Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Working Group
23.03
October 2002
THE MECHANICAL EFFECTS OF SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
IN OPEN AIR SUBSTATIONS (PART II)
PREFACE
member and convener of WG2 short-circuit
This brochure is a companion of the former one
effects.
published in 1996 by CIGRE (N105) "The
This brochure follows the main chapters of the
mechanical effects of short-circuit currents in open-
former brochure.
air substations" which is in fact the PART I. That
brochure had been a revision of another brochure
An alphabetical list of the authors of this brochure
written in 1987 under the leadership of Zbigniew
follows :
Nartowski (Energoprojekt, Cracow, Poland) the
former chairman of the CIGRE working group G. Declercq RTE, France
dealing with that subject. Many ideas and proposal M. El Adnani Univ. Marrakech, Morroco
had already been described in the original 1987 J.L. Lilien (Convener) Univ. Lige, Belgium
brochure. W. Meyer Univ. of Erlangen-Nrnberg,
In 1992 CIGRE SC23 decided to restart the activity Germany
in short-circuit mechanical effects in open-air A.M. Miri Univ. Karlsruhe, Germany
substations. This was due to the increase of K.O. Papailiou SEFAG , Switzerland
knowledge in this field, especially in the field of the D. Roeder Siemens, Germany
impact of dynamics forces on structural design. In N. Stein (Secretary) FGH, Germany
fact electromagnetic forces induced large D. Tsanakas Univ. of Patras, Greece
displacement and dynamic behaviour of cables and
This document has been approved by :
supports.
M. Pettersson., convener of CIGRE SC 23
The first step , published in 1996 (CIGRE thematic
brochure N105), concerned simplified methods.
Brochure 105 explains the background of IEC Mrs. Sahazizian, convener of CIGRE WG 23-03
60865-1 and gives access to a data base of 40 short-
circuit tests performed in the world, with data and M. Oeding chairman of IEC TC 73
oscillogramms.
M. Lilien, convener of CIGRE ESCC task force
Actual IEC 60865 (part 1 and 2) helps to define
maximum loads and minimum clearances which The target groups for this brochure can be defined
have to be taken into account as static load and as follows :
distances for design. By this, the design of towers
can be either too conservative or, rarely, in the - IEC, the CIGRE brochure being the
opposite site. technical base for the methods to be
suggested in substation design against
This brochure will detail why and how to go further short-circuit mechanical loading
in these methods. Moreover, there is no actual IEC
recommendation for short-circuit mechanical loads - Substations engineers, to understand the
on apparatus which are connected to the main bus technical background existing behind IEC
at upper level by slack cable. Some hypothesis of methods from one side, to think about
actual IEC rules like neglecting the reclosure in system design taking into consideration
flexible busbars will be analysed in more details on SCC loads at early stage and not simply to
the base of actual full scale tests. verify structures against SCC loads, to
Advanced methods will be shortly presented as well give them trends to decrease SCC loading
as an introduction to probabilistic approach. for uprating, refurbishment as well as
designing new substations
This brochure has been written by the members of
the CIGRE ESCC (effects of short-circuit current) - Technical group like equipment suppliers,
task force and revised by WG 23-03 (chairman H. to help them providing new design, not
Bhme (ABB, Heidelberg), followed recently by only for static loads but also for dynamic
A-M Sahazizian from (One, Canada) and SC 23 of loading.
CIGRE. Many members of this CIGRE activity are
also members of IEC TC73 as well as CIGRE SC23 The authors gratefully acknowledge G. Declercq, E.
and D. Tsanakas (Univ. of Patras, Greece) was our Janvier (RTE) for his wonderful editorial task and
official liaison to both SC23 and IEC TC73 as A-M Sahazizian (Hydro One, Canada) for her
English language revision.
1
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 5
1.1. General presentation of the book content ............................................................................................... 5
2.1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 10
3. FLEXIBLE BUSBARS..................................................................................... 36
3.1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 36
2
3.7. Special problems ..................................................................................................................................... 61
3.7.1. Auto-reclosing................................................................................................................................... 61
3.7.2. Interphase-Spacer.............................................................................................................................. 62
3.7.3. A new simplified method for spacer compression evaluation........................................................... 65
3.7.4. Jumpers ............................................................................................................................................. 68
3.7.5. Springs in strained spans ................................................................................................................... 68
4.7. Clearances................................................................................................................................................ 71
6. D.C. CONFIGURATIONS................................................................................ 97
6.1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 97
3
8.1. The Equivalent Static Load and equivalent static load factor .......................................................... 112
8.1.1. Definition of ESL (Equivalent Static Load) and ESL factor........................................................... 112
8.1.2. Concerned structures....................................................................................................................... 113
8.1.3. Concerned loadings......................................................................................................................... 113
8.1.4. How to use ESL in design together with simplified method of actual IEC 60865.......................... 113
8.1.5. Validation of the method : How to evaluate ESL during tests or advanced simulations................. 113
8.1.6. Examples......................................................................................................................................... 113
8.2. Clamped-free beam dynamic response to a top load identical to a short-circuit force. ESL value,
ESL factor for different structural data of the support................................................................................. 116
8.2.1. The geometry .................................................................................................................................. 116
8.2.2. Excitation ........................................................................................................................................ 116
8.2.3. Examples......................................................................................................................................... 116
8.3. Comparison of Test Results and Calculation According to IEC Publication 60865-1 .................... 119
8.3.1. Slack conductors on supporting insulators...................................................................................... 119
8.3.2. Strained conductors......................................................................................................................... 120
8.3.3. Bundle pinch effect ......................................................................................................................... 126
8.3.4. Conclusions..................................................................................................................................... 127
8.6. Flow Charts to the Standardised Method for rigid busbars ............................................................. 133
4
1. INTRODUCTION The Figure 1.1 details typical flexible busbars
layout. Only case A has been evaluated in the
former brochure. And even in the treated cases, the
1.1. GENERAL PRESENTATION OF THE BOOK evaluation was restricted to estimate tension in the
CONTENT main bus (A on the Figure 1.1) in case of single and
bundle conductors. Maximum tension in the cable
is not necessary a design load for the supporting
This brochure is a companion to CIGRE thematic structure.
publication 105 published in 1996 [Ref 101] on the
same subject. Annex 8.3 details what is possible to evaluate using
former brochure 105.
Publication 105 can be considered as a very useful
tool for defining the problem of short-circuit Moreover, to evaluate correctly the design load, we
mechanical effects in substations with rigid or will also consider new cases, like dropper (case B
flexible busbars. The content has been transposed (in-span dropper), E (end-span dropper), D
to IEC recommendation 60865 [Ref 2]. (jumper) ).
The relationship between forces and design loads is
This book is divided in several parts. Some of one strongly related to dynamic behaviour of structures.
being considered as a definitive proposal (like rigid As power engineers are not generally familiar with
conductors), others are completely new approach such problems, some detailed informations will be
(like equivalent static load in flexible conductors), given.
considered as enough mature to be included in IEC
and others are proposal for future trends The content of the brochure is divided in 6
(probabilistic approach). chapters, one annex, references and a detailed new
data base on short-circuit tests (new cases
In the past only the static behaviour of the support supplement brochure 105, volume 2).
has been taken into account. Recent development
concerns a more comprehensive approach of bundle Chapter 2 deals with rigid busbars. In the 105
pinch effect, dropper stretch and other features and brochure [Ref 101], the electromagnetic forces on
their true impact on design as dynamic loading. the conductors are discussed and their dynamic
effects on the arrangements shown. In this paper,
The new approach for flexible busbars is closely first the simplified method stated in the IEC
related to the dynamics of structures. The reader, Publication 60865-1 [Ref 2] and the European
not expert in that field, will find in annex 1 some Standard EN 60865-1 [Ref 3] is described and it is
basics. shown that a permitted use of plastic deformation
allows a higher loading. In the second part, the
This brochure is focused on dynamic effects and calculation of forces and stresses in special
corresponding methods to define actual design configurations is derived such as associated phase
loads for substations. A very good tentative has structures busbar on a common support, parallel
already been described in brochure 105 [Ref 101] busbars.
as far as it concerns rigid busbars (see also chapter
2 hereafter). However, flexible busbars had not Chapter 3 deals with flexible bus systems.
been evaluated in a similar way. The existing
methods define maximal tensile load in the Chapter 4 is giving extra recommendations (see
conductor but there are no detailed methods to also brochure 105) for design and uprating.
define corresponding design loads. In a sense these
loads have to be considered as acting in a quasi- Chapter 5 is giving a new trend in the design
steady regime, which is not true in most of the approach, taking into account probabilistic aspects.
actual cases. There is not yet a consensus of using such methods
mainly because of the lack of data's needed to use
them. However, they can bring substantial benefit
in substation design and such approaches have
merit to be presented and this brochure is
addressing them.
Figure 1.1 Flexible bus configuration for calculation and tests In power plants and substations, dc auxiliary
A) horizontal strain bus connected by insulator systems are used to supply motors, measuring
chains to steel structures devices and other kind of loads. Power converters,
B) vertical dropper between strained bus and
apparatus
storage batteries, smoothing capacitors and motors
C) horizontal connection between components can cause high short-circuit currents which lead to
D) jumper connecting two strained conductor high mechanical and thermal stresses. Therefore in
sections chapter 6, the variety of short-circuit currents
E,F) end-span droppers (classical or spring loaded).
occurring in dc configurations are presented and
5
standardized characteristics for the currents and kinds of energy have not yet started to take their
electromagnetic forces are introduced. With this, part). On the following figures you can see the
simplified methods are derived to calculate the three typical maxima during short-circuit on a
mechanical and thermal effects which are stated in flexible bus-bars.
IEC 61660-1 and IEC 61660-2 [Ref 59, Ref 61].
6
The pinch (first maximum) can be very high (up to For static loads, the relationship between forces and
6 times the static value) and this has been observed stresses can easily be managed, but for dynamic
during tests. It must be noted that supporting loading, inertial forces can induce dramatic changes
structure (d) did not move at all as tension (T) for the design (see annex 8.1 for some basic tutorial
varied in the cable (Figure 1.4), the maximum on the subject).
tension occurring when the structure has not yet
really moved. It is a clear dynamic effect.
Is there any real need to design for such a high load 1.3. SUBSTATIONS MECHANICAL
value ? The answer is certainly positive for spacer CHARACTERISTICS
compression and attachment clamps, but probably
not for supporting structures and apparatus, which
have large inertia and which could be unaffected to This chapter is presenting basic data for a typical
such instantaneous loads. Coming back to Figure portal and insulator stiffness and dynamic
1.4, it is clear that supporting structure design is behaviour of supports and apparatus.
more related to its top displacement than to the
applied forces. 1.3.1. Insulator support dynamic behaviour
Another clear known case is the movement of the Next figure is a typical frequency response of a bus
cable (or the rigid bus), which is obviously not supporting insulator :
affected by the 50 Hz component of the
electromagnetic loads. Sometimes the cable does
not even move (or it moves so little) that the short-
circuit is already finished. But after that the cable
starts to move and the movement can be quite large.
Corresponding frequency at the movement is
clearly free vibration frequency of the cable alone.
In such cases, the study of the movement can be
done by completely neglecting frequency
component of the forces, and only taking into
account the pseudo-continuous component of the
electromagnetic forces. That is for example why, in Figure 1.5 Ohio Brass cap and pin, 5 units, 550 kV, 1,84 m
a three phase short-circuit, the middle phase Graph of the dynamic response of insulator tip
remains more or less stable despite the fact that versus the frequency of the applied excitation force.
higher peak forces are acting on it. In such a case, (f1 = 10,2 Hz ; critical damping = 0,025 ; f2 = 63 Hz
; f3 = 172 Hz)
there are no or very limited pseudo-continuous
component of the middle phase.
1 Eigen frequency
Why some structure are not reacting against applied
loads following their temporal evolution ?
7
1.3.3. Rough evaluation of the basic frequency of
insulators apparatus and supporting
structures.
8
1.3.3.2 Supporting structures
Similar tests have been performed on truss The first eigenfrequency of the whole structure is
supporting structure. The structure used for FGH obviously less than the slowest one and it is
tests (see volume 2 of this brochure) has been obviously related to vertical frame which is in this
thoroughly studied as far as it concerns its dynamic case around 4 Hz (see exact data in volume 2).
properties. Some of the results are detailed below.
1.3.4. Main busbars frequencies
composite
porcelain
lower straight line : porcelain + support
log(f)=-1,6*log(h)+5,9 x glass
measurement transformer
intermediate straight line :
log(f)=-1,6*log(h)+6,2
Height [mm]
Figure 1.12 Insulator support glass, porcelain or composite and measuring transformer from 63 to 765 kV (Courtesy RTE, Rosenthal,
Ceralep, Sediver, Groupe Schneider , Alstom (Balteau)
9
2. RIGID BUSBARS which, however, only aspects of the method are given.
A complete presentation has not been available until
now. To explain the background of the standard it is
2.1. INTRODUCTION necessary to look at the totality of all substations with
different types of conductors, supports and so on. That
means all voltage levels have to be regarded: High
Rigid busbars are used at all voltage and current levels voltage HV as well as medium voltage MV and low
and distinguish themselves in need of less space in voltage LV.
contrast to busbars with flexible conductors. Conductors
used usually have tubular or rectangular profile and are
2.2.1. Method
mounted on supporting structures mainly composed of
insulators and steel structures.
The electromagnetic forces on the conductors caused by
the short-circuit currents in the conductors act on
In the brochure No 105 [Ref 1], the electromagnetic
arrangements, which are called supporting framework
forces on the conductors in one plane are derived and
made from elastic beams. The time dependent current
discussed, and their dynamic effects on the
forces induce oscillations, and there are maximum
arrangements are shown. This section continues the
values of effects in certain locations at certain times:
presentation on rigid busbars and is divided in two parts.
maximum deflection, maximum stress in the conductor,
In sub-section 2.2, the simplified method stated in the
maximum forces on sub-structures. If the last two
IEC Publication 60865-1 [Ref 2] and the European
mentioned force are known, the short-circuit strength of
Standard EN 60865-1 [Ref 3] is described and shown
an arrangement can be usually assessed with sufficient
that a permitted use of plastic deformation allows a
accuracy. Normally only the values of the maxima are
higher loading. In sub-section 2.3, special
needed and not the location or time.
configurations are regarded such as parallel busbars,
associated phase structures on a common support, the
influence of two busbars. Therefore IEC/EN 60865-1 calculates maximum values
for the conductor stress including its strength and the
forces on the substructures; the maximum deflection is
not of interest. The method is adjusted to practical
2.2. SHORT-CIRCUIT STRENGTH ACCORDING TO
requirements and contains simplifications with safety
IEC 60865-1 AND EN 60865-1
margins.
Advanced methods allow to evaluate time histories of The calculations are done in two steps according to the
stresses, forces and displacements caused by short- rules of statics:
circuit currents with high accuracy in any structure of
substations with rigid conductors. But this needs many - The maximum of the short-circuit current force
detail data for input. Very often busbars are built with acts as a static force F on the conductors and
conductors side by side in one plane. For this purposes, from this the relevant quantities are calculated.
simplified methods are very useful. The short-circuit
strength of three-phase systems and single-phase two- - The dynamic response of the structure due to
line systems can be established with the IEC Publication the time dependent excitation is described by
60865-1 [Ref 2] and the European standard EN 60865-1 the factors :
[Ref 3]; both have an identical wording.
response caused by dynamic load
(2.1) V =
The method used with rigid busbars had been described response caused by static load
first in 1955 by W. Lehmann [Ref 4] and in 1961 it had - They are different for conductor stresses
been taken over in the first edition of the German and forces on the substructures. With these
standard VDE 0103 [Ref 5]. New investigations had factors the static calculated quantities are
been dropped in the following editions. In 1986, the first multiplied to get the actual dynamic
IEC Publication 865 [Ref 6] had been published and in response of the structure.
1993 the actual standard IEC/EN 60865-1 [Ref 2, Ref 3]
was approved. These steps can also be read as follows: The static force
F is multiplied with the dynamic factor V and this force
This method stated in the standard determines the short- VF acts as an equivalent static load ESL on the
circuit stresses and forces with the rules of statics and arrangement and gives the relevant quantities for design.
the dynamic of the system is taken into account by
dynamic factors. The permission to restrict stresses not Remains be proven whether the maximum permissible
only to elasticity of the material but also to allow plastic stresses are exceeded or not.
deformations makes possible a better utilisation of the
material and therefore a more economical design. There has been a great effort to get the factors V: Tests
with actual arrangements, analytical and numerical
The derivation of the method and the background are calculations were required.
written in many publications and internal reports in
10
This method allows to state the short-circuit strength of VF and Vr are due to the dynamic forces and is the
usual arrangements with acceptable effort and makes it distribution of the forces on to the supports.
possible without a lot of parameter investigations to For VVr, VsVr and VFVr maximum values can be
define the optimal design. Using pc-programs, e.g. [Ref used. Lower values are possible if they are estimated
7], the evaluation can be done quickly and comfortably. as a function of the relevant natural frequency of the
conductor. This becomes for main conductor
The calculation runs in the following steps: consisting of a single conductor
Calculation of the peak value of the forces between
conductors during a three-phase short circuit EJm
(2.10) fc =
l 2 m
0 3 2 l
(2.2) Fm3 = ip3 for a main conductor consisting of sub-conductors
2 2 am
during a line-to-line short circuit in single-phase EJs
(2.11) fc = c
systems l 2 ms
2 l for a sub-conductor
(2.3) Fm2 = 0 ip2
2 am
3,56 E J s
and the peak value of the forces between sub- (2.12) f cs =
ls2 ms
conductors during a three-phase or a line-to-line
short circuit The factor considers the type and number of
2 supports, c the location and the mass of the spacers.
0 ip ls E is the Young's modulus; Jm, Js are the moments of
(2.4) Fs =
2 n a area, m', m's the masses per unit length.
s
ip3, ip2, ip are the peak values of the short-circuit The detailed flow-chart of the procedure is given in the
currents, l is the centre-line distance of the supports, Annex 8.6 for calculation without and with relevant
ls is the centre-line distance between two spacers, am, natural frequency.
as the effective distances between main conductors
and sub-conductors and n the number of sub- Arrangements which cannot be calculated with the
conductors. In the following, for Fm is to be inserted simplified method stated above or if the time histories
either Fm3 or Fm2. of the stresses, forces, displacements are needed to
Calculation of the conductor stress caused by the detect weak points then the investigation can be done by
force Fm between main conductors use of e.g. Finite-Element-Method.
Fm l
(2.5) m = V Vr 2.2.2. Short-circuit current forces
8Z m
and the conductor stress caused by the force Fs Short-circuit currents in the conductors give
between sub-conductors electromagnetic forces acting on the conductors. On a
single main conductor there are only the forces caused
Fs ls by the other main conductors. If the main conductor
(2.6) s = Vs Vrs
16Z s consists of two and more sub-conductors, in addition,
the forces between the sub-conductors of the same
The factors V, Vs take into account the dynamic of main-conductor are to be regarded. Due to the different
the system, Vr the increase of the stress due to distances between the sub-conductor referred to and all
unsuccessful three-phase automatic reclosing and other sub-conductors, the maxima of the time functions
the type and number of supports of the conductor. depend on the effective distances between the
Zm, Zs are the section moduli of the main and sub- conductors. The calculation can be extensive even if
conductor respectively. constant current density is assumed. The consideration
Both conductor stresses shall not be greater than of current displacement is only possible by use of
limitations given by material and geometry Current-Splitting-Method or Finite-Element-Method.
properties For standardisation Such a procedure is not possible for
(2.7) tot = m + s qRp0,2 standardization and simplifications have to be done.
(2.9)
Fd = VF Vr Fm
11
The time functions of the electromagnetic forces consist L3. Section 2.2.3 describes that with HV-
of four partial functions: arrangements with conductor frequency much lower
than the system frequency the stresses on conductors
(2.13) F (t ) = F0 + F2 (t ) + Fg (t ) + F (t ) L1, L3 are higher than L2, where as for MV- and
14243 14 4244 3
steady state LV-arrangements with frequencies equal or greater
decaying
than system frequency the stress in L2 is decisive.
constant term F0, arithmetic mean of F(t) in steady b) Comparison of the forces during line-to-line short-
state; circuit with those at the outer conductors L1, L3
undamped oscillation F2(t) at double the electrical during three-phase short-circuit:
frequency; The constant terms F0 are equal.
exponential term Fg(t), decaying with /2; The maxima of all partial functions are
oscillation F2(t) with electrical frequency, decaying somewhat smaller in the case of a line-to-line
with . short-circuit.
The time histories of the resultant forces are very
is the time constant of the electrical network. similar. In the case of a line-to-line short-circuit,
the maxima are 7 % smaller.
The maximum values are: The line-to-line short-circuit stress is somewhat
three-phase short-circuit, inner conductor L2: lower than three-phase short-circuit; Therefore the
0 3 2 l 2 l line-to-line short-circuit needs no additional
(2.14) Fm3,L2 = ip3 = 0,866 0 ip3 investigation.
2 2 am 2 am
The maximum force has the highest value at the inner
three-phase short-circuit, outer conductors L1 and conductor L2 during three-phase short-circuit and is
L3: used as static force in equation (2.2) and in the standard.
0 3 + 2 3 2 l The static force during a line-to-line short-circuit is
Fm3,L1 = Fm3,L3 = ip3 equation (2.3).
2 8 am
(2.15)
In the case of conductors not having circular or tubular
2 l profiles, the effective distances am of the main
= 0,808 0 ip3
2 am conductors differ from the center-line distances. am can
be calculated according to the standard; further
line-to-line short-circuit:
information is given in [Ref 4, Ref 13, Ref 14].
2
2 l 3 l
Fm2 = 0 ip2 = 0 ip3 The influence of the current displacement in the
2 a m 2 2 am conductors can be calculated with Current-Splitting-
(2.16) Method [Ref 15]. As shown in [Ref 16], it is of low
0 2 l importance; therefore equations (2.2) and (2.3) are valid
= 0,750 ip3 with sufficient accuracy.
2 am
ip3 and ip2 are the peak short-circuit currents during The stress due to the forces between the sub-conductors
three-phase respective line to-line short-circuits. They is calculated separately and superposed according to
can be calculated from the initial short-circuit current section 2.2.6. In each of the sub-conductors, the current
iL/n flows in the same direction. The greatest force acts
I k : ip = 2 I k [Ref 11, Ref 12]. on the outer sub-conductors where the forces due to the
n - 1 sub-conductors are added:
The time patterns of the forces and the investigations of
2
the partial functions drive to the following comments: i 1 1 1
a) Comparison of the forces at the inner conductor L2 F1 = 0 L + +L+ ls
with those at the outer conductors L1, L3 during 2 n as,12 as,13 as,1n
three-phase short-circuit: (2.17)
2
The constant term F0 is of considerable i l
magnitude at L1 and L3 and not present for L2. = 0 L s
2 n as
The maxima of steady-state oscillation F2(t) are
twice as large for L2 as they are for L1, L3. The ls is the distance between two spacers and as,1i the
maxima of F and Fg are somewhat larger for L2 effective distance between conductors 1 and i. The term
than for L1, L3. in brackets can be summarised in the effective distance
The time histories for the resultant forces show a as. The maximum value is equivalent to those of the
noticeable difference, however the maxima at L2 line-to-line short-circuit according to equation (2.16):
are always about 7 % higher than at L1, L3 for
all R/X, both at transient and steady state. 2
ip l s
Considering only the forces it cannot be said which (2.18) Fs = 0
conductor will be stressed higher: L1 and L3, or L2, 2 n a
s
although the maximum is greater at L2 than at L1,
12
and becomes the static force in equation (2.4). equivalent to a conductor lengthening of about 0,03 %1.
In equation (2.22), the factor 2 of plasticity arises when
2.2.3. Bending stresses in the conductors taking into a beam fixed at both ends has plastic deformations
account plastic effects and forces on the within the span and in addition there is buckling in the
substructures rigid supporting points; it changes from a fix support to
a partial one.
The determination of the short-circuit strength
according to the rules of statics and under the In steel construction the maximum capacity is reached
assumption that deformations occur in the elastic range when a plastic hinges are used. This means that the
leads to a design of the busbar which requires less stress at the fix points and in the span is at the yielding
supporting distances, higher cross-sections and /or more point and there is full plasticity. The factor considers
robust supports, meaning higher costs. If small the plastic hinges at the rigid support point and the
permanent plastic deformations are permitted after factor q the plastic hinge in the span.
short-circuit a favourable design is obtained. Therefore
the verification of safe loading is done taking advantage When going from complete to partial fixation the
of plastic load capacity. The calculation is done maximum moment Mpl,max occurs in the fixation before
according to the theory of plastic hinges similar to the the maximum elastic moment Mel,max is reached. By this
one done for steel structures [Ref 17, Ref 18]. the maximum moment at the fixation is decreased. Both
moments are given in Table 2.1 and the comparison
2.2.3.1 Short-circuit strength of conductors show that a greater loading is possible. In the case of a
beam fixed at both ends 33 % can be gained:
The static load Fm cause in a beam a static stress
M el,max Fm l / 12 4
(2.23) = = = 1,33
M pl,max Fm l M pl,max Fm l / 16 3
(2.19) m,stat = =
Zm 8Z m
The single span beam supported at both ends has no
with the moment Mpl,max according to Table 2.1. With plastic hinges in the supports. The spans with
different factor the same equation can be used for continuous beams are calculated separately and the
different types and numbers of supports. The dynamic moments are estimated. Arrangements with two spans
response of the structure is considered by the use of the are equivalent to a beam supported/fixed. With three
factors V and Vr [Ref 1, Ref 4, Ref 8, Ref 9, Ref 19, and more spans the outer spans are nearly equivalent to
Ref 20]. Hence the rating value is as follows: a beam supported/fixed and the inner spans to a beam
fixed/fixed; the moments are greater in the outer spans
Fm l than in the inner ones, which can be found by
(2.20) m = VVr m,stat = VVr comparison with a single span: The outer spans are
8Z m decisive.
