of invasion of south Atlantic sub tropical pressure belt. This invasion, in fact,
separates the Amazon Basin from the Pacific slopes of the Colombian Andes, which has more heavier
rainfall with totals of 400-800 cms a year. The position of ITCZ varies little between 3 and 4 N lat. and
this is one of the few parts of the world with a westerly wind circulation in this latitude. Thus, the winds
are onshore, and the high Andes forces a steep rise of the winds leading to high rainfall totals. The local
westerly circulation may be due to a land-sea breeze effect and it results in afternoon rain on the higher
Cordillera slopes, evening rains on the lower slopes and continuous night rains on the coast. This is
thought to be brought about by day time upslope winds which give rise to afternoon rains, followed by
downslope winds during the night accompanied by offshore convergence which cause the rains at that
time.
AFRICA
Climate. The almost symmetrical extension of Africa north and south of the equator is the prime determining
factor of the continent's peculiar climatic conditions, characterized by a highly tropical climate and a regular
succession of wide swaths of climate types arranged in latitudinal direction. These zones are then exposed to
symmetrically alternating phenomena (temperatures, pressures, precipitation) in the opposite hemispheres
following the fluctuation of the Sun's seasonal culmination, with the northern summer corresponding to the
southern winter, and vice versa. With no great orographic obstacles, even the morphology favors such regularity
of distribution. Factors of relative diversification, however, are determined by the major influence of the
continental masses on northern Africa (which is also much wider) and of the ocean masses on southern Africa.
Because of its location, Africa is where the highest mean temperatures in the would are recorded. 1st territory
lies almost entirely within the 68 F (20 C) annual isotherms, excluding only the extreme regions of the Atlas
Mountains and the Cape of Good Hope. The highest temperatures, combined with high humidity, are obviously
found in the equatorial zone, but the heat equator is shifted further north than the geographic equator due to the
more extensive continental surfaces; in return, the temperatures tend to diminish more rapidly toward the north
while remaining higher toward the south. Likewise, the temperature ranges, much narrower along the equatorial
belt, tend to increase the further away one moves from the equator, giving rise to increasingly pronounced
seasonal differences.
The high equatorial temperatures create a low-pressure belt which draws masses of air from the tropical regions,
predominantly from the north in January and from the south in July. In winter, a high-pressure regimen settles
over the Sahara, Feeding air currents (of which the harmattan, a dry parching breeze charged with sand is
typical) to the south; during the northern summer, on the other hand, the torrid heat of the Sahara generates a
field of low pressure which draws air from the equator. In southern Africa, by contrast, there are low pressures in
January (the southern summer) and a high-pressure zone around the tip of South Africa in July. Monsoon-like
conditions prevail along the coasts of eastern Africa and Guinea.
The predominance of low pressures during the year causes extensive rainfall in the equatorial regions, above all
in the Gulf of Guinea, the Congo basin, and in the highlands of Ethiopia. In the intertropical zone, peak
precipitation occurs when the Sun is at its zenith, which accounts for the fact that the closer the two
culminations are (until there is only one solstitial culmination on the tropic lines), the more appreciable the
alternation between rainy and drought seasons becomes. Whereas in the equatorial belt there is almost daily
precipitation (with one or two peak "sprinkles" and "showers"), in the north there is a sudden transition to the
vast drought area of the Sahara caused, as we have seen, by the strong continentality and delimited by the
annual isohyet of 3.90 in. (100 mm), whereas to the south the rains decrease more gradually and the 100-mm
isohyet circumscribes the other, considerably smaller, African desert of the Kalahari. Other areas of low
precipitation are found in the Horn of Africa (Somalia) and the Danakil depression (Ethiopia). In the subtropical
latitudes, the two extremities of Africa already mentioned the Atlas Mountains and the Cape of Good Hope-
receive their water from seasonal precipitations (specifically during the winter in the Mediterranean Atlas region,
where these rains are also more abundant).
Also contributing to this precipitation regimen, in addition to the winds affected by the general pressure
conditions already described, are the ocean currents: the warm currents of the Indian Ocean (the southern
equatorial monsoon current of Mozambique) and the cold currents of the Atlantic (from the Canary Islands and
the Benguela current), bearers of intense dryness along the coasts.
LOW RAINS ALONG SOMALIAN REGION

