Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Institute of Seismology and Volcanology, Hokkaido University, N10W8 Kita-ku, Sapporo, Japan
(ReceivedApril5,2012;RevisedOctober11,2012;AcceptedOctober14,2012;OnlinepublishedMarch3,2013)
Abstract
Wepresentthecrustalstructurearoundthefaultzonepertainingtothe1938Kutcharoearthquake( M6.0),
northernJapan,toconsiderwhylargeearthquakeshaveoccurredaroundcalderas.Thestudywasbasedongravity
anomaliesandmagnetotelluricanddirectcurrent(DC)electricalresistivitysurveydata.Thedensitystructure
obtainedfromgravityanomaliesindicatedthatthefaultplanecorrespondedtothemaindepressionboundaryof
theKutcharocaldera.Theresistivitysection,basedonaudiofrequencymagnetotelluricsurveys,indicatedthat
theestimatedfaultplanewaslocatedalongtheboundaryofresistivityblocks,whichalsocorrespondedtothe
depressionboundary.AdetailedresistivitysectionintherupturedzonerevealedbyaDCelectricalresistivity
surveyshowedadiscontinuityoflayers,implyingcumulativefaultdisplacements.Theseresultsindicatethatthe
1938earthquakewasanabruptslipalongthemaindepressionboundaryoftheKutcharocaldera.Themostlikely
hypothesispertainstouidintrusionalongthedepressionboundary.However,additionalseismicandgeodetic
studiesarerequiredtoidentifyotherfeasibleearthquakemechanisms.
Key words:Magnetotellurics,gravityanomaly,DCelectricalresistivitysurvey,inlandearthquake,Kutcharo
caldera.
1. Introduction lian(1983)indicatedthatseveralearthquakesin1980were
Largeearthquakeevents( M >5)haveoftenbeenre causedbyuidinjectionintodykesthroughamechanism
portedaroundlargevolcaniccalderas,suchastheLong explainedbythecompensatedlinearvectordipolemodel.
ValleycalderaintheUnitedStates(e.g.,Hill et al.,2003; SavageandCockerham(1984)suggestedthatdykeination
Prejean et al.,2003),theOnikobecalderainnortheastern generatedtensionacrosstheverticalplanethatbecamethe
Japan(Umino et al.,1998),andtheRabaulcalderainPapua rupturedsurfaceoftheearthquakeswarm.Thisreducedthe
NewGuinea(MoriandMcKee,1987).Severalstudieshave frictionalstressontheruptureplaneandperhapstriggered
identiedpossiblemechanismsfortheoccurrenceofearth theslipthatcausedtheswarms.
quakesaroundlargecalderas.Forexample,Umino et al. The1938Kutcharoearthquake( M6.0)occurredwithin
(1998)suggestedthat M5.7and M5.9earthquakesatthe theKutcharocaldera,whichislocatedintheAkan
Onikobecalderain1996werefaultslipearthquakes,which ShiretokovolcanicbeltinthesouthwesternKurilearcof
mighthaveoccurredalongstructuraldiscontinuitiesaround northernJapan(Fig.1(a)).Thisarealieswithinoneofthe
thecalderaboundary.Becausemanyinlandearthquakesoc activeinlandearthquakeareasoftheHokkaidodistrict,the
curringintheuppercrusthavebeenconsideredabruptslips Teshikagaarea,whereeightlargeearthquakes( M >5)
withinlargediscontinuouszones(e.g.,Jackson,1980;Kato occurredbetween1938and1972(Fig.1(b)).The1938
et al.,2006),thelargestructuralboundariesalongcalderas earthquakeformednumerousrupturezones,mostlystriking
mayalsobeimportantfactorsfortheoccurrenceofearth northwesttosoutheast(Fig.1(c)).Basedonthedistribu
quakes,suggestingthatthecalderastructureaffectstheoc tionofsurfaceruptures,theearthquakefaultwasestimated
currenceoflargeinlandearthquakes.However,thedetailed tobealonganorthwestsoutheaststrikeazimuthbetween
relationshipbetweencalderastructuresandfaultactivity theKushiroRiverandtheWakotoPeninsula(Tanakadate,
hasnotyetbeenclaried. 1938;Tsuya,1938;Kato,1940;Fig.1(c)).Someofthe
Volcanicactivitymaybeassociatedwiththeoccurrence rupturesshowedleftlateralstrikeslipandamaximumdis
oflargeearthquakesaroundcalderasashasbeensuggested placementof2.5m(Tsuya,1938;Fig.1(c)).Verticaldis
fortheLongValleycaldera(e.g.,Julian,1983;Savageand placementswerealsoreportedintherupturesandformed
Cockerham,1984;Prejean et al.,2003).Forexample,Ju adepressionzoneinthelargestrupturezone(Fig.1(c)).
AccordingtoTsuya(1938),thenortheasternsideofthe
Presentaddress:EarthquakeResearchInstitute,theUniversityof slipontheeasternankofMaruyamasubsidedamaximum
Tokyo,111Yayoi,Bunkyoku,Tokyo1130032,Japan. 0.8m.Achangeinthelakelevelwasalsoobservedaf
terthe1938earthquakeatthesouthpartoftheKutcharo
CopyrightcTheSocietyofGeomagnetismandEarth,PlanetaryandSpaceSci caldera.Tanakadate(1938)andKato(1940)reportedsub
ences(SGEPSS);TheSeismologicalSocietyofJapan;TheVolcanologicalSociety
ofJapan;TheGeodeticSocietyofJapan;TheJapaneseSocietyforPlanetarySci sidencealong,andupheaval,atthenortheastsideofthe
ences;TERRAPUB.