Sub-conductors are fixed by connecting pieces in the The plastic moments for different types of beams and
span. The outer sub-conductors oscillate towards each supports are related to the moment in a beam supported
other and can be handled as a single span beam fixed in
at both ends. Hence the factor is calculated, which is
the connecting pieces. According to the equations (2.19)
also given in Table 2.1:
and (2.20) the structure response due to the forces
between the sub-conductors leads to the rating stress in M pl,max
the sub-conductor: (2.24) =
M el,max, supported/supported
(2.21)
M pl,max Fs l The plastic behaviour in the span can be explained best
s = VsVr s,stat = VsVr = VsVr with materials having a distinctive yielding point. This
Zs 16Z s
is not existent neither for aluminum nor for copper, as
Conductors are assumed to withstand a short-circuit if shown in Figure 2.1a. It is substituted by an ideal
they do not show a remarkable permanent deformation elastic-plastic characteristic. The following is shown in
[Ref 4, Ref 21]. In the case of short actions this is true if the case of an rectangular profile, which is easier to
the conductor is not stressed with higher stress than with demonstrate and is analogous to other profiles.
twice the stress corresponding to the yielding point of
the material taking advantage of its plasticity:
A and B: Fm l A: 0,5
1,0
supported 8 B: 0,5
A: fixed Fm l Fm l 8 A: 0,625
single span = 0,73
beam B: supported 11 8 11 B: 0,375
A and B: Fm l Fm l 8 A: 0,5
= 0,5
fixed 16 12 16 B: 0,5
Fm l Fm l 8 A: 0375
two spans = 0,73
continuous 11 8 11 B: 1,25
beam with
equidistant
supports 3 or Fm l Fm l 8 A: 0,4
= 0,73
more spans 11 8 11 B: 1,1
14
Table 2.2: Factor q for different cross-sections
y d /2 The bending axis are dotted, and the forces are
y
M el-pl
y
= 2 F yb d y + F yb d y
perpendicular to it
0 y
(2.26)
d 2 y 2 q = 1,5
= F b
2 3
q = 1,83
When y = 0 the flow stress is in the complete cross
section, Figure 2.1d. With a permanent lengthening in
the outer fibre of 0,2 = 0,2 %, an outer moment MTr acts q = 1,19
which is called realistic ultimate load. It is equal to the
inner moment Mel-pl according to equation (2.26):
q = 1,7
d 2b
M Tr = M el-pl ( )
y=0 =
4
0,2
(2.27)
= 1,5Z m 0,2 = qZ m 0,2 1 (1 2 s / D )3
q = 1,7
1 (1 2 s / D )4
In contrast to the pure elastic limit the outer moment can
be increased about 50 %. Then the load capacity is
exhausted. The perfect plastic factor is q = 1,5 for 1 (1 2 s / D )3
q = 1,5
rectangular profiles. With other profiles factor q 1 (1 2 s / D )4
deviates and is given in Table 2.2 [Ref 21, Ref 22].
(2.29) s Rp0,2
2.2.3.2 The factors V and Vs
If ranges for the value Rp0,2 according to the yielding
point are available, the minimum limit Rp0,2 should be
Figure 2.2 shows the factor V for the outer conductors
used in equations (2.28) and (2.29) to get a permanent
L1 and L3 as function of the mechanical relevant
deformation which is not too large.
natural frequency fc of the conductors for two damping
decrements and fixed supports. V depends on fc
To regard the plasticity under consideration of the
because the loading is composed from four partial
transition from complete to partial fixation a higher
functions according to equation (2.13). With fc much
loading is possible in contrast to the calculation only in
the elastic range, if a little permanent deformation is lower than the system frequency f, V is determined by
permitted. In the case of beams fixed/ fixed it becomes the constant terms in the electromagnetic force, it
4/31,5 = 2 which agrees with the measured value in follows V < 1. Is fc much higher than f, the conductor
equation (2.22). In substations, normally tubes with s/D movement follows the electromagnetic force and
= 0,02 ... 0,3 over two or more spans are used. In this therefore V = 1. Intermediate amplifications occur if
case the loading can be increased by the factor 1,8 ...2,3. the mechanical relevant frequency or one of the higher
eigenfrequencies is in the range of f or 2f; the
amplifications with 2f are higher than with f. They
decrease with increasing damping; outside the
resonances the damping is of minor influence. Other
fixations of the conductor shift the resonances.
16
3
mechanical resonance of the conductor with
2f L1 L2 L3
f
2,5
calculated
R/X = 0,07
2
=0
= 0,2
1,5
V
1
standardized curve
0,5
usual MV- and
HV-arrangements LV-arrangements
( f ) ( 2f )
0
0,02 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,5 1 2 5 10
fc/f
Figure 2.2 Calculated factors V in the outer conductors L1 and L3 in the case of a three-phase short circuit as function of the related relevant
natural frequency fc/f of the conductor and the logarithmic damping , both ends fixed [Ref 8, Ref 9, Ref 19]. Also the standardised
curve is given
(2.30)
Fd = VF Vr Fm
17
maximum of VF is reached in range 3. Figure 2.4 does
not depend on the conductor frequency and is valid for
all arrangements.
Figure 2.4 shows the maximum possible values of VF Single-phase systems are treated as three-phase-systems
depending on the conductor stress tot. In range 1, tot > but with restriction VF = 1,8 if fc/f 2.
0,8Rp0,2 holds and with this VF = 1 due to plasticity
effects. When tot becomes less than 0,8Rp0,2, in range With the knowledge of the static load VFVrFm the forces
2, the conductor oscillates but with noticeable damping on the supports can be calculated by use of the factor.
due to the still not complete relieved from plastic
hinges, which also shifts the resonance frequency. The
forces on the sub-structures increase with decreasing
conductor stresses. In Figure 2.4, for VF linearity is
assumed in range 2. For 0,8Rp0,2/tot = 2,7 the
18
3
mechanical resonance of the conductor with
2f L1 L2 L3
f
2,5
1
standardized curve
0,5
usual MV- and
HV-arrangements LV-arrangements
( f ) ( 2f )
0
0,02 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,5 1 2 5 10
fc/ f
Figure 2.5 Calculated factors VF in the outer conductors L1 and L3 in the case of a three-phase short circuit as function of the related relevant
natural frequency fc/f of the conductor and the logarithmic damping , both ends fixed [Ref 8, Ref 9, Ref 19]. Also the standardised
curve is given.
19
Figure 2.6 Calculated factors Vr in the outer conductors L1 and L3 in the case of a three-phase short circuit as function of the related relevant
natural frequency fc/f of the conductor, both ends fixed [Ref 8]. Dead time tu = 0,3 s.
1 conductor stress 2 forces on the supports 3 standardised curve
20
stiffening effect (stiffening elements) and the oscillation
is perpendicular to the surface. The stiffening causes an
increase of the frequency.
1. eigenmode 2. eigenmode
A sufficient accurate calculation of the relevant
frequency can only be done when the additional mass of
the connecting pieces is taken into account as well as
their stiffening effects which is pointed out by tests [Ref
3. eigenmode 4. eigenmode 27, Ref 28]. Therefore equation (2.35) is multiplied by a
factor c; the main conductor frequency fc with
connecting pieces is calculated from the frequency f0 of
a sub-conductor without connecting pieces
5. eigenmode
EJ s
(2.36) f c = cf 0 = c
Figure 2.7 Continuous beam with three spans: eigenmodes 1 to 5 l 2 ms
2.2.4.2 Relevant natural frequency of main conductor The factor c consists of the factor cm affected by the
consisting of sub-conductors mass of connecting pieces and the factor cc affected by
their stiffening effect:
If there are not connecting pieces within the span the
sub-conductors oscillate with the frequency (2.37) c = c m cc
Figure 2.8 Frequency fc calculated according to equation (2.34) related to the actual frequency fc,n of a continuous beam with n spans,
and error fc = fc/ fc,n 1
21
Table 2.3: Factor for different supports
A and B:
1,57
supported
A: fixed
two spans 2,45
B: supported
A and B:
3 or more spans 3,56
fixed
a) b)
l
ls
k=1 ls 0,5l
ls perpendicular to the surface
ls 0,33l
k=2
to 0,5l
ls
k=3 ls 0,25l
ls
k=4 ls 0,2l
in direction of surface
The connecting pieces are taken into account by m depends on the number k and the position ls/l of
additional masses mz which are distributed over the n connecting pieces; mz is the total mass of one piece. m
sub-conductors and weighted by the influence factor m: is now calculated from the actual frequency of the main
conductor. An upper limit can be gained analytically by
cF 1 cF use of the Rayleigh-quotient [Ref 29, Ref 30], which
2 = =
mz l mz ms compares the maximum kinetic energy Umax when
ms + m 1 + m passing the rest position with the maximum energy Emax
n nms l
in the reversal of direction of movement during the
(2.39)
undamped oscillation [Ref 31]
1
= 02
mz (2.41) U max = E max = 2 E max
1 + m
nms l
Hence the Rayleigh-quotient is :
with = 2f0. Hence the frequency f follows with the
factor cm: U max
(2.42) R = 2 =
E max
1
(2.40) f = = f 0 = cm f 0
2 mz where
1 + m
nms l
22
Table 2.4: Factors m and cc
1 M b2 ( x )
l
U max =
2 EJ s
dx
k 0 1 2 2
0
(2.43)
l ls/l 1,00 0,50 0,33 0,50
1
E max = 2 ( x ) d m
m 0,0 2,5 3,0 1,5
2
0
cc 1,00 1,00 1,48 1,75
w(x) and Mb(x) = EJsw(x) are the elastic line and line
of the bending moment during the oscillation. Inserting k 3 4 5 6
the eigenmode, R becomes its minimum. Any elastic ls/l 0,25 0,2 0,17 0,14
line or bending moment leads to a sufficient
approximation of the basic frequency, e.g. as a result of m 4,0 5,0 6,0 7,0
the dead load. This approximation is always higher than cc 1,75 2,15 2,46 2,77
the actual value. Other methods are finite elements or
transfer matrices.
The test results in [Ref 27, Ref 28] include the influence EJ s
of the masses of the connecting pieces besides the (2.45) f cs =
l 2 ms
stiffening effects for conductor with both ends fixed.
The stiffening can be eliminated with cm according to
This equation is exact only for the inner spans if the
equation (2.40) and m from Table 2.4. The evaluation
of the tests are completed by calculation with Finite- distances between the connecting pieces and the
Element- and Transfer-Matrix-Method for beams with supports are equal. In other cases the frequencies of
both end supported [Ref 31]. The factors cc considered each segment is different; for simplification of the
method, it is recommended to use equation (2.34).
are also listed in Table 2.4. The calculation of the
relevant natural frequencies for a sub-conductor with
stiffening elements according to equation (2.33) using 2.2.4.4 Relevant natural frequencies of cantilever
the reduced moments of area given in section 2.2.5 beams, beams with additional masses and swan-neck
leads to values much higher than the results from bends
equation (2.44); This can be explained by the fact that
the dynamic stiffness is lower than the static stiffness. Above, it is described how to calculate the relevant
natural frequencies of single-span beams with/without
torsion-free ends as well as continuous beams.
Distinguish marks are the static lines. From this, the
results could be extrapolated to other arrangements.
23
Typical examples are the conductors shown in Figure a)
2.11a. At one end a flexible connection to another clamp, cabel
equipment can be fastened, or in the span there could be 1,57 < < 2,46
an additional mass, e.g. the contact of a disconnector.
For the cantilever ends and the drawn kind of supports,
the factor lies between the specified limits; the value flexible joint
to be taken depends on the lengths of the cantilever end 2,46 < < 3,56
and the freedom of movement of that end. In the case of
the additional mass in the span, the frequency can be
calculated with the factor cm stated above. Alternatively, alternatively:
mass of disconnector-contact
in all cases the relevant natural frequency can be fc 5
estimated according to the equation (2.38) from the max y Hz max y
maximum displacement max y due to dead load:
cm
1 cF 1 1 F b)
fc = A
2 m 2 m max y
(2.46)
1 F gn 1 gn
= =
2 mg n max y 2 max y
More complicated connections, e.g. swan-neck bends Figure 2.11 Estimation of relevant frequency
between different levels in Figure 2.11b, can be a) Cantilever beam and beam with
investigated with sufficient accuracy. Lets assume that additional masses
the sides have equal lengths and are full stiff against b) swan-neck bend
torsion; in this case the static line perpendicular to the
conductor plane for = 180, i.e. straight beam both 2.2.5. Section moduli of main and sub-conductors
ends fixed, fits also for 90 < 180, the frequency is
correct. The other extreme is no stiffness against The stresses m and s according to equations (2.5) and
torsion, the sides will sag like cantilever beams for = (2.6) depend on the section moduli Zm of the main
90; the frequency will be reduced to 63 % compared conductor and Zs of the sub-conductor. For Zm it is to
with the ideal stiff conductor. Both limits are used in distinguish whether the main conductor is a single
substations: Tubes in HV-substations are stiff whereas conductor, or consists of two or more sub-conductors
rectangular profiles in MV- LV-substations are not stiff. with rectangular profile or of two sub-conductors with
For frequency-estimation, tubes can be straightened U-profile. If the main conductor is made up of sub-
and good results can be obtained after reduction of 5 % conductors, there can be either no connecting piece or
to 15 % depending on the length of the sides . the connecting pieces act as spacers or as stiffening
elements. In addition, the direction of the
electromagnetic force is important.
24
Jm acts and the inner moment M in each sub-conductor
(2.47) M = m = Z mm becomes:
dm 2
Js
where M is the inner moment, Jm the second moment of (2.48) M m = 2 M = 2 m = 2Z s m = Z m m
area with respect to the axis O-O. Jm and Zm can be dm 2
found in handbooks for all used profiles.
Js and Zs are to be taken with respect to the axis Os-Os of
the sub-conductors. Therefore the section modulus Zm of
a) the main conductor with respect to the axis O-O is the
Am
sum of section moduli Zs.
Mm y z n sub-conductors in a main conductor in Figure 2.13a
O Sm dm O Sm Mm
x x leads to
(2.49)
Z m = nZ s
bm m
b) 2. Rigid connection of sub-conductors and main
As
conductor force perpendicular to surface:
Os Ss d Os Ss With rigid connection, the sub-conductors are not able
Mm y z to move towards each other; the upper conductor is
O S d O Sm Mm
es x m x compressed, the lower one elongated, see Figure 2.12c.
Os Ss d Os xs Ss This can be obtained using two or more stiffening
elements. The distribution of the stress is similar to the
b m single conductor in Figure 2.12a. The second moment of
c) area with respect to the axis O-O is to be calculated by
As
Steiners law:
Ss
Os d Os
O
Mm y
S
x m
d O
z
x
Sm Mm
(2.50) (
J m = 2 J s + es2 As )
es
Os Ss d Os and equation (2.47) holds. For n sub-conductors in
Figure 2.13a, Jm becomes
b m
Figure 2.12 Stresses in main conductors
a) Single conductor
( ) ( )
J m = 2 J s + e12 As + 2 J s + e22 As + L
b) No connection of sub-conductors (2.51) n2
c) Rigid connection of sub-conductors ( )
+ 2 J s + en2 2 As = nJ s + 2 As ei2
2.2.5.2 Section moduli of main-conductors consisting of i =1
sub-conductors
n
+ 2 1 d =
2
(
n n2 1 2
d
) 2.13b, the connecting pieces have non-essential
influence on the stiffness; they may be spacers or
2 6 stiffening elements. However, the sum of the lengths of
the elements has to be much smaller than the span
If n is an odd number, the result is the same as the one length. The main conductor axis O-O coincides with the
given by the equation (2.52). Hence for all n: sub-conductor axis Os-Os. In each sub-conductor the
outer moment Mm/n results in the inner moment M:
(2.53) J m = nJ s + 2 As
(
n n2 1 2 ) (
d = n 4n 2 3 J s ) Js
6 (2.57) M m = nM = n m = nZ s m = Z m m
d 2
The distance of the outer fibre from axis O-O is (2n
1)d/2. Zm becomes: The section modulus Zm of the main conductor is the
sum of the section moduli Zs:
Zm =
Jm
=
(
n 4n 2 3 J s ) Z m = nZ s
(2n 1) d 2 2n 1 d 2 (2.58)
(2.54)
=
(
n 4n 2 3
Zs
) 2.2.5.3 Section modulus of sub-conductors
26
profiles in Figure 2.14 it follows with respect to the axis ends fixed, m and s occur at the same locations. Other
Os-Os: types of supports or continuous beams or
asymmetrically mounted spacers will give different
d 3b d 2b locations for m and s. Nevertheless equation (2.60) is
(2.59) Js = Zs = used and the results are on the safe side. Although in
12 6
As
equations (2.5) and (2.6) plasticity is considered, the
Ms superposition is done.
Os Ss d Os Ss Ms
O
y
d O
z 2.2.6.2 Superposition of the stresses caused by
orthogonal moments
Os d Ss Os Ss Ms
xs
Ms The force between main conductors perpendicular to the
b s
force between sub-conductors or the consideration of
Figure 2.14 Stresses in sub-conductors dead load, ice, wind in addition to the short-circuit
forces give orthogonal moments M1 and M2 in the
conductors. Figure 2.16 shows the situation for
2.2.6. Superposition of stresses in conductors
conductors with rectangular and circular profiles.
2.2.6.1 Superposition of the stresses in main and sub-
The stresses 1 and 2 are perpendicular to the cross-
conductor
sectional area and are moved into the plane. In the
The time scale of the forces between the main neutral fibre, 1 + 2 = 0 holds, e. g. in point A. The
conductors and the forces between the sub-conductors maximum stress is in the points H + and H which have
as well as the relevant frequencies of main and sub- maximum distance from the neutral fibre:
conductor differ. The maximum of the total stress in the rectangular profile, Figure 2.16a:
conductor follows from the time scale of the stress
(2.61)
max = (1max + 2max )
caused by the forces in the dynamic system. To make
the method suitable for practical use in the standard, circular profile, Figure 2.16b:
stresses m and s are calculated separately in the
equations (2.5) and (2.6) and superposed according to (2.62)
max = (1 + 1 )
Figure 2.15. In sub-conductor 1, the stresses m and s
Equation (2.61) is valid for U- and I-profiles, equation
are subtracted; in sub-conductor 2, they are added up to
(2.62) for tubes.
the total stress tot:
(2.60)
tot = m + s
27
In circular profiles, every axis through the center of a
z
r r 2 r 2 x
(2.63) M =M = M1 + M 2
y
With 1max = M1/Z, 2max = M2/Z and max = M/Z the ground
Equation (2.64) is also valid for tubes. The dynamic response of the tubes obeys the
following law :
a)
(2.65)
2 tube
uitube 4uitube
(S )tube ui
+ ctube + (EI )tube = Fi y (t )
t2 t x 4
0 i
(2.67) F1y = i1 . i2 + 3
2a 2
0
(2.68) F2y = i2 .(i3 i1 )
Figure 2.16 Stresses caused by orthogonal moments 2a
a) rectangular profile
b) circular profile 0 i
(2.69) F3y = i3 . i2 + 1
2a 2
In the associated phase structures, the busbar is one could easily check the following differential
often set horizontally on a common support as equation independent of the shape of the current
shown on the Figure 2.17. chosen (phase to earth, earthed or insulated phase to
phase, three-phase):
28
(2.71) 2 column column
2
U tube
U tube
U 4 tube (I )column j
+ ccolumn
j
29
Electrodynamic loads* and dead weight Support element internal stresses
point No.1 point No.2 point No.3 N/m ICC ICC+ PP
Fx 29 N 20 N 9N Column 1.32 e7 1.37 e8
Fy* -1290 N 557 N 733 N Column spacers 1 e7 7.5 e7
Fz -4034 N -4034 N -4034 N Beam 1.65 e7 1.29 e8
Mx* 2989 N.m -1337 N.m -1652 N.m Beam spacers 2.27 e5 1.71 e7
My 1457 N.m 1437 N.m 1412 N.m Post insulator 8.94 e6 1.69 e8
Mz* -1463 N.m 695 N.m 768 N.m support spacers
The location of points 1, 2, 3 is shown on the
Figure 2.18.
Beamspacer
point 1
Post insulator support spacer
Force
point 2
Moment
Column
point 3
Column spacer
M om ents to x Forces to x
4000 100
3000 80
60 phase 1
2000 Phase 1
Phase 2
Newton meter
Phase 2 40
1000
Newton
20 Phase 3
0 Phase 3
Sum
Sum 0
0,00
0,03
0,06
0,10
0,13
0,16
0,19
0,23
0,31
0,39
0,47
0,55
0,00
0,03
0,06
0,09
0,12
0,15
0,18
0,21
0,27
0,35
0,42
0,50
0,57
-1000 -20
-2000 -40
-3000 -60
-4000 -80
tim e in s tim e in s
M om ents to y Forces to y
1500 1500
Phase 2 Phase 2
1300 500
Phase 3
Newton
Phase 3
1200 0 Sum
0,00
0,03
0,07
0,10
0,14
0,17
0,20
0,27
0,35
0,44
0,52
1100 -500
-1000
1000
0,00
0,03
0,06
0,10
0,13
0,16
0,19
0,23
0,31
0,39
0,47
0,55
-1500
tim e in s tim e in s
M om ents to z Forces to z
2000 -3500
0,00
0,03
0,07
0,10
0,14
0,17
0,20
0,27
0,35
0,44
0,52
1500
phase 1 phase 1
1000
Newton meter
Phase 2 Phase 2
500
Newton
Phase 3 Phase 3
0 -4000
Sum
0,00
0,03
0,06
0,10
0,13
0,16
0,19
0,23
0,31
0,39
0,47
0,55
-500
-1000
-1500
-2000 -4500
tim e in s tim e in s
30
2.3.2. Influence of two busbars
)
( )
2
F = 0 . Ik. 2. . K .MAX cos2 , sin2
2 2
2
(2.83)
2 K + Re(K )
a) Introduction )
( )
F = 0 . Ik. 2. .
2 2
Many substations have several busbars in parallel.
To handle three-phase or phase to phase faults on 1 3 R
( )
j 2
(2.82) K = .a + + .a 2 = K .e j. where a = e 3
0 I k 2
"
3
(2.87) Freference =
In this paragraph, Re(K) is the real part of K. 2 d 4
corresponding to a phase to phase fault on one
The maximum force is reached after period and busbar.
its value is : Both these values can be calculated by advanced
methods.
31
Separate-phase layout SEPARATE PHASE LAYOUT
b1 p1 I
single-
phase fault b2 p1 I calculated
developing b1 p2 K 2b
1p =1 u = 0 by IEC 60865
through two or
b2 p2
busbars by advanced
b1 p3 method.
b2 p3
b1 p1 I
two-phase
fault b2 p1 I if
developing b1 p2 I
K 2b 3 d
= 1 +
d
u = 0 Imono = Itri
through two b2 p2 I
2p
4 D d + D
busbars
b1 p3
b2 p3
K + Re(K )
K 32pb =
2
phase 1 busbar 2
=1
three-phase
b1 p1 I1 2
d d
fault b2 p1 I1 = +
developing D D+d
b1 p2 I2
through two d d
= +
busbars b2 p2 I2
2 D + d 2 D + 2d
b1 p3 I3 K = + a 2 + a = K .e j
b2 p3 I3 phase 2 busbar 1 or 2
d d if
= 2
D+d D Imono = Itri
=1
3 2 2
where is
d d integer
= +
D + d D + 2d
K = a + + a 2 = K .e j
32
Asymmetrical associated-phase layout ASYMMETRICAL ASSOCIATED PHASE LAYOUT
phase 1 i1 amplification coefficients
phase 2 i2 d
bI
d 1,60
phase 3 i3
D 1,50
phase 1 i1
b II phase 2 i2 d 1,40
phase 3 i3 d 1,30
1,20
Figure 2.23 b=busbar
1,10
calculated by
b1 p1 I
phase to K12bp = 1 u = 0 IEC 60865
phase fault b1 p2 I or by advanced
method.
b1 p1 I
two-phase
fault b1 p2 I
developing b1 p3
K22 bp = 1 +
d
d u = 0
through two b2 p1 I
d + D 2d + D
busbars
b2 p2 I
b2 p3
4 K + Re(K )
K 32pb =
3 2
phase 2 busbar 1 2
d
=1+ 3 2 2
d+D where is
d integer
b1 p1 I1 =
D + 2d
three-phase b1 p2 I2
d
fault = 1 +
developing
b1 p3 I3
D + 3d
through two b2 p1 I1 K = a + + a 2 = K .e j
busbars b2 p2 I2
phase 3 busbar 1
b2 p3 I3
1 d 3 2 2
= +
2 D
d
=1+
d+D
d
=
2d + D
K = a 2 + a + = K .e j
33
Symmetrical associated-phase layout SYMMETRICAL ASSOCIATED PHASES
i
phase 1 1 amplification coefficients
phase 2 i2 d 1,4
bI
phase 3 i3 d
1,2
D
phase 1 i1
d 1
b II phase 2 i2
phase 3 i3 d
0,8
0,4
The following expression of Laplacess force on
phase 2 of busbar 1 corresponds to the symmetrical 0,2
associated-phase layout represented above : 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0
RATIO d/D
0 i i i i i
(2.90) F = .i2 . 1 3 + 3 + 2 + 1 K 2p 1 b K 3p 1b K 1p 2 b K 2p 2 b K 3p 2 b
2 d d D + d D + 2d D + 3d
b1 p1 I
two-phase
fault b1 p2 I
K22 pb
developing b1 p3
K22 pb = 1
d
+
d u = 0 <1
through two b2 p3 I
d + D 2d + D
busbars
b2 p2 I
b2 p1
b1 p1
phase to
b1 p2
earth fault d 4 if
developing b1 p3 I K12pb = u = 0 Imono = Itri
through two b2 p3 I
D3
busbars b2 p2
b2 p1
4 K + Re(K )
K 32pb =
3 2
phase 2 busbar 1 or 2
d 2
three-phase
b1 p1 I1
=1+
fault b1 p2 I2 3d + D 3 2 2
developing b1 p3 I3 d where is
= integer
through two b2 p3 I3 D + 2d
busbars b2 p2 I2 d
= 1 +
b2 p1 I1
D+d
K = a + + a 2 = K .e j
34
d)Methods used
IEC 60865 method :
- Calculation of amplification factor,
- IEC Calculation on the reference case and
application of amplification factor to :
* force on support of rigid conductors (Fd),
* resulting conductor stress (tot).