East Africa itself, alongwith Somalian coast, is an area of low rainfall and is almost arid in some parts.
Thus, the most notable characteristic of this region is very low amount of rainfall in virtually equatorial
situation. During the northern summer (April to October) the winds come from the south and in southern
summer from the north. The equatorial double maxima is separated by drought months, many areas are
semi arid. Much of the rainfall, which does fall occurs in hilly regions, or where local convergence takes
place. The rain generating processes of the tropics which give rise to such heavy rainfall elsewhere, are
absent here. This is because of a number of factors
1. The east African plateau relief cuts down the overall thickness of the troposphere affected by the
surface flow. This reduces the effectiveness of convective activity and of the air that is forced to rise
up the coastal scarp.
2. Both seasonal flows are largely over land. This means that there is only a small proportion of ocean
to land moisture transport, and most rains come in the transitional seasons when this is in force.
3. The disturbances, which form over the oceans rarely penetrate more than 80 km inland, so even
when the atmosphere is disturbed, the rainfall is low.
4. The upper air flow is north - easterly with a very low moisture content and a low-level inversion, thus,
only stratus clouds form.
5. Malagasy lies in the path of South Easterlies, imparting a rain shadow effect.
6. Along the Somali coasts, the orientation of the coastlines become different. The African coast is
parallel to both the north-east winds of winter and south-west winds of summers.
Several of these, functioning in a complex manner, produce this type of climate.
AUSTRALIA
Characteristics
Australias location in the Southern Hemisphere is antipodal to that of Europe, and consequently the
seasons are precisely reversed with respect to the Northern Hemisphere.
The Australian summer is at its height in January, while the dead of winter (which is never excessively
severe) occurs in July.
More precisely, Australia lies at latitudes 10 to 40S lat. and is cut almost in half by the Tropic of Capricorn.
Its climate is characterised by a scarcity of rain, with more elevated temperatures toward the countrys
interior. Only along the eastern coasts and in the area around Perth does the annual rainfall reach 39-78 in.
(100-200 cm). The productive area is distinguished by a relatively uniform climate, with average annual
temperatures that range from 27C in the north to 13C in the south.
General description of Climate

