Chapter I

General on power systems

Introduction
In our time, and without electricity, life would hardly be feasible, it is neces
sary to know the produce efficiently and continuously. To meet the growing consu
mption of electricity, he had to invent and build plants (power plants) can prod
uce electricity in large quantities. Once the current product, it must be brough
t up to the consumer. In a country, the Transportation and Public Distribution e
nsure the transit of electricity between the points of production and consumptio
n points.
I.1. From Central Subscriber
Power grids are made by all the apparatus for the generation, transmission, dist
ribution and use of electricity from generating stations to homes in the country
side further away (Fig. I. 1). Power grids have been designed to interconnect th
e centers of production such as hydropower, thermal ... with consumption centers
(cities, factories ...). Electrical energy is transported at high voltage or hi
gh voltage to minimize Joule losses (the losses are proportional to the square o
f the intensity) and then gradually lowered to the voltage level of the user.
Power Generation
Transformer substation EHV / HV
Transformer substation HV / MV
Transformer substation MV / LV
Subscribers HT
Subscribers MT
Subscribers BT
Fig. I.1: Schematic of a grid
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Chapter I
General on power systems
I.2. The levels of tension networks
Power grids are hierarchical (Fig. I.2) in general, most countries are implement
ing: • A transportation THT 220 ... ... .. 800 KV 60 KV 170 ... ... ... ... ...
... 5 36 kV (IEC) • A network of distribution HV • A distribution network MV
• A delivery network of the subscriber BT 400/230 V This hierarchy is to say, th
e levels of voltages used varied considerably from one country to another depend
ing on the parameters related to the history of electrical engineering country,
its energy, its surface and finally technical and economic criteria. [1]
AT BT autotransformer HV High Voltage Low Voltage Medium Voltage MV EHV extra hi
gh voltage
Fig. I.2: Outline of a network
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Chapter I
General on power systems
I.3. Network Topology
The power transmission networks and interconnection are, by nature, consisting o
f works capable of strong transit and mesh. The links form loops, thereby realiz
ing a structure similar to the mesh of a net (Fig. I.3a). The distribution netwo
rks they feed frequently looped structure (Fig. I.3B) and can then be operated e
ither in a closed loop, the network said loop or open loop, the network is then
said unbuckled. Some are also power antenna (item G, Fig. I.3B) or by tapping in
to taking some energy moving on a line connecting the two posts (post H, Fig. I.
3B). These distribution networks to provide a regional energy distribution netwo
rks, which are medium-voltage networks that provided food for many users either
directly or after conversion to low voltage. Configuration and mode of operation
vary. One can find, by country, mesh networks operated uncurled, networks with
radial structure (Fig. I.3d) networks or tree structure (Fig. I.3c). Generally,
these are the characteristics of generating sources, user requirements and opera
tional experience which, together with economic considerations, leading them to
choose the topological structure of networks.
a) example of lattice structure
b) example structure buckled
c) example of tree structure
d) example of radial
switchyard post office distribution distribution
Fig. I.3: Topology of Networks
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Chapter I
General on power systems
I.4. Description of electrical networks
I.4.1. The EHV transmission network
This is usually the network that allows the transport of energy from distant pro
duction centers to consumption centers. It is on the EHV network that are connec
ted to the central principle of great powers (> 300 MW). [2] The transport netwo
rks are a vast grid covering the territory, which are connected to the sources a
nd uses (groups, processors). Each node A, B and C (Fig. I.4) is a "switchyard".
€This item is usually consist of a main collector called "busbar" which will con
nect the lines, using devices. These networks are mostly air and underground in
the cities or in their approaches. They are designed for a given transit usually
correspond to the thermal limit of line. Particular attention should be paid to
the corona which can result in THT, to very significant losses to the climate a
nd altitude. The pylons are usually fitted with double circuit (2 x 3 phase) see
four or even six dull. The protections of these networks must be highly efficie
nt. As for their operation, it is ensured by a national control center or dispat
ch from which electrical energy is monitored and managed continuously.
Fig. I.4: Example of a part of a transportation network
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Chapter I
General on power systems
I.4.2. The network distribution HV
The purpose of this network is primarily to convey the electricity transmission
network to the major consumption centers, which are: • Whether the public with a
ccess to the distribution network MV • Let the private sector with the subscribe
rs with access to consumer (above 10 MVA) delivered directly to HT. Essentially,
industries such as steel, cement, chemicals, rail, ... [3] The structure of the
se networks is generally focused on air (sometimes underground near urban sites)
. The protections are similar to those used on transit systems, the control cent
ers are regional.