Figure 2.27 Separate-phase layout
Advanced method : Force on central bar during a three-phase fault on
The amplification factor applies, for the two busbars.
calculation, on the same bases ( and te) between
the reference case and the considered situation (
for example a three-phase fault on two busbars).
Designers have to determine the bar and the
phase for which the stress is maximum.
e) Examples
Separate Asymmetrical Symmetrical
phase (1) phase (2) phase (3)
d (m) 8.8 2 2
Figure 2.28 Asymmetrical associated phase layout
D (m) 4.8 2 2 Maximum force during a three-phase fault on two
-1.186 1.5 0.2 busbars
1 1.5 -0.750
-0.254 0.333 -0.167
-25.1 180 37.5
||K|| 1.9 1.167 0.83
max 132.57 60 161.2
min 42.57 -30 71.2
K 1.8102 1.5556 0.9921
max
Aster 132.6 60 165
(4) Figure 2.29 Symmetrical associated phase layout
Force on outside bar during a three-phase fault on
Kaster 1.78 1.5552 0.9477 two busbars.
(4)
% 1.67 0.02 4.47
Table 2.8 Example of caculation for various structure
types, for three-phases fault on two busbars.
35
3. FLEXIBLE BUSBARS pinch force Fpi in the case of bundled conductors,
when the sub-conductors clash or reduce their
distance without clashing,
3.1. INTRODUCTION horizontal displacement bh during the swing out
of the span.
In the past, extensive tests had been carried out The physical background of the method, the
to study the behaviour of arrangements with assumptions and the derivation of the equations are
flexible conductors in substations and to evaluate given in detail in sections 4.2 and 4.3 of [Ref 1]. The
methods for design purposes. At first simplified good agreement of the calculation according to IEC
methods for calculation by hand had been 60865-1 with test results is shown in Annex 8.3 IEC
developed for typical cases and later on 60865-2 [Ref 35] gives calculation examples.
analytical and numerical methods or a
combination of both on computers. Nowadays Figure 1.1 shows seven different arrangements of
two different methods are used depending on the flexible conductors which are predominant in
task, the situation and the arrangement: substations; they are described in detail in clause 1.4
simplified and advanced methods. of [Ref 1]. IEC/EN 60865-1 [Ref 2, Ref 3] is
applicable to the following horizontal spans in side-
Simplified methods allow calculations by hand or by-side configuration:
personal computers [Ref 7] with analytical Strain bus connected by insulator chains to steel
equations and figures. They are helpful for structures (case A) without droppers in the span
typical design cases with single or bundled (case B).
conductors. Only general input data are Strain bus, when the droppers are close to the
necessary and the results are maximum values of insulator chains. The droppers may be neglected
tensile forces and displacements. The procedures in the calculation.
are adjusted to practical requirements and Connection between components or horizontal
contain simplifications with safety margins. slack bus connected to support insulators (case
Parameter sensitive investigations can be done in C).
a very short time. Inclining span (case G).
In the standard, the span length is restricted to l 60
Advanced methods use finite element or finite m. However, the calculation is in good agreement
difference modelling and powerful software is with test results, even for strain bus with l > 60 m,
available for workstations and personal see Annex 8.3.
computers. They can be applied to any structural
configuration with single and bundled As far as new developments concerned are concern,
conductors. Detailed modelling and basic compared to IEC/EN 60865-1 [Ref 2, Ref 3], and
structural data are necessary. The computation of CIGRE/IEC Brochure [Ref 1], there are some more
the dynamic response of the complete structure steps to evaluate for understanding of the
including their non-linear behaviour is possible phenomena and getting new rules for design:
and accurate results can be obtained. The results the effects caused by droppers,
are limited only by the degree of detail in the the bundle pinch effect including spacer
modelling and the availability of reliable basic compression,
structural data. The calculation of the definition of equivalent static design loads
eigenfrequencies, time histories of forces, taking into account structural dynamics
moments and deformations allow to study the and special problems.
system behaviour, to detect and improve weak
points or to ascertain the short-circuit strength First, Section 3.2 gives a survey of typical
even for complex cases. Advanced methods will oscillograms of forces in substations and the
always be very helpful to better simulate actual application of advanced methods including
loading, to limit safety factor used for inaccurate foundations.
evaluation, to evaluate special cases, actual
geometry, etc. Also the range of validity of Section 3.3 deals with the behaviour of the droppers.
simplified methods can be investigated. It exemplifies by typical oscillograms and gives the
results of advanced calculations. Calculations for a
In the International Standard IEC 60865-1 [Ref strain bus with dropper in the span (case A and B in
2], which is identical with the European Standard Figure 1.1) as well as vertical droppers (cases E, F)
EN 60865-1 [Ref 3], a simplified method is cannot be actually done by applying IEC/EN 60865-
stated for the calculation of maximum values of 1. Section 3.3 shows how to extend the method
the based on IEC/EN 60865-1 and new procedures are
short-circuit tensile force Ft during or at the evaluated.
end of the short-circuit current flow,
drop force Ff when the span falls down from
its highest point of movement,
36
9
Section 3.4 deals with the effects of close and kN
3
wide bundling. Typical oscillograms are shown 0
-3
and results of advanced calculations are given. tk
9
kN
Design loads suggested in IEC/EN 60865-1 take 3
0
the maximum instantaneous values of Ft, Ff, Fpi -3
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 s 1,8
as static load for design purposes. The aim of
Figure 3.1 Single slack conductor:equivalent dynamic force at
Section 3.5 is to define the limits in which such the clamp representing the stress at the bottom of the
design recommendations are valid and in which insulator (15-m-span); case 2, Figure 3.1 of the
some correcting factors including dynamics of volume 2.
structure must be taken into account. Also new
design loads are evaluated.
l s as
(3.1) = sin
2
as d s n
In the following, the numbers of test cases
presented in Volume two of [Ref 1] are marked If there is a close bundling which means that the
by *; test cases presented in Volume two of this bundle has a large ratio ls/as, obtained by a very
brochure are not marked.
37
small sub-conductor separation as/ds, the pinch is the conductor which is due to its movement trying to
generally very limited and its duration is also come into contact. This case is the most dangerous
very short. The oscillograms in Figure 3.5 to case.
Figure 3.8 show clearly the electromagnetic
force (the 50 Hz can be seen, progressively
transferred to 100 Hz) with a sudden peak, just at
the instance of contact. In the case of very large
subspan and very short sub-conductor separation,
the pinch is noticeable smaller, Figure 3.5. It is
quite obvious that the situation is similar to
Figure 3.3, single strain conductor.
38
In Figure 3.5 to Figure 3.8, the maximum tensile finite number of such finite element types that are
force due to pinch effect is the same magnitude best suited for modelling the structural parts in
or lower than the tensile force during swing-out question. The discrete elements of the system are
of the bus. This indicates that the bundle connected by nodes.
conductors clash effectively. The ratio is For modelling the substation, element types from the
greater than about 25 according to equations element library of the FE-programm ABAQUS [Ref
(*43) and (*44) in [Ref 1, Ref 2, Ref 3] which 33] were used [Ref 40].
result from tests e. g. cases 1 and 3. Ratios less The aim of any modelling is to achieve a quality of
than 25 should be avoided, Figure 3.9 to Figure the FE model so the deviations between calculation
3.11. using the model and the behaviour of the real
arrangement become negligible. To test and verify
In the case shown in Figure 3.11, common for the adequacy of the FE model of the portal structures
overhead lines, the pinch can depend the following comparative FE calculations were
significantly on the ratios mentioned above. The performed [Ref 49].
transient after the short-circuit ends is typical of
wave propagation along the subspan. This Bending stiffness of the component towers and
phenomenon can be observed on the crossarms, as well as of the complete portals is one
accompanying video. important parameter to characterise the mechanical
properties. The respective FE calculated
Depending on the geometry, similar short-circuit characteristic must be in conformity with those of
have very different design loads. A structure will the real arrangement. The 7 step unidirectional test
not behave in a similar way if the load shape is cycles of two identical static loads applied at the
going from Figure 3.1 to Figure 3.11, even if the conductor suspension points had shown a practically
maximum instantaneous peak would be similar linear characteristic without hysteresis, so that
in all cases. stiffness can be expressed in terms of a spring
constant [Ref 34]. Field tests performed by the
3.2.2. Application of advanced method on high members of the WG 121.2 of the German
voltage busbar system Electrotechnical Commission DKE on a variety of
portals have come to the same result.
Figure 3.12 shows the complete test arrangement
The respective calculations therefore need only one
consisting of two mechanically coupled spans
check for one convenient value of the loads and
which is modeled using Finite Element Method
under exact validity of Hook's law.
(FE). The calculated and the measured spring constants
The lattice type steel towers and cross arms are are graphically compared in Figure 3.13 .The
welded constructions of T and L cross-sections. achieved conformity for South/North portals of
The mid portal has more stiffness, as it is
lesser stiffness is excellent and it is very good for the
movable.
mid portal.
To stabilize this type of construction, the towers For the dynamic studies on the model, the first, the
need larger bottom part. Towers are 18m high, second, and the third eigenfrequencies should be the
portals 18m wide, cross arms are at ca.10m same as those of the real arrangement. From
height and the spans are 37.35m (South) and measurement only the first modes of the crossarms
27.40m (North). Phase distance of the conductors and of the towers are known. While the calculation
1 x AC SR 537/53 is 1.84m. of higher modes is easy, measurement is extremely
The suspensions consist of 8-element chains of complicated for large mechanical structures and may
glass or cap- and-pin insulators. be, if at all, only available for components. The
conformity of the first modes is a very strong criteria
The components of the studied busbar system for good modelling.
represent an assembly. For the FE model, see
Figure 3.12 , this assembly is transformed into a
39
Only the first eigenfrequencies can be compared
in Figure 3.14, which shows an excellent
conformity between the calculated and the
measured values. The very good conformity of
the calculated spring constants and first
eigenfreqencies with the measured values proves
the validity of the FE model used for the
simulation of the portals.
Hence, all static and dynamic analyses can be
performed on this model.
Figure 3.14 Comparison of calculated and measured 1st Figure 3.15 Strain gauge measuring points in the South portal
eigenfrequencies
Since it is possible to separate the static pre-load and
Experience has shown that, although the short- the dynamic part of Fpi, Fb Ff, one can, also define
circuit movements of stranded conductors seem another type of ESL related to the dynamic portion
to be chaotic, the relevant effects of symmetric alone. Since the static pre-Ioad is a particularly
arrangements and excitation are in fact also important parameter for the magnitude of Fpi, this
symmetrical. The measuring points could, other definition is more suited and practical for the
therefore, be arranged to a half of the plane of dynamic portion of the swing-out and the conductor-
symmetry as shown in Figure 3.15 on crossarm, fall maximum. In the present context the index d -for
tower and bottom end of tower, i.e. interface to dynamic -is employed in ESLd and ESLd Factor.
foundation.
The evaluation of the present tests does not
In order to be able to validate and compare the explicitly distinguish between swing-out and
measured, respectively calculated mechanical conductor-fall ESL, the relevant short-circuit test
stresses at the different points of the structure as maxima being swing-out (Index t), and the
illustrated in Figure 3.15, the Equivalent Static conductor drop- ping tests delivering ESLf anyway.
Load ESL and the ESL-factors are introduced. Because of the single conductors there is no pinch
Since the short-circuit forces Fpi, Ft and Ff effect, i.e. no Fpi.
contain the static pre-load the ESL-factor is to be
defined as the quotient of the Equivalent Static Figure 3.16 and Figure 3.17 display the comparison
Load divided by the short-circuit load including of the measured and calculated relative static strain
the static pre-load. for the South/North portals and the Mid portal.
40
Figure 3.17 Comparison calculated and measured relative Figure 3.19 Calculated and measured oscillograms for measuring
static strain Mid portal point D17
As shown in Figure 3.12 force transducers K1 to From the comparison of the calculated and measured
K4 allow to measure the static and the dynamic oscillograms and maximum values of forces and
forces in the conductor span and onto the mid material strains, as well as of the ESL-factors, it is
portal. Material strain is measured at the same possible to speak of a very good agreement between
strain gauge measuring points as for the static calculation and measurement [Ref 49].
tests.
The calculation was performed for the first 4s of
the conductor fall process. As an example for the
very good agreement between calculation and
test results, Figure 3.18 and Figure 3.19 compare
the calculated and measured oscillograms,
together with the respective maximum values of
the tension forces K2, K3 and the selected
material strain at D 17 for the case A, i.e. without
counterweights.
41
3.3. THE DROPPER BEHAVIOUR simplified method according to IEC/EN 60865-1 in
annex 8.3.
3.3.1. Introduction
The final result will be to obtain the forces Ft and Ff in
Droppers are suspended conductors between the main the bus during swing-out and fall of the bus and its
bus bars or switch-bays and apparatus, insulator support maximum horizontal displacement as well as the load
or bushing. These are the typical situations B and E in Fds in the lower clamp of the dropper and its
Figure 1.1. The dropper stress is generally very low in corresponding ESL.
initial conditions, i.e. less than 1 N/mm2, but can be
stretched during short-circuit mechanical effects. Either 3.3.2. Typical oscillograms
due to main bus or switch-bay cable oscillations (in
such a case there is no need to have any current in it) or a) Droppers with fixed upper ends (configurations 1 and
simply due to electrodynamic forces if the short-circuit 2)
current is going through it or in combination of both.
A dropper can have a fixed upper end as connection E
In addition to stretch, droppers are also submitted to in Figure 1.1. When connection B is fastened near the
tensile force during swing-out, drop force and pinch insulator string, the upper end will move slightly due to
effect; (in the case of bundle configuration only). Due to the movement of the span and can be treated as (nearly)
the very unleveled structure and very low tension in it, fixed. Both correspond to configurations 1 and 2 in
dropper behaviour is quite different from the main bus Figure 3.20.
and corresponding effects cannot be evaluated by actual
IEC/EN 60865-1.
In configurations *17 for single conductors and *18 for
bundled conductors, oscillograms for droppers with
Droppers, generally more than one per span, and very fixed upper ends are given. Figure 3.21 shows an
sensibly influences the main bus mechanical behaviour example.
limiting by, for example, the falling down effects. Their
position in the bus, moreover to practical electrical
aspects for design, can be chosen to limit the short-
circuit effects in the main bus. But the consequence on
the dropper and corresponding loads applied at the
bottom of the dropper on apparatus must be carefully
evaluated.
effects effects non The droppers have no stretching because the two end
between between stretched stretched points are more or less fixed. Generally the
phases sub-conductors
electrodynamic load can be directly seen on the force. If
the dropper length permits large movement, same
single bundle single bundle single bundle behaviour as a main bus can be seen, swing out and
falling down can occur, but the force value is much
1 2 3 4 5 6 lower due to initial very limited value. Some local
Figure 3.20 Case study for dropper configuration effects i.e. right angle at the top can induce some peaks
just after short-circuit inception.
With configurations 1 and 2 the current is always
flowing through the droppers. Configurations 3 to 5 The test configuration can considerably affect the
occur when short-circuit current is going through the results. Especially for voltage level around 123 kV; that
droppers. When there is no current in the dropper, the is because basic frequency of apparatus are close to 50
dangerous situation is limited to configurations 5 and 6 or 60 Hz. This is true for test configurations *17 and
with stretched droppers. *18.
In this chapter all these configurations will be evaluated Bending stiffness of the conductors usually ignored has
either by simplified, if possible, or advanced com- also significant influence on the loads applied at the
putation method, which can be used in all fixation on the insulator at the bottom. The clamp on the
configurations. Experimental confrontations with top of insulator support was very rigid so that general
advanced methods are given in section 3.3.3, with
42
movement of the dropper (swing out and falling down)
were much more a swing with limited falling down.
43
The main problem concern supporting structures, which
are generally unknown (in the details) at design stage.
Mainly the stiffness effect can induce considerable
reduction of the resulting loads applied on it. It means
that in case of test configurations, detailed data of the
structures must be measured and known, like at least
anchoring point stiffness and first eigen-frequencies.
The finite element model of the structure must utilize
Figure 3.25 Dropper stretch, current path B: force at the top of the those data. But in case of design, neglecting the effect of
insulator (two times); case *6, Figure 6.9 structure stiffness is too conservative. It is suggested to
use classical order of magnitude for corresponding
Configuration 6: stretched bundle conductor. structures, based on the data given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3
With current path B, this case is identical to of [Ref 1].
configuration 5. With current path C, an addition to
configuration 5 a force will be obtained by bundle b) Comparison of calculation and experimental results
pinch.
Some examined configurations are shown in the
following figures. The accordance of measurement and
3.3.3. Advanced computation results calculation of all cases is remarkable and shows the
validity of this calculation method. The results of Figure
Advanced method for the simulation of rigid and 3.26, Figure 3.27, Figure 3.31, Figure 3.32, and Figure
flexible bus-bars is nowadays easy to handle and very 3.33 were simulated with SAMCEF [Ref 38], the results
precise, even for very complex cases, like dropper of Figure 3.28 and Figure 3.29 with ABAQUS [Ref 39].
stretch and bundle pinch. Nowadays, commercially
available finite element programs such as ADINA [Ref In the first example of a dropper with fixed upper end, it
36], ASTER [Ref 37], SAMCEF [Ref 38] are capable of is quite interesting to compare in Figure 3.26 the two
calculating the electromagnetic forces due to the short- simulated curves of case *17, p. 79, Figure 17.3, which
circuit currents. shows strong dynamic effects of the support (the two
curves are far from being identical) whose basic
a) Creation of the finite element model frequency was close to 30 Hz. The simulation gives
access to the bending moment in the support, Figure
There are two different ways following the aim of the 3.27, from which design load can be deduced. X1 curve
simulation. Either you design a substation or you would of the Figure 3.21 can be straight fully compared to the
like to compare tests and simulation on a known left curve.
structure. Refurbishment or uprating can be considered
as design, but some more data are sometimes available
and will help to refine the approach.
b)
45
a) 50
kN 40 kA
40
30
28,3 kA
Ft
20
20 kA
10
max. measured value
min. masured value
simulation
0
Figure 3.32 Bending moments in the east and west column of north
A B C pillar; case *4, Figures 4.8 and 4.9
b) 50
In the last example, there is a dropper in midspan which
kN
is fully stretched during swing-out of the bus, see case
40 *6. Comparison of measured and calculated dropper
40 kA
tension using advanced method is shown in Figure 3.33.
30
28,3 kA
Ff
20
20 kA
10
max. measured value
min. measured value
simulation
0
A B C
46
EN 60865-1 [Ref 3] with the assumption to neglect the
droppers.
2 bct [H (bc0 bc )]
-0,5
-1,0
-2,0 -1,5 -1,0 -0,5 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 m 2,0
b) 1,5
k m
m max
1,0
bc0
0,5 bc
1 bct ldmax
0,0
-0,5
-1,0
-2,0 -1,5 -1,0 -0,5 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 m 2,0
c) 1,5
m max m
1,0
k
bc0
0,5 bc
bct ldmax
0,0
1
-0,5
-1,0
-2,0 -1,5 -1,0 -0,5 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 m 2,0
Figure 3.34 Movement of the main conductor and forces in the main conductor; case 4 [Ref 43, Ref 44]
Ik = 28,3 kA; tk = 0,3 s
a) without dropper: current path A
b) with dropper: current path B; dropper length 6,045m
c) with dropper: current path C; dropper length 6,045m
48
Movement of the main conductor Force in the main conductor
a) 3 bc0
m m bc 30
2
kN
1 20
1 bct
0
k 10
-1
-2 0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 m 4 0 0,3 1 2 3 s 4
b)
30
kN
20
10
0
0 0,3 1 2 3 s 4
c) 3
m bc0
m 30
bc
2
bct kN
1 1 20
max
0
10
k
-1
ldmax
-2 0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 m 4 0 0,3 1 2 3 s 4
Figure 3.35 Movement of the main conductor and forces in the main conductor [Ref 39]
Ik = 30 kA ; tk = 0,3 s
a) without dropper : current path A
b) and c) with dropper: current path B; dropper lengths 8,1 m and 9,1 m
50
Droppers with fixed upper ends f a
(3.11) y ( x) = x2 + + f
During or after the end of a short circuit, a horizontal (K / 2 ) 2
2
span oscillates or rotates as shown in section 4 of [Ref with:
1]. The trajectories of the individual conductor elements f maximum displacement
are similar and the whole span can be described as a a distance between the droppers
pendulum. In contrast to this, the movement of the K distance between the fixing points,
individual dropper elements differ very much and the K2 = h2 + b2
pendulum model is not possible in this case. Besides h height of the dropper
this the forces in the dropper clamps are not equal. b width of the dropper
Based on tests performed by FGH in 1990, see cases 17 From equation (3.11), the dropper length ld can be
and 18 in Volume 2 of [Ref 1], a simplified formula is estimated:
derived in [Ref 41] which gives the bending force on the (3.12)
fixing point at the lower end of the dropper. In the
following, the derivation is summarised. 2 2
ld 1 K f f f
= 1 + 16 + ln 4 + 1 + 16
The results of the tests show the influence of the K 8 f K K K
parameters on the bending force at the lower end of the
and an approach can be made for the sag f in the range
dropper:
of 1 ld/K 2 using the method of least squares:
The maximum force increases with the square of
the short-circuit current. (3.13)
The conductor mass is of less influence.
The short-circuit duration has no influence. f l l l K
= 0,60 d 1 + 0,44 d 1 0,32 ln d
Short times to maximum displacement lead to K K K K ld
higher forces; the times depend on the short-circuit
currents. At the right end, the correction factor K/ld fits the
The maximum displacement does not depend on the parabola model with the measured values.
short-circuit current and the short-circuit duration
but on the geometry. This follows from the fact that At the beginning of the short circuit, the force on a
the maximum displacement is reached for all short- differential conductor element is given by:
circuit currents durations later than 100 ms.
Short times to maximum displacement mean higher
velocities during the movement and by this higher 0 (I k )2
(3.14) m &y& =
kinetic energy in contrast to longer times. Therefore the 2 a
induced kinetic energy is a measure for the bending
force. with the conductor mass m' per unit length and the
initial symmetrical short-circuit current (r.m.s.) I k .
Figure 3.36 shows the dropper in its static position and Assuming a constant acceleration until this element
at the moment of maximum displacement. With the reaches its maximum displacement at the time ta, f
given quantities and the assumption that the shape of the becomes:
dropper at maximum displacement can be described by
a parabola it follows for the curve of the displaced 1 2
dropper: (3.15) f = &y& t a
2
and out of this with equation (3.14):
2f
(3.16) ta =
1 0 (I k )
2
m 2 a
When a conductor element with the length dx obtains
the final velocity v at the place y(x) and the time ta, the
differential kinetic energy becomes:
1 2
(3.17) d Wkin = v m d x
2
This energy is absorbed by the conductor when it runs
into a circular trajectory with the centre in the
Figure 3.36 Dropper in static position (right side) and at the moment
of maximum displacement (left side)
connection line of the fastening points in Figure 3.36.
51
With a constant acceleration, the final velocity v follows the droppers are not stretched, there will be no
from: significant bending force on the apparatus or insulators
at the lower end caused by the movement of the busbar.
a 1 2 1 v 2 If the droppers are stretched, a high loading can occur.
(3.18) y (x ) = &y& t a = ta Until now a simplified method for the calculation of this
2 2 2 ta
force is not available. Therefore it is recommended to
a make the droppers longer to avoid stretching. If this is
y(x ) not possible, advanced methods should be used.
(3.19) v=2 2
ta The droppers with current (current path C in Figure
3.22) swing out due to the electromagnetic forces
The centrifugal force acting on a conductor element is between the droppers. The maximum force at the lower
end takes place during swing-out of the busbar. A good
2
a estimation of the loading at the apparatus and insulators
y(x )
m d x v 2 m d x 2 can be determined assuming fixed upper ends of the
dF = = 2 droppers and using the simplified method stated above.
y ( x ) a / 2 y (x ) a / 2 ta
(3.20)
3.4. THE BUNDLE PINCH
m a
= 4 y(x ) d x
t a 2
3.4.1. Introduction
The integration along half the conductor gives a first
approach of the bending force at the insulator: This phenomena has been well described for the first
time by Manuzio in 1967 [Ref 53] and briefly repeated
(3.21) here :
K K
K 0 (I k )2
2 2
m a From initial rest position, subconductors move towards
Fv = d F = 4
y ( x ) d x = 4
t a 2 6 2 a each other, remaining more or less parallel in most part
0 0 of the subspan, except close to the spacer. After first
impact (in the centre of subspan) there is a quick
The forces calculated with equation (3.21) are too low propagation of the wave through the spacer end of the
compared with the measured ones. The reason may be subspan.
the simplifications done in the model of the dropper. It
is empirically found that Fv is to be corrected by the There is a struggle between electromagnetic force which
factors ld/K and 2,5 ld/b and the actual bending force on increase on the moving part (the distance is decreasing)
the insulator becomes : and would like to force contact between subconductors,
and tension increase in the subconductor which react
K 0 (I k )
2
ld ld l l against the electromagnetic force. There is a maximum
Fd = Fv 2,5 =4 2,5 d d
b K 6 2 a b K pinch when the wave propagation stops towards the
(3.22) spacer and must come back to the centre of the span,
5 (I ) ld
2
= ld 0 k this is followed by oscillations (back to the spacer, then
3 2 a b to the subspan centre, etc.) because electromagnetic
force is still on, these oscillations are damped slightly so
with a validity range of 1,4 ld/b 3,3. that first peak is the maximum peak. If short circuit is
long enough, the pinch oscillations tends to a permanent
In equation (3.22), Fd only depends on the geometry and force, considerably lower than peak value (typically 2
the short-circuit current but not the conductor mass and times less).
the short-circuit duration, as it follows from the tests.