The climate of Australia varies widely due to its large geographical size, but by far the largest part of Australia is
desert or semi-arid. Only the south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile
soil. The northern part of the country has a tropical climate, varied between tropical rainforests, grasslands, part
desert.
Australia's climate is ruled by the hot, sinking air of the subtropical high pressure belt which moves north and
south with the seasons. This causes the rainfall pattern over Australia to be highly seasonal. Australia's rainfall is
the lowest of the seven continents (besides Antarctica). Rainfall is variable, with frequent droughts lasting several
seasons and is thought to be caused in part by the El Nio-Southern Oscillation.
Since it is a small continent separated from polar regions by the Southern Ocean, Australia does not get the
harsh snaps of polar air that swarm over Northern Hemisphere continents during winter. The continents in the
Northern Hemisphere have a considerable temperature contrast between summer and winter, whereas in
Australia the temperature contrast is small. In many parts of the country, seasonal high and lows can be great
with temperatures ranging from above 50 C to well below zero. Minimum temperatures are moderated by the
lack of mountains and the influence of surrounding oceans.
The El Nio-Southern Oscillation is associated to seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world, though
Australia is one of the most affected continents, which experiences extensive droughts along side with
considerable wet periods. Occasionally a dust storm will blanket a region and there are reports of the occasional
tornado. Tropical cyclones, heat waves, bushfires and frosts in the country are also associated to the Southern
Oscillation. Rising levels of salinity and desertification in some areas is ravaging the landscape.
Temperatures in Australia have followed an increasing trend between the years of 1910 to 2004 by
approximately 0.7C. Overnight minimum temperatures have warmed more rapidly than daytime maximum
temperatures in recent years. The late-20th century warming has been largely attributed to the increased
greenhouse effect.
Precipitation
The rainfall patterns across Australia are highly seasonal. It however rains more in winter than in summer by
approximately 11%, and compared to the Earth's other continental landmasses Australia is very dry. More than
80% of the continent has an annual rainfall of less than 600 mm (24 in); only Antarctica receives less rainfall than
Australia. A place inland near Lake Eyre (in South Australia) would only receive 81 mm (3 in) of rain annually.
Another place, Troudaninna Bore in South Australia, from 1893 to 1936, received, in average, 104.9 mm (4.13
inches) of precipitation. From one extreme to another, parts of the far North Queensland coast annually average
over 4,000 mm (157 in), with the Australian annual record being 12,461 mm (491 in), set at the summit of Mount
Bellenden Ker in 2000. There are four main factors that contribute to the dryness of the Australian landmass:
1. Cold ocean currents off the west coast
2. Low elevation of landforms
3. Dominance of high-pressure systems
4. Shape of the landmass
The average annual rainfall in the Australian desert is low, ranging from 3 to 10 in per year. Thunderstorms are
relatively common in the region, with an average of 15 - 20 thunderstorms per annum. Summer daytime
temperatures range from 32 to 40 C. In winter, this falls to 18 to 23 C.
The southern parts of Australia get the usual westerly winds and cold fronts that come with rain when the high
pressure systems move towards northern Australian during winter. Cold snaps may bring frosts inland, though
temperatures near the coast are almost mild all year round. Summers in southern Australia are generally dry and
hot with coastal sea breezes. During a lengthy dry spell, hot and dry winds from the interior can cause bushfires
in some of southern and eastern states, though most commonly Victoria and New South Wales.
The tropical areas of northern Australia have a wet summer because of monsoon presence. During "the wet",
typically October to April, humid north-westerly winds bring showers and thunderstorms. In occasional cases,
tropical cyclones can bring heavy rainfall to tropical coastal regions, which are also likely to reach further inland.
After the monsoonal season, the dry season comes ("winter"), which mostly brings clear skies and mild
conditions.
Low rate of evaporation from this very cool body of water result in little evaporation occurring. As a result, rain
clouds are sparsely formed and very rarely do they form long enough for a continuous period of rain to be
recorded. Australia's arid/semi-arid zone extends to this region. The absence of any significant mountain range
or area of substantial height above sea level, results in very little rainfall caused by orographic uplift. In the east
the Great Dividing Range limits rain moving into inland Australia.
Australia has a compact shape and no significant bodies of water penetrate very far inland. This is important
because it means that moist winds are prevented from penetrating to inland Australia, keeping rainfall low.
Snow
In Australia, snow falls on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria, New South Wales and
Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory. There is a regular snow season in several areas which have
seasonal ski tourism industries. Sometimes snow has even been reported in the mountains of South Australia,
Western Australia and Queensland, though this is rare.
Snow at sea level is occasionally recorded on mainland Australia, but is more frequent in Tasmania where
snowfalls at sea level can occur during the summer months. Snow has been recorded across most of Tasmania,
though it is rare on the northern coast at sea level. Snow is rare in the southernmost capitals like Melbourne and
Hobart, falling less than once every ten years, and in the other capitals it is unknown (however snow has fallen in
the hill suburbs of Perth and Adelaide). However, there are extensive, well-developed ski fields in the Great
Dividing Range, a few hours' drive from Melbourne and Sydney.
The occasional cold snap, caused by cold air drifting north from Antarctica, can cause significant snowfall in
rural areas, as well as major cities such as Hobart, Melbourne's outer mountain suburbs and Canberra. Such
occasions are rare, but have occurred in 1951, 1986 and 2005
ENSO (EL NINO SOUTHERN OSCILLATION) AND