1938estimatedfault(Fig.1(c)).Theverticaldeformation
345
(a)
346
KUT
CHA
RO
EAR
THQ
UAK to
E z
H.ICHIHARA et al.:
RESISTIVITYANDDENSITY Akolca
STRUCTUREOFTHE1938
Borehole 80a
(TS6)
(b)
70a 400
Lake 60a
A30 Oputakeshuke
Kutcharo
50a lava dome
Mt. Atosanupuri 55a
Maruyama
Nakajima
Lake lava dome
volcano
Mashu 45a Kush
iro
20a
40a
Borehole Riv er
400 (A20) (TS3)
Altitude (m)
30a
Fig.1.(a)Tectonicsettingaroundthestudyarea.Redtrianglesdenoteactivevolcanoes.(b)Topographyofthestudyarea(redrectangle).Reddashed
lines,KutcharocalderarimafterKatsui(1962);stars,epicentresoftheinlandplateearthquakesthatoccurredbetween1938and1967(Suzukiand
Hirota,1973);redsoliddots,hydrothermalactivity.(c)LocationofMTstationsandrupturezonesofthe1938earthquake(lightbluerectangle).
Greylines,altitude;pinkareas,rupturezones;reddashedline,estimatedfaultofthe1938Kutcharoearthquake( M6.0;Tanakadate,1938);blueplus,
upheavalareas;blueminus,depressionareas(Kato,1940);Reddots,hydrothermalactivity;circles,widebandMTstations;triangles,AMTstations;
blueline,DCelectricalresistivityimagingsurvey.
43.7
43.65
100
43.6 90
80
TS-1 70
TS-6 60
43.55
50
TS-3 40
BougeranmlyG()
30
5 km
43.5
144.25 144.3 144.35 144.4 144.45 144.5
Fig.2.BougueranomalyaroundKutcharocaldera(assumeddensity,2400kg/m3).Redsquares,gravitystations;pinkline,MTsurveyprole;red
dashedline,estimatedfaultofthe1938Kutcharoearthquake( M6.0;Tanakadate,1938).
-
H.ICHIHARA et al.:RESISTIVITYANDDENSITYSTRUCTUREOFTHE1938KUTCHAROEARTHQUAKE
(a)
-20
347
Fig.3.(a)BougueranomalyalongproleAAinFig.2.Circles,observedgravityanomalyatastationwithin3.0kmoftheprole;solidline,
calculatedgravityanomalyofthenal2Ddensitymodel.(b)Thenal2DdensitymodelalongproleAA.Invertedtriangles,boreholesite
locations;invertedsolidtriangles,surfacegeologicalboundaries;R,rupturezonelocationofthe1938Kutcharoearthquake.
indicatedbythechanginglakelevelseemstocontradictthat porosityaswellasthesalinityandinterconnectivityofthe
oftherupturedisplacement.Nevertheless,noquaternary uid(e.g.,Archie,1942).Inaddition,resistivityimaging
faultactivitieshavebeenidentiedaroundthestudyarea. isparticularlysensitivetoclayminerals,suchasmontmo
Thismaybeduetothethicknessofthepyroclasticows rillonite,producedbyalterationbecausetheysignicantly
hDep(kmt)
andtuffscreatedbyvolcaniceventsthatburyevidenceof reduceresistivityofthehostrock(e.g.,Takakura,1995),
faultactivity. anddetectingsuchclaymineralssupportsthepresenceof
TheactivityaroundtheKutcharocalderaisdividedinto hydrothermalactivity(e.g.,Nurhasan et al.,2006).Thus,
threestages:theprecaldera,calderaforming,andpost resistivityimaginghelpsidentifyuiddistributioninvol
calderastages(HiroseandNakagawa,1995).Thepre canicareas,whichmayberelatedtotheoccurrenceof
calderastageactivity(1.80.87Ma)formedsommalavas earthquakes,suchastheearthquakeswarmsintheLong
betweentherimsoftheKutcharocaldera(HiroseandNak Valleycaldera.Inaddition,resistivityreectsgeological
agawa,1995).Inthecalderaformingstage(0.34Ma heterogeneity(e.g.,ParkandWernicke,2003),sowealso
31ka),numerouseruptionscausedpyroclasticowsthat interpretedtheresistivitystructuretoidentifythegeological
formedtheKutcharocaldera(e.g.,Katsui,1962;Koshimizu structure.
andIkushima,1989).Postcalderaactivityformedthe Additionally,weperformedatwodimensional(2D)
Mt.Atosanupurivolcanoandthelavadomesdenotedin directcurrent(DC)electricresistivitysurveywithinthe
Fig.1(c),andthisvolcanohasshownrecentactivity.Hy rupturedzoneofthe1938fault,whichdetectsverticaldis
drothermalactivityhasalsobeenidentied,especiallyon placementfromfaultactivitywhenresistiveorconductive
theeasternsideoftheKutcharocaldera(Fig.1(b)). layersaredistributedbeneathfaultzones(e.g.,Suzuki et al.,
Yokoyama(1958)reportedaclearnegativeBouguer 2000).Withthisapproach,thehistoricalactivityalongthe
anomalyintheKutcharocaldera,inwhichthegravitywas 1938fault,whichisnotknown,canpossiblybeclaried.