I.4.3. The MV distribution network
Users can be grouped in a very dense as in cities or separated from each other b
y distances greater or smaller in the countryside. They are served by a distribu
tion network supplied by a distribution station that receives energy from distan
t power plants, through the transmission system. Distribution lines at medium vo
ltage (MV) start of fueling stations and distribution substations located in dif
ferent places around the area to be served; these substations step down the volt
age to a value adequate to feed the public distribution system which subscribers
are connected by connections. We distinguish throughout the world, different sy
stems of MT distribution. These include mainly: • The North American system (Fig
. I.5a) distributed directly to neutral grounded; the three-phase frame is compo
sed of four son, and leads to single phase distribution line to neutral, there a
re one or son of multiple phase, depending on the power to serve, plus neutral.
• The system used for example in Great Britain or Ireland (Fig. I.5B), which fra
mes from three phase to three son without distributed neutral fuels from diversi
ons may be son of two Phase • The Australian system (Fig. I.5c), very cheap, con
sists of three frames son without distributed neutral, with, among others, singl
e-phase leads to a single wire with ground return (this solution requires a low
resistivity of the soil) • The French system (Fig. I.5d), fully phase in framing
and diversions, to neutral not distributed.
5
Chapter I There are also:
General on power systems
• The types of rural networks usually air, Tree and bouclables, • Urban networks
and essentially buried bouclables. The protections are less sophisticated than
in the case of previous networks. [4]
a) MV network neutral distributed
b) MV network without distributed neutral, mixed two or three phases
d) MV network without distributed neutral, fully phase c) MV network without dis
tributed neutral, mixed one, two or three phases
DFIN single fuse breaker switch sorting TI neutral single phase three phase isol
ation transformer
Fig. I.5: Different modes of distribution 6
Chapter I
General on power systems
 Plans neutral MT
The choice of a neutral system of MV network involves the future, because each s
ystem involves the installation of special equipment for the isolation level, op
erating conditions and maintenance, protection systems against defects . The neu
tral system adopted must be consistent with the structure of the MV network (vol
tage level, length of departures, air or underground system, charge density) and
has an impact on levels of safety and quality of service.€We meet around the wo
rld on various systems (Table I.1). • Isolated Neutral Interest in this system i
s to promote a good quality of service. In case of faults between phase and eart
h, he avoids triggering the fault currents are limited to very low (except where
departures, especially if they consist of underground cables are long and the v
oltage high coverage, in which case the capacitive current becomes significant).
In addition, the isolated neutral system has the disadvantage of generating tra
nsient overvoltages (during switching). • Grounding of neutral extinction coil (
called Petersen) The principle is to insert in the neutral reactance Lω equal to
the capacitance net ork 1/Cω presents a real interest in spite of its cost. The
net ork has seen the failure as high impedance (parallel LC circuit) and the fa
ult current is lo and self-extinguishing. It presents the same dra backs, ho ev
er, the surge at the time of the maneuvers are some hat less high. • Neutral con
nected directly to earth This technique generates fault currents bet een phase a
nd earth very important. Therefore, for safety reasons, to limit the return curr
ent through the ground, install a neutral conductor connected to ground step by
step and through hich flo s a considerable part of the fault current. This syst
em has the advantage of minimizing possible overvoltages. It leads to frequent t
rips, but allo s a selective removal of defects, such as using fuses adapted to
different locations of departures. The current high short-circuit resulting in s
evere constraints on materials. This system requires monitoring of the continuit
y of the neutral conductor. A breach of it ould be dangerous, resulting in pote
ntial gradients around
7
Chapter I
General on po er systems
ground connections, linked to high current flo to earth. The presence of the ne
utral conductor allo s the realization of single-phase taps. • Neutral grounded
impedance of interest is to limit the impedance values of short-circuit fault be
t een phase and earth, hile having moderate surge. The relatively lo values of
fault currents do not require the addition of a neutral conductor.