WORLD CLIMATES
Introduction
The El Nino and La Nina are atmospheric oceanic phenomenon driven by atmospheric circulation and is better
called as El Nino southern Oscillation (ENSO). It has been explained by Walker Circulation. The average period of
this oscillation is 3 years, but it ranges from 2 to 10 years.
The Walker circulation is a convective cycle/cell that owes its origin to the gradient of sea surface temperatures
along the Equator in the Pacific Ocean.
The Walker circulation is driven by major east-west pressure gradients set up by differences between air rising
over heated continents and the warmer parts of the oceans, on the one hand, while air subsiding over
continental areas where deep high pressure systems have become established, and in association with
subtropical high pressure cells, on the other.
Near the South American coast, the winds blow offshore, blowing the surface water westward away from the
adjacent continental margins. To replace the blown away surface water deep cool water replaces the blown
away surface water. This is called as upwelling. The air above this cool water gets stable because of cooling
from below, convection is suppressed and thus, it cannot rise and join the normal meridional circulation. Instead
it flows westwards where it flows as South East Tradewinds across the South Pacific to warm the western
Pacific where it gains moisture and also gets warmed . It then rises and flows eastwards to complete the cell.
Each year in October, however, the Trade winds become weaker and the upwelling is reduced. The warm
tropical surface water that was blown up against the western margin begins to flow back eastwards across the
oceans eastern boundary, it further suppresses the normal upwelling along the coast.
The weakening of the trades is related to the movement of the Indian low-pressure cell to the east, beginning in
October and November. At the same time along with the eastward shift of this low pressure cell is the movement
of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) towards south.
The ITCZs normal seasonal migration is from 10N latitude in August to 3N in February, but during El Nino
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events it may move south of the Equator in eastern Pacific. This shift causes the
weakening of the Trade winds.
The Effect of El Nino on on South Asia (top), Normal Condition (Below).
Circulation and Precipitation Associated with the Extreme Phases of ENSO.

The warm surface waters remain off the South and Central American coast for an entire year or longer. Upwelling
continues to be suppressed and reduced by the overriding warm surface water and the failure of the Trade
winds to blow it away. The effect is called as El Nino Christ Child in Spanish).
This appearance causes the air pressure to drop over large areas of the southeast Pacific near El Nino
appearance while pressure rises over western Pacific near east of SE Asia. This see-saw variation of air
pressure is called the Southern Oscillation.
The shift in pressure pattern causes the Equatorial Easterlies to weaker, reduce in intensity and to eventually
reverse direction. Westerly winds then drag warm surface water towards the east. When the warm water reach
the South American coast, it is deflected southward along the coastlines of Peru and Ecuador. This weakens the
Walker circulation but an enhanced Hadley circulation, which again increases the Trade winds, and keeps the
warm water from flowing across in the eastern Pacific, thus, ending El Nino.
When the colder water is re-established in the eastern Pacific, the Hadley cell weakens and conditions are set up
for the return of the warm water currents.
Effect of El Nino
1. The appearance of El Nino causes global climatic imbalances bringing drought conditions in India, Australia
and heavy precipitation in the coastal desert areas, such as in Chile, Colorado.
2. It brings cool, wet summers in Europe
3. Brings diminished rains in Australia
4. It increases the frequency of hurricanes and typhoons in the western Pacific and South China Sea
5. Warm waters inhibit the growth of microscopic algae as the supply of nutrient from deep is blocked. This has
a devastating effect on marine life killing fish in large numbers.
6. The consequent release of (hydrogen sulphide) H2S from the decomposition of fish darkens the water and
makes it toxic.
7. It changes the nutrient circulation and availability within the North Pacific, with associated changes in the
composition of pelagic species.
8. There is short-term sea-level rise and beach erosion in California
9. It damages the Pacific coral reefs
La Nina
The El Nino is followed by the La Nina. The name La Nia originates from Spanish, meaning "the little girl,"
analogous to El Nio meaning "the little boy." La Nia, sometimes informally called "anti-El Nio", is the opposite
of El Nio, where the latter corresponds instead to a higher sea surface temperature by a deviation of at least
0.5 C, and its effects are often the reverse of those of El Nio.
During a period of La Nia, the sea surface temperature across the equatorial Eastern Central Pacific Ocean will
be lower than normal by 35 C. La Nina phenomena leads to the intensification of the high pressure conditions
associated with the Humboldt Current. The effect is the same as that of Humboldt Current but in a highly
intensified manner.
The results of La Nia are mostly the opposite of those of El Nio. La Nia often causes drought conditions in
the western Pacific; flooding in northern South America; mild wet summers in northern North America, and
drought in the southeastern United States.
For India, an El Nio may be a cause for concern because of its adverse impact on the south-west monsoon as
it happened in 2009. A La Nia, on the other hand, is often beneficial for the monsoon, especially in the latter
half. The La Nia that appeared in the Pacific in 2010 probably helped 2010's south-west monsoon end on a
favourable note. However, it also contributed to the deluge in Australia, which resulted in one of that country's
worst natural disasters with large parts of Queensland either under water from floods of unusual proportions or
being severely affected by tropical cyclones, including that of Tropical Cyclone named Yasi. It wreaked similar
havoc in south-eastern Brazil and flooding that have affected Sri Lanka.
4
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY: SOIL
Soil Classification
Soils may be classified according to structure, colour, or texture, or according to the climatic or vegetation zone
in which they are located.
Through the centuries, soil classification systems have been defined according to different characteristics and
criteria.
The two most common classification schemes areZonal classification scheme of Marbutt and USDA scheme.
Soil Classification
On the basis of Zonal Classification (Marbutt's On the basis of USDA