During this phenomenon, spacer is strongly compressed.
The calculation of Fd according to equation (3.22) is The compression is related to maximum pinch force in
compared with the tests [Ref 41]. Most of the values lie the conductor and angle between the spacer and the
within a range of 25 %, some are slightly more than 25 subconductor.
% on the safe side. This result allows the application of
the simplified method given above. Despite the fact that bending stiffness locally change the
curvature of the conductors, the deformation energy in
From this the ESL follows according to Paragraph 3.5.2 bending remain small compared to tensile deformation
and with this the design load. energy, so that simple or advanced method can neglect
bending stiffness in their approach. Only structural
Droppers with flexible upper ends damping can be related to bending, which could have
The upper ends of droppers in the middle of the span or influence on pinch oscillations but certainly not on the
near to it move with the main conductor in the bus. If peak value, which is a design value for the spacer.
52
Manuzio developed a simplified method for pinch effect
in bundle conductors limited to overhead line
applications [Ref 53].
If there is no doubt that pinch effect must be included in The conductors in the bundle are accelerated from their
spacer design, the pinch effect is a high frequency static position at t = 0 and clash after only a few
dynamic loading. So that inertial behaviour of anchoring milliseconds Figure 3.38 and Figure 3.39 (60-80msec)
structures could be such that pinch effect would have In the close position, the bundle moves laterally until
limited impact on design. the short-circuit current is interrupted at t = 1 sec. From
this point onwards the conductors remain in motion as a
It is an obvious fact that pinch loading is certainly not result of their inertia and the effect of their mass up to
the same as swing and falling down loading, which are the end of the calculation. The changes in the total
basically quasi-static load. force, acting on the HV terminals with time are shown
in Figure 3.40. It can be seen that the maximum force is
achieved when the conductors pinch. Further, as the
This problem will be investigated in this chapter.
time increases the force decreases.
Then we will be ready and have the tools to examine the
actual design load, looking on the response of anchoring
structures (next chapters).
53
itself, and the number and the design of the spacers
(rigid, partially or multiply elastic).
Close bundling of multiple conductors, with a spacing
between subconductors approximately equivalent to
conductor diameter, minimizes the direct and indirect
effects of contraction. Up to 400kV this technique is
absolutely viable for substations and has become largely
standard for more recent German installations. This
does not hold true, however, of older plants with wide
bundles, whose reserve potential now needs to be
investigated, nor of stranded conductor arrangements
abroad, where wide bundle spacing as in overhead lines
has been and is the usual technique also in the case
below 400kV. Close bundling is, of course, no longer
Figure 3.39 Movement plan view at the center of the left dropper feasible with stranded conductors for higher system
(Figure 3.37) at the height approximately 7.5m above the voltages.
HV terminals. This section concerns the case A (Figure 1.1) plus B
long-span horizontal buses connected by insulator
The diagrams in the Figure 3.38 and Figure 3.39 shows chains to portal structures where the bus conductors
the movement of the center point of the dropper bundle are twin bundles. The dropper B is connected at
at height approximately 7.5 m above the HV terminals midspan and does not carry current.
for all three conductors on clashing and the lateral The sub-conductor centre line distance is varied from 60
movement of the pinched conductors, and the separate to 400 mm in four individual values.
movement of the individual conductors for a very short
time after interruption the short-circuit current. The following parameters were varied:
- the number of spacers nAH
- the sub-conductor centre-line distance aT
- the short-circuit current duration TK.
The usual practical solution for a close bundle
conductor in Germany is aT 2 x conductor diameter.
In the case of wide bundling, aT is very much larger.
Figure 3.41 shows the studied arrangement.
Figure 3.40 Short-circuit force against time curve for the loads on the
disconnector right hand HV terminal.
54
From prior tests the stiffness values are known to be SN Force 0.2
[103 kN]
= 1.086 kN/mm, SM = 1.223 kN/mm (Sres = 0.575
kN/mm).
The relevant first eigenfrequencies excited at the 0
mounted mid crossarm, i.e. next to the suspension
points, are 9 Hz for the N-portal crossarm and 9.5 Hz
-0.2
for the M-portal crossarm, while the complete portals
have fundamental frequencies of 3 Hz and 4.3 Hz,
respectively. It should be noted that the M-portal stiffer -0.4
than the N-portal.
-0.6
0.0 0.4 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
time [s]
60.0
40.0
20.0
0
0.0 0.4 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
time [s]
55
into account in the calculation. One must consider that and the considered reaction force at the tower foot is
the value of tK = 0.1 s is of a rather theoretical nature. 1/6.2.
60mm
Of course the respective values of Figure 3.49 for equal
100mm
1 spacer 3 spacers
conditions must remain independent of the short-circuit
200mm
duration. The number of spacers and the sub-conductor
400mm
117,2 117,6 116,7
distance have severe effect on the reactions. The fall of
110 110
70 70
58,8 58 58,1
55 55,2 54,7
maximum. Yet, if the calculation and, in particular, the
60 60
50 50
40 39,6 39,8
40
30 26,3 26,3 26,4
40
30
30,3 29,7 29,6 chosen damping is right, the contraction plays the
20 20 dominant role among the other maximums at aT = 200
mm and above. With one spacer and aT = 200 mm, the
10 10
0 0
0,1s 0,3s
short-circuit duration
0,5s 0,1s 0,3s
short-circuit duration
0,5s
ESL factor for contraction is slightly less than 1, while
for 400 mm it is 1.2. For a larger number of spacers the
factors are even higher.
1 spacer 3 spacers Finally, the maximum spacer compression was
considered. Figure 3.48 gives the results of that calcu-
60mm
110
100mm lation. Spacer compression has lately come into
110
100
200mm
400mm
renewed interest through [Ref 54].
100
90
90
80
80
70
70 62,9
Force / kN
60
60 55,9 50,6
50
50 42,9 41 40 3842,8 40,8
41 40 3839,9 4140,841 40
40
40 32 28 31
30,22731,8 27
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0,1s 0,3s 0,5s 0,1s 0,3s 0,5s
short-circuit duration short-circuit duration
60,5 60 57,5
60,6 58
56,9 56,3 60 55 54,7
60 56 54 54
50 47,2 46,8 50
40
40 35 40 34,8
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0,1s 0,3s 0,5s 0,1s 0,3s 0,5s
short-circuit duration short-circuit duration
-300
-600
-338 -338 -336 -612 -608 -605
-400
-800
-500
-1000
-600 -985 -997 -993
-616,2 -621,8 -626,2
-700 -1200
1spacer 3spacers
short-circuitduration short-cicuitduration
0,1s 0,3s 0,5s 0,1s 0,3s 0,5s
0 0
-400 -400
-427,6
-500 -500
-511,6
-600 -600
1spacer 3spacers
short-circuitcurrent short-circuitcurrent
0,1s 0,3s 0,5s 0,1s 0,3s 0,5s
0 0
-413,8
-500 -500
-509
-600 -600
-1000 -1000
1 spacer 3 spacers
short-circuit duration
short-circuit duration
0,1s 0,3s 0,5s
0,1s 0,3s 0,5s
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
-100 -100
-93,7 -94,3 -94,2
-200 -200
-237 -237 -238
-300 -300
-338 -338 -336
-400 -400
Force / kN
-500 -500
-600 -600
-616,2 -612 -608 -605
-621,8 -626,2
-700 -700
60mm
-800 100mm -800
200mm -900
-900
400mm
-1000 -1000 -985 -997 -993
57
There are two different curves to be used for design and
concerning ESL factor.
3.5. LOAD ON PORTALS, APPARATUS TERMINALS The first one in Figure 3.50 concerns the dropper stretch
AND EQUIVALENT STATIC LOAD
(in span dropper, single conductor or close bundle), this
is an envelop curve obtained from many tests results
and simulations. The dropper stretch load shape is a
3.5.1. Introduction
typical triangular excitation, the duration of which is
depending on its overlength compared to the distance
These loads may be summarized as follows:
between its two extremities. But because of its upper
1) Ft, Ff typical low frequency, quasi-steady loads, see fixation to cable structure, the duration of the stretch,
chapter 3.5.4 for ESL even if short, is generally in the range0.05 to 0.2 s.. It
2) Fpi loads due to pinch effect, typical impulse load. means that it is a quasi-static load (ESL factor = 1) for
See chapter 3.5.3 For ESL frequencies higher than about 50 Hz , but higher than
3) Fds loads due to dropper stretch, typical impulse one in the range 5-30 Hz and lower than one for lower
load. See chapter 3.5.2 for ESL frequencies. This is quantified on Figure 3.50.
0 F.Tp 1.4
0.01 0.1 1 10
1.2
Figure 3.51 Synthetic curve proposed for pinch effect ESL factor. In 1
abscissa, the product : frequency of the supporting
structure (Hz) x (contact time evaluated by the simple 0.8
formula expressed in s)
0.6
59
3.6. ESL FACTORS FROM NUMERICAL
SIMULATIONS.
60
1 00 00
3.7.1. Auto-reclosing
0
1.7
3.4
0.17
0.34
0.51
0.68
0.85
1.02
1.19
1.36
1.53
1.87
2.04
2.21
2.38
2.55
2.72
2.89
3.06
3.23
3.57
3.74
3.91
4.08
4.25
a) Introduction
Figure 3.56 Tensile force measurement (N) versus time (s) span 34
m phase 1.
In order to reduce outage duration, reclosure is very
often used to re-energise overhead lines after a tripping
due to a fault on the power system. A reclosure cycle c) Extension of the IEC method
will be indentified by : Tk / Ti / Tk2 where Tk is the
first short circuit duration, Ti the reclosing interval and Annex 8.4 proposes an extension of the IEC pendulum
Tk2 the second short circuit duration. For example, on model for autoreclosing in the simplest cases
( m < 70 ) without dropping. Several points have
0
RTE transmission network, the reclosure cycle is 120
ms / 2 to 5 s / 90 ms for 400 kV and 210 ms / 2 to 5 s /
been studied relating the second short-circuit to the
150 ms for 225 kV depending on the protection devices.
influence of the first-fault heating. Annex 8.5 gives a
But fast reclosure is sometimes used to minimize the
synthesis of this proposal and a sample of calculation.
reclosing interval (Ti = 300 ms) on 90, 63 kV customers
lines.
d) Comparisons
When the fault is maintained, the stresses can be larger
than before. The calculation of the effects requires the
These calculations are made in the conditions of EDF
use of finite element techniques and powerful
tests and give a comparison (Table 3.3) between this
computers. IEC 60865 modelling proposes a simplified
extension and tests within several hypotheses.
method to calculate the tensile force during or after the
short-circuit for the simplest arrangements with or Span [m] Maximum tensile force [N]
without pinch effects. But reclosure is not taken into case 9 link 1 link 2
account. 68 22051 22469 22276
Span [m] 68 68 34 34 (+1,9%) (+1%)
Phase n 1 2 1 2 34 10532 11698 12758
Static conductor 5740 5370 3579 3390 (+11%) (+21%)
tension [N]
First short-circuit force 10040 8559 9919 7952 Table 3.3 Influence of linking conditions
[N] Link 1 : M = arccos()
First drop force [N] 12824 13694 9203 9045 Link 2 : M IEC 60865 (*31)
Second short-circuit 11432 9968 10532 6660
force [N]
Second drop force [N] 21870 22051 8181 9146 e) Influence of reclosing interval
Table 3.2 Test results
Reclosure operates on a structure that is already in
movement because of the initial fault and depending on
b) Tests whether the second fault occurs within a cable
acceleration or deceleration stage (rising to the first gap,
The case 9 tests in the Cigre brochure concerns two drop), the influence of mechanical and geometrical
spans of 34 (Figure 3.56) and 68 m (Figure 3.55) using stresses thus differs : either the effect of reclosure is
1 x ASTER (570 mm2) cable per phase made by EDF. combined with that of the initial fault, amplifying the
The reclosure cycle is 85 ms / 2 s / 95 ms. The stress, or its effect opposes the movement of the cables
difference of the tensile force between two phases caused by the initial fault and thus reduces forces,
(Table 3.2) is due to several causes : static tensile force, contributing to damping their rocking motion.
portal stiffness (between middle and edge), shift in time. It will be observed that :
After the second short-circuit, maximum short-circuit a) reclosure can cause larger forces than a simple fault.
force on phase 1 of 68 m span is increased by 13 % (16 This is the hypothesis retained in IEC 60865 on rigid
% on phase 2) and drop force by 70 % (61 % on phase conductors.
2). b) a small proportion of faults occurring on reclosure
2 5 0 0 0 leads to forces exceeding those of the initial fault.
2 0 0 0 0
c) a reclosing interval will enable the structure to damp
1 5 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
out its oscillations before reclosure occurs and thus
5 0 0 0 contributes to reducing the maximum force obtained
0
on reclosure.
0
1,7
3,4
0,17
0,34
0,51
0,68
0,85
1,02
1,19
1,36
1,53
1,87
2,04
2,21
2,38
2,55
2,72
2,89
3,06
3,23
3,57
3,74
3,91
4,08
4,25
61
moment when the distance between the conductors is With bundle
minimum at mid-span.
The highest magnitude of the force during the second To date pinch effect after auto-reclosing cannot be
short-circuit is obtained slightly after the moment when studied by a simplified method. But after a fast
the distance between the conductors at mid-span reclosure, pinch effect can have an influence if the pinch
exceeds the distance in normal position. The drop or effect in IEC 60865 conditions are not satisfied.
tensile forces during the short-circuit vary very slightly
with the moment of reclosure. Figure 3.57 below
3.7.2. Interphase-Spacer
indicates, for the 68 m span, the drop force variation
versus the reclosing interval (Ti) :
Short circuit power of AIS is a value which is subject to
a permanent increase. Unfortunately this leads to an
increase of mechanical effects too. Thus investigations
have to be carried out to prove that short-circuit
withstand is sufficient. Usually this will be done with
[Ref 2] which covers short-circuit effects of cable spans
up to 60 m. During such calculation it was discovered
that, in the case of span lengths with more than about
35 m and short-circuit currents in excess of 20 kA, the
usual clearances mainly in the 110kV-level are not
Figure 3.57 Drop force (Newton) versus no supply time (ms). sufficient. Given that in overhead-lines interphase-
spacers are in common use to avoid wind induced
S.M.= Simplified Method effects, it is obvious they can be used for AIS busbars
ASTER= EDF software too.
TESTS=EDF tests
Ff1= no reclosure The subject of the investigation was the 40 m span
Ff2=with reclosure without droppers as described in case 4 in Vol 2 of this
brochure. Test/calculation parameters may be taken
The worst case occurs when the reclosing interval is in
from there. The line-to-line initial symmetrical short-
the following range :
circuit current was 28.5 kA and the duration of short-
(3.23) Tk1 + Ti < 0,25 T circuit current was 103 ms. The period of investigation
chosen was 2 to 3 s. No damping effects were taken into
and account and the portals were considered by their spring
constant.
(3.24) 0,75 T < Tk1 + Ti < 1,25 T
In a first step calculation was established without
where : interphase spacer. The results of the finite-element
calculations are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Fig. 1
0,8.bc
2
g
(3.25) T0 = 2
2 M
1 4.
40.
64 90 Seilzug-
kraft
in kN
22.0 kN
20.7 kN
Without bundle
shows the movement at the mid-point of the conductor
with a maximum deflection of 1.12 m which is in good
To calculate the maximum tensile force after an auto-
accordance with test results and calculation of IEC
recloser, IEC 60865 standard can be used with a
60865-1 (1.27m). In Fig. 2, where the conductor tensile
clearance time equal Tk = Tk1 + Tk2. If the influence of
force is plotted against time, the thin curve shows the
reclosing interval has to be studied, a simplified method
test results and the thick curve the calculation results of
[Ref 100,] can be used in the more simple cases (Annex
case 4. The comparison shows good agreement between
8.4 & 8.5).
the time characteristic and the amplitude, which gave
62
for the maximum outswing and the maximum drop Ft overhead power lines where interphase-spacers have
= 20.7 kN and F f = 22.0 kN. long been a normal feature. Therefore, the following
investigations are also intended to clarify whether these
coupling elements should be rigid or articulated and be
with or without reinforcement spirals.
2.
.0
0.
Seil-
durch-
hang -.1
in m
1.12 m
-1.
-.2
-.3
Seil-
durch-
-2.
hang
-1.5 -1.0 -.5 .0 .5 1.0 1.5 in m
-.4
Seilauslenkung in m
-.5
-.6
-.5 -.4 -.3 -.2 -.1 .0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5
Figure 3.59 Movement of the mid-point of the span in the y/z plane Hor. Seilauslenkung in m
without interphase-spacer
[Ref 79] specifies the minimum values of spacing Figure 3.60 Movement of the mid-point of the part-span (l/4) in the
required in the event of a short-circuit which, in the y/z plane with interphase-spacer
present case of a 110 kV installation, is 0.55 m. With
the dimension verified by the finite element All other data for the span remains unchanged. The
calculations, project design engineers using the points of maximum horizontal conductor deflection are
formulae of IEC 60865-1 must anticipate a deflection of moved from the mid-point l/2 to l/4 (or 3/4). The
1.27 m and, hence, physical contact between the phases, horizontal motion of the mid-point of the conductor is
i.e. the danger of a double-circuit fault. A possible totally inhibited. As the conductor movement in Figure
solution to this problem can come from IEC 60865-1: 3.60 shows, the maximum deflection is now 0.5 m.
increase the phase spacing from 2.0 m to 2.75 m Thus, interphase-spacers fitted at the mid-point of the
shorten the span length from 40 m to 23 m (with span are able to reduce the maximum horizontal
intermediate portal structures) deflection by about half. The minimum spacing between
the phases is then 1 m, i.e. well within the permitted
reduce the short-circuit current I ''k 2 from 28.5 kA to
minimum spacing.
18.2 kA
All three of the measures mentioned above require A quick glance at the dynamic behavior of the whole
substantial modifications, and add substantial cost, to span shows flash taken at times
the switchgear installation. t1= 0.15 s, t2= 0.4 s, t3= 0.62 s, t4= 0.93 s in Figs. 4a-d.
TIME 0.40
30.
1.Auschwingmaximu
1.Fallmaximum
Seilzug 20.
-kraft
in kN
10.
a.) 0.
.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
b.) Zeit in s
.5
Seilaus
-
lenkung
in m
.0
.0
Seil-
-.2
durch-
hang in
Z m
X Y -.4
c.)
-.6
TIME 0.62 .0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Zeit in s
.5
Seil-
durch-
hang in .0
m
-.5
d.) -1.0
.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
c.) Zeit in s
X Y
a) conductor tensile force
TIME 0.93 b) horizontal motion at l/4
c) vertical motion at l/4
d) vertical motion at l/2
Figure 3.64 shows the tensile/compressive stresses
caused by the horizontal motion of the conductors in the
phase spacer.
d.)
150.
S p a n n u n g in
N /m m
As discussed already in [Ref 54] the well known
50.
Manuzio simple formula [Ref 53] neglect some
important effects, mainly:
0.
.0 .5 1 .0 1 .5
Z e it in s
2 .0 2 .5 3 .0 3 .5 Tension changes in the subconductor during contact
period, so called pinch effect. This effect can be
quite large, as the pinch can be several times the
initial tension (CIGRE brochure 105 [Ref 1]). For
Figure 3.65 Time characteristic of the van Mises stress at the mid-
point of the interphase-spacer
example, in our tests presented in this document,
the pinch is two times initial value (third case),
even higher in [Ref 54]. It is quite clear that the
The nature of the coupling between conductor and spacer compression, which is directly related to the
interphase-spacer is irrelevant here. The results with pinch (both pinch and spacer compression are
free horizontal or horizontal and vertical rotational quasi-simultaneous) is also affected by the pinch.
motion of the coupling were identical, which was to be Asymmetry of the short-circuit current. With
expected in view of the low stiffness of the conductor. increasing short-circuit current, time to contact and
Therefore, the use of horizontal or even articulated to maximum pinch and spacer compression
conductor clamps is unnecessary. becomes smaller and smaller (lower than 0.1 s in
65
our cases). It means that the energy input, which is Compressive force on spacer
severely increased by the asymmetry of the current
(the first peak of the short-circuit current can be
more than 2.5 times rms value and the energy is
proportional to the square of the current) is totally
converted into increase of the tension to create
pinch.
Subspan length effect. Manuzio neglected subspan
length effect, which was consistent with no pinch, Y(x
but does not reflect the actual situation as we )
observed in our tests, even for very large subspan
length. In fact , if we imagine that subconductor are x
moving with fixed end, the subconductor length (in
a first rough estimate) will have to increase by lnc
about the subconductor spacing (if we imagine that
initially parallel subconductors came into contact Figure 3.66 Subconductor shape of a twin bundle during a pinch
along all subspan length, except very close to the (spacer on the left side)
spacer. It means that, following Hookes law, the
pinch could be estimate by: = E or In Figure 3.66, one subconductor is reproduced near
Fpi a a spacer location, at the instant of maximum pinch and
= s E or Fpi = s EA where as is the maximum spacer compression. The x axis represents the
A ls ls bundle center and the subconductor (straight line) is
bundle diameter, ls the subspan length and EA the joining the center of the bundle keeping a certain
product of the elasticity modulus times the distance, depending on subconductor diameter. Lnc is
subconductor cross section. As EA is very large, called the non contact length which is unknown and
such rough estimation will produce incredibly high must be evaluated. Between the spacer location and
pinch Fpi . Such approach clearly point out that contact point, the subconductor shape is like a parabola.
subconductor tension cannot remain constant
during contact, as Manuzio suggested. The compressive spacer force is the projection of the
pinch on the spacer at spacer location (the pinch
The new simplified method developed must include direction is given by the tangent which has a deviation
such parameters. Many ways have been tried. Looking from horizontal). The pinch is the traction in the
for the simplest one and trying to be as close as possible subconductor, more or less constant along the
to known IEC methods, we finally decided to use actual subconductor. In this simple approach, the bending is
IEC 60865-1 (based on the work developed inside completely neglected so that subconductor shape near
CIGRE and published [Ref 55]) for evaluation of pinch the spacer can be reproduced as shown in the figure.
tension in substation structures. We adapted the method Half of the spacer compression is given by :
to be used also for overhead lines, simply by
Fc = Fpi . sin( ) x =0
implementing a constant tower stiffness of 100N/mm
for both supports of one span and we focused our goal Another way to express it is to use equilibrium equation
on the use of the output of IEC60865-1 (the pinch) see with electromagnetic load on the non-contact length
also [Ref 1], to evaluate spacer compression using the (here expressed for twin bundle) :
following method: lnc
cos( ( x))
Fc = 0,2.I 2 . dx
0
2 y ( x )
where the short-circuit current I is given in kA and is
the so called time average short-circuit current taking
into account the asymmetry as defined in CIGRE
brochure [Ref 1, equation 4.27, page 49]
where
2
a d x x a
y ( x) = s . (a s d ). + s
2 lnc lnc 2
and
1
cos( ) =
2
y
1+
x
66
The numerical resolution of these equations leads to the spacer compression, then replacing short-circuit tests by
evaluation of the compressive force and of the minimum equivalent mechanical test in a classical lab.
length of the sub-conductor, which is still free. When designing a spacer or a spacer damper for
The use of such method, combined with evaluation of overhead line, not only the short-circuit level is
pinch give access to the following results (Figure 3.67) important, but also the initial value of the tension in the
on 28 known tests (case 8 of volume 2 of this brochure). conductors (as well as subconductor spacing,
What is clear is that Manuzio formula is correct for low subconductor diameter and subspan length). The same
spacer compression (the first dots are coming from short-circuit on the same structure may have very
Manuzio tests) but deviate up to 25% for other cases. different effects depending on short-circuit time
The new method , described in this paper remains in the inception (driving asymmetry of the current).
range of measurement precision. One dot is clearly out
of the range, probably connected to measurement error. Important data to be used for IEC evaluation of Fpi
The main problem of Manuzio formula is coming from
the systematic under-evaluation of spacer compression, The use of this method will need a data in relation with
which cannot be accepted for spacer design. tower stiffness. The proposed method to evaluate spacer
Most of the validation cases are in the range of overhead compression need a heuristic value of 100 N/mm for
line practice (30, 40, 60 and 120 meters), more results each support instead of actual stiffness, used in other
would be needed to extend our proposal to substations part of IEC60865 (see annex 8.3) to evaluate Fpi for
range, especially if we have no contact between example.
subconductors. Nevertheless, we can point out the good
correlation for 10 m subspan length. This relatively low value compared to actual tower data
Of course more complex situations, like asymmetric is in relation with a dynamic stiffness (which should
bundle, very wide bundle, and other range than those include the dynamic behaviour of the support and
used for validations can be evaluated by complex anchoring insulator chain in such a dynamic excitation,
advanced methods, as used in [Ref 54]). But in most more close to an impulse).
practical cases, this method can be used for evaluating
s p a c e r c o m p r e s s io n
(m e a s u r e m e n t v s c a lc u la tio n )
20
+10%
18
16
calculated values (kN)
-1 0 %
14
12 -2 5 %
10
8
6 n e w m e th o d
4 "M a n u z io "
2
0
0 5 10 15 20
m e a s u r e d v a lu e s (k N )
67
between minimum winter temperature and maximum
3.7.4. Jumpers operating temperature as shown in Figure 3.69.
Therefore the static sag can be calculated by use of
Jumpers are used to connect two strained spans, see resultant spring constant S of both towers and the
configuration D in Figure 1.1and Figure 3.68a. Because springs:
the static tensile force is low, the forces due to the short-
circuit currents are not so important but the maximum 1 1 1 1 1
horizontal displacements are relevant for the short- (3.27) = + + +
S S P1 S P2 S S1 S S1
circuit strength [Ref 56, Ref 57]. Tests show, that the
jumpers are fixed in their clamps and the lowest point
SP1, SP2 are the spring constants of the towers and SS1,
moves in a circle with centre below the fixing points,
SS2 the spring constants of the springs.