Plan neutral MT
Country Belgium Germany Italy Japan Nor ay
Isolated neutral
Reel of extinction called the Petersen L: po er compensation net ork
Germany Finland Nor ay
Neutral directly to ground
Canada USA
Neutral impedance Zn fe tens of ohms
Belgium France Great Britain Ireland Japan S eden
Table I.1: Different schemes used in the MV neutral orld
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Chapter I
General on po er systems
I.4.4. The delivery net ork BT
Is the net ork that e are familiar in principle because it is the voltage V 400
/230 (380/220 in Algeria). We meet in our homes via the chain of meter, circuit
breaker, fuses (micro circuit breakers). The purpose of this net ork is to route
the electricity distribution net ork MV points lo in the public domain ith ac
cess to BT subscribers. It represents the last level in an electrical structure.
This net ork can feed a large number of consumers corresponding to the domestic
realm. Its structure, like air or underground, is often influenced by the envir
onment. These net orks are usually operated manually. The BT net ork to distribu
te to consumers, the 230 V (1 phase + neutral) - 2 son Or the 400 V (3 phases +
neutral) - 4 son BT's net ork is characterized mainly by the ay are managed and
the neutral Grounding of the masses (domestic appliances). Called protective co
nductor PE electric, the driver that connects the masses and make them land. It
may or may not be confused ith neutral. These subtleties are defined by IEC 364
, hich deals ith the protection of persons and property in buildings (U <1000
V). There are three systems: • IT isolated neutral BT hich allo s continuous op
eration at the first fault. We use this principle in hospitals or manufacturing
process. • TT this system requires a clear distinction bet een neutral land and
land masses, a distinction can be difficult to achieve. • TN is the most common
system.€Regimes are distinguished: TN-C and PE are neutral hen combined (PEN) a
nd TN-S here neutral and PE are separated (PE + N)
I.5. Constitution of electrical net orks
I.5.1. Po er plants
There are five main types of po er plants: • The fossil fuel plants (coal, oil a
nd natural gas) called conventional thermal po er, nuclear po er plants • The po
er plants that also can be called thermals, • hydro 9
Chapter I • solar photovoltaic po er plants, • The ind po er plants.
General on po er systems
Essential elements for the production of electricity are: • A turbine. • A gener
ator that is to say, a magnet driven by the turbine and surrounded by a coil tha
t produces electrical current. a) The thermal po er plants produce electricity f
rom the heat from the combustion of coal, oil or natural gas. It is often found
near a river or a lake, as huge quantities of ater are required to cool and con
dense the steam from the turbines. The combustion releases a large amount of hea
t used to heat ater in the boiler (or steam generator). We no have ater vapor
pressure. The pressurized steam turns a turbine at high speed hich is itself a
generator that produces a sinusoidal alternating voltage. At the exit of the st
eam turbine is cooled to become ater, then returned to the boiler (Fig. I.6).
Fig. I.6: The thermal po er stations
10
Chapter I
General on po er systems
Fig. I.7: Photo of a thermal po er plant b) Nuclear po er plants also use these
conversion cycle thermodynamics, ho ever, their "boiler" is a nuclear reactor. N
uclear energy obtained from reactions of fission of uranium and plutonium is the
source of heat used. They produce about 15% of global electricity. Nuclear plan
ts produce radioactive aste and pose a safety hazard. A nuclear po er plant is
identical to a po er plant, except that the boiler burning fossil fuel is replac
ed by a reactor containing the fuel nuclear fission.
Fig. I.8: Photo of a nuclear plant in France
11
Chapter I c) hydro
General on po er systems
Hydroelectric plants convert the energy of moving ater into electrical energy.
The energy from a falling mass of ater is first processed in a ater turbine in
to mechanical energy. The turbine drives an alternator in hich mechanical energ
y is converted into electrical energy (Fig. I.9).
Fig. I.9: Hydroelectric
Fig. I.10: Photo of a hydroelectric plant in Germany d) The central solar photov
oltaic That other means of generating electricity ith solar po er uses the sun'
s light rays, hich are directly converted into an electric current through cell
s based on silicon or other material having properties converting light / electr
icity. Each cell delivers a lo voltage, the cells are assembled into panels. 12
Chapter I
General on po er systems
Fig. I.11: Photo of a solar e) ind po er Wind energy is produced in the form of
electricity by ind po er. Wind turbines consist of a mast topped by an electri
c generator driven by a propeller, are ideally positioned on the lakes or indy
hills.