Classification) Scheme
Zonal Soils Intrazonal Azonal Soils Entisols

Soils
Inceptisols
Tundra soils Vertisols
Lithosols
Podsols Hydromorphic Soils Regosols Aridisols
Halomorphic Soils Alluvial Soils Mollisols
Grey brown
Calcimorphic Soils Spodosols
Podzolic Soils
Prairie Earths Alfisols
Red and Yellow Ultisols
Forest Soils Oxisols
Red Tropical soils Histosols.
Laterite soils
Chernozem
Chestnut-brown
Soils
Sierozem
Red Desert Soils
INTRODUCTION
It is very laborious to classify soils; most classification schemes are confusing. Soils may be classified according
to structure, colour, or texture, or according to the climatic or vegetation zone in which they are located. Through
the centuries, soil classification systems have been defined according to different characteristics and criteria.
The two most common classification schemes areZonal classification scheme of Marbutt and USDA scheme.
THE MARBUT SCHEME

Marbut's first level of division of all middle-latitude soils was into two great classes; pedocals and pedalfers.
Pedocals soils of the semiarid and arid climates, have formed over the western United State under the climatic
regime of calcification in which evaporation on the average exceeds precipitation. Pedalfers, soils of the humid
climates, show pronounced leaching and occur in the eastern United States, east of the line of 60 cm (25 in.)
mean annual precipitation. The syllables of al and fer signify aluminium and iron respectively, reference being to
characteristic soil accumulaitons of sesquioxides of aluminium and iron.
At the next level of classification are soil orders, of which there are three: zonal, intrazonal, and azonal.
(i) Zonal soils, formed under conditions of good soil drainage through the prolonged action of climate and
vegetation. They are, by far, the most important and widespread of the three orders.
(ii) Intrazonal soils are formed (a) under conditions of very poor drainage in wet climates (i.e., in bogs and
floodplain meadows), (b) on upland regolith with high calcium carbonate content, or (c) in desert and coastal
basins, where soil content of soluble salts is high.
(iii) Azonal soils have no well-developed profile characteristics, either because they have had insufficient time to
develop or because they are on too steep slopes to allow profile development. Azonal soils include Lithosols
(thin soils on bedrock of the earth's mountain regions) and Regosols (alluvial soils and dunes).
With the zonal and intrazonal orders are several soil suborders. Within each suborder are the great soil groups.
Some of the names reflect the Russian influence (Podzol, Chernozem, Solonchak, Solonetz); others reflect the
American experience (Prairie soils, Chestnut soils, Brown soils).
The Zonal Classification of Soils
A. Zonal Soils
1. Tundra Soils
Distribution
Along Polar margins in Tundra region.
Characteristics
1. Little profile differentiation. Reason: Soil moisture remain frozen for a greater part of the year and frost
heaving occurs.
2. Chemical and organic changes are slow. Reason: low temperature condition.
3. Soil reaction is acidic. Reason: Slow decomposition of organic matter.
4. Soil texture: Sandy clay, along with raw humus or peat. Reason: Slow decomposition of organic matter,
incomplete weathering.
5. Soil Structure: Angular blocky.
6. Fertility Status: Low. Reason: Inherent climatic and parental limitations.
7. A region of permafrost and frost heaving. Reason: low temperature.
8. Water logging during summer. Reason: release of ground melt-water.
2. Podsols
Distribution
North America and Eurasia: Humid mid-latitude having forest vegetation and temperate region having moderate
to low rainfall in Coniferous vegetation.
Characteristics
1. Well-developed A and B horizon of soil. Reason: Eluviation and Illuviation.
2. Pronounced leaching. Reason: Snowmelt due to water release; high acidity.
3. A Horizon eluviated bleached grey appearance (silica accumulation).
4. B Horizon illuviated hard clayey Pan, sesquioxide rich, nodules and concretion of brown colour.
5. Soil reaction acidic. Reason: Slow organic matter decomposition.
6. Fertility low.
7. Productivity low, may be increased by addition of lime and fertilizer.
3. Grey-brown Podzolic Soil