Figure 3.68b. The fixation causes a deformation of the
swing out plane by which a bending moment acts
During the short-circuit current flow, the springs reach
against the electromagnetic force. It is found empirically
their end position and the resultant spring constant S
[Ref 56] that this moment can be taken into account by
suddenly changes to a much higher value:
an increase of 20 % in the gravitational force to be
inserted in the parameter r calculated with equation
1 1 1
(3.26) of IEC/EN 60865-1 [Ref 69,Ref 3]: (3.28) = +
S S P1 S P2
F
(3.26) r= This nonlinearity causes additional oscillations in the
1,2nms g n
span which also can lead to tensile forces by which the
spring comes back into its range of operation.
With this assumption displacements are calculated
which nearly agree with the measured ones.
In spans with springs, reliable results for the maximum
a) short-circuit forces and displacements cannot be gained
by IEC/EN 60865-1, it is necessary to calculate with an
advanced method.
68
4. GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN AND installations do not allow adoption of a general
UPRATING method. Each case must be studied separately in
collaboration with departments having expertise in this
domain. A comprehensive analysis is required to check
the operational coherence of the systems in order to
4.1. INTRODUCTION
secure a satisfactory supply quality. But, if measures to
decrease mechanical effects are considered
Design guidelines for arrangements, mechanical loads improvement of protection systems should be regarded
and electrical clearances are provided in [Ref 1] as well.
together with detailed recommendation for rigid bus
arrangements and for flexible bus (eq: strained and
slack connection), droppers and jumpers subjected to 4.3. FLEXIBLE CONDUCTORS
mechanical loads due to short-circuit currents. In
addition, suggestions for design criteria of support
structures can be found there. The object of this In [Ref 2] a simplified calculation method for flexible
chapter is to amend [Ref 1] recommendations due to conductors is given. However it is limited and has been
perceptions presented in chapters 2 and 3. Affected are verified for the case of horizontal spans only. Whereas
the design of droppers and the design of support in long strained spans the vertical extension is more or
structures mainly portals where the implementation less uncommon its a rule in slack connections of
of ESL adds new elements. Additional information will different devices. Nevertheless formulas of [Ref 2]
be given for limitation of magnitude and duration of may be used for both strained and slack conductor
short-circuit current and the treatment of foundations. spans up to the point where h/l =1/4 (l length of the
Last but not least recommendations for load cases and span; h vertical extension). If h/l ratio is greater than
safety factors are given (based on an international , the physical model of [Ref 2] cease to be valid and
inquiry) gave a wide range of possibilities, not always recommendations and formulas of chapter 3.3 have to
meeting an economical solution. be used.
On the evidence of eq. 3.13 there, the swing out of
droppers doesnt depend furthermore on the magnitude
4.2. LIMITATION OF MAGNITUDE AND DURATION of short-circuit current. Only lc/K and K itself are
OF SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT
parameters in this equation which points out that
dropper geometry and the length of cable are of
essential influence. The flexibility of fixing points, if
As mentioned in [Ref 1] many parameters influence they are definitely fixed, has just as much influence. In
magnitude and duration of short-circuit current and the same way as a small change of the arc length in a
subsequently mechanical stress of substation horizontal span leads to respectable change of its sag, a
equipment. slight flexibility of the upper fixing point (e.g. at the
Limiting the magnitude of short-circuit current may be end of a long span) leads to remarkable increase of the
achieved by increasing the equivalent impedance of the swing out value calculated according eq. 3.13 with
network. But for this modifications to the network corresponding effects to clearance.
design or operation are necessary which obviously are Other design criteria for droppers are their length and
difficult to perform in existing networks. Nevertheless their position in the span. As described in chapter 3.3
the use of D.C. links, which separate networks for the swing out of the span itself is influenced by this.
short-circuit or the choice of uprated voltage level are Consequently the forces on the anchor points of the
measures to decrease short-circuit current. Others span vary. Tests at EDF showed that a decrease of 30%
methods, though expensive, are to increase of these forces is possible (see Figure 3.34, Figure
transformer reactance or to decrease line numbers 3.35). A simplified calculation method is not yet
(increase of the cross section of conductors) which available but advanced methods allow today safe
leads to a higher reactive energy consumption but as prediction of these phenomena.
well to a less degree of network stability. Opening of a
ring network could be an efficient alternative since it Savings in the same order were found in the same test
allows electrical separation of some parts of the series of EDF through the use of interphase-spacer in
network. Frequently adopted for HV networks this long strained spans. This was not confirmed in
method of action is also used for EHV installations examinations described in chapter 3.7.2. Thus in these
even if it decreases network safety. cases as well, advanced calculation is necessary to
meet the effects of important parameters e.g. the spring
Another factor which may influence the magnitude and constant of the system.
duration of short-circuit current is the performance of
the protection system. As an example the mechanical The combined effect of wind pressure and short-circuit
stress of a flexible busbar may be substantially on the dynamic loading is very complex on flexible
influenced by a reduction of the clearing time. As a
matter of fact, diversity and complexity of existing
69
structures. Advanced simulations are recommended in 4.6. SAFETY FACTORS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS
such cases.
In a substation external forces apply on the structure
and cause internal stresses and forces. The design for
4.4. SUPPORTING STRUCTURES
mechanical strength requires not only the exact
knowledge of the forces and their effects, but also
One of the recommendations in [Ref 1] is to calculate analyses regarding the statistical probability of several
static loads of supporting structures first and then to events coinciding with regard of the rigidity and
proceed with short-circuit effects. Although it is ductility characteristics of the elements. Under the
common to consider short-circuit load in two lines only aspects of optimum technical and economic efficiency,
while having in the third line the static load (at three- therefore, it is necessary to lay down requirements
phase short-circuits Fpi is assumed to be at its which assure the reliability of equipment throughout
maximum in two lines at the same time only) short- their whole service life and prevent any danger to life
circuit levels nowadays lead to the situation that short- or limb. While taking into account knowledge gained
circuit is the governing load if other severe exceptional from the building of switchgear it is also possible to
loads as extreme wind or earthquake are absent. The refer to existing civil engineering standards for this
new awareness of resonance effects in steel structures purpose, such as IEC Publications, European
which are expressed by ESL-factors up to 1.4 (see Standards, National Standards, etc. In the following,
chapters 3.5 and 3.5.4) are intensifying this effect. the safety factors and the load cases are defined and the
Economical solution may be obtained to this day if assumed loads and permitted stresses in substations are
calculation models of Eurocode 3 are put opposite described.
precise determination of short-circuit load. Whereas for According to [Ref 18], an action is defined as
static (normal) loads a linear material model still is
a force (load) applied to the structure (direct
recommended, the (exceptional) short-circuit load may
action)
be regarded in a non-linear material model using
an imposed deformation (indirect action); e. g.
plastic zones, and the plastic hinge theory as [Ref 2]
temperature effects or settlements.
does for rigid busbars right from the start.
These actions are classified
a) by their variation in time:
permanent actions
4.5. FOUNDATIONS
variable actions
accidental actions
Forces which affect structures of AIS are transmitted to
the soil by foundations usually designed in accordance b) by their spatial variation.
with current standards of civil engineering, which The design value Fd of an action is generally defined
solely recommend static calculation methods. As long as
as those forces are in a vertical direction, sufficient
soil withstanding pressure is the only design criterion. (4.1) Fd = F Fk
Having horizontal forces like short-circuit current
forces, and provided that soil conditions are in a where F is the partial safety factor for the action
normal range, the proof of stability gets to be the most considered, taking into account of, for example, the
important one. Due to the dynamic character of short- possibility of unfavourable deviations of the actions,
circuit force and the static calculation methods; ESL is the possibility of inaccurate modelling of actions,
the governing factor and not the maximum value of uncertainties in the assessment of effects of actions and
short-circuit current force. This ESL respectively ESL- uncertainties in the assessment of the limit state
factor are not checked for foundation until now but considered. Fk is the characteristic value of the
contrary to chapter 3.6 where ESL factors are given
applying actions. Characteristic values, in general,
for steel structures, ESL factors for foundations are
correspond to a fractile in the assumed statistical
assumed to be much smaller than one because
distribution. If the necessary basic data is lacking, it is
foundations are heavy and inert structures. Thus short-
also possible to use deterministic limit values for Fk.
circuit current forces are of minor importance for
foundation design especially if other horizontal forces
as cable pull and wind or earthquake have to be In the same way as the effect, it is also possible to
considered. In other words we means that the dynamic specify a fractile for the materials that will be subject
mechanical effects of short-circuit on foundation can to stress. A partial safety factor M is added to the
be neglected. characteristic value Xk to ensure that any chance
deviations in the resistance of the material or the
geometrical dimensions are safely taken into account.
Characteristic values are specified by relevant
70
standards and tested under specified conditions, e. g. one exceptional load each time is the same as first
minimum failing load, routine test load, nominal value. adding dynamic values together and then determining
the ESL afterwards. Another aspect that helps us deal
The design value Xd of a material property is generally with these combinations is that defining variable loads
defined as and exceptional loads involves between 95% and 99%
fractiles. Here too it is highly unlikely that adding the
Xk loads together before statistical analysis would result in
(4.2) Xd = a load of the same magnitude as when adding
M
individual fractiles together.
Defining an overall safety factor is the product of the Table 4.1. Partial safety factors for actions F according to [5.3]
partial safety factor F for action and the partial safety
factor M for material property: Load case F
Load case 1 (normal loading) 1.35
(4.3) =F M
Load case 2 (exceptional loading) 1.0
Thus internal stresses and forces effected by actions
shall not be higher than: Table 4.2. Partial safety factors for actions M
Material M Reference to
steel 1.1 EC 3
concrete 1.5 EC 2
steel reinforcement or 1.15 EC 2
prestressing tendons
wood 3.0 EC 5
foundations 1.1 EC 7
72
5. PROBABILISTIC APPROACH TO TECHNIQUES FOR DETERMINING THE
SHORT-CIRCUIT EFFECTS MECHANICAL WITHSTAND OF STRUCTURES
OR COMPONENTS
Probabilistic sizing techniques have been developed
5.1. THE VARIOUS POSSIBLE during the last decades for the analysis of energy
APPROACHES transmission structures. A number of probabilistic
methods are available. The most important are shown
in Figure 5.1, as well as the deterministic design.
The inspiration for this section is drawn from analyses
by the former ONTARIO HYDRO and
ELECTRICITE DE FRANCE-R&D.
1/ DETERMINISTIC METHOD
St=f(S1, S2, ..., Sn) Rt=g(R1, R2, ..., Rn)
S1 S2 Sn R1 R2 Rn
St Rt
Safety Factors
Si=STRESS PARAMETERS Rj=RESISTANCE PARAMETERS
Rt
K=
St
X1 X2 Xn Y1 Y2 Yn
St Rt
Safety Factors
Xi=i+ki Yi=i-ki
Rt
K=
St
3/ PROBABILITY METHOD
STRESS RESISTANCE
... ...
S1 S2 Sn R1 R2 Rn
Failure Zone
4/ OPTMIZATION
PROBABILITY OF FAILURE
Figure 5.1
73
5.1.3. Second Level Probabilistic Method
5.1.1. Deterministic Methods
These methods consist in evaluating the risk of failure
In deterministic methods, structural design is carried as a probability, so that the designer can choose from
out according to the logical approach given below: among several degrees of safety, depending on
I. Replace the always complex reality of structures different failure probability values. The computer
with modelling, which can be approached by models on which the design process is based are the
calculation, same as those used in the deterministic method, i.e.
II. Define the various actions affecting the structure, as functions f and g. However, the statistical distribution
well as their mode of representation, which is of the parameters serves as the reference in
merely a diagrammatic simplification of physical establishing a distribution of stresses and resistances
reality, corresponding to the applied loads and the strength of
III. Use a computer model representative of the structures. Then, instead of comparing the two
structure's behavior, insofar as the computer model distributions in terms of a safety factor, a convolution
is the mathematical tool making the transition is operated to calculate a probability of failure of a
possible from knowledge of the actions to the structure or a failure recurrence time T, expressed in
determination of overall stress St, symbolized by an annual frequency.
elementary stress function The hatched area in Figure 5.2 defines the theoretical
risk of failure (R), corresponding to the function:
(5.1) S t =f(S1, ... Sn)
74
f G
1
f(L) G(L)
Lt Ls
L
R = G ( L ). f ( L ). d ( L )
0
Figure 5.2 Assessment of the risk of failure of a support under random loads.
5.1.4. Optimization
75
5.2. SECOND LEVEL PROBABILISTIC insulators is distributed statistically as a result of the
METHOD fact that the strength of a ceramic body is statistically
distributed, due to differences in the structure inside
the ceramic body [Ref 97]. In most cases the real
5.2.1. Stress and strength relationship for bending strengths of post-insulators are higher than
supporting insulators the minimum breaking load. But it is possible that
some post insulators are damaged by loads lower than
5.2.1.1 Static and dynamic break-load the minimum breaking load. Exact knowledge of the
strength distribution function is necessary (especially
In many cases post insulators are mounted in for little quantils of strength) for determination of
disconnectors. The permissible (tensile-) load for the mechanical reliability of a post-insulator.
disconnector depends on the minimum breaking load
of the post insulator. Post insulators can be stressed 5.2.1.3 Strength distribution function of 110 kV post
by static and/or dynamic loads. In the normal case it insulators
is a bending stress. Usually, ceramic materials are
inflexible and differences between static and dynamic 111 ruptures of post insulators with a minimum
strength are not known [Ref 94]. Experimental [Ref breaking load of 8kN were evaluated for
95] and theoretical [Ref 96] investigations of 110 kV determination of the strength distribution function of
post insulators under short-circuit loading have not brand-new post insulators. The statistical evaluation
shown any significant differences between static and of these test results showed three break value ranges
dynamic porcelain strength. For that reason it is (Figure 5.4) :
possible to convert the maximum stress at a specific 1. ruptures due to loads up to 10 kN
point of the porcelain in the case of a short-circuit 2. ruptures due to loads between 10 kN and 20 kN
(i.e. measured as strain dyn on the surface of the 3. ruptures due to loads greater than 20 kN which
insulator core over the lowest shed) to an equivalent can be approximated by a double exponential
static load Fmax which generates the same stress at the distribution.
same point. This load can be compared with the
minimum breaking load.
From a statistical point of view, the minimum The same procedure is valid for 25-year-old post
breaking load fixed by the manufacturer could be insulators with a minimum breaking load of 6 kN. To
considered as a one point distribution of the determine the distribution function of this type, 21
mechanical strength of post-insulators. post insulators were tested to failure. The theoretical
This would mean that each post insulator withstands a distribution function is also a double exponential
load lower than the minimum breaking load. If the distribution with the following break value ranges :
load is higher than the minimum breaking load all 1. ruptures due to loads up to 7,5 kN
post insulators would be damaged. This approach 2. ruptures due to loads between 7,5kN and 11 kN
does not, correspond with reality. The strength of post 3. ruptures due to loads greater than 11 kN.
77
Only the lowest break values are important for Fmax
determination of the reliability. It is interpreted as a
quasi-incomplete sample test [Ref 98]. As a result it
(5.6) pf = p ( F ).V ( F ). dF
Fmin
B S
78
case, the reduction of reliability results from the
combination of stress-increasing and strength-
decreasing effects. In the example, the stress of a post
insulator with a minimum breaking load of 8 kN
increased from 5,6 kN to 6,4 kN. At the same time
the strength decreased from 8 kN to 7,2 kN. As a
result of increasing stress and decreasing strength the
failure probability rose by two decades.
If the relative changes of stress and strength are
unequal, the probability will be taken as follows :
Figure 5.6 Bending breaking load
For a given permissible failure probability one
can find parameter combinations Fmax/Fmin which
do not exceed the given probability limit.
If an equivalent static load Fmax is assumed, it
will be possible to determine minimum strength
of post insulators with which an assumed limit of
failure probability will be observed.
5.2.1.5 Summary
In the described example of mechanical reliability of Figure 5.7 Bending breaking load
110 kV post insulators, it was shown that if the stress
density function and the strength distribution function 5.2.1.6 Example of savings using probabilistic
are known, the reliability can be calculated. If the approach in renovation (Ford, Sahazizian)
percentage increase of stress and the percentage
Type of Nominal voltage
decrease of strength as the same, the influences on the short-
reliability will be equal. A good co-ordination of circuit
effects of increasing stress and decreasing strength of 110 kV 220 kV 400 kV 500 kV
the reliability results in the example considered. For 1-ph + e 70 % 85 % 90 % 92 %
other devices as well, it should be assumed that the 2-ph 10 % 6% 3% 2%
2-ph + e 15 % 5% 4% 3%
reliability is influenced by increasing stress and
3-ph 5% 4% 3% 3%
decreasing strength. 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 %
79
5.2.2. A global Approach
Definition of the P.D.F. for the primary variables
For analyzing existing structures, RTE proposes a
two-step approach:
Definition of the parameters characterizing the mechanical loads
Step 1: Check using the local deterministic values of
the short-circuit current, the time constant and the
clearance time, taking the safety factors into account. Calculation of the mechanical loads distribution
busbars).
Definition of the number of loaded elements
Checking
against the local Calculation of the failure recurrence time
deterministic
values, taking
Step 1
the safety
factors into
account
Negative Positive
verification verification
Verification by
probabilistic Step 2 End of the
verification
approach
Calculation of
the risk of
collapse
80
a) An initial approach to the variability of fault
5.2.3.1 PRIMARY VARIABLES
current amplitudes is shown in the Figure 5.8 below.
The various distribution functions concerning the
The mechanical loads in a substation due to short intensity of three-phase short-circuit currents are
circuits depend on:
plotted on the following graph:
- the high-voltage and low-voltage structural design,
- the amplitude of the fault currents and their Cumulative distribution function
distribution over the busbars,
- the instant of occurrence of faults,
100
90
- the time constant of the networks, 80
- the clearance times, 70
- but also, in the event of a reclosure, the isolating 60 Intensity A
time and the parameters of the possible second short Intensity B
%
50
circuit, 40
Intensity C
% I / I maximum
number of stresses under the worst conditions and
assume no limits or choices. Hence, this approach Figure 5.8 the different distribution functions for the intensity of
may result in expensive over-sizing associated with short-circuit currents.
low probabilities of occurrence.
We propose to define the broad outline of a Intensity A: C.D.F. of the short-circuit current in a
probabilistic approach drawing on existing substation due to variation over the year. The
approaches (Ontario Hydro, IEC 60826 on overhead variation over the year in the amplitude of the short-
lines [Ref 93]). circuit current (Intensity A) is noticeable in the
By classifying the penalizing situations according to networks where the main generating units are located,
their probability of occurrence, we can approach the but may be reduced in certain networks, when
ultimate stress loading frequencies and set a rule of transformers supply the power. In this case, it may be
choice in order to determine: more practical to take a fixed value of the current.
either the assumptions to be made, depending on Intensity B: C.D.F. of the short-circuit current
the climatic, electrical and structural (HV, LV) passing through a substation for a short circuit located
stresses, on the connected lines, calculated at the instant of
In that respect, the combined load (Wind + Short maximum short-circuit power for that substation,
Circuit) offers an alternative to the arbitrary choice of At a constant short-circuit power, the impedance of
a higher safety factor for the isolated electrodynamic the lines reduces the amplitude of the fault current as
assumption. a function of the latter's distance.
or the conditions for rebuilding or reinforcing an Intensity C: the combination of curves A and B thus
existing substation. The analyses in progress focus on concerns the variation in the fault current passing
this aspect, and more specifically the largest rigid through a substation as a function of the location of
structures, when the primary busbars are concerned. the fault and the time of year.
Here, we propose to define the main features of a b) A second approach, which is very useful and
probabilistic approach on the basis of an existing practical, concerns constant short-circuit intensity
approach. analysis.
5.2.3.1.1. Short-Circuit Currents The system manager often considers the peak
withstand current of a substation. In the event of a
The amplitude of the fault current depends on the predictable overload, the manager will need to take
type of fault, the number of generating sets in service, steps to operate the substation as several electric
the network layout (number of transformers or lines nodes (7.2.3.2.2.7.) or to upgrade the station to
connected at a given instant), and the location of the increase short circuit capability. In such situations,
faults (substation, lines). the language of probabilities is highly useful in
In seeking the maximum electrodynamic loads on evaluating a mechanical risk of failure for the
rigid busbars, the most significant faults are different substation layouts,.In particular when nodes
polyphase. are interconnected in order to transfer a load from one
node to another, the risks of network weakening due
81
to multinode operation can compared with risk of
another drawback, mechanical failure.
82
reach their maximum, and this is particularly true for
rigid structures like tube busbars. For flexible
structures, the response time may be longer.
In light of the above remarks, it is often possible to
chose an equivalent mechanical time. Simpler
scenarios can then be considered, such as those
proposed below:
clearance time in the event of rate of failure per
failure of the protection year:
systems:
ex tk = 220 ms
in ms is the overall failure rate established in accordance
with the low voltage devices of a bay. It is established
Figure 5.11 Histogram of distribution of the clearance time (TE) on the basis of the failure rate of the protections
for phase to earth faults
composing the unit (e.g., for one protection per year:
~10-2 ).
This parameter has a crucial influence on the
amplitude of the mechanical loads. It is also worth or:
pointing out that the longest clearance times occur clearance time in the event of rate of failure per
with resistive faults, with the result that their failure of the circuit breaker: year and per
amplitudes are lower. These clearance times will ex tk = 300 ms device:
depend on the coordination of network protections, ~2 10-3
the location of the faults and their nature (single or
polyphase). For each fault pinpointed, the following 5.2.3.1.5. Reclosure
sequences may be considered:
Three parameters characterize a reclosing cycle, tk1 / ti
normal clearance time: ex tk = normal operating / tk2. There are two types of reclosure operation in the
120 ms rate: 0.988 networks, the first described as rapid, after a few
In the event of a failure, the clearance sequences are hundred ms (ti>100 ms) and the second as slow, after
often complex and the current inputs are not all cut several seconds (ti>2s). These reclosures may if the
off simultaneously (see diagram below). fault recur (~1 time out of 10), lead to final trips. A
good knowledge of the ranges of variation of these
parameters is important in making the choice. If the
current input
basis of consideration is a type of substation
I P I L frequently encountered in the network, a uniform
distribution of the isolating time may be taken. The
designer may have to choose carefully in order to
make an accurate estimation of the distributions of
these parameters.
83
5.2.3.1.7. Proposed Approach (5.9) F = F( I , , V , )
The stress-generating faults are non-resistive The influence of the clearance time is taken into
polyphase faults close to the substation. It is advisable account by discrete selection, the time constant by its
to know the main clearance thresholds involved in maximum value.
this case (zone 1 of the distance protections, for
example, or zone 2 or 3 in the event of failure).
5.2.3.2.2. Characterization of the Maximum
Amplitude of the Dynamic Response
5.2.3.2 CHARACTERIZATION OF MECHANICAL
LOADS 7.2.3.2.2.1 Expression of the equivalent force
at post insulator top
One method of approaching the calculation of
mechanical loads distribution is by mechanical and
To determine that force, an advanced method such as
probabilistic code coupling. We propose here a
the Aster-Mekelec software of EDF was used. The
functional approach to dynamic maximums.
values of the moments at the post insulator bottom are
calculated in the three spatial directions. Hereafter,
5.2.3.2.1. Rigid Busbars we shall consider only moment Mx, along direction
Ox, which represents the loading of the Laplace force
To study the dynamic response of a system of busbars on the busbars, insofar as My, which denotes
excited by Laplace force during a short-circuit fault, primarily the action of the post insulator's own
one of the most common configurations of straight weight, and Mz, which accounts for any torsion of the
rigid busbars is considered below: bushings, are generally low.
BB111 BB121 BB131 BB141 The equivalent force at the post insulator top (namely,
f s f s f s f s
the corresponding force applied to the top of the post
insulator that would yield the same bending moment)
SI10 SI111 SI121 SI131 SI141 is given by the following formula:
M X2 + M Y2
z (5.10) F=
h
x
O where: h = height of post insulator, F in newtons, Mx,
Figure 5.13 Rigid busbar structure My, in newton-meters.
The notations are defined as follows: The dynamic component of the force at the post
SI: post insulator, insulator top, that is, without action of wind and own
BB: busbar, weight, varies with the square of the short-circuit
f or s: clamped (f) or pined (s) connector. intensity and depends on the voltage phase at the
instant of occurrence of the fault. The maximum of
The problem addressed in this section is to determine this dynamic component may then be denoted by the
the functional dependence of usual stresses (force at relation:
post insulator top, stresses in the tubes) as a function
of the primary variables. Let: (5.11) M xdyn = I 2
(5.8) F = F( I , , , tk , V , ) This relation thus gives the influence of the fault
current amplitude.
This force depends on the short-circuit intensity
during the fault, the voltage phase at the instant of 7.2.3.2.2.2 Influence of the Instant of
occurrence of the fault, the type of fault considered, Occurrence
the time constant, the clearance time and, if a
concomitant wind is taken into account, wind velocity The dependence of the maximum mechanical loads as
V and direction applied to the busbars. Such a function of the instant of occurrence reveals a
phenomena as ice were not considered in this section. periodic dependence of period . For structures of
Most of the time, we rely on a function of the form :
EHV or HV substations, if 0 denotes the maximum
84
asymmetry, this functional relation may very often be 2 2
500
The calculated phase to phase or phase to earth value 400
provides a good conservative approximation. Formula 300
t= tpeak
(5.12) is not applicable to median phases 2 and 5 of 200
Noting that at the minimum asymmetry, the time In the general case, modal superposition often renders
constant does not affect the loading, it may be the analysis of clearance time influence complex. An
deduced that is independent of , where: example is given below.