Fig. I.12. Photo of a ind farm
I.5.2. Substations
It differs, depending on the functions they provide several types of positions:
• The positions of interconnection function, hich for this purpose include one
or more common three-phase busbars called, on hich various departures (lines, t
ransformers, etc..) the same voltage can be routed; • The transformer stations,
here there are at least t o busbars of different voltages connected by one or m
ore processors; • Posts mixed, the most frequent, hich provide a function in th
e interconnection net ork, hich also comprise one or more stages of processing.
13
Chapter I
General on po er systems
The basic actions inherent in the functions to perform are performed by the appa
ratus at high and very high voltage in the post and installed that allo s: • To
establish or interrupt the flo of current through the circuit breaker • Adequat
ely continuity or isolation of a circuit through the breakers; • To change the v
oltage of electricity, through po er transformers. A set of protections and auto
matic control electrical quantities reduced, developed by reducers (voltage and
current mainly) and acts on the high voltage equipment to ensure operating condi
tions for hich the net ork as designed. We shall therefore, by definition, s i
tchgear, and measuring equipment and protective fit for a start, are grouped in
a cell. A position has so many cells that departures are connected to its busbar
s. In addition, the busbars may be multiple nodes ith the opening of electrical
circuit breakers; so-called peak busbar or busbar section thus formed. The numb
er of vertices of a post and characterized its ability to form electrical nodes.
I.5.3. Po er lines
The type of line used is dictated by the follo ing factors: • Active po er to ca
rry. • Distance of transport. • Cost. • Attractive, compact and easy installatio
n. Four types of lines: • Line of lo -voltage distribution; • Line of medium vol
tage distribution; • Transmission Line High voltage transmission line • high vol
tage. a) LV Distribution Lines The lines are installed inside buildings, factori
es and homes to feed the engines, stoves, lamps, etc.. b) The MV distribution li
nes are lines that connect customers to the positions of major transformation of
the electricity company. 14
Chapter I c) HV Transmission Lines
General on po er systems
These are the lines connecting the substations to the main generating stations.
d) EHV Transmission Lines These are lines that connect the central remote center
s to use. These lines can reach lengths of 1000 km and they operate at voltages
up to 765 kV.
Components airlines
An airline is composed of to ers (supports), conductors and cable insulators. •
The role of mast to ers is to maintain the ires at a minimum safe distance from
the ground and surrounding obstacles, to ensure the safety of persons and facil
ities located in the vicinity of the lines. The choice of the to ers is based on
the lines to achieve, their environment and mechanical stresses related to terr
ain and climate conditions of the area. Their silhouette is characterized by the
provision of cable conductors.
- For high-voltage lines, e use to ers consisting of a lattice
steel. The higher the voltage, the higher the scale is bigger and the poles are
high.
Fig. I.13: photo of a very high voltage line (steel pylon year)
-
For po er lines, to ers are used in steel or concrete
15
Chapter I
General on po er systems
Fig. I.14: photo of a high-voltage to er in concrete For medium voltage lines, t
hese ooden poles or concrete poles.
Fig. I.15: photo of a medium voltage line on ooden poles
- For lo voltage overhead lines, it uses simple ooden posts.
Fig. I.16: photo of a lo -voltage line on ooden poles 16
Chapter I
General on po er systems
• Cables To carry current drivers are used conductor cables that are carried by
pylons. The current phase is used, there are three cables (or bundles of cables)
conductors per circuit. The lines are either simple (a circuit) or double (t o
circuits per ro of pylons). Each phase can use 1, 2, 3 or 4 conductor cable, ca
lled bundles. The cable conductors are "naked" that is to say that their electri
cal insulation is ensured by air. The distance bet een these conductors and the
soil ensures good insulation ithstand. This distance increases ith the level o
f tension. The copper conductors are less and less used. In general use of alumi
num conductors, aluminum-alloy or steel, there are also drivers consist of a cen
tral core of steel hich are t isted strands of aluminum.ۥ Cable guard duty cab
les carry no current. They are located above the drivers. They play a role as a
lightning rod on top of the line, attracting lightning strikes, and avoiding the
lightning conductors. They are usually made of steel. At the center of steel ca
ble are sometimes placed a fiber optic cable that is used for communication of t
he operator.
Fig. I.17: photo of a fiber optical cable inserted into custody
Fig. I.18: photo of a fiber optic attached to a ire or cable guard • Isolators
insulation bet een the conductors and to ers is ensured by insulator (insulator
strings). They are made of glass, ceramic or plastic. The glass or ceramic insul
ators generally have the form of a plate. 17
Chapter I
General on po er systems
They are associated together to form chains of insulators. The higher the line v
oltage, the higher the number of insulators in the string is important.