Distribution
Mid latitude deciduous forest on western margin of the continents and parts of eastern Asia, such as Manchuria,
Korea, Japan, Western Europe, North East United States.
Characteristics
1. Less leached (compared to podsols).
2. Less acidity (compared to podsols).
3. More humus content (compared to podsols).
4. Thick dense and dark brown B horizon contains minerals and organic colloids.
5. Fertility reasonable.
6. Productivity high (Lime and Fertilizer responsive).
7. Bacterial action relatively rapid, faster organic matter decomposition.
4. Prairie Earths
Distribution
Parkland areas of temperate grassland region; Moister margin of chernozem soils; Mid latitude, temperate
humid climate.
Characteristics
Transitional between pedocals and pedalfars.
1. A-horizon is darker than B, but there is no clear differentiation.
2. Calcium layer absent. Reason: high rainfall and resultant leaching (moderate).
3. Not very poor in bases.
4. Structure Granular and nutty.
5. Reaction neutral, fertility and productivity very high.
6. High humus content.
5. Red and Yellow Forest soils

Distribution
S.E. USA, S.E. China, S. Japan, S.E. Brazil, Eastern coast of Africa, under climatic conditions of high
temperature and abundant rainfall.
Characteristics
1. Distinct horizon development. A1 Reddish/yellow, staining by Fe compounds; A2 Light coloured; B Horizon
Dark colour (illuviated).
2. Pronounced leaching. Reason: High rainfall.
3. Little humus. Reason Warmer region enhances pronounced bacterial activity.
4. Pedogenic process Podzolization and laterization.
5. Very susceptible to erosion. Reason: Crust formation.
6. Productivity Fertilizer responsive crop yield high.
6. Red Tropical Soils

Distribution
Hot wet Equatorial regions including the Tropical regions of Asia, Africa, Australia and parts of Central and South
America.
Characteristics
1. Deeply weathered, but lack distinct horizon.
2. Highly leached.
3. Less humus content because moist conditions enhance bacterial activity.
4. Permanent residual of Fe, Mn, Al oxides in top layer.
5. Soil reaction is neutral.
6. Low fertility.
7. Productive if used scientifically.
7. Laterite soils
Distribution
Brazil, W. Indies, tropical Africa, South India, and forested warm temperate and tropical regions. These regions
have alternate wet and dry period, and hot humid climatic conditions.
Characteristics
1. Extreme form of red tropical soil type.
2. Leached of alkalis and silica.
3. Accumulation of sesquioxides in top layer.
4. Crust formation near the surface, nodular concretions, induration.
5. When dry it becomes hard and thus forms a useful building material.
6. Soil reaction is acidic.
7. Poor base saturation.
8. Chernozem
Distribution
Ukraine and adjoining parts of CIS, Canadian Prairies, Dakota to Texas in the south USA, Pampas of North
America, Murray Darling Basin of Australia. This type of soil is found under climatic conditions of temperate
grassland, having low and light precipitation.
Characteristics
1. This type of soil is also called Black Earth Soil.
1. A horizon thick and black, Reason: accumulation of humus derived from decomposed roots and grasses.
2. B horizon brownish/yellowish.
3. C horizon has Ca and salt accumulation (especially in Summer).
4. Texture clayey.
5. Structure: crumby and friable.
6. Humus and Colloid accumulation (finely divided), Reason: moderate rainfall.
7. Balanced leaching and evaporation.