about40mGalloweratthecentreofthecalderathanat
therim.Thisimpliesasignicantdensityanomalyaround 2. Density Structure
theKutcharocaldera.Detailedinvestigationsbydensity 2.1 Bouguer anomaly
modellingcouldidentifythegeometryofthegeological WecalculatedtheBougueranomalyaroundtheKutcharo
boundary,whichmayberelatedtofaultactivity.Therefore, calderausinggravitydatareportedbyYokoyama(1958),
wemodelledthedensitystructureusingdenselydistributed theJapanGeothermalEnergyDevelopmentCentre(1980),
gravitydata.Surfacegeologyandboreholedatawereused Ichihara et al.(2006),YamamotoandIshikawa(2004)
asconstraintstoobtainarobustdensitymodel. andHasegawa et al.(2006).Weassumedthattheden
Wealsoconductedaudiofrequencymagnetotelluric sityfortheBouguerandtheterraincorrectionswere
(AMT)surveysandmodelledtheelectricalresistivitydis 2400kg/m3becauseYamamotoandIshikawa(2004)esti
tribution.Imagingoftheresistivitydistributioniseffec mateda2400130kg/m3optimumsurcialdensitybased
tiveforestimatinguiddistributionbecauseitdependson onamethoddevelopedbyMurata(1993)usingAkaikes
Table1.SummaryofthelithologyandpetrophysicalpropertiesoftheboreholesdrilledbyNEDO(1985).Thedensityvalueistheaverageofmeasured
coresamplesfromfourboreholesdrilledinthecaldera.The Pwavevelocity(V p)andresistivityarefromthevelocityfoundbyelectricallogging
(100cmnormal)atboreholeTS3.Theresistivityrangeisbasedonstandarddeviationsinlogarithmsoftheresistivity.Calculationswerebasedon
theaverageof V panddensitylistedintheleftcolumns,and0.25wasassumedforPoissonsratio.
U Alteredandesite Miocene
nit Density
Unit C Lithology and Age
(kg/m3)
pyroclastic
Pumiceand
UnitA1 rocks Quaternary 1660320
Pyroclastic
UnitA2 deposits Quaternary 2400130
Andesiticlavas Pliocene
UnitB 2090280
Tuffand Quaternary
volcanicbreccias Middle
2620120
Vp Youngs Resistivity
2.74 14.1 1883
(km/s) module(GPa) (ohmm)
2.00 3.88 6.1 32.6 68370 290980
BayesianInformationCriterion(ABIC). deepatthenortheastsideandapproximately900mat
TheBougueranomalyshowedasteepgradientaround thesouthwestsideoftherupturezone.BoreholeTS3
the1938estimatedfault(Fig.2).Atthenortheastside limitedthesharpchangeindepth.Ifthedepthofthe
ofthefault,theestimatedanomalywas60mGallower boundarybetweenunitsBandCchangesgradually,
thanthatatthesouthwestside,andthegravitygradient thentheboundarydepthsbetweenA1/BandB/Cmust
exceeded10mGal/kmneartheestimatedfault.Thiscon signicantlyexceedtheconstraintdepthsofboreholes
siderablegravityvariationindicatedalargedensitycontrast TS3andTS6.
oradeeplyextendingdensityboundary.Inaddition,the 3) ThebottomdepthofunitBwasestimatedtobe
strikeofthegravitycontourswasparalleltothestrikeofthe 3500m,buttworeasonssuggestthatthetruedepth
1938estimatedfault.Theseresultsimpliedarelationship wasprobablydeeper.First,thedensitycontrastbe
betweenthefaultplaneanddensityheterogeneitycaused tweenunitsCandB(530kg/m3)shoulddecreasewith
bythecalderaformation. depthbecauseunsolidatedsediment(unitB),butnot
2.2 Two-dimensional density modelling solidatedrock(unitC),iscompactedwithdepth.A
Using2Dforwardprocessing(Talwani et al.,1959),we smallerdensitycontrastrequiresadeeperboundary
betweenunitsBandC.Second,althoughBouguer
modelledthedensitystructurealongtheAAproleto
anomaliesclearlyimpliedathreedimensional(3D)
identifythedensitydistributionaroundtherupturedzones
structure,weassumeda2Dstructureinthismod
(Fig.2),whichcrosstheestimatedfaultofthe1938earth
elling(Fig.2).The2Danalysisassumedthatden
quake.TheobservedBougueranomalieswithin3kmfrom
sityanomalies(unitsA1,A2,andB)aredistributed
theprolearepresentedinFig.3(a).
innitelyalongthestrikezone;however,ifthelow
Basedonsamplesfromthreeboreholesdrilledtoadepth
densityareahasalimiteddistributionalongthestrike,
greaterthan1kmbytheNewEnergyandIndustrialTech
thebottomdepthofunitBshouldbedeeperthan
nologyDevelopmentOrganization(NEDO,1985),thege shownbythe2Dmodel.Thedeeperboundaryindi
ologyoftheKutcharocalderawascategorisedintounits catesthatthegradientoftheunitB/Cboundaryunder
A1,A2,B,andCinthemodel(Table1).Thegeome therupturedzoneissteeperthanthatindicatedbythe
tryoftheboundariesbetweeneachunitwasestimatedin naldensitymodel.
themodelbyassumingaxeddensitywithineachunit(Ta 4) Becausethedensitymodelsthatfollowedthecon
ble1).ThreeboreholesdrilledbyNEDOneartheprole straintsexplainedin1)and2)didnotcompletelyt
(TS1,TS3andTS6)providedinformationonthedepth theobservedgravitydata,thecalculatedgravitywas
oftheunitboundaries.TheboundarydepthsforunitA1/B slightlylowerthantheobservedgravityaroundbore
were545,697,and507minboreholesTS3,TS6,andTS holeTS6(Fig.3(a)).Thisinconsistencymaybealle
1,respectively.TheboundarydepthsforunitB/Cwere742 viatedwhenthecompactionofunitsAandBisfurther
and1366minboreholesTS3andTS6,respectively.Unit investigatedora3Dmodelisdeveloped.