Fig. I.19: photo of an insulator • The arresters arresters are devices designed
to limit overvoltages imposed on processors, instruments and electrical machiner
y by lightning and by s itching operations. The upper portion of the arrester is
connected to a son of the line to protect the bottom and is connected to ground
by a grounding of lo resistance, typically less than one ohm.
Fig. I.20: photo • Spark arrester horned The spark gap is a simple device consis
ting of t o electrodes connected to the first driver to protect the second groun
ded. At the point here it is installed in the net ork, the spark is a eak poin
t for the flo surges to ground, protecting the equipment.
18
Chapter I
General on po er systems
The voltage of the spark gap is adjusted by adjusting the distance in the air be
t een the electrodes, so as to obtain a line bet een the impact resistance of ma
terials to protect and ignition voltage to the shock of spark gap (Fig. I.22).
Fig. I.21: Spark MT shank bird control breakers • A circuit breaker is intended
to establish, support and breaking currents under its rated voltage (maximum vol
tage of the net ork), in normal service and under the conditions specified abnor
mal ( short-circuit). It is the ultimate protection device, capable of full capa
city to intervene ithout causing excessive voltage on the net ork. • The fuse i
s used directly as a s itching device is indirectly connected to the secondary c
ircuit of a current transformer, ith a touch of a merger that the circuit break
er tripping order. The major dra back of these devices lies in the fact that the
y are damaged by defects and they have lo sensitivity. The operator must have a
large number of spares for different calibers. The variety of po er systems req
uires models of different types of fuses according to the application. 19
Chapter I It is:
General on po er systems
• The fuses inside tables installed in the upstream HV transformers, fuses • out
door type transformers used for protection air. • Fuses immersed in the transfor
mer tank. • S itches for a single element of the MV net ork, it has control s it
ches Mechanics (IACM) and are of t o types: • Type I: 200 Rated current (A), bre
aking 31.5 or 50 (A ) Mainly active load, and 200 (A) load loop, and closing cap
acity 10 (kA) effective in 24 (kV). • Type II: 400 Rated current (A), breaking 1
00 (A) Mainly active load, and 400 (A) load loop, and closing capacity 10 (kA) e
ffective in 24 (kV). This unit can be converted into remote controlled apparatus
(IAT) or automatic s itch opening in the voltage dip (IACT). Disconnectors type
IACM are simple and robust. Their assembly is in horizontal poles: Concrete, Me
tal or Wood.
Fig. I.22: photo of a s itch
• transformer top post in the distribution net orks in rural areas, here distan
ces bet een points to be served increase investment spending, e look for econom
ic solutions. The lines are lo and medium voltage overhead, mounted on concrete
poles or ood. The substations are located in booths masonry, narro and high,€
building simple or even orn by the to ers themselves (pole position) (Fig. I.24
).
20
Chapter I
General on po er systems
Fig. I.23: Photo of a pole position (the transformer)
Underground lines
The structure of underground systems is one type of line: the ridges. These net
orks of small length and large cross-section of the drivers seat of reduced volt
age drop. Consequently, and taking into account the importance of the incidents,
there shall be a recharge or by neighboring systems or by a lifeline.
I.6. Categories expenses
Depending on the nature of the receptors can be classified into three large char
ges category: • The first category in this class receptors only allo less than
t o seconds off of po er such as hospitals and military areas. • The second cate
gory for this class, the receivers accept a decision of less than t o hours, suc
h as factories. • The third category in the latter category, the decision may be
more than 24 hours. As public lighting and homes.
21
Chapter I
General on po er systems
Conclusion
It as in this chapter, a general study of the electrical grid, ith the study o
f its various components necessary for the generation, transmission, distributio
n and delivery of electrical energy. The primary purpose of a po er net ork is a
ble to feed consumer demand. As it can still be stored economically in large qua
ntities of electrical energy must be continuously maintaining the equality: Prod
uction = Consumption + Losses The grid must allo users to deliver consumer good
s to meet their needs, characterized by : An available po er, depending on the
quantitative needs of the client A fixed voltage, po er and function of this
type of clientele; A quality reflecting the ability to respect the values and
the formal requirements of these t o parameters and keeping them time.
22