( , t k )
Dynamic response of a post insulator
(5.14) (t k ) =
1 + m( , t k )
700
600
Ne 500
2
tk
100
m= 1 e
, deriving from integration of 0
time s
85
The first case (Figure 5.14) corresponded to the 7.2.3.2.2.6. Combined Loads
dynamic response of a system to a degree of freedom
at a constant Laplace force. The second case (Figure Each company has to define its own design policy in
5.15) may be resolved through a purely functional accordance with the occurrence of extreme loads. We
approach or by modal superposition. propose here to examine the case of combined short-
circuit and wind loads. The action of the wind on the
7.2.3.2.2.5. Reclosure busbars depends on the angle of the wind's direction
relative to the tube axis, whereas that relative to the
When a structure has been set in motion by an initial insulating bushings is constant for a given wind
fault, the possibility of a recurring fault after velocity, despite its changing orientation. The
reclosure may lead to increased mechanical stresses. maximum dynamic response thus varies according to
Between the maximum loads due to the first fault and the following formula (5.19) :
the maximum loads resulting from the two faults,
there may be a build-up factor of as much as 1.8 [Ref
95]. Nevertheless, a fault recurs at reclosure roughly
one out of ten times.
One property, superposition, will be particularly
useful in studying reclosure.
PROPERTY OF SUPERPOSITION
The displacement of the system is linked to the
excitation force by a linear differential operator L and
denoted in the following manner:
r
r FL (t ) during the short circuit
(5.16) L U = r
0 outside the short circuit
86
2
(5.19) F ( I , ,V , ) = . I 2 . 1 + m.cos ( 0 ) + '.V 2 .cos 2 ( ) + ' '.V 2 .cos( ) + ' '.V 2 .sin( ) +
2
( )
2
1+ m
wind velocity, gives the direction of the wind ATR 4 LINE 6 LINE 1 ATR 1 LINE 2
one node
COUPLING BAY
FAULTY BAY
In the event of two-node operation, when the end
coupling(s) delimit(s) the two nodes, the reduction is
quite significant, since the factor reducing the
b) Transfer Proximity
electrodynamic stresses is high.
Of all the possible layouts, those close to the transfer
situation of a low input line should be avoided. In the node 1
diagram below, based on a 400-kW network, low-
input line 6 (low I10) and autotransformer (ATR 4) are
connected to the same section of bars. Under such
conditions, I8 and I9 are at maximum and virtually
equal to the substation Icc. The loads may then be
very similar to those calculated for the transfer node 2
situation.
Case of U-shaped Structures
Two-node operation comes down to the same case as
above. In the case of single electric node operation,
the power inputs (lines or transformers) and demand
87
centers are normally balanced by bar sections, in
Cumulative Distribution Function of loads
order to minimize the current flows and risks. Under
such conditions, the electrodynamic stresses are very 2,0
often noticeably reduced compared to the more 1,8
%
1,0
becomes feasible to achieve a good order of 0,8
70
40 60 Uniform Distribution
%
50
30 Beta Distribution
40
20 30
10 20
0 10
0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1
ratio Load / Fo
Loads / Fo
88
C.D.F. given by ( ) , we would obtain the
Cumulative Distribution function of
following load distribution: Strength
3,0%
2(1 + m) 2
arccos( .C 1 ) 2,5%
F (C) = o + m. . I 2
m 2,0%
2 1,5%
1,0%
Case with several random variables
0,5%
If g(V) is the wind distribution, the C.D.F. of loads is
given by: 0,0%
0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1 1,2
(C , I ) = g (V ). F (C , V , I ). dV
Strength / Specified minimum failing load
with
0
Figure 5.19 Strength distribution function
2(1 + m) 2
2 .( C V ) 1
2
arccos( )
F (C , V , I ) = m. . I m
This figure is based on manufacturer's data
established using a Gaussian strength distribution
ignoring own weight and assuming that the wind is
perpendicular to the tubes. L
1 La 2
(
)
G = e 2
. dL . The mean value is in
Similarly, if we know the distribution of the current FR 0
1,E-07
STRENGTH
Figure 5.20 Risk integral
The mechanical strength of the various components
(post insulator breaking load, yield strength of We note that a 10% variation in this ratio causes the
metallic structures: tube, tower, substructure, etc.) is risk integral to vary by a factor of 3 to 10, depending
also a random variable dependent upon the G
manufacturing characteristics of the various on the operating point Fo/ FR . With the 0.7 safety
components. factor recommended by CIGRE, for combined short-
The curve below gives an example of variation in circuit and wind loads represented in 5.2.3.3 (Figure
breaking load for a ceramic post insulator: 5.16 and Figure 5.17), the risk integral is here around
10-6 for one post insulator.
89
Remark: The risk integral (5.3) can be estimated as 2. The calculation below offers a more accurate
L L method:
Fo
follows. Risk ( ) = G f 0 dL
FR Fo
SUBSTATION
FR 0
E LINE
with, in this case, a Gaussian strength distribution Zp o Z x
L
1 La 2
(
G = e
)
2
. dL . We obtain Figure
FR 0
desired range. x
Fo F(x)
substations or on lines, accidental closures of earthing Take a line with an input of IL connected to a
switches, non-resistive polyphase faults on lines substation with a short-circuit current IP. When the
resulting from lightning or other exceptional three-phase fault is on the line, the current from the
conditions, climatic or otherwise. It is also important substation is thus Il(x), such that Il(0)= IP - IL . This
to analyze the risks associated with cases of parallel gives the following relations:
currents in the event of two busbar faults (see
paragraph 2.3.2) occurring in transfer situations Un
ZP =
(paragraph 7.2.3.2.2.7.).On the basis of this analysis,
which must take into account:
(I P I L ) 3
Un
the orders of magnitude of the relative amplitudes Il( x ) =
of the currents of the various types of fault, ( Z P + x. Z ) 3
the operating settings (for example, voltage
switching to a busbar section from a line whose F ( x ) = F ( Il ( x ), ,...)
current input is necessarily limited), Risk ( x ) = Risk ( F ( Il ( x )) / FR )
operating situations (transfer or normal non-
transfer), If the faults were evenly distributed and equally
operation of low-voltage automatic controllers, in probable, the line length i to be taken into account
particular for stress-generating faults (often non- would be expressed as:
resistive polyphase) or for reclosure cycles,
high-voltage structures, in particular for two
busbar faults. li =
Risk ( x). dx
0
90
insulator number n is very often in this case
(5.22) l P = li substantially reduced.
i The values given in the tables depend upon the
operating point chosen in Figure 5.20, and hence on
By treating impedances with complex numbers, this the chosen safety coefficient and on the type of
approach is able to take the time constant into account substation structure concerned (associated or separate
(Paragraph 7.2.3.2.2.3.). phases)
follows: 0,2
Barre 1
Barre 2
0 Barre 3
6
Risk ( Fn / FR )
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 Barre 4
-0,2 Barre 5
Barre 6
n =1 -0,4
(5.23) n=
Risk ( F0 / FR ) -0,6
-0,8
91
Antisymmetrical associated phases D=d Antisymmetrical associated phases D=2d
1,0
1,0
0,8
0,8
0,6 0,6
0,4 0,4
0,2 0,2
0,0 0,0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
-0,2 -0,2
-0,4
-0,4
-0,6
-0,6
three phase fault on one busbar phase to phase fault on one busbar
1,0
1
0,8
0,8
0,6
0,6
0,4
0,4
0,2
0,2
0 0,0
-0,2 -0,2
-0,4 1 2 3 -0,4
-0,6 -0,6
-0,8 -0,8
-1,0
92
these cases, very low compared to that of phase 1, 1
the phase to phase fault, the post insulators are not 0,4
-0,8
1,0 1,0
0,5 0,5
0,0 0,0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
-0,5 -0,5
-1,0 -1,0
n (1) ~1 ~1
n (2) 0,5 0,5
Figure 5.25 Relative variation of response at the maximum asymmetry
Bar 1
5.2.3.7.3. "Separate phases" layout 0,2
Bar 2
0 Bar 3
-1
93
The histograms below for the instant of occurrence below show the relative variation of loads on the
leading to maximum asymmetry on the most loaded other phases.
phase (here central phases n3 and 4), the histograms
0,8 0,8
0,6 0,6
0,4 0,4
0,2 0,2
0,0 0,0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
-0,2 -0,2
-0,4 -0,4
-0,6 -0,6
-0,8 -0,8
-1,0 -1,0
n (1) ~2 ~2
n (2) < 1,1 < 1,1
Figure 5.27 Relative variation of response at the maximum asymmetry
94
5.2.3.7.7. Conclusions
The wind may act in the same direction as the
electrodynamic loads. This is the case for phases 2, 4
For N sequences on a section of busbars, we thus take
and 6 in the above histograms. But for the other phases
it acts in the opposing direction. With respect to the n . . N post insulators subject to maximum loads.
number of loaded elements, the cumulated risks on the
various phases of the two busbars gives a mean number 5.2.3.8 FAILURE RECURRENCE TIME
n per suite of loaded post insulators of less than 1.1 in
the case of combined loads and of approximately 2 in 5.2.3.8.1. Risk at a substation
the case of a simple electrodynamic hypothesis. For line fault
The overall maximum risk at a substation is given by
5.2.3.7.4. Structures with a single busbar the expression:
For certain substations with only one busbar or for cross Fo
connections comprised of rigid bars, the analyses made (5.25) R PL = . .. l P . n . . N . Risk ( )
in 5.2.3.7.2 for the fault on a single busbar can be FR
reused.
with : normal operating rate of fault elimination (close
5.2.3.7.5. Influence of connectors to 1).
: number of faults on overhead lines connected per km
Another factor reduces the number of post insulators and per year,
concerned, i.e., the distribution of loads between post : rate of high-amplitude polyphase faults (hence non-
insulators according to the type of connector. The types resistive),
of connector must frequently installed are: lP : cumulative length of the risk zone in km,
a) successions of clamped - clamped and pinned - n : number of loaded post insulators per busbar suite,
pinned connectors. In this case, half the post : coefficient depending on the type of connector
insulators (n=2) are loaded (=0.5). N : suite number,
b) successions of clamped - clamped then sliding, -
Example:
sliding then pinned - pinned connectors. In this case,
two-thirds of the post insulators (n=3) are loaded For =20x10-2 per km and per year, =30%, l=6km,
(=0.67). Fo
n =1,5 =1, N=14 suites, Risk ( ) = 10-5, there is
c) clamped - pinned fittings which distribute loads FR
uniformly, which means that all post insulators
thus a probability of substation failure of around 7.6 10-
located relatively far from the extremities along the 5
, corresponding to a recurrence time of more than
path of maximum currents are loaded (=1). 13000 years for a safety factor of 0.7.
We define as: For line fault in the event of failure
n = 2 ou 3
The previous analysis is also applicable in the event of
1
Risk ( F n / FR ) failure (circuit breakers or protection devices), though
the elimination times may be different and the resulting
(5.24) =
n =1
loads increased. It is important to determine the
n = 2 ou 3 Risk ( F0 / FR ) amplitude of loads amplification, in view of the remarks
made in section 5.2.3.1.4 on the effect of saturation
The set (Fn) corresponds to the loads on the post when the clearance time exceeds the mechanical
insulators of the most loaded busbar (longitudinal reaction time. In (5.25), Fo is replaced by F1 and the
variation of load), but limited in size to two or three failure rate: : (protection system and/or circuit breaker
elements defined in paragraphs a) and b). failure rate) is taken into account.
The increase in risk is often low and the reduction in the
5.2.3.7.6. Common mode faults failure rate means that this term can be ignored.
95
5.2.3.8.2. Reliability based design
5.3. CONCLUSIONS
96
6. D.C. CONFIGURATIONS standard for the mechanical and thermal effects has
been published in 1997 [Ref 61]. In 2000, a Technical
Report with an example of the d.c. installation shown in
6.1. INTRODUCTION Figure 6.1 was also published [Ref 62].
Shorting is induced by a thyristor in order to avoid Figure 6.4 shows short-circuit characteristics of fully
bouncing of the power breaker contacts when the circuit charged, stationary batteries. The short-circuit current
is closed. The short-circuit is switched off by the power rises rapidly to peak value and thereafter drops at first at
breaker. a low, later at a high time constant. The final value of
the short-circuit current therefore depends upon the
The short-circuit current characteristics are recorded by duration of the short circuit. In the case of a battery
a transient recorder, where rapid current variations of up which has been discharged to minimum admissible cell
to 60 kA/ms are measured. The data gained are voltage, there still flows a considerably high short-
converted and processed on a computer. circuit current of a similar shape having a magnitude up
to 30 to 40 per cent of that of the current of the fully
Figure 6.3 shows short-circuit current characteristics of charged battery.
the power converter. Curve a does not include a
smoothing inductor. The LG/LN ratio of the d.c. and Figure 6.5 shows the short-circuit current of smoothing
three-phase inductances is relatively low; the RN/XN capacitors of different capacities. Short-circuit duration
ratio of active resistance to three-phase reactance is is very short. With high capacities, peak short-circuit
high. After about 10 ms there appears the steady-state currents may reach high values.
short-circuit current. Curve b shows lower LG/LN and
RN/XN ratios; this has been accomplished by introducing The short-circuit current of d.c. motors is shown in
a smoothing reactor into the three-phase side: In this Figure 6.6. With large motors, the peak short-circuit
case, there appears a marked peak of the short-circuit current may reach 10 times the rated current, and will
current, which is considerably higher than the steady- appear within 10 to 50 ms. Reduction in magnitude and
state short-circuit current. With RN 0 and LN 0, it the decay of the current depend upon the overall
may theoretically reach twice the value of the steady- moment of inertia as well. Owing to the excitation
state short-circuit current. In the case of curve c, a voltage being constant after the occurrence of the short
relatively high smoothing inductor was introduced into circuit, separately excited motors show higher short-
the d.c. side; there is no marked peak of the short-circuit circuit currents.
98
Figure 6.3 Converter short-circuit current. Figure 6.6 Motor short-circuit current. Rated voltage 24 V, rated
a without smoothing inductor current 31 A, moment of inertia of the motor JM,
b with smoothing reactor overall moment of inertia Jg.
c with smoothing inductor
d with rapid-acting control, current limited to
100 A 6.2.2. Standardised characteristics of short-circuit
currents and electromagnetic forces
99
[Ref 59] gives a method for calculating the
The time functions of the currents are
parameters of the standardised function for the
individual short-circuit currents of the power
1 e t 1
(6.1) i1 (t ) = ip for 0 t t1 = tp converter, the battery, the capacitor, and the motor. In
1 e t1 1 the case of decoupled individual short-circuit
currents, they are added to the overall short-circuit
and current. In case there are short-circuit currents in
coupling branches, they first have to be corrected and
(6.2) [
i2 ( ) = ip (1 ) e 2
]
+ for 0 t2 then added.
(6.4) F (t ) = F
(1 e ) t 1 2 The electromagnetic forces which excite a mechanical
system are shock-like non-periodical events of
(1 e )
p
t1 1 2 limited duration. The well-known approximation
solution [Ref 74, Ref 77] for the maximum value of
the dynamic response of a one-mass oscillator
and
exposed to shock-like event of a moderate duration
may be used to derive the conditions for establishing
(6.5) [
F2 ( ) = Fp (1 ) e 2
+ ]
2
the equivalent function. As shown in Figure 6.8 for
the substitute rectangular function:
where linear momentum
0 ip2 tk
(6.6) Fp =
2a (6.7) F (t ) d t = A = tR FR
0
F'p is the peak value of the short-circuit force per unit
length, and 0 = 4107 H/m is the absolute first moment of area
permeability.
100
a duration of the exciting force, in this case the duration
(6.8) F ( ) d = 0 of the short circuit tk, does not surpass half the
vibration period 0,5Tme of the relevant natural
a
oscillation:
second moment of area
(6.12) tk = tl + t2 0, 5 Tme
a It has been established [Ref 65] that within the tk
1 3
(6.9) F ( ) 2 d = J s =
12
t R FR 0,5Tme range, the equivalent function as developed
for the one-mass oscillator may as well be applied
a
with sufficient accuracy to the beam model, which is
characteristic for busbars. The analytical method used
[Ref 65, Ref 4, Ref 19, Ref 78] is particularly suitable
for parametric studies [Ref 8].
It follows from equations (6.7) and (6.9) for the 6.3.2. Calculation of the parameters of the
substitute rectangular time function: equivalent functions
101
a) Determination of the linear momenta of force t2
F2 ()
The linear momentum Al for the interval 0 t t1 2 2
d A2 t s2
is: 0
mJs 2 =
(6.13) A1 = m1t1 Fp t 23
Fp
Correspondingly for the interval 0 t2: 12
(6.14) A2 = m2t 2 Fp
Coefficients mJs1 and mJs2 may be taken from
The conditional equations for m1 and m2 are: Figure 6.11.
t1 t2
F1(t ) d t F2 () d
0 0
(6.15) m1 = m 2 =
t1 F t2 F
F1(t )t d t F2 () d
0 0
(6.17) ms1 = ms 2 =
t1 A1 t 2 A2
Coefficients ms1 and ms2 may be taken from
Figure 6.10.
Figure 6.9 Coefficients m1 and m2 for the calculation of the
c) Determination of the second moments of area linear moment Al and A2. The same coefficients may
The second moments of area Js1 relative to axis s1 also be used to determine the thermal equivalent
for the interval 0 t < t2 and Js2 relative to axis s2 short-circuit current Ith, see section 6.3.4.
for the interval 0 < t2 may be determined with
the help of the coefficients mJs1 and mJs2: d) Calculation of the parameters of the equivalent
function
Fpt13 Fpt 23 Calculation of the parameters of the substitute
(6.18) J s1 = ms1 J s 2 = ms 2 rectangular time function, tR and F'R according to
12 12 equations (6.10) and (6.11), requires knowledge
The conditional equations for mJs1 and mJs2 are: of the linear momentum A and the second
t1 moment of area Js. They may be determined with
F1(t )t
2 2 the help of the coefficients m1, m2, ms1, ms2, mJs1,
d t A1t s1
mJs2 as taken from Figure 6.9, Figure 6.10 and
0
(6.19) mJs1 = Figure 6.11:
t13
Fp (6.20) A = A1 + A2 = Fp (t1 m 1 + t 2 m 2 )
12
102
J = J s1 + J s2 + A1 (ts + ts1 )2 + A2 (t1 + s2 ts )2
t 3 t3
= Fp 1 mJs1 + 2 mJs2 + m1t1 (ts ms1ts1 )2
12 12
{
+ Fp m2 t 2 (t1 + ms2 t 2 ts )2 }
where
103
a) Calculation of the period of vibration of the
relevant natural oscillation Tme = 1/fc, according to
[Ref 2, Ref 3].
b) Determination of the parameters of the substitute
rectangular time function tR and F'R, according to
sections 6.3.2 and 6.3.3.
c) Calculation of the desired quantities with F'R as
static load per unit length:
bending forces at the conductor supporting
points as a measure of the static insulator stress
bending stress inside the conductor at the point
of its maximum value as a measure of the busbar
stress
deflection of the conductor at the point of its
maximum, if required
d) Determination of the coefficients VF,,s,y =
f(tR/Tme) from Figure 6.13. The figure is the result
of calculations according to [Ref 65] where the
excitation is rectangular. For this purpose, the
conductor is considered a beam with either both
ends fixed or both ends supported or one end
fixed and one end supported. The curves in Figure
6.13 are given by the envelopes of the maxima, so
that the results are on the safe side, irrespective of
the boundary conditions fixed or supported.
104
introduced, which needs no more than 6 parameters
[Ref 64].
m1t1 + m2 t 2
(6.25) I th = ip
t1 + t 2
6.4. CONCLUSION
105
7. REFERENCES Ref 12. EN 60909-0 : Short-circuit currents in
three-phase systems Part 0 : Calculation
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mechanical effects of short-circuit currents
in open air substations (Rigid and flexible Ref 13. Dwight, H. B.: Geometric mean distances
bus-bars), Vol. 105, Geneva: IEC, Paris: for rectangular conductors. Transactions
CIGR, 1996 AIII 65 (1946), pp 536-538
Ref 2. IEC 60865-1, Short-circuit currents - Ref 14. Klar, F.: Die Induktivitt gestreckter
Calculation of effects. Part 1: Definitions Leiterschleifen. Wissenschaftliche
and calculation method, Geneva: IEC, Zeitschrift der Elektrotechnik der
1993 Technischen Universitt Dresden 11
(1968), pp 82-100
Ref 3. EN 60865-1: Short-circuit currents -
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and calculation method. Brussels: ordnungen beliebiger Querschnittsform
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Beuth, 1990
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Ref 19. Hosemann, G.; Tsanakas, D.: Beitrag zur
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short-circuit stress of busbar structures Kurzschlubeanspruchung von Schaltan-
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stress in substations taking into account
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die dynamische Beanspruchung. etzArchiv simultaneous faults. International
4 (1982), pp 365-368 Conference on Large High Voltage
Electric Systems, Paris, 1978, Report 23-
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Hochschule Darmstadt, 1976 Stromleiter zulssigen mechanischen
Beanspruchung. ETZ-A 89 (1968), pp 34-
Ref 11. IEC 60909-0: Short-circuit current 38
calculation in three-phase a. c. systems.
Part 0 : Calculation of currents. Geneva: Ref 22. Issler, L.; Ruo, H.; Hfele, P.: Festig-
IEC, 2001 keitslehre - Grundlagen. Berlin: Springer,
1995
106
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71 Elton Avenus, Watertown,
MA02472,USA
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www.adina.com
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October 1998, Proceedings pp. 143-148.
Ref 29. Dubbel - Taschenbuch fr den Maschinen-
bau. Berlin: Springer, 1990 Ref 40. Stein, N.; Meyer, W.; Miri, A.M.: High
voltage substation stranded conductor
Ref 30. HTTE. Die Grundlagen der Ingenieur- buses with and without droppers Tests
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Ref 31. Kieling, G.: Eigenfrequenz zusammen- Power Systems, Brussels (Belgium), 8-10
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Ref 42. Stein, N.; Miri, A.M.; Meyer, W.: 400 kV Ref 49. G. de Wendt, T. Tietz, A:M. Miri, R.
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Ref 50. Miri A. M., Stein N.: "Short-Circuit
Ref 43. Stein, N.; Meyer, W.; Miri, A.M.: Tests Contraints and Strength of HV Substation
and Calculation of Short-Circuit Forces Post-Insulators" 5th Int. Symposium on
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Droppers. ETEP 10 (2000) No. 3 , pp
131138 Ref 51. Bathe, Klaus-Jrgen Finite Elemente
Methode Springer Verlag, 1990
Ref 44. Stein, N.; Meyer, W.; Miri, A.M.: High
Voltage Substations with Stranded Ref 52. Miri, A.M; Khner, A; Lilien, L; Stein
Conductors and Droppers - Tests and N.;An Analytical-Numerical Method
Calculations of Short-Circuit Constraints Based on Static Equivalent Load for the
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Power Systems, Cracow (Poland), 11.-13. (Portals).7th Int. Symposium on short-
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Ref 45. Miri, A.M., Schwab, A.J., Kopatz, M.: Ref 53. Manuzio C. An investigation of forces on
Kurzschlussstroeme und Leiterbewegun- bundle conductor spacers under fault
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(1988), pp. 429-436
Ref 54. J.L. Lilien, E. Hansenne, K.O. Papailiou.
Ref 46. A.M. Miri, N. Stein, Nzoubou W. : J. Kempf. Spacer Compression for a
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2000 Cracow Poland under Short-Circuit . IEEE Trans. On
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Lsung der Kurzschluvorgnge. Archiv
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static load-" 6th Int. Symposium on short- Ref 57. Olszowsky, B.: Computation of jumper
circuit currents in Polver Systems, 1994. swings in EHV-substations under short-
circuit currents. CIGRE 23-81 (WG02)11-
IWD.
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Ref 59. IEC 61660-1. Short-circuit currents in d.c. Ref 70. Wenigk, K.D.; Griebach, A.: Programm
auxiliary installations in power plants and zur digitalen Berechnung des zeitlichen
substations Part 1 : Calculation of short- Kurzschlustromverlaufs in batteriege-
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(1989), pp 379-381
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1991 short-circuit capacity of circuit-breakers in
installations in ships. Geneva: IEC, 1972
Ref 61. IEC 61660-2. Short-circuit currents in d.c.
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substations Part 2: Calculation of strme in Gleichstrom-Eigenbedarfs-
effects. Geneva: IEC, 1997 anlagen. Elektrie 46 (1992), pp 18-22
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auxiliary installations in power plants and Short-Circuit Currents of Motors in D.C.
substations Part 3: Examples of Auxiliay Installations in Power Plants and
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Greece; 8-9 July 1999, Paper D-10, pp
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Stromrichteranlagen in Drehstrom- Ref 76. Klotter, K.: Technische
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221-224 Lineare Schwingungen. Berlin,
Heidelberg, New York: Springer, 1978
Ref 67. Pfeiler, V.; Steuber, M; Stade, D.: Bestim-
mung der Strom-Spannungs-Verhltnisse Ref 77. Meier-Drnberg, K.-E.: Abschtzen von
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durch Kurzschlumessungen. Elektrie 24 verlaufenden Einwirkungen. VDI-Berichte
(1970), pp 450-454 Nr. 113, VDI-Verlag 1967
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(1972), pp 120-121 in substations. IEEE Trans. Power App.
Syst. 102 (1983), pp 492-501
Ref 69. Herold, G.; Finke, J.: Berechnung der
charakteristischen Kurzschlustromgren Ref 79. DIN VDE 0101 German Version of HD
der Drehstrombrckenschaltung. Elektrie 637 S1 1999: Power Installations
36 (1982), pp 5-8 exceeding A.C. 1 kV. (soon IEC 50179)
109
Ref 80. Fiabilit des structures des installations Ref 88. Probabilistic Methods Applied to Electric
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Ref 81. Probability Concepts in Electric Power conductor arrangements-Evaluation of the
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Interscience. with first short-circuit stresses
G.DECLERCQ 6-8 septembre 1994
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Feasibility study, M.D.GERMANI circuit currents LIEGE (BELGIQUE)
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90405. Ref 90. Probability Distribution of Supporting
Structures Stress, Dr M.DASCZYSZAK
Ref 83. Probabilistic Short-Circuit Uprating of WARSAW 1996.