A2(Atosamupurisommalava)wasbetweendepthsof416 5) Noboreholedatawereavailablefortheunitbound
and610minboreholeTS1.Theseboundarydepthsand ariesatthenortheastofboreholeTS1,sothedepths
thesurfacegeologicalboundary(MatsunamiandYahata, werenotdetermined.
1989;Fig.3(b))wereusedasamodelconstraint.
Featuresofthenaldensitymodel(Fig.3(b))andtheir 3. Resistivity Structure Derived from Magnetotel-
validityareasfollows: luric Observations
1)TheboundarydepthbetweenunitsA1andBdidnot 3.1 Magnetotelluric survey and data processing
varysignicantlyaroundtherupturezonesofthe1938 AMTsurveyswereconductedacrosstherupturezoneof
earthquake,whichisvalidatedbytheboreholedata the1938earthquakefaultat10sitesinMayandNovem
(545,697,and507minboreholesTS3,TS6,and ber2006(Fig.1(c)).AtimeseriesoftheMTdatawere
TS1,respectively). recordedusingtheMTU2000systemmanufacturedby
2)TheboundarydepthbetweenunitsBandCchanged PhoenixGeophysics,Ltd.(Toronto,ON,Canada).The
sharplyaroundboreholeTS6;itwasover3500m electriceldsweremeasuredatallsitesusingorthogo
1100 Hz 9.4 Hz
75
60
45
0.3 0.3
km km 30
0 1 2 0 1 2
15
97 Hz
1.02 Hz 0.3 10
km
0.3
km 0
0 1 2 0 1 2
-10
nm(Deigr)
Fig.4.PhasetensorellipsesandParkinsonsinductionvectors(1100,97,9.4,and1.03Hz).Colourscalesoftheouterellipse, minskewangles;grey
scalesoftheinnerellipse,phasetensorskewangles;redarrows,inductionvectors;reddots,hydrothermalactivity.AMTandwidebandMTdata
(Ichihara et al.,2006)wereusedfortheanalysesof1100,97,9.4Hz,and1.03Hz,respectively.
(a) (b)
Observed Observed
A20 55a A20 55a
10a /20a 30a 40a 45a 50a 60a A30 70a 80a 90a 10a /20a 30a 40a 45a 50a 60a A30 70a 80a 90a
3 3
Deg(prhas)ntowkl
2 2
1 1
0 0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Distance (km) Distance (km)
Calculated Calculated
5 4 5
Distance (km) Distance (km)
Fig.5.PseudosectionsoftheobservedandcalculatedapparentresistivityandimpedancephasefortheMTinversion.Blackdots,datausedforthe
Logy(Frequnc10Hz)
equFrncy(Log10Hz)
inversionprocedure.
naldipoleswithPbPbCl2electrodesattachedatbothends. impedancetensorsinthefrequencydomainthroughacas
Themagneticeldsatallsitesweremeasuredusingthree cadedecimationtechnique(WightandBostick,1980).The
orthogonalinductioncoils.Widebandmagnetotelluricdata frequencyoftheconvertedimpedancefortheAMTdata
werealsoacquiredatstations40aand90ausinginduction rangedfrom3300to0.35Hz.Highqualitydatawereob
coilsorientedforwidebandsensing. tainedatmostsites,butthelowerfrequencybandforthe
TherecordedAMTtimeseriesdatawereconvertedinto
Lencyog(u 10Hz)
AMTimpedance(<2Hz)wasnotwellidentied,espe
goL(cyneu 10Hz)
ciallyforsites10a,30a,55a,70a,and80a.Inaddition,we = X1Y,
didnotobtainimpedanceslowerthan10Hzatsite60a.The
impedancesinthesocalleddeadbands(50001000Hz) where Xand Yaretherealandimaginarycomponents
oftheimpedancetensor(Z),respectively.Asignicant
werealsonotwelldeterminedatsomesites.WidebandMT
advantageisthatphasetensorisnotaffectedbygalvanic
dataatsites40aand90a(Fig.1(c)),andA20andA30(Ichi
distortion.Aphasetensoriswrittenintheform
hara et al.,2006)wereconvertedintoimpedancetensorsbe
tween320and0.00055Hzthroughthesameprocessused
fortheAMTdata.Highqualitydatawereobtainedatall
sitesandformostfrequencybands.
3.2 Estimation of the 2-D strike azimuth and
dimen-
sionality of the MT data
Themagnetotelluricphasetensors(Caldwell et al.,
2004)andParkinsonsinductionvectorswerecalculated
toverifytwodimensionalityandtodeterminethe2Daz
imuthfortheinversion.Phasetensorisanimportanttool
torecognisethedimensionalityofthesubsurfacestructure.
Thephasetensorisdenedas
strikeofourprole.
