Adjectives are considered nouns when they come after the determiner the and when

verbs immediately follow. Plural in form.

Ex: The generous prosper.

Count Many Few A number of

Mass Much Less, not much An amount of
Count and More
mass
Ex: a few sheets; less water; a number of kids; an amount of sugar

Partitive nouns/quantifiers are used to make noncount nouns singular or plural

Ex: cups of tea, pieces of furniture/equipment/evidence, pieces of jewelry

Apostrophe (S) rules

In joint ownership, add an s to the last noun
Ex: Rona, Gina, and Sams letter
In separate ownership, add an s at the end of each noun
Ex: Carlos and Paolos laptops

PRONOUNS
First person the speaker
Second person the person whom the speaker directly talks to
Third person the person talked about
Subjective doer of the action or the one being talked about
Objective the receiver of the action
Possessive the one that shows ownership

Person Subjective Objective Possessive

First I, we Me, us My, mine, our, ours
Second You You Your, yours
Third He, she, it, they Him, her, it, them His, hers, its, their,
theirs

Subjective pronouns
Before verbs (either linking or action verbs)
Ex: She is very accommodating.
In an inverted sentence, the subject is found after the verb
Ex: Under the tree lies he; Over the fence jump they.
After linking verbs (am, is, are, was, were, will be)
Ex: My father is he; It was she who told me; The volunteers will be they.
Objective pronouns
The pronouns are the receivers of the action or the objects of the preposition in
sentences
After action verbs
Ex: It took him hours to finish the work; The vendor sees her a lot
 After prepositions
Ex: My dog always stays with me; The land was divided between you and her
After the be expressions
Ex: It has to be him; Being her is difficult.
Pronouns used as appositives follow the same subjective and objective rules. The case of
pronouns generally depends on the verbs positions.
Subjective
Ex: The officials, Dan and he, are here in our town. (before verbs); It was the
journalists, Richard and I, who made it. (after linking verbs)
Objective
Ex: They took the students, Gigi and me, home. (after verbs); The coach gave
awards for the boys, Nito and him. (after prepositions)
Possessive pronouns
The pronouns my, your, his, her, its, our, and there are used to show ownership
and come before nouns.
Ex: These are my things; That is her mobile phone.
The pronouns mine, yours, his, hers, ours, and theirs are used alone to replace a
possessive form and the thing possessed.
Ex: These are mine; That mobile phone is hers.
Relative pronouns/clauses
Pronouns that connect a dependent clause to a main or independent clause. Rules
are same as personal pronouns.

Case Person Non-person

Subject Who/that/whoever Which/that/whichever
Object Whom/that/whoever Which/that/whichever
Possessive Whose Whose

Who used as the subject of a verb

Ex: They were the students who came early.
Whom used as direct object or object of a preposition
Ex: They were the students whom the teacher called.
*To tell whether a pronoun is the object of a verb or a preposition, try substituting
he/she (who) or him/her (whom)
**Ex: Whom/who should I talk to about labeling food in the refrigerator? | I
should talk to he/him. (Whom)
*Are you talking about someone who is doing something? If yes, use who. If not,
use whom.
**Ex: The car is driven to school by Gina. | The subject car is not the doer of
the action. | The car is driven to school by whom? or By whom is the car driven to
school?
Whose possessive pronoun, after which comes a noun
Ex. They were the students whose bags were missing.

Restrictive relative clause (THAT)

 - Contains essential information about the noun that comes before it
- If this clause is left out, the meaning of the sentence will either become
dubious or nonsensical
Ex: She held out the hand that was hurt. | She held out the hand (x)
Non-restrictive relative clauses (WHICH)
- Contains extra information that could be left out of the sentence without
affecting meaning or structure
- If this clause is left out, the sentence may have less information but still makes
sense
- Often preceded by a comma
Ex: She held out her hand, which Rob shook. | She held out her hand.
*Use which if a group of words add information. Use that if it limits the sets of
things you are talking about*

Indefinite pronouns
Singular: Any__, each, either, every__, little, much, neither, no__, some__, the
other
Plural: Both, few, many, others, several
Singular or plural: All, any, a lot, none, such, some
Ex: A lot of patience is needed; A lot of bags were sold.

VERBS
Show being or action
When verbs show being, they link a noun used as a subject to another noun, or to a
pronoun, or to an adjective. These connectors are called linking or copulating verbs.
Subjunctive mood the verb were or a modal in past tense is used
When a sentence expresses a condition contrary to fact
Ex: The producer decided to have the opening night next week as if our rehearsals
were that much.
When a sentence expresses compromise or resolve
Ex: If Gerald were to visit me next week, I should be in Manila by then.
When a sentence uses the verb wish
Ex: Joan wishes Joshua were there in the meeting.
When a sentence expressing a desire or command is followed by a that clause.
Within this clause is a verb in the base form.
Ex: It is important that he study before the test; The principal proposed that Mr.
Gomez assume the Presidents post.
Verb tenses the form of a verb takes to indicate when and/or how long the action is,
was, or will be done