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KADY,R.W.D. GANTON IEEE circuit current in electric energy
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PWRD-1,N.3 July 1986. G.STEGEMANN, F.BERGER, 310-03
Probabilistic uprating of 230 kV strain bus
Ref 84. Contribution of Reliability analyses to the system at substations with high fault
study of the effects of short-circuit, 5th currents, M.VAINBERG,
International symposium on short-circuit M.D.GERMANI, M.EL-KADY,
currents in power system, WARSAW R.W.D.GANTON.
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de poste, G.J.ANDERS et L.WANG,
Ref 85. Influence of the wind on the mechanical Ontario Hydro Technologies reportt n390
design of transmission structures against T 953 October 1995, LAssociation
short-circuits, 5th International Canadienne de lElectricit.
symposium on short-circuit currents in
power system, WARSAW Congress, 8-9 Ref 93. Charge et rsistance des lignes de
September 1992, M.GAUDRY, transport ariennes, CIGRE 22.06
Y.MAUGAIN. ELECTRA n129.
Ref 86. Anwendung der stochastischen Simulation Ref 94. Hecht, A.: Elektrokezamik,
zur Berechnung von Berlin/Heidelbezg/New York, Springer-
Kurzschlustrombeanspruchungsverteilun Verlag 1976
gen das verbundnetz, R.LEHMANN,
KDT, Dresden ; F.BERGER, KDT Berlin, Ref 95. Stein, N. a.o.: Dynamic behaviour and
May 1985. strength of high- voltage substation post
insulators under short-circuit loads, Cigre-
Ref 87. Entscheidungsprobleme der session Paris 1985, pp. 23-12
Elektroenergietechnik, ELEKTRIE Berlin
42 (1988), E.MUSCHIK ; E.PILZ ; Ref 96. Miri, A.M., Stein, N.:
F.BERGER ; ZITTAU. Kurzschlu beanspruchung und -festigkeit
von Hochspannungssttzisolatoren, etz-
Archiv, Bci.10(1988) H.3 S.89-96
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Ref 97. Barthelt, H., Weyl, D.: Mechanische
Festigkeit von Porzellankrpern und deren
Abhngigkeit von deren Abmessungen,
ETZ-A Bd. 80(1959) 14, S.445-449
111
8. ANNEX span and changing from 0 to approximately 1 for
other positions. It could have been larger than 1 at
mid-span if the frequency of load application would
8.1. THE EQUIVALENT STATIC LOAD AND have been similar to the first or the third
EQUIVALENT STATIC LOAD FACTOR eigenfrequency of the beam. And it could also be
smaller than one in case of non resonant effect, in
some particular location in the structure. In fact
8.1.1. Definition of ESL (Equivalent Static Load) inertial forces can have compensation effect or
and ESL factor elimination effect, depending on the modal shape of
the structure, which can be very different from the
The equivalent static load is a static load which can static deformation shape. But these effects are
be taken into account for the design of structures difficult to be predicted and thus can be neglected in a
which are stressed by dynamic loading. We only simplified method. A simplified method will then be
consider here concentrated loads (not distributed). restricted to particular cases with special loading. In
other cases a dynamic simulation is then required.
The ESL is a static load with the same application
point as the actual load, which would induce in the ESL factor can be estimated by analytical treatment
structure the same maximum force (generally in of the load. Its value is determined from the linear
connection with the bending moment) as the dynamic theory of the beam based on modal analysis which
load. includes the modal shape of the structure. Due to the
typical problems in substations and the necessary
ESL is not equal to the peak value of the dynamic simplifications the formula limited to the first
load because inertial forces (distributed along the eigenmode only are used. Due to this simplification,
structures) exist during dynamic loadings (Figure the structural factor is equal to one, only the load
8.1). factor has to be evaluated. The ESL factor is given by
the folowing equation :
ESL can be lower, equal or higher than peak dynamic
(8.1)
load, depending on the vibration frequencies (so
ESLfactor = 1 f ( ).e 11 (t ) . sin(1 (t )).d
t
called eigenfrequencies) of the structures to which the
load is applied 0
Figure 8.1 taken from "Earthquake response of structures", R.W. Clough, Berkeley, chapter 12. Influence of the dynamic loading compared to
static loading. P(t) maximum is equal to P static.
112
the ESL factor synthetic curve in three different type For all these three first value ESL factor must be
of loading : one curve for the typical interphase applied (to obtain ESL) on (F-Fst), the relative
effects, one curve for the typical pinch effect and one increase of the dynamic load.
curve for the dropper stretch. The synthetic aspects dropper stretch Fds (equipment only)
have been obtained by the collection of numerous test In this last case the initial value can be
results and the simulation of these results using neglected, in most of the cases.
advanced calculation method.
For Ft, Ff, Fpi, the ESL factor must be applied on the
relative increase of the dynamic load, i.e. the static
Basically:
tensile load has to be substracted first. For Fds the
ESL is lower than the peak dynamic load if the
ESL factor can be neglected in most of the cases.
first eigenfrequency of the structure is lower than
the basic frequency of the load (typically, a 4 Hz
portal structure cannot be affected by the 8.1.4. How to use ESL in design together with
influence of a 100 Hz dynamic load). ESL factor simplified method of actual IEC 60865
<1
ESL is equal to the peak dynamic load if the first Equipment. In such case, ESL is a static load which
eigenfrequency of the structure is larger than the is applied at the top of the equipment, perpendicular
basic frequency of the load (typically a 55 Hz to it, and can be compared to the maximum specified
insulator support will be affected by a 2 Hz cantilever load given by the manufacturer. IEC 60865
dynamic load as a quasi-static load). ESL factor calculates the ESL and no addition ESL factor is
=1 necessary.
ESL is larger than the peak dynamic load if we
are close to resonance (a frequency of the Supporting structures (gantries). In such case, ESL
structure fit with one frequency of the applied consist of several static loads applied at anchoring
dynamic load). In such case structural damping cable fixation point, perpendicular to the cross-arm,
plays a key role. ESL factor >1 which can be used to design or check the supporting
structures. These static loads will be determined from
There are also specific load cases, like impulse peak dynamic load obtained by the simplified
loading (one shot in a very short time) and step method, corrected by the ESL factor. The initial Fst
loading (from zero to maximum load in a very short values have to be added to these ESL to obtain the
time, then maintained at maximum value). total response. But, as these structures are generally
linear, a superposition of the two cases can be done
For this last a well known dynamic effect give ESL (one case calculated with Fst, one case calculated
factor equal to 2, for impulse loading ESL will be less with ESL).
than 2.
8.1.5. Validation of the method : How to evaluate
8.1.2. Concerned structures ESL during tests or advanced simulations
Concerned structures are the equipment This need to analyse where the maximum stress occur
(transformers, isolators, surge arresters, supporting in the structure during the dynamic process (generally
insulators, bushings, wave trap) and their supporting at the bottom of the structures), then to find out the
structures. static load(s) which would have to be applied at the
same location as dynamic load(s), in order to obtain
8.1.3. Concerned loadings similar maximum stress. Such ESL evaluation is
rather easy, because we generally deals with linear
Concerned dynamic loadings are : structures (equipment and supporting structures).
swing out maximum Ft (tensile load)
falling down maximum Ff 8.1.6. Examples
pinch effect Fpi
a) On equipment
113
Figure 8.2
What is ESL in this case : 1) evaluate Ft, Ff and Fpi by IEC simplified method
Assume that F(t) is the tension in the cable 2) search first eigenfrequency of the equipment (if
connecting the equipment to another one or to another not known, use curve given in chapter 1),
flexible connection. F(t) could result from the 3) evaluate ESL using synthetic curve given in
following effects 1) from pinch effect (if the chapter 3 (one curve for interphase effects,
connection is a bundle), 2) from swing out or falling another curve for pinch effect), for example
down loads (horizontal connection between two ESL1 = max(Ft-Fst, Ff-Fst) x ESL
equipment), 3) from dropper stretch (if the equipment factor(interphase effect) and ESL2 = (Fpi-Fst) x
is connected to another level with flexible ESL factor (pinch). Then consider max (ESL1,
connection). ESL2) = ESL
In the case shown, effect of F(t) and bending moment 4) In case of initial static loading (Fst), just add Fst to
at the bottom of the equipment is completely ESL and compare total value to cantilever
different, it means that the inertial forces have clearly strength of the equipment.
some action. The design value is the maximum
Remark : If you have access to advanced calculation
bending moment at the bottom. We could have had
method, you simply evaluate the dynamic response
the same Mmax by applying ESL instead of F(t).at the
and locate maximum dynamic bending moment in the
top of the equipments.
support, that bending is converted in equivalent top
The situation could have been more complex if Mmax
static load, which is compared to the cantilever
had not occurred at the bottom of the apparatus.
breaking load. No need of ESL theory in that case.
How to apply the simplified method
b) On support structures
The problem is to define the cantilever strength
needed for such equipment.
Figure 8.3 Laborelec 150 kV test structure for two-phase fault (Belgium).
114
Figure 8.4 East cable tension evolution and bending moment at the bottom of west pole of the gantry
Figure 8.5 West cable tension evolution and bending moment at the bottom of west pole of the gantry
What is ESL in this case 2) as initial static load is Fst = 2560 N in each
phase, the relative increase is 17500 2x2560 =
F(t) is the tension of the cable (the two left curves in
12400 N
Figure 8.4 and Figure 8.5). F(t) contains swing out and
3) the ESL determined from the bending moment is
falling down loads (no pinch because it was a single
(50000-15400)/6 = 5800 N (east) and (70000-
conductor). Fmax = 8000 N(east) and 9500 N(west).
15400)/6 = 9100 N for each phase, this means a
These are measured values. Advanced calculation
global value of 14900 N (6 is in meters and
methods would have given very similar results. IEC
represent the height of the portal)
simplified method would have given identical results for
both phases, more close to west cable values of Ft and Ff ESL factor = 14900/12400 = 1,2. This is an exact
values (because dropper influence is less on that phase). value determined from test measurement. The
Obviously, measured values or advanced calculation dynamic effect corresponds to a 20% increase of the
values do not need any further analysis, because they actual stress in the portal. Evaluation of the same ESL
give access directly to the design values, which are factor for different tests on the same structure but
bending moment in the portal. Nevertheless it is of some with different conductors (case 4 in brochure 105 f.e.)
interest to evaluate on an actual basis if any dynamic gave a factor in between 0.8 and 1.4 .
effect occurred. This can be done by the exact
evaluation of ESL factor as obtained during real test How to apply the simplified method
measurements : The use of the simplified method in this case would
1) the maximum peak dynamic load is 8000 (east) have given the following values :
+9500 (west) = 17500 N. (in this simplified method
IEC 60865 evaluation of Ft and Ff is given in Ref 2.
the fact that both load are not occurring
simultaneously is neglected).
115
As the eigenfrequency of the portal is around 4 Hz, ESL Observation time of the time response is fixed to
factor synthetic curve given in chapter 3 is 1.4 about 0.4 s in all cases.
So that the portal design loads obtained by simplified We have treated three different case, only by
method recommended in this brochure is : changing the structural data to change its frequencies.
Load on phase 1 : max (Ft, Fst) x 1.4 = These values are taken from typical supporting
Load on phase 2 : idem insulator data's used in substation from 110 kV to 400
(only two phase for this test) kV. At least one of the three first eigenfrequencies is
and these load can be considered as static load. tuned to be resonant with either 50 Hz or 100 Hz.
That is to show the dynamic effects in such structure.
As the structure is supposed to be uniform mass
8.2. CLAMPED-FREE BEAM DYNAMIC RESPONSE TO distribution, if one frequency is fixed, the other are
A TOP LOAD IDENTICAL TO A SHORT-CIRCUIT easily evaluated by classical beam theory.
FORCE. ESL VALUE, ESL FACTOR FOR
DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL DATA OF THE 8.2.3. Examples
SUPPORT.
a) Case study number one
The 50 Hz is the first eigenfrequency, thus 300 Hz is
This case is different from the former one, as the load
the second and 850 Hz is the third.
application has not the same shape as the load applied to
Which has been reproduced using following data : ( a
flexible busbars. This case is more close to rigid bus-
typical 110 kV insulator support)
bars for which we would like to know how to design
: height of the support 0,77 m
supporting structure (insulator support).
bending stiffness of the support :
We would like first to emphasise that no synthetic ESL
5,9e5 N/m
factor curve had been given for this case in this
brochure. This case is reserved here just to point out
what could be ESL load and ESL factor in a simple
case.
8.2.2. Excitation
Top load time definition
2
t
(8.2) F (t ) = A sin (2t + ) sin ( )e
Figure 8.7 Case 1 (first eigenfrequency of 50 Hz). Curve a) is
using = 60 ms the top displacement of the insulator (m) b) is the
= /2 applied top load in N and c) is the bottom bending
= 50 Hz moment (N.m).
A = 1000 N
116
- There is a 50 Hz oscillation of the beam during the
50 Hz dominant load application. The Resonance is
clearly enhanced.
- The maximum displacement at the top is around
180 mm at around 0,9 s.
- Bending moment is in phase with the top Time/s
displacement.
ESL factor can easily be determined :
Max bending moment around 9000 N.m means ESL =
9000/0.77 = 11700 N.
Max dynamic load value (not at the same time as the
max bending) : around 3500 N.
ESL factor = 3.3
b) case number 2
The second eigenfrequency is at 100 Hz, which give a Time/s
first one at 16 Hz .
Which has been reproduced using following data : ( a
typical 245 kV insulator support)
: height of the support 2.3 m,
bending stiffness of the support :
1.8e5 N/m.
- There is a 16 Hz oscillation of the beam during all
the time with very low damping.
- The maximum displacement at the top is around
120 mm at around 0,02 s.
- Bending moment is in phase with the top
displacement but has a clear presence of 100 Hz
component.
Time/s
ESL factor can easily been determined :
Max bending moment around 6500 N.m (means ESL =
6500/2.3 = 2800 N)
Max dynamic load value (not at the same time as the Figure 8.8 Case 2 (second eigenfrequency of 100 Hz). Curve :
max bending) : around 3500 N a) is the top displacement of the insulator (m)
b) is the bottom bending moment (N.m)
ESL factor = 0.8 c) is the applied top load in N.
c) case number 3
The third eigenfrequency is at 50 Hz, which give a
first one at 4 Hz .
Which has been reproduced using following data : ( a
typical 400 kV insulator support)
: height of the support 3.8 m
bending stiffness of the support :
0.9e5 N/m
117
Time/s
Time/s
Time/s
118
8.3. COMPARISON OF TEST RESULTS AND When calculating the short-circuit effects of spans with
CALCULATION ACCORDING TO IEC strained conductors, the masses and the influence of the
PUBLICATION 60865-1 droppers at the ends or near the ends of the spans is
neglected, see paragraph 3.3. With droppers in midspan,
the calculation is done according to the method given in
Because of the very high complexity of the matter,
Paragraph 3.3. When calculating the static tensile force
CIGRE SC 23 WG 03, IEC TC 73 and DKE UK 121.2 and the sag, the masses of the droppers have to be
(VDE 0103) introduced new calculation rules for so far considered.
uncovered particular arrangements only under the
The calculation of the pinch force Fpi is done as stated
condition that sufficient evidence from test results was
in the standard.
available. In spite of this time and cost consuming, quite
a satisfactory number of rigid as well as stranded
In all cases, the static stiffness of the sub-strutures
conductor arrangements have been made accessible to
measured during the tests are taken into account.
standardised calculation procedure for short-circuit
stresses and strength. It is only natural that the more
In the following diagrams, the measured values of short-
complex the matter gets, the more experimental and
circuit forces and horizontal displacements are given on
analytical efforts are required to cover new areas of
the horizontal axis (index m) and the calculated ones on
calculation.
the vertical axis (index c). In most cases, the forces are
related to the initial static tensile forces. Each sign point
To understand the effects and the physics caused by the
represents a result, the number of evaluated tests is
short-circuit currents in substations, a lot of different
given in the legends. The lines are drawn marked by 0
test cases are given in Volume 2 of [Ref 1] and in
%, +25 % and -25 %, which show the deviation between
Volume 2 of this brochure. In these cases, the test
test and calculation; the signs above the 0 % line, the
arrangements are described in detail, oscillograms and
calculation results in higher values than the test, the
values of forces and stresses in the conductors and
signs below the 0 % line, the calculation results in lower
substructures, and the conductor displacements are
values than the test.
given.
This presentation of the comparisons is done in three
In IEC Publication 60865-1 [Ref 1] and the European
parts:
Standard EN 60865-1 [Ref 2] simplified methods are
Slack conductors on supporting insulators,
given for the calculation of the short-circuit stresses,
forces and strength of substations with rigid and flexible Strained conductors fastened with insulator strings
busbars. The physical background and the derivation of on towers,
these methods are outlined in the sections 3 and 4 of Tests only for bundle pinch effect.
[Ref 1] and section 3 of this brochure. In the following, the numbers of test cases presented in
Volume 2 of [Ref 1] are marked by *, the numbers of
In the following, the data of the tests with flexible test cases presented in Volume 2 of this brochure are not
conductors are taken and a calculation according to the marked. For the details of the tests, reference is made to
standard is carried out. The comparison of the both volumes.
calculation results with the test results is shown in
diagrams and is discussed.
8.3.1. Slack conductors on supporting insulators
For the design of busbars, the maximum short-circuit
Case 1 (FGH 1972)
duration Tk is stated by the protection concept. The
actual short-circuit duration tk is unknown, it can be
lower and can lead to higher tensile forces than with Tk. In this case, a 110-kV-structure is tested. The stress in
Therefore the maximum values are determined using the the bottom of one insulator is measured and hence an
equivalent static force on the top of the insulator is
standard [Ref 2, Ref 3] which occur within 0 < tk Tk
calculated, which gives the same stress in the insulator
[Ref 1]. In contrast, the short-circuit duration tk is
as the short-circuit force. If the subconductors fulfil
known when calculating tests and out from this the
either as/ds 2,0 and ls/as 50 or as/ds 2,5 and ls/as
swing-out angle k at the end of the current flow, see
Equation. (4.8) in [Ref 1]. If tk Tres, the conductor 70 (so called close bundling), the conductors are
considered to clash effectively; then the pinch force Fpi
swings out to its highest position at m = 21 and then
back. Tres is the resulting oscillation period of the span does not have to be calculated, the short-circuit tensile
during current flow and 1 = Arctan r the direction of force Ft is to be taken, Figure 8.10a. On the other hand,
the maximum radial force Ft. r means the ratio of if the conditions are not fulfilled, the maximum of Ft
electromagnetic force and gravitational force on the and Fpi is decisive, Figure 8.10b. A good agreement is
conductor. If tk Tres, m = Arccos(1 r sin k) holds; Ft achieved.
is maximum at 1 if k 1, otherwise at k. Ff acts at
the end of the drop down from m. For further details Cases 2 and 3 (FGH 1978)
see [Ref 1].
119
Both cases have the same 200-kV-arrangement, case 2 In both cases 2 and 3, the horizontal displacements had
with single conductors and case 3 with close bundled only been measured in a few tests and are in good
conductors. Figure 8.11 and Figure 8.12 give the results. agreement, Figure 8.11b and Figure 8.12b.
In Figure 8.11a, many results lie within the range 25 8.3.2. Strained conductors
%. In Figure 8.11a and Figure 8.12a, the marks above
+25 % show that the standard calculates values far on Case *8 (FGH 1985)
the safe side; this is due to the fact that in some cases
the span rotates one or several times, see Figure 4.2 of The span length is 40 m, in case 8 with a single
[Ref 1]. The measured second maximum of the force at conductor Al/St 537/53 and with single and bundled
the bottom of the movement is lower than the force in a conductors Al/St 537/53 and Al/St 1045/55. Figure
span falling down from its highest position. When the 8.13a compares the maxima of Ft and Ff, including the
kinetic energy is exhausted a fall from the highest
tests where the sub-conductors clash effectively. Only in
position can occur and this is taken into account in the
some tests, the sub-conductors do not clash effectively,
standard. In addition, at the beginning of the fall down
Figure 8.13b, but in the most cases, the swing out and
the kinetic energy in the conductor is not zero which is
drop forces are decisive, Figure 8.13c. The horizontal
considered by the factor 1.2 in Equation (*35) of the
displacement bh is given in Figure 8.13d. A good
standard, see Section 4.2.4 of [Ref 1]. The results under
the 25 % line are only with low short-circuit forces agreement is achieved.
compared to the static force and also with short-circuit
durations less than 0,1 s.
a) b)
8 12
0% +25
+25% 0%
10
6
-25% -25%
8
4 6
F c/F st F c/F st
4
2
2
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
F m/F st
F m/F st
120
a) b)
18 0,8
+25% 0% +25% 0%
16 m
14 0,6
12 -25% -25%
0,5
10
0,4
8
F c/F st b hc 0,3
6
ACSR 120/20; 15 m 0,2
4
ACSR 537/53; 15 m ACSR 120/20; 15 m
a) b)
22 0,8
20 +25% 0% +25% 0%
m
18
16 0,6
-25%
14 -25%
0,5
12
0,4
10 b hc
F c/F st
8 0,3
6 2 x ACSR 537/53; 15 m
4 x ACSR 537/53; 15 m 0,2 2 x ACSR 537/53; 15 m
4 2 x ASCR 1055/45; 15 m 4 x ACSR 537/53; 15 m
121
a) c)
5 5
+25 % 0% 0%
+25 %
4 4
-25 % -25 %
3 3
F c/F st F c/F st
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
F m/F st F m/F st
b) d)
5 1,5
0% +25 % 0%
+25 %
m
4
F pi,c/F st b hc
2
0,5
0 0,0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0,0 0,5 1,0 m 1,5
F pi,m/F st b hm
122
a) b)
4 6
+25 % 0 % +25 % 0 %
5
3
-25% 4 -25%
2 3
F t,c/F st F pi,c/F st
2
1
1
0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 1 2 3 4 F pi,m/F st
F t,m/F st
Figure 8.14: Cases *12 to *14
a) Case *12: Short-circuit tensile force Ft (18 tests)
b) Cases *13 and *14: Pinch force Fpi (19 tests)
123
a) b)
24 2,0
+25 % 0%
kN +25 % 0%
m
20
1,5
16 -25 % -25 %
12 1,0
Fc b hc
8
0,5
West West
4 East East
East, dropper in midspan East, dropper in midspan
0 0,0
0 4 8 12 16 20 kN 24 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 m 2,0
Fm b hm
a) b)
20 3,0
0% m 0%
kN +25 % +25 %
2,5
16
Fc 8 b hc
1,0
West
4 West 0,5
East
East
East, dropper in midspan
East, dropper in midspan
0,0
0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 m 3,0
0 4 8 12 16 kN 20 b hm
Fm
Figure 8.17: Cases *5 and *7: Cu 105 mm2 (5 tests)
a) Short-circuit force
b) Horizontal displacement bh
124
through the complete span and the droppers are without
Cases 4 and 5 (FGH 1997)
current (path B) or through half the span and through
the droppers (path C). Reference is path A without
Both cases have the same 40-m-span with droppers at
droppers. The calculation is done using the method
midspan. Case 4 is a 100-kV- and case 5 a 400-kV-
described in paragraph 3.3 and Figure 8.18 and Figure
arrangement. The short-circuit current flows either
8.19 give the results.
a) b)
60 2,0
kN +25 % 0% m +25 % 0 %
50
1,6
30 1,0
Fc b hc 0,8
20 0,6
0,4
10 current path:
current path: 0,2 A B C
A B C
0 0,0
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 m 2,0
0 10 20 30 40 50 kN 60
b hm
Fm
Figure 8.18: Case 4: 100-kV-bus (59 test)
a) Maximum of Ft and Ff
b) Horizontal displacement bh
a) b)
50 1,2
m +25 % 0 %
kN 0%
+25 % 1,0
40
10 0,2
current path:
current path:
A B C
A B C
0,0
0
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 m 1,2
0 10 20 30 40 kN 50 b hm
Fm
125
Case *11 (EDF 1990) 8.3.3. Bundle pinch effect
This is the 102-m-span in Case *11 but with dropper in In cases 7 (University of Erlangen-Nrnberg 1985) and
midspan. The short-circuit current flows through the *16 (Furukawa 1966), only bundle pinch effect is
complete span, path B is with dropper and path A the measured. In case 7, a special test arrangement had been
reference without dropper, see also [Ref 3]. The used with short span length and low static tensile forces,
calculation is also done using the method described in whereas in case *16 a 35-m-span with high static tensile
paragraph 3.3. Figure 8.20 gives the results. force. For these very different test structures, sufficient
accuracy is obtained in most tests, Figure 8.21 and
Figure 8.22.
a) b)
40 4,0
0% 0%
kN
35 m +25 %
+25 %
30 3,0
-25 %
25 2,5 -25 %
20 2,0
Fc b c 1,5
15
10 1,0
8 -25% 4 -25%
6 3
F c/F st F c/F st
4 2
2 1
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
F m/F st F m/F st
Figure 8.21: Case 7: Pinch force Fpi (73 tests) Figure 8.22: Case *16: Pinch force Fpi (29 tests)
126
8.3.4. Conclusions
127
Linkage to the second short-circuit
8.4. INFLUENCE OF THE RECLOSURE During the second short-circuit, the movement is
ruled by equation :
T2
The following annex gives a simplified method = r2 cos ( ) sin ( ) =
without dropping after the first fault. The motion of 4 2
the equivalent pendulum is on a circle.
1 + r 22 sin ( 1, 2 )
After the first short-circuit
in which r2 is the ratio of LAPLACE force due to
Let us examine the most simple case when: m the second current I2 to gravitational force per unit
2 length. The first range integral can be expressed by :
without dropping. T2
This connection can be done following two methods: 8 2
[ ]
2 i 2 = r2 .sin + cos r2 .sin i
- chapter 4.2 (volume 1 of [Ref 1]) gives the
maximum angle after the first short-circuit: cos i
m = arccos . leading to the relation :
8 2
- the IEC 60865 gives the following formula (*31).