Figs.5and6,respectively.Theinversioncodeestimatesthe WeusedonlytheTMmodeimpedancesfortheinver
modelbasedontheABICleastsquaresmethodandcom sionforthefollowingreasons.Highphasesaround100Hz
prehensivelyevaluatestherootmeansquare(RMS)mis atsites40a55aalsoindicatedaconductoraroundthisarea
tbetweentheobservedandcalculatedimpedance,the (Fig.5).However,inductionvectorsorientedtothenorth
modelsmoothnessandstaticshifts.Impedancesinlower westbetween1100and9.4Hz(Fig.4)impliedthatthecon
frequencybands(<1Hz)werenotusedfortheinversion ductorhada3Dgeometry.Ledo et al.(2002)andSiripun
forthefollowingreasons.First,thelowfrequencydata varaporn et al.(2005)testedthe2Dinversionforasec
atallofthewidebandMTsiteswereaffectedbyalarge tioninwhichasynthetic3Dstructureconductorwasdis
phasetensorskewangleexceeding10andanomalousoff tributedinandoutofthesurveyline,similartothesitua
diagonalphasesexceeding90(Ichihara et al.,2006).Sec tioninthisstudy.Whenthe3Dconductorisoutofthe
ond,aNESWazimuthoftheregionalstrikeofeastern prole,Siripunvaraporn et al.(2005)showedaphantomof
Hokkaidodistrict(Satoh et al.,2001)isnotconsistentwith
0 the3DconductoramongtheinversionsusingTM,TE,and
max
= RT ( ) R( + ), TM +TEmodeimpedances.However,Ledo et al.(2002)
0 min
showedthatthephantomisnotclearintheTM +TEmode
wheremax,minand arecoordinateinvariantsand R( ) inversioncomparedtotheTMmodeinversion.Thus,TM
isarotationmatrix.Thephasetensorellipseisthegraph +TEmodedataseemedtobeappropriateinoursituation.
icalexpressionofthephasetensorinwhichthemajoraxis Whenthe3Dconductorisintheprole,Siripunvaraporn
(max)andminoraxis(min)oftheellipsedepicttheprinci et al.(2005)showedthatinversionsusingonlyTMmode
palaxesandthetensorvalues.Theorientationofthemajor impedancesidentiedanappropriatestructure,whereasin
axisisspeciedbytheangle .Inthe2Dcase,the versionsusingonlytheTEmodeortheTM +TEmodes
majoraxisofthephasetensorisalignedparallelorperpen producedastrongphantomconductorbeneaththetrue3
diculartothestrikeoftheregionalresistivitydistribution. Dconductor.Ledo et al.(2002)alsoindicatedthatthe
Thephasetensorskewangle, ,measuresasymmetryof TMmodewassuperiortotheTM +TEdata.Therefore,
thephaseresponse.Forthedetailedexplanations,seeCald whetherthe3Dconductorisinorofftheproledetermines
well et al.(2004). theappropriatemode.BecauseresistivitylogginginTS3
Theazimuthsof maxinthephasetensorellipseswere showedaconductorintheprolebetweenadepthof500
mostlydirectedtothesameazimuthastheMTprole 700m(NEDO,1985;Fig.1(c)),theconductorseemedto
(N55ES55W)oritsperpendicularazimuth(Fig.4).Be bedistributedintheprole.Therefore,theTMmodewas
causemaxandminvariedwithintheprole,the2Dstrike preferablefortheinversion.
azimuthseemedtobeorientedN35WS35E.Basedon Theinversionwasstartedfroma100ohmmhomoge
theabovetwopossibilities,theinductionvectors(Parkin neoushalfspacemodel.A5%erroroorintheapparent
sonsvectors)supporttheN35WS35Eazimuthasthe2 resistivityandphasewasapplied.Theobservedimpedances
Dstrike(Fig.4).Therefore,N35WS35Ewasadopted weremostlyexplainedbytheinversionprocedure(Fig.5).
asthestrikesofthe2Dinversions.However,theinduc TheRMSmistintheinitialmodel(16.92)wasreducedto
tionvectorsnearthe1938earthquakerupturezoneoriented 2.50inthenaliteration.Theinvertedresistivitysection
towardthenorthat11009.4Hz(Fig.4).Thesefeatures (Fig.7)showedthefollowingfeatures:
indicatetheexistenceofa3Dconductorinthenorthern 1)Aconductivebodywasimagedundertheruptured
partofthe1938earthquakefaultzone.Theunsaltedwater zone(C1,1030ohmm).TheC1conductorwas
ofLakeKutcharowasexcludedasacandidateforthe3D requiredtoexplainlargephasesover60thatwere
conductor. observedaround100Hzatsites40a55a.
3.3 Two-dimensional inversion of the MT data 2)TheC2conductor(320ohmm)wasdistributed
Aftertheimpedanceswererotatedintotheestimated2 aroundthenortheasternedgeoftheprole,wherehy
Dazimuth,theapparentresistivityandphaseinthefre drothermalactivitieshavebeenobserved(Fig.1(b)).
quencybandbetween3300and1Hzwereinvertedusing Lowapparentresistivityatsite90a(Fig.5)clearlyin
the2DinversioncodedevelopedbyOgawaandUchida dicatedtheC2conductor.