7. Soil reaction is basic.
8. Most fertile soils.
9. Chestnut Brown soils

Distribution
Arid margin of chernozem belt.
Characteristics
(a) Less humus content in comparison to chernozem.
(b) Formation of CaCo3 nodule in B horizon.
(c) Lighter colour than chernozem.
(d) It has prismatic and cloddy structure.
(e) It is less fertile than Black-Earth Soil.
(f) It is productive if proper irrigation is available.
10. Sierozem
Distribution
Mid-latitude continental deserts of Nevada and Gobi.
Characteristics
(a) Typically grey in colour and in sub-tropic-pale-reddish grey.
(b) Thin soils having poor horizonization.
(c) Near absence of humus or low humus content.
(d) Excessive CaCo3 concentration (i.e. Caliche).
(e) Productive if irrigated.
11. Red Desert soils

Distributed in Great Desert of Australia and Africa.
Characteristics
(a) Poor horizon development.

(b) Minimum humus content.
(c) Coarse soil texture.
(d) Moderate to high fertility depending on nitrogen (N) content.
(e) Saline surface encrustation.
(f) Productive if abundant irrigation is available and salt removed.
B Intrazonal soils
12. Hydromorphic soils
Distribution
Areas of impaired drainage within Zonal soil belt.
Characteristics
(a) Deep layer of peat and undecomposed organic matters because of diminished bacterial action.
(b) Gleyization in sub-surface because of reduction of Fe.
(c) It has three sub types (I) Bog and Peat soil (ii) Meadow soils, and (iii) Planosol soil.
13. Halomorphic Soils

Occur in interior basins in arid or semi arid regions.
Characteristics
(a) High salt content and degraded alkali.

(b) Light colour.
14. Calcimorphic Soil

It includes rendzina and terra rossa soils and has high calcium content.
Three types in Russia-Solonetz, Solonchak and Soloth.
C. Azonal Soils
15. Lithosols
Distribution
Found on mountain slopes
Chatacteristics
(a) They are stony and thin

(b) Coarse texture
(c) Little organic matter
(d) No agricultural value.
16. Regosols
Develop on deep soft, unconsolidated materials of glaciers, outwash plain, loess and is rich fertile, having friable
structure.
17. Alluvial Soils

Characteristics
(a) ex-situ soil

(b) Poor horizon development
(c) Young soil, it is level bedded

(d) Highly fertile because mineral matter is thoroughly mixed.
7th Approximation Classification