Singular Plural
Present Am, is, does Are, do
Past Was, did Were, did
Future Will be Will be
Perfect Has, had, has/had done Have, had, have/had done
 Progressive Has been, had been
The Perfect Tenses
Tense Usage
Used to show an action/state
of being that was true or has
happened before and
continues up to the present
PRESENT PERFECT
(has/have + past participle) Used to show an event to be
finished in the future
Used to show a recently
concluded action with the
help of the adverb just,
already, or recently
Used in a past action that
came before another past
PAST PERFECT action (Therefore, had is
(had + past participle) placed in the first past action
and the other verb is only in
the simple past.)
The expression had had is
simply had + past participle
of have.
Shows a completed action
before a certain time (by +
FUTURE PERFECT time markers) occurs
(will have + past participle)
The Progressive Tenses
Tense Usage
Used to show an ongoing
PRESENT action at the moment
PROGRESSIVE
Have been, had been
Example
Cherry has worked like a
dog ever since the
supervisor came.
She has been sick since
Monday.
Once they have written the
book, we can publish it.
The project has ended
already.
Andy had left when the
professor came.
(This means that Andy left
first then the professor
came)
I had had bread and cereal
before I ate the main dish.
Four years from now, Bea
will have been a licensed
nurse.
(This means that before the
four years lapses, Bea
already became a licensed
nurse.)
Example
She is strolling along with
her friend in the mall.
 (am/is/are + present Used to show future action My dad is leaving next
participle) week.

PAST PROGRESSIVE Used when something was
(was/were + present going on at one point in
participle) time when another thing
happened
Tells the continuous action
FUTURE that is about to happen
PROGRESSIVE when a certain time comes.
(will be + present participle) Similar with future perfect
tense (by + time markers)
Roger was filing the papers
when his manager called
him.
By the time she graduates,
Lorna will be receiving
many awards.
I will be sleeping by 9 in
the morning.

The Perfect Progressive Tenses

Tense Usage Example

PRESENT PERFECT Used to state an action that She has been waiting here
PROGRESSIVE started in the past and is still for an hour.
(has/have been + present continuing up to the present
participle) I have been calling you
since Monday.
PAST PERFECT Used to state a past My brother had been
PROGRESSIVE continuous action when playing with his band before
(had been + present another past action happened he finally settled down.
participle)
They had been eating when
the phone rang.
FUTURE PERFECT Used to tell an action that is By this afternoon, my
PROGRESSIVE predicted to continuously colleagues will have been
(will have been + present happen when a certain time arriving from the airport.
participle) comes
A month from now, Lito will
have been travelling in
Athens.

*FUTURE PERFECT: A completed action before a certain time comes (has time markers) | Ten
years from now, Jay will have been a doctor.
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE: Continuous action that is about to happen when a certain time comes
(has time markers) | By the time she graduates, Lora will be receiving awards.
FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE: Action predicted to continuously happen when a certain
time comes. | A month from now, Lito will have been travelling in Manila.

ADJECTIVES
Describe nouns or pronouns. They are also called modifiers.
Order of adjectives:
 1. Determiner
2. Possessive noun
3. Number: cardinal (one, two) or ordinal (first, second)
4. Size
5. Quality, shape, etc.
6. Color
7. Proper or noun adjective
8. Noun
Ex: The runners first two 3-inch authentic gold Olympian medals.

ADVERBS
Describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs

PREPOSITIONS
Express relationships of nouns or pronouns with other words in a sentence. They give a
sentence additional meaning.
After prepositions always comes a noun or a pronoun which is called the object of the
preposition
Preposition groups
1. Location
Above, across, around, behind, below, beneath, beside, down, inside, near, off,
opposite, outside, near, under, underneath
Into motion or action of getting inside go into the water
Onto movement towards the surface of something onto the platform
Upon on top of something; carried by someone or something upon the table
To movement towards something or someone to the mall
Through by way or by means of through the door
Amid surrounded by amid beautiful houses
Along in line with the direction of; with someone or something along the way;
along with her friends
Over above something over the table
2. Time
Since, until
During tells when an action is happening during class
For tells the direction of an action for ten years now
3. Association
Against, among, between, but, by, about, concerning, despite, except, for, like,
of, with, without, past, within
Besides in addition to/aside from dancing besides singing
For intended or in favor of for her
From indicates the person/s from whom something is gained; coming or
originating from from the teacher; from the Philippines
Toward/s in the direction of towards the light
Throughout all the way through throughout the test
4. Time or Location
After, before, beyond, between, past, within
 In inside something in my room
- For time: used before years, months, or seconds, etc. in 2003, in July,
in July 2003, in 60 seconds
- For location: used before large places such as a country, capital, town,
city, state, etc. in Manila, in the city
On on top of something on the surface
- For time: used before exact dates or the days of the week on April 8,
2001; on Saturday
- For location: used before places such as streets, avenues, or boulevards
on the street; on Roxas Boulevard.
At
- For time: used before clock time at 3 oclock
- For location: used before exact addresses and small places such as
restaurants, bars, etc. at the new bar; at 314 Katipunan Avenue.
5. Compound Prepositions
With respect to, according to, aside from, as to, because of, by means of, in
addition to, instead of, prior to, for the sake of, in front of
In spite of even in the existence of something in spite of the calamity

CONJUNCTIONS
Connect two or more words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. They function as transition
words.
Parallels: both and, either or, neither nor, not only but also, whether or,
not but

AGREEMENT
S-V Agreement
A phrase after a subject does not affect the agreement
Ex: The rings of a tree tell its age.