(1996).Pseudosectionsofthedatausingtheinversion 3)Aresistiveareawasimagedbelow1000matthe
andsoundingcurvesofsites40aand55aaredescribedin southwestsideofthe1938Kutcharoearthquakerup
2 2
1.5 1.5
75
60
60
45
30 45
15 4 3 2
1frequency [Hz]
0 1
uency
freq
30 [Hz]
4 3 2 0
Fig.6.Observedandcalculatedsoundingcurvesfortheapparentresistivityandphaseofsites40aand55a.Dotswitherrorbars,observedapparent
resistivityandphaseofTMmode;blacksolidline,invertedmodel;colouredlines,hypotheticalmodel.
S55 W N55 E
A20 R
evsirotyg1[l0hm-]
evsirotyg1[l0hm-]
20a 40a 90a
10a 30a 80a 4.0
0
R2 3.5
C1 3.0
-1
2.5
phdaseg[]
1.0
-3
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 0.5
10 10 10 10
Distance
10
(km) 10 10 10 10 10
Fig.7.Inverted2DresistivityimagealongtheMTprolecrossingtherupturezoneofthe1938Kutcharoearthquake( M6.0).Redrectangle,location
oftheDCelectricalsurveyinFig.8;R,locationofa1938Kutcharoearthquake( M6.0)rupturezone.
vsReLityog(10hm-)
toadepthof200300mattheeasternpartofthepro 50ohmm;Fig.7).Thesensitivitytestconrmedtheexis
le.R2obviouslycorrespondedtounitA2consisting tenceoftheC1conductor.Basedonthenalmodel,C1is
ofandesiticlavas. hypothesisedtohavebeenconvertedto100ohmm(Fig.7).
Dekpthm()
ResistivityloggingatTS3,drillednearsite40a,mea Theresponsesprovidedbythehypotheticalmodelweresig
nicantlyinconsistentwiththatofthenalmodelandthe
suredaresistivityof40300ohmminunitA(0545m
observed100Hzatsites40a55a(Fig.6).TheRMSerror
ofdepth),1050ohmminunitB(545742m)and100
ofthehypotheticalmodelincreasedfrom2.50to4.84inthe
500ohmminunitC(>742m;Fig.8).Theinvertedre
nalmodel.
sistivityimagewasconsistentwiththeverticalresistivity
ThepositionoftheboundarybetweenR1andthemoder
variationsmeasuredinboreholeTS3(Fig.8).Thus,the
ateresistivityzonewasalsoimportanttothecalderastruc
invertedimageseemedtobereliablearoundboreholeTS3.
tureandthe1938earthquake,butthelocationistenuous
becausetheC1conductorcoveredthisarea.Thus,we
testedthesensitivityofthelocationwithfourhypothetical
models.First,theS2regionofthenalresistivitymodel
(a) (b)
Resistivity (ohm-m) Density (kg/m3)
0 200 400 600 1000 2000 3000
800
200 1000
400
600
600
200
800
400 0 0
1000
Fig.8.MeasuredandmodelledresistivitiesanddensitiesalongboreholeTS3(NEDO,1985).ThelocationoftheboreholeisshowninFig.2.(a)
Dottedlines,logged(25cmnormal)resistivityfromthe2Dinversion;solidlines,estimatedresistivity.(b)Dots,coresamplewetdensity;solidline,
estimateddensity(Table1). UnitA-1
(Fig.7)waslledwith50ohmm.Theresponseproduced nearsite50a(Fig.1(c)).Then,DCelectricalresistivi
hm)(peDt
hpe(mtD)
bythishypotheticalmodelwasalmostthesameasthenal tiesweremeasuredfrom748combinationsoftransmitting
modelatallsites(responseatsite40aisdrawnwithablue
andreceivingdipolesinWennerandEltranarraysbyus
dashedlineinFig.6(a)).Thesecondmodelindicatedthat ingelectricalresistivityimaginginstrumentsmanufactured
aregionbetweenS1andS2waslledwith50ohmm. byChibaElectronicsCo.Interelectrodespacing(a)varied
nBUti
Themodelresponseshowedsignicantlyhigherphasesof from10to160m.ThesensitivezoneoftheWennerar
around10Hzandlowerapparentresistivity(<3Hz)com raywasconcentratedatthedipolecentresbutwasnarrow
alongthehorizontaldirection.Incontrast,theEltranar
paredtothenalmodelandtheobserveddata(abluedotted
lineinFig.6(a)).Theseresultsindicatethathighresistivity
rayhadarelativelyhighsensitivityatthehorizontallywide
wasrequiredatS1butpossiblynotatS2.Forthethird areabuthadreversedsensitivityattheoutsideofthedipole
UnitC
hypotheticalmodel,theS3regioninFig.7waslledwithsystem.Botharrayshadweakersensitivityatareasdeeper
300ohmm.Theseresponsesexplainedthesharpphaseun than a.Pseudosectionsoftheobservedapparentresistivi
dulationsofaround10Hzatsites50aand55acompared tiesareshowninFig.9.Theobservedapparentresistivity
tothenalmodel(bluedashedlineinFig.6(b)).The datawereinvertedtoa2Dresistivityimageusingthenu
impedancesattheothersiteswerealmostthesameasthe mericalinversioncodedevelopedbyUchida(1991).The
nalmodel.Finally,theS3andS4regionswerelled inversionstartedfromthe100ohmmhomogeneoushalf
with300ohmm.Theresultsdifferedsignicantlyfrom spacemodel.Anexcellenttoftheobserveddataandthe
theobserveddataandthethirdhypotheticalmodel.Tests calculatedpseudosectionswasnoted(Fig.9).TheRMS
threeandfourindicatedsharpresistivitychangesbetween mistwasreducedfrom46.6to1.34inthenaliteration.