It is the most recent system, which was introduced by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1960. Officially
known as the United States Comprehensive Soil Classification System, it is commonly called the Seventh
Approximation because it is the seventh revision of the first system presented to American pedologists. The
Seventh Approximation is based upon existing properties of soils, not upon their origin or environment.
T h e S e v e n t h A p p r o x i m a t i o n
Order Main characteristics of typical soils
Alfisols These soils develop in areas with 510-1270 mm of rain all the year; most
Alfisols got their developed under forests; clay accumulates in the B horizon. Alfisols occupy
name from the regions with enough water percolating through the soil to carry small clay
chemical symbols al particles out of the surface layer, leaving behind Al and Fe. Most alfisols are
(aluminium) and fe fertile and productive.
(iron).
Andisols These are volcanic soils, which are deep and have a light texture. They
contain iron and aluminium compounds.
Aridisols These are desert soils with little or no organic content but significant amounts
of calcium. The chemical characteristics of a particular aridisol depend on its
parent material and the kind of forces at work on it. Aridisols usually have no
agricultural value unless they are irrigated. Even then, the threat of salt
accumulation, as they are often affected by salinisation, often poses a serious
problem for the users of the land.
Entisols These are soils with little or no horizon development, which are often found
in recent flood plains, under recent volcanic ash and as wind-blown sand.
The productivity of entisols varies from very low, in the case of some arid
sands, to very high, as on some floodplains.
Histosols These are organic soils, found in bogs, swamps and wetlands. The dead plant
Histosols get their and animal material may be partly decayed but still recognizable (peat), or it
name from a Greek may be decomposed into a featureless black mass (muck). Peat usually occurs
word for tissue. in permanent swamps; muck is more widely distributed than peat, though it
too is poorly drained. Peat is coarser, more acidic, and less fertile than muck.
It has little agricultural value except for a few specialized crops, such as
cranberries.
Inceptisols These are young soils in which the horizons are starting to develop. The
get their name from classic inceptisols come from mountain regions, where erosion removes soil
the word inception before the profile can become mature. Other typical inceptisols sites are
older floodplains along big rivers, stable sand dunes or beaches, and stony
places on very resistant bedrock. Inceptisols on volcanic ash are fantastically
fertile, while those on rocky hillsides may be economically worthless.
Mollisols These soils form mainly under grasslands. They are dark-coloured, with upper
Mollisols get their horizons rich in organic matter. Rainier climates usually support trees whose
name from a Latin leaves form a mat on the surface rather than a thick mixture of organic
word meaning soft. material and mineral soil.
Oxisols These are infertile, acidic, deeply weathered soils which contain clays of iron
Oxisols get their and aluminium oxides. An oxisol, in a continuously wet climate, is usually
name from the oxic soft but leached off most of its plant nutrients. The alternate hazards of
horizon, a diagnostic leaching and hardening make oxisols very difficult to farm.
accumulation of iron
and aluminium
oxides.
Spodosols These are sandy soils, which develop under forests, particularly coniferous
forest. They are acidic and have accumulations of organic matter and iron
and aluminium oxides in the B horizon. Irrigation and fertilization have made
some spodosols very productive, but the cost is very high.
Ultisols These are acidic, deeply weathered tropical and subtropical soils with clay
accumulations in the B horizon. Percolating water has removed many of the
soluble nutrients and carried a significant amount of clay downward in the
soil. The farming of ultisols is usually expensive, because they are prone to
leaching and erosion.
Vertisols These are clay soils, which expand when, wet, and develop cracks when dry.
They develop in climates with marked wet and dry seasons. Vertisols are
fertile because expanding clays have a high exchange capacity, but their
physical characteristics make them difficult to farm.

0-Physical Geography Features

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

0-Physical Geography Features

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

NEW WORLD-World Geography and Society (2017) by K.

GEOLOGY: SHIELDS OF THE WORLD

The Indian Shield

The African Shield

The South American Shields

The Angaran Shield

The Canadian Shield

The Australian Shield

The Antarctican Shield

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE: ASIA

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF ERSTWHILE U.S.S.R/CIS

East European Plain

The Ural Mountains

The Caucasus Mountains

West Siberian Lowlands

East Siberian Highlands

Middle Asian Mountains

LINKING ASIA AND EUROPE THROUGH TUNNEL

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND RELIEF: WESTERN EUROPE

Effect of Alps on European Society

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA

1 The Canadian Shield

2 The Appalachian Area

3 The Atlantic Coastal Plain

4 The Gulf Coastal Plain

5 The Interior Uplands

6 The Central Lowlands

7 The High Plains

The Western Cordillera

8 The Eastern Ranges

9 The Intermontane Plateaus

The Pacific Ranges And Depressions

10 The Inner Line Of Mountains

12 The Outer Line of Mountain Ranges

PHYSIOGRAPHY: SOUTH AMERICA

Western Coastal Plain

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY:

Great Victorian Desert

Great Sandy Desert

The Eastern Uplands

Cosgrove Volcanic Chain

ASIA, ERSTWHILE SOVIET UNION/CIS

Inland Drainage Basin

Factors influencing the Europe's Climate

CIS CLIMATE OF RUSSIA

Climate of South East Asia

North America: Climate

HIGH RAINS IN AMAZON BASIN

LOW RAINS ALONG SOMALIAN REGION

General description of Climate

ENSO (EL NINO SOUTHERN OSCILLATION) AND

The Effect of El Nino on on South Asia (top), Normal Condition (Below).

Circulation and Precipitation Associated with the Extreme Phases of ENSO.

On the basis of Zonal Classification (Marbutt's On the basis of USDA

Zonal Soils Intrazonal Azonal Soils Entisols

THE MARBUT SCHEME

3. Grey-brown Podzolic Soil

5. Red and Yellow Forest soils

6. Red Tropical Soils

7. Balanced leaching and evaporation.

9. Chestnut Brown soils

11. Red Desert soils

(a) Poor horizon development.

13. Halomorphic Soils