Participial phrase phrase that starts with a verb and describes the noun that
comes before it
Ex: The boy hiding in the bushes is my son.

Intervening phrases
Ex: Sarah and Lala, along with their boss, approve of the system changes

Adjective clauses usage of who, whom, whose, which, or that

Ex: The newspapers that were sold in the grocery store have markings.
Clauses a dependent clause used as a subject takes a singular verb
Ex: When they would be coming wasnt relayed to me
*One of can be plural depending on what it complements*

Determiners tell if the nouns are the same or different

Ex: His student and cousin tries ; his student and his cousin try
 When more than one noun is regarded as a unit = singular
Ex: Hamburger, fries, and sundae sells at 25 pesos.
Rule above does not apply when and is followed by not. The verb should
agree with the first noun.
Ex: The chairs and not the table are returned to the shop.

Collective nouns
- Single unit: Their team wins every game. (collective effort)
- Individual units: Fort Streets crowd were arrested for selling illegal
drugs. (persons do not need to be looked at as a group for the arrests to
happen)

When subjects are joined by or, neither-nor, or either-or, the verb agrees with the
subject closer to it
Ex: Neither pepper nor basil leaves are ; Be sure that the word or words you
write make sense.

When expressions of fractions/percentages are given, the verb agrees with the
noun that immediately comes after these expressions
Ex: Half of the employees have resigned already; 70 percent of the cluster of
grapes has rotten.

Distance, measurement, money, rate, and time = singular

Ex: Five thousand pesos is all we need to raise; Two gallons of ice cream is
enough.
However, if the mentioned expressions are preceded by the article the, it
becomes plural
Ex: The two gallons of ice cream have not been enough.

When the subject and the predicate noun have different numbers, the verb agrees
with the subject, not the predicate noun.
Ex. Three boxes of goods were the package. | Hazels collection is wine
containers from Chile.

The number/the variety: singular; A number/a variety: plural

Verbs that come before the subject (inverted sentence) must still agree with the
subject
Ex: Around the benches plays a squirrel.

Noun pairs as subject = plural

Ex: His slippers were lost.
However, when the expression a pair of comes before them, they become
singular
 Ex: Where is my pair of glasses?

The expression many a/an + (adj) noun and more than one agrees with a
singular verb
Ex: Many a skilled entrepreneur has several ambitious ventures.

A/the minority/majority if used alone = singular; if an -of follows, the verb

agrees with the noun after the preposition of
Ex: The majority does not understand the lecture; The majority of students do
not understand the lecture

BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS

1. S-IV
Ex: Terry and Ann left already.
2. S-TV-DO
Ex. The doctor left the building already. (DO answers the question what? or whom?)
3. S-TV-IO-DO
Ex. Carla bought his brother a new car. (IO receives the DO and answers to/for
whom/what?
4. S-TV-DO-OC
Ex. The young man called his teacher his inspiration. (OC comes with a DO and either
describes or renames it)
5. S-LV-PN
Ex. Sylvia is a wonderful sister. (PN is a noun/pronoun that comes after a linking verb
and either renames, explains, or identifies the subject)
6. S-LV-PA
Ex. The doctor is generous. (PA comes after a linking verb and describes the subject)

SENTENCE ERRORS
Run-on
Two or more independent clauses joined together in a sentence without correct
punctuation or conjunction
Can be corrected by using a conjunction or a punctuation to separate complete
ideas
Ex: She was tired she fell asleep at once | She was tired so she fell asleep at once.
Fragments
A phrase or a group of words that needs a subject and/or a verb to give it complete
meaning
May also be a dependent clause that must be attached to an independent clause to
give it sense

ERROR IDENTIFICATION
Double negatives
Ex: I cant barely walk with these new shoes. | I can barely walk with these new shoes.
 Indefinite pronouns such as neither, none, and nobody should be joined with other
negative words. If there is a negative adverb such as no or not in the sentence, use
any, anybody, or anyone as the subject or the object
Ex: Neither doesnt want to come. | Neither wants to come.
I dont want nobody to come with us. | I dont want anybody to come with us.

Redundancy
Words such as deformed in shape, enter in, the reason is because
Ex: She counted the ballots in an unjust manner. | She counted the ballots
unjustly.

Agreement in number, gender, mood, person, and tense

Person. If the first person point of view of pronouns is used, be sure the its usage
is consistent throughout the sentence. The same goes with the second and third
person point of view.
Ex: Those of you who are finished may pass his test paper to their left | Those of
you who are finished may pass your test paper to your left.
Tense. Modals can, may, and will have the past forms could, might, and would.
Ex: Nicole predicts it will rain; Diego predicted it would rain.

Parallelism
Dangling Modifiers
Modifiers should be near the words they describe
Ex: Anton noted that Paulo left early in her notebook. | Anton noted in her
notebook that Paulo left early.