S3andS4,butthesmoothnessconstraintdidnotallow Severalfeatureswererecognisedintheinvertedre
convergenceintoasharpstructure.Consequently,thelocasistivitysectionunderthe1938earthquakerupturezone
tionoftheR1marginwasaroundS2,S3,andS4,and (Fig.10).Onewasadeep(>100m)highresistivitybody
thesharperresistivityboundarymayhavebeendistributed (R3, <1000ohmm)foundatthesouthwestsideoftherup
attheR1margin. turezone.BecauseR3wasnotfoundinthenortheastside
oftherupturezone,athicknessoftheR3resistivebody
4. DC Electrical Survey Around the Rupturedgreaterthan30mindicatesthatmorethan30mofvertical
Zone movementoccurredalongthe1938earthquakefault.Past
Torevealthedetailedresistivitystructurearoundthe activityalongthisplanemayhavebeensupportedbyan
1938earthquakerupturezone,weperformeda2DDC approximately10mverticaloffset,distributedaround50
electricalresistivitysurveyinNovember2006.Welaida mdepth,betweentherelativelylowresistivityanomalies
490mtransectasanAMTsurveylinewith50electrodes ofC3andC4.The10moffsetisnotprecisebecausethe
0 0
50 50
100 100
0 0
50 50
100 100
Fig.9.PseudosectionsoftheobservedandcalculatedapparentresistivityphasefortheDCelectricalsurvey.
A ruptured zone of
R4 the 1938 earthquake
3.5
0
eEctrodlspma)(
oElecdtrspa(m)
3
C3
50 C4
2.5
100 R3
2
lectrodspa(m)E
oElecdtrspa(m)
Fig.10.DCresistivityimagearoundthefaultzoneofthe1938Kutcharoearthquake(6.0).Arupturezonecreatedbytheearthquakewasreportednear
the170mpoint(Tsuya,1938).
(a) (b)
topographic the 1938 Kutcharo earthquake (M 6.0)
TS-6
A20 TS-3 R TS-1 caldera wall
20a 90a Hydrothermal activities
10a 30a 45a 50a 60a A30 70a 80a
0
R2 conductor (C1)
C1
-1 1
conductor
C2
-2 R1 2 (C2)
-3 3 Basement rocks
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
vsReoityg(l10hm-)
Distance (km) Resistivity (Log10 ohm-m)
4 transportation
of aqueous fluid
hDep(mt)
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Distance (km)
Fig.11.(a)Comparisonofthedensityandresistivitystructure.TheimagecreatedbytheblackmeshmarksdenotesthenaldensitymodelinFig.3.
ThecolourimagedescribestheresistivitystructureinFig.6projectedtoproleAAinFig.2.(b)AsimultaneousimageoftheKutcharocaldera
andtheestimatedfaultofthe1938Kutcharoearthquake( M6.0)alongthesameproleasshownin(a).
blocksizeoftheresistivitymodelwas10m;however,itis thelowermostlayeramongtheoutcroppingsoftheNeo
hDep(kmt)
thoughttobeadequatelylargecomparedtotheverticaldis genebasementrocksintheTeshikagaarea(Matsunami
placementcausedbythe1938earthquake(0.8m;Tsuya, andYahata,1989).NEDO(1985)andKoshimizuand
1938).ThelackofR3onthenortheastsideandtheoffset Kim(1986)suggestedthatthessionandtrackagesof
betweenC3andC4mayindicatesubsidenceatthenorth theIkurushibeformationare13.1and7.98.2Ma,respec
hDep(kmt)
eastsideasaresultofrepeatedearthquakeactivity.These tively.Theresistivityloggingshowedhighresistivity(290
offsetsareconsistentwiththeverticaldisplacementofthe 980ohmm;Table1)inunitC.Theinvertedresistivityfrom
1938earthquakesurfaceruptures.However,thechanges theAMTsurveyalongboreholeTS3revealedhighresistiv
inlakelevelafterthe1938earthquakeindicatesubsidence ityconsistentwiththeloggeddata(Fig.8),indicatingthat
alongoronthesouthwestsideandupheavalatthenorth theresistivezone(R1)correspondedtounitC.Inaddition,
eastsideoftherupturedzone(Kato,1940;Fig.1(c)).De thespatialdistributionoftheresistivezone(R1)andunit
tailedsurveys,suchasafaulttrench,arerequiredtoclarify Cisconsistent(Fig.11(a)).Therefore,wecanassumethat
thefaultmovements. thebasementrockoftheIkurushibeorolderformationsis
Aresistivezone(R4)wasalsoidentiedimmediatelybe distributedonthesouthwesternsideofthe1938faultzone.
lowthesurfaceneartheMaruyamadomeatthesouthwest Theareabetween500and1000mundersite10ashowsrel
sideoftheprole.BecausetheareaaroundtheMaruyama ativelylowresistivity.Thisconductivezonemayindicate
lavadomehasahigherelevation,R4wasprobablyassoci anolderformationunderlyingtheIkurushibeformationor
atedwithMaruyamalava. sedimentswithintheIkurushibeformation(Matsunamiand
Yahata,1989),whichgenerallyshowslowresistivitycom
5. Discussion paredtoandesites(NEDO,1985).
5.1 Interpretation of resistivity and density Thewelllog(TS3)drilledbyNEDO(1985)provided
structures informationonthelithology,density,andresistivityofthe
site(Fig.8).Basedonthisboreholedataandotherrefer ThelowBougueranomalyintheKutcharocalderacan
ences,thecalculateddensityandresistivitymodelscanbe beexplainedbythethicksediment(unitsA1,B;Fig.3).
interpretedasfollows. Thelowtomoderateresistivityzone(10200ohmm),in
ThenalinvertedresistivitymodelfromtheMTdata cludingtheC2conductornortheastofR1,corresponded
showedaconductivebodyundertherupturezone(C1, tounitsA1andBthatwereinferredasthesedimentll
2050ohmm;Fig.7).Thesensitivitytestconrmedthe coveredKutcharocaldera(Fig.11(a)).Basedonthehy
existenceoftheC1conductor.TheC1resistivity(10 potheticaltestingdiscussedin3.4,theR1marginwasmost
30ohmm)wasconsistentwiththeloggingresistivityof likelylocatedbetweenS2andS4,andasharperresistivity
boreholesTS3andTS6.Acomparisonoftheresistivity boundarymayhavebeendistributedtherethanindicatedby
betweenthenalmodelandtheTS3loggingdataisshown theinvertedresistivitymodel.Thesefeaturesareconsistent
inFig.8.Montmorilloniteswereidentiedincoresam withthesteepinclinezoneofthedensityboundarybetween
plesobtainedneartheC1conductor(NEDO,1985).Be unitsBandC,andindicatethattheresistivityanddensity
causemontmorillonitesignicantlyreducestheresistivity distributionsimagethegeologicalboundaryofpastcaldera
ofhostrock(e.g.,Takakura,1995),C1isinterpretedas activities.
amontmorilloniterichzoneandimplieshydrothermalac 5.2 The relationship between the 1938 Kutcharo earth-
tivityundertherupturezonebecausetheyarecommonly quake and the Kutcharo caldera
producedbyhydrothermalalteration.TheC1conductor ThedetailedresistivityimageproducedbytheDCelec
seemstobedistributedtowardthenorthwestoftheprole, tricsurveydatasuggestscumulativefaultactivityinthe
butnotthesouthwestsidebecausetheinductionvectors Quaternaryalongthe1938rupturezones(Fig.10).The
pointednorthat1100,97,and9.4HznearC1(Fig.4).Sig densitymodelconstrainedbyboreholesTS3,TS6,and
nicanthydrothermalactivityhasbeenrecognisedaround TS1showedasteeplydippingboundarybetweenunits
Mt.Atosanupuriaswellasalongthe1938estimatedfault BandCbeneaththisarea(Fig.3).Theresistivitysec
(Fig.1(b,c)andFig.4),implyingthattheC1conductor tionobtainedfromtheMTdataalsosupportsthisbound
alongthe1938faultwasproducedbyhydrothermalalter ary(Figs.7,11(a)).Ingeneral,manyinlandearthquakes
ation.Themarginofthedepressionzonemayhavebeena aretheresultofanabruptslipwithinlargediscontinuous
pathforwaterthatsubsequentlyinducedtheC1hydrother zones.Therefore,thisclearspatialcorrespondencebetween
malalteration. themaindepressionboundaryoftheKutcharocalderaand
Themagmaintrusionhasbeenestimatedtobeabout the1938faultindicatesthatanabruptslipalongthecaldera
6kmdeepat2kmnorthofsite90a(Fig.11(b);Geographi margincausedthe1938earthquake.
calSurveyInstitute,2006).Inaddition,hydrothermalareas Normalfaultingwiththecollapseofthecaldera,there
andanactivevolcano(Mt.Atosanupuri)aredistributedat leaseofregionalstressduetoacrustalheterogeneityand
thesurfaceofthemagmaintrudedzone(Fig.1(b)),sug uidintrusionarethreepossiblemechanismsforthe1938
gestingthattheC2conductorwasproducedinassociation earthquake.Therstpossibilityisunlikelybecausede
withtheseactivities. pression(outersides)andupheaval(innersides)ofthe
UnitC(Ikurushibeformation)consistsmainlyofan calderaoccurredafterthe1938earthquakeandwerebased
desiteandtuffbreccias,mostofwhicharealteredinthe onchangesinthelakewaterlevel(Tsuya,1938;Kato,
coresamples.TheIkurushibeformationisassumedtobe 1940;Fig.1(c)).Inaddition,the1938earthquakecaused
leftlateralstrikeslipdisplacement.
Thesecondpossibilitymaybeappropriatebecauselarge
contractivestrain(about8ppmduring18831994)hasbeen
Acknowledgments.WethankProf.YasuoOgawaoftheTokyo
InstituteofTechnologyandProf.MasaakiMishinaofTohokuUni
versityforprovidingmanyoftheinstrumentsusedintheMTsur
vey.Wealsothanklandownersinthestudyregionforallowingus
toestablishobservationsitesontheirland.Theeditor,Dr.Akira
Takada,andtworeviewers,Prof.YoichiSasaiandanotheranony
mousreviewer,helpedustoimprovethemanuscript.Helpfuldis
cussionswithProf.TakeshiHashimoto,Prof.YasunoriNishida,
Dr.RyoHonda,Dr.HiroakiKamiyamaandProf.HiroakiTaka
hashiofHokkaidoUniversityhelpedimprovethecontentofthis
paper.GMTsoftware(WesselandSmith,1998)wasusedtodraw
someofthegures.
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