This swing -out angle has been chosen to take into
2
T
[
= 2 1 + r 22 cos( 1,2 ) cos( 2 ) ]
account the "worst case" which is a short-circuit i
duration less than or equal to the stated short-circuit with cos( 2 ) = and i parameter
duration Tkl. 1 + r22
defined by r2 .sin i + .
At the end of dead time Tu, the angle of the
pendulum is called i . Its values : The period is given by :
Tu 0.8b c
i = m cos 2 + 2
T
0
g
Tres 2 =
Tu T . k
0
Tu 2
2
2
i = k cos 2 0 + sin 2 0 4 1 + r 1
2
64 90
2
T 2 T
0.8bc At first approximation, the movement is given by :
2
g t
where To = is the period of the free = 1, 2 + 2 sin 2 + =
2 m
2
Tres 2
1
64 90 t
1, 2 + ( i 1,2 ) cos 2 +
motion (without current) and m is the maximum Tres 2
swing-out angle (4.9 volume 1 of [Ref 1]).
Tres 2 i t
sin 2
The speed before the reclosure is given by : 2 Tres2
2 Tu Tu
i = k .sin 2 o + k . cos 2 o At the end of the short-circuit t=Tk2, the angle is
T T
k 2 = (Tk 2 )
o
T
T
0
Let us consider the time t0 = for
The radial force during this short-circuit is given by
2
the (4.11 in volume 1 of [Ref 1]) formula type which
which the angle is equal to m . If Tu is higher is transformed as follows :
than to t0 , the angle is effectively equal to
m . If not done angle and subsequently i is R
= 3 cos ( ) + 3 r2 sin ( ) 2 i
always lower than m . G
128
Tension during the short-circuit The applied force during a short-circuit Ft to
The mechanical tension given by this relation leads to anchoring points is given by the relation (*34).
the study of the following function :
y = 3.cos + 3. r2 .sin 2 i The equation for state changes allows calculation of
tensions at anchoring points by the use of the formula
since 2 is always positive, the following relation is of the IEC 60865, described in (*33).
true : cos + r2 .sin i
The heating modifies this change state equation as
The consequence is : y i . following :
3 3 + 2 ( 2 + + * ) 2 + (1 + 2 + 2 * )
The maximum of the tension is reached when
= 1,2 . Effectively the derived value is equal to 0 ( 2 + ) + * = 0
for this value : . . E. s
with =
*
dy Fst
= 3.sin + 3. r2 .cos = 0
d
The drop force can change with the heating . The IEC
tg = r2 = 1, 2 60865 does not take into account this influence. It is
also neglected here because this heating influence is
This maximum has a value : very low.
y M = 3. 1 + r 2 i
2
2
Value of angle at the end of the second short-
This maximum is reached for circuit.
Tk 2
T
t 1 = Min res 2 ( k. ) k 2 = 1,2 + ( i 1,2 ) cos 2 +
k 2 Tres 2
Tk 2 < t 1 2 = y The equation (4.4 volume 1 of [Ref 1]) is the rule for
the movement. Its first range linked with the above
with
conditions leads to :
y = 3. ( cos k 2 + r2 .sin k 2 ) 2 i 1
2 = 2 2 [ cos + r2 .sin k 2 i ]
The tension at anchoring points during this second
short-circuit is given by the equation (*34). For the The maximum angle m 2 after the second short-
equation (*33), the influence of the heating due to the
first short-circuit can also be analyzed. circuit is given by :
cos( m 2 ) = i r2 .sin k 2
Influence of the first-fault heating
= r2 (sin i sin k 2 ) + cos( m )
In IEC 60865, the heating is not taken into account
during the movement. The heating is used to estimate Work of LAPLACE forces
the distance between the two conductors ( CD ). Work of LAPLACE forces after the first short -
circuit is given by :
But in case of a reclosure, it is necessary to TL1 = Mg 0.8 bc r.sin ( k )
understand the influence of the first-fault heating :
-in the state change equation for the tensile force = Mg 0.8 bc (1 cos( m ))
during the second short-circuit.
-on the second short-circuit drop force. Work of LAPLACE forces after the second short -
circuit is expressed by :
129
TL 2 = Mg0.8b c r2 . ( sin( k 2 ) sin( i ))
The whole work of LAPLACE forces after the second
short - circuit is equal to :
1 cos( m ) +
TL1+ 2 = Mg 0.8bc which
r2 .(sin ( k 2 ) sin ( i ))
means: TL1+ 2 = Mg 0.8bc (1 cos( m 2 ))
130
1, 2 = artg( r2 ) =67
8.5. EXAMPLE OF RECLOSURE
CALCULATION Quantity for the maximum swing out angle
The case 9 EDF tests in the CIGRE brochure 105 i = r2 . sin i + =-0.005
concerns two spans of 34 and 68 m using 1 x ASTER
(570 mm) cable per phase. The reclosure cycle is Angle 2 of the second short-circuit :
:Tk1=85ms / Tu=2s / Tk2=95 ms.
Angle at the end of dead time : i = -20.9 Tensile force during the second short-circuit :
Ft2=9676N
Radial speed at the end of dead time : i =69.8/s Maximum swing-out angle at the second short-circuit
131
IEC 60865 Calculations
If the clearance time is taken equal Tk=Tk1 +
Tk2=0.175 s, IEC standard calculations give the
following values : Ft=13816N, Ff=24235N
span IEC Appendix tests
68 m 865 1
Ft N 13816 9676 11432
Ff N 24235 22469 22051
Table 8.2 : Comparisons between tests and calculations
132
are to be passed with neglect of the statements in the
dotted boxes. The calculation is finished when
8.6. FLOW CHARTS TO THE STANDARDISED reaching END 2.
METHOD FOR RIGID BUSBARS
In paragraph 2.2.3 it is shown that the conductor
In paragraph 2.2, the formulas are listed and the stresses are greater in the second current flow
background is described for the estimation of the according to Table 2 of the standard and can be
short-circuit strength of busbars with rigid conductors greater according to Figures 4 and 5 of the standard
according to the standard IEC/EN 60865-1 [Ref 2], with relevant frequencies. This can cause higher
[Ref 3]. For better clearness, the flow charts of the forces on the supports during the first current flow.
procedure are performed in this chapter with and Therefore it is recommended to follow the complete
without calculating the relevant frequencies. flow chart including the statements in the dotted
boxes which compare the forces at the supports
The flow charts are divided in several parts to show during the first and second current flow:
the foregoing for single main conductors as well as if VF Vr > 1 and VF > 1 follows from Figures 4
for main conductors consisting of sub-conductors. and 5 of the standard with calculation of the
conductor frequencies,
In the statements, the equations [(...)], figures [F...] and always without calculation of the conductor
and tables [T...] of the standard are cited. reclosing frequencies.
means three-phase automatic reclosing.
In the flow chart, four flags STOP 1 to STOP 4 are
included. When they are reached, the stresses in the
The statements are to execute in the given order. They
conductors is too high and modifications in design are
are suitable for three-phase systems as well as for
necessary:
single-phase two-line systems; at this Fm is either Fm3
or Fm2.
STOP 1: The sub-conductors do not
withstand. Either the distance between two
For the yield point of conductor materials the actual
adjacent spacers is too large or the sub-
values should be used. If only minimum and
conductors are too small.
maximum values are available, Rp0,2 is the minimum
value and Rp0,2 the maximum value. STOP 2: The main conductors do not
withstand. Either the distance between two
If there is no three-phase automatic reclosing used in adjacent supports is too large or the main
the network, conductors are too small.
with calculation of the conductor frequencies the STOP 3: The sub-conductors do not
parts a) to e) withstand in the case of three-phase automatic
without calculation of the conductor frequencies reclosing. Either the distance between two
the parts a) to d) adjacent spacers is too large or the sub-
are to be passed and the calculation is finished when conductors are too small.
reaching END 1.
STOP 4: The main conductors do not
If three-phase automatic reclosing is used in the withstand in the case of three-phase automatic
system, there is a first short-circuit current flow, a reclosing. Either the distance between two
dead time and after this a second short-circuit current adjacent supports is too large or the main
flow if the reclosing is unsuccessful which has to be conductors are too small.
taken into account for short-circuit withstand. For better design, it is recommended to do the
Determining according to the standard, the conductor calculation always considering the relevant
stresses and the forces on the support are calculated frequencies of the conductors especially in the case of
during the second short-circuit current flow. In this HV- and UHV-busbars which have low frequencies.
case,
with calculation of the conductor frequencies the In the following, the flow charts are given for the
parts a), b), c), f) and g) determination of the short-circuit stresses and forces
without calculation of the conductor frequencies with and without calculating the relevant conductor
the parts a), b), e) and f) frequencies:
133
8.6.1.1 With calculation of the relevant frequencies c) Calculation of the relevant natural
frequencies of main conductors and sub-
The calculation has to be done in the following steps: conductors:
c=1 c F7
am (5,6)
Fm (2,3)
fc (16) fc (17)
Y N
n=1
fcs (18)
as (7,8)
Fs (4)
T3
T3
T3
q T4
134
d) Calculation of the stresses due to the forces e) Determination of the forces at the supports:
between the main conductors and due to the forces
between the sub-conductors; check of the short-
circuit withstand of main conductors and sub-
conductors:
Y
VFVr < 1
V F4 N
' Y
Vr = 1
N
m (9)
' Y
Y N N
n=1
'
Vs F4
Fd (15)
Vrs = 1
s Rp0,2 N
(14)
Y Stop 1
tot (12) In case of a single conductor, tot is to be replaced by
m.
Stop 2 Y Y Stop 2
135
f) Calculation of the stresses due to the forces g) Determination of the forces at the supports
between the main conductors and between the during the second short-circuit current flow and
sub-conductors during the second short-circuit estimation of the design load:
current flow; check of the short-circuit withstand
of main conductors and sub-conductors:
V F4
Y
VFVr < 1
Vr F5 N
' Y
m (9)
N
Y N
n=1 ' Y
Vrs F5 N
'
s (10)
Fd (15)
s Rp0,2 N
(14)
Y Stop 3
tot (12)
N Y
Stop 4 Y Y Stop 4
End 2
136
c) Calculation of the stresses due to the forces
8.6.1.2 Without calculation of the relevant
between the main conductors and due to the forces
frequencies
between the sub-conductors; check of the short-
circuit withstand of main conductors and sub-
Without consideration of the relevant frequencies, the
conductors:
calculation is carried out using the maximum possible
values according to Table 2 of the standard.
a) Calculation of the short-circuit current forces VVr = 1 T2
between the main conductors and between the
sub-conductors:
m (9)
Start
Y N
n=1
am (5,6)
Fm (2,3) VsVrs = 1 T2
Y N s (10)
n=1
as (7,8)
s Rp0,2 N
Fs (4)
(14)
Y Stop 1
tot (12)
T3
q T4
137
d) Determination of the forces at the supports e) Calculation of the stress due to the forces
using Table 2 of the standard: between the main conductors and between the
sub-conductors during second short-circuit current
flow; check of the short-circuit withstand of main
and sub-conductors:
' Y
N
= 1,8 T2
' Y '
*
m (9)
N
* Y N
n=1
s (10)
reclosing N End 1
Y
s Rp0,2 N
(14)
Y Stop 3
Stop 4 Y Y Stop 4
138
f) Determination of the forces at the supports
during the second short-circuit current flow using
Table 2 of the standard and estimation of the
design load:
' Y
' Y '
*
Fd (15)
N Y
End 2
139
Replace equation number
8.7. ERRATA TO BROCHURE NO 105
(4.3)
by
In Volume 1 of the Brochure No 105
(*19)
THE MECHANICAL EFFECTS OF
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS Section 4.5.1, p 56, left column:
IN OPEN AIR SUBSTATIONS Replace equation number
(Rigid and Flexible Bus-Bars) (4.33)
April 1996 by
misprints were detected and the reader is asked to (4.40)
correct them as follows: and equation number
(4.34)
Section 3.4.1, p 30, right column: by
In the para following equation (3.12), replace (4.41)
and q = 1,7
by Section 4.5.1, p 56, right column:
q = 1,7 and In the first equation, replace equation number
(4.35)
Section 4.2.5, p 42, right column: by
In the para following equation (4.15), replace (4.42)
(4.13) In the equation following equation (*25), replace
by
equation number
(4.15) (4.35)
Section 4.2.6, p 43, right column: by
Replace equation number (4.43)
(4.10) Replace equation number
by (4.28)
(4.17) by
In the next para, replace (4.44)
with (4.14) and equation number
by (4.36)
above by
(4.45)
Section 4.3.2.1, p 46, right column: In the para following equation (4.43), replace
In equation (*43), replace 15 and 300
ls 50 as by
by 0.4 and 8
ls 50 as
In equation (*44), replace Section 5.3.1, p 72, right column:
ls 70 as In the last para, replace
by 1.35 1.5
ls 70 as by
1.3 1.7
Section 4.3.2.2-4.3.2.6, pp 47-52: and
Renumber equations [39]
(4.11) to (4.32) respectively by
by [107], see also section 3.4.1
(4.18) to (4.39) respectively
[shift by 7]. Section 5.3.1, p 73, left column:
In accordance, the references in these subsections are In the last para, replace
to be replaced by the changed numbers formula 4.2.6
by
Section 4.3.2.3, p 49, right column: formula (*34) in section 4.2.4,
Replace equation number see also section 4.3.3
(*A.5)
by Section 5.3.2, p 74, right column:
(*A.6) Delete the para
On the other hand ... calculation methods.
Section 4.5.1, p 55, right column:
140
Section 5.3.2, p 75, right column:
In the second para, delete
(section 5.3)
141
CIGRE Study Committee 23 (Substations)
Working Group 23-03
ESCC Task Force (Effects of short-circuit currents)
Volume 2:
September 2002
TABLE OF CONTENT
PREFACE 3
CASE 1 5
Tests performed at FGH (Germany) in 1972
cross section: Al 240 mm2 and ACSR 537/53 mm2 twin bundle (n = 2)
short-circuit current: 20 kA (52 kA peak) and 30 kA (78 kA peak)
span length: 15 m, 10 m and 7 m
CASE 2 12
cross section: ACSR 120/20 mm2, ACSR 537/53 mm2 and ACSR 1055/45 mm2, single conductor
CASE 3 18
cross section: ACSR 537/53 mm2 and ACSR 1055/45 mm2, two and four sub-conductors
CASE 4 31
CASE 5 42
CASE 6 49
Tests performed at sterreichische Elektrizittswirtschafts-AG (Austria) in 1963
cross section: ACSR 537/53 mm2 twin bundle (n = 2)
short-circuit current: 4 kA eff to 21,5 kA eff
span length: 12 m
CASE 7 52
Tests performed at Lehrstuhl fr Elektrische Energieversorgung (Germany) in 1985
cross section: ACSR 340/30 mm2 and ACSR 605/70 mm2 twin bundle (n = 2)
short-circuit current: 3,5 kA eff to 11 kA eff
span length: 7,6 m
CASE 8 56
Tests performed at VEIKI Laboratories (Hungary) in 1997
cross section: CONDOR 455, twin bundle (n = 2)
short-circuit current: 35 kA eff and 48 kA eff
span length: 60 m
2
PREFACE
Because of the very high complexity of the mechanical effects in substations caused by short-circuit cur-
rents, a great number of short-circuit tests have been conducted by many companies. The aim was
to learn about the physical phenomena,
to test installation hardware,
to verify the calculation with Finite-Element or Finite-Differences Programs,
to develop simplified methods for calculation of forces and stresses.
Test results are the only basis for the evaluation and the use of advanced calculation approaches as well
as simplified methods. On the other hand, calculation methods unhide the effects and relations between
different causes and define new test directions which need to be carried out. The importance of tests has
more weight due to the nonlinear character of the phenomena. Any extrapolation or generalisation of
previously obtained results needs further checking.
Evaluation of the structural response due to the short-circuit dynamic loading is one of the aims of stud-
ies. Nowadays there is no particular problem in the case of advanced methods but for simplified methods
due to the multifrequency character of the systems, the spectrum density techniques are the most suitable
for describing loadings, and transfer functions are the most compatible description for the response of the
structure. Tests results are the only option to obtain practical data to built up acceptable models of trans-
fer functions for calculation approaches.
In Volume 2 of [1] a data base with reference tests is published. It consists of 18 different cases of ar-
rangements with rigid busbars as well as flexible conductors done in international test laboratories. In this
brochure, the presentation of tests is continued. Results of tests with flexible conductors are described in
eight cases.
three cases concerning arrangements with single and bundled slack conductors,
two cases concerning strain conductors with droppers in midspan
and three cases where only conductor pinch effects are studied.
Reference:
[1] CIGRE SC 23-11/IEC TC 73: The mechanical effects of short-circuit currents in open air substations
(Rigid and flexible bus-bars). Volume 2: Data base of reference tests. Paris: CIGRE, 1996.
3
PART I
4
1. CASE 1
Tests performed at FGH (Germany) in 1972
cross section: Al 240 mm2 and ACSR 537/53 mm2 twin bundle (n = 2)
short-circuit current: 20 kA (52 kA peak) and 30 kA (78 kA peak)
span length: 15 m, 10 m and 7 m
Bus-Bar Geometry
l
6 ls 6
4
ik
5 2
3
1 4
2
as
5
l span length
ls centre-line distance between spacers
a centre-line distance between main-conductors
as centre-line distance between sub-conductors
k number of spacers
5
Aim of the tests is to define conditions for as/ds and ls/as where the sub-conductors clash effectively and
the pinch force Fpi becomes not higher than 1,1 Ft; Ft is the swing-out maximum of a single conductor
with the same cross-section and material properties as both sub-conductors.
Basic data
Conductors:
mass per Young's temperature
cross-section diameter
unit length modulus coefficient
A d m' E
mm2 mm kg/m N/mm2 10-6/K
Al 240 242,5 0,670 20,3 55000 23,0
ACSR 537/53 590 1,937 32 69000 19,8
6
Results
1, 6 Time traces
2, 7 Current: Ik = 30 kA; ip = 78,3 kA; tk = 0,6 s
3, 5 Insulator stresses: in direction (3) of conductor 6,45 kN; at right angles (5) to con-
ductor 1,45 kN; initial static tensile force 2,65 kN
8 Conductor tensile force: 9,5 kN after 0,1 s
4, 9 Zero line for curve 3 and for curve 8
The recordings of the tests were stopped a few milliseconds after the end of the short-circuit current flow,
therefore no fall of span is recorded.
At the bottom of the insulator, the strain is measured and an equivalent static load is calculated which acts
on the top of the insulator and leads to the same dynamic stresses. This equivalent static load is given in
the diagrams below as function of the number of spacers. Parameters are the centre-line distance of the
sub-conductors, the short-circuit current and the initial static tensile force.
The tests show, that the tensile force due to pinch effect is not higher than 1,1 Ft if one of the conditions
as/ds 2,0 and ls/as 50
or
as/ds 2,5 and ls/as 70
is fulfilled. In this case, the conductors clash effectively and the pinch force Fpi can be ignored in contrast
to Ft. Ft is the swing-out maximum of an equivalent single conductor. With this, the tensile force at the
top of the insulators is not greater than 1,5 Ft. If the conductors do not clash effectively the forces on the
top can be higher; but its impulse length is short.
7
a) 10
kN
F 4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
b) 10
F
6
60 mm; 30 kA; 2,3 ... 2,6 kN
85 mm; 30 kA; 2,3 ... 2,4 kN
100 mm; 30 kA; 2,5 ... 2,6 kN
4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
c) 12
50 mm; 20 kA; 3,6 ... 3,7 kN
kN 100 mm; 20 kA; 2,7 kN
50 mm; 30 kA; 3,4 ... 3,8 kN
10
4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
k
Figure 1.3: Short-circuit tensile force F as a function of number of spacers k with 15-m-span
a) Al 240
b) ACSR 537/53, medium static tensile force
c) ACSR 537/53, high static tensile force
8
a) 10
50 mm; 30 kA; 0,7 ... 0,8 kN
kN
50 mm; 30 kA; 0,9 kN
8 85 mm; 30 kA; 0,8 ... 0,9 kN
4
F
0
0 2 4 6 8
b) 10
kN
4
F
c) 10
kN
8
4
F
50 mm; 30 kA; 1,7 ... 1,9 kN
2 50 mm; 30 kA; 1,9 ... 2,1 kN
85 mm; 30 kA; 1,8 ... 2,0 kN
0
0 2 4 6 8
k
Figure 1.4: Short-circuit tensile force F as a function of number of spacers k with 10-m-span
with ACSR 537/53
a) Low static tensile force
b) Medium static tensile force
c) High static tensile force
9
10
kN 50 mm; 30 kA; 0,7 ... 0,8 kN
60 mm; 30 kA; 0,7 ... 0,8 kN
8
85 mm; 30 kA; 0,7 kN
F 4
0
0 2 4 6 8
k
Figure 1.5: Short-circuit tensile force F as a function of number of spacers k with 7-m-span
with ACSR 537/53
References:
[1] Mathejczyk, M.; Stein, N.: Kurzschluseilzge enggebndelter Doppelseile in Schaltanlagen. etz-a
97(1976), pp 323-328.
[2] Hosemann, G.; Mathejczyk, M.; Stein, N.: Short-circuit forces in single and bundled conductors.
Cigre 23-77 (WG 02) 2 IWD, April 1977.
10
2. CONFIGURATION FOR CASES 2 AND 3
Tests performed at FGH (Germany) in 1978
short-circuit current: 10 kA (26 kA peak) to 40 kA (104 kA peak)
span length: 15 m and 4 m
Bus-Bar Geometry
4000 l 4000
940 940
6 6
7
ik 4 3
1997
2662
1 2
l span length
a centre-line distance between main conductors
Basic Data
centre-line distance between main-conductors: a = 4 m
characteristics of the supports:
support 1 support 2
eigenfrequency spring coefficient eigenfrequency spring coefficient
Hz kN/mm Hz kN/mm
l = 15 m 30 2,5 30 2,0
l=4m 30 2,5 28 1,7
spring coefficients of both supports: l = 15 m: 1,11 kN/mm
l = 4 m: 1,01 kN/mm
short-circuit characteristics: = 1,84 ( = 55 ms)
short-circuit duration: Tk = 0,3 s
Reference:
[1] Stein, N.; Herrmann, B.: Kurzschluseilzge in Schaltanlagen. Elektrizittswirtschaft 78 (1979),
179-186.
11
3. CASE 2
cross section: ACSR 120/20 mm2, ACSR 537/53 mm2 and ACSR 1055/45 mm2, single conductor
Basic data
Conductors:
cross-section mass per Young's temperature
diameter
unit length modulus coefficient
A d m' E
2 2
mm mm kg/m N/mm 10-6/K
ACSR 120/20 141,4 20,3 0,670 77000 18,9
ACSR 537/53 590,0 32,0 1,937 69000 19,8
ACSR 1055/45 1100,9 43,18 3,290 60000 18,1
Results
During the movement of the conductor, several maxima of the short-circuit force can be observed as
shown in figure 2. The first maximum occurs during or at the end of the short-circuit current flow when
the conductor swings out from its initial static position. The other maxima are some hundred milliseconds
after the end of the short circuit when the conductor rotates or at the end of the fall down.
At the bottom of the insulator, the strain is measured and an equivalent static load is calculated for the
maxima which acts on the top of the insulator. This equivalent static load is given in the Figure 3.2 to
Figure 3.5 as function of the ratio :
0 I k2
F 2 a
r= =
G mg n
Parameter is the initial static tensile force Fst. The first maximum belongs to the swing out, the second to
the rotation or fall down.
In Figure 3.6, the short-circuit duration is varied. The equivalent static load as well as the short-circuit
tensile force acting on the top of the insulator are shown.
The first maximum of the short-circuit tensile force on the top of the insulator is not greater than 150 %
of the equivalent static load. The second maximum of the short-circuit tensile force is between 80 % and
100 %. In the case of the 4-m-span with ACSR 1055/45, the short-circuit tensile force is much greater
than the equivalent static force: up to 350 % for the first and up to 250 % for the second maximum.
In a lot of tests, the movement of the conductors is recorded with a high-speed camera. The maximum
horizontal displacement is taken from the films and given in the Figure 3.7 to Figure 3.9.
12
Figure 3.1: Stress at the bottom of support and conductor movement in midspan
Conductor ACSR 537/53; span length 15 m; initial static tensile force 1 kN; static sag 0,53 m
a) Rotation of span: Ik = 29 kA
b) Fall of span: Ik = 22 kA
13
7
kN
6
F 3
0,2 kN
1 0,4 kN
0,6 kN
0,8 kN
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
r
20
kN
16
12
8
F
4
1,0 kN
1,5 kN
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
r
14
20
kN
16
12
F 8
1,5 kN
4 2,0 kN
3,0 kN
4,8 kN
0
0,0 0,4 0,8 1,2 1,6 2,0 2,4 2,8
r
8
kN
7
F
3
2
0,13 kN
0,45 kN
1
0,70 kN
1,00 kN
0
0,0 0,4 0,8 1,2 1,6 2,0 2,4 2,8
r
15
12
kN
10
F
4
0
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 s 0,5
Tk
Figure 3.6: Influence of the short-circuit duration: ACSR 1055/45, l = 15 m, Fst = 2 kN,
Ik = 25 kA
1. Maximum: short-circuit tensile force equivalent static load
2. Maximum: short-circuit tensile force equivalent static load
0,8
m
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
bh
0,3
0,2
0,2 kN
0,1 0,4 kN
0,6 kN
0,0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
16
0,8
m
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
b h 0,3
0,2
1,0 kN
1,5 kN
0,1
0,0
0 1 2 3 4 5
r
0,8
m
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
b h 0,3
1,5 kN
0,2
2,0 kN
3,0 kN
0,1
4,8 kN
2,0 kN; 0,1 s
0,0
0,0 0,4 0,8 1,2 1,6 2,0 2,4 2,8
17
4. CASE 3
cross section: ACSR 537/53 mm2 and ACSR 1055/45 mm2, two and four sub-conductors
Basic data
Conductors:
cross-section mass per Young's temperature
diameter
unit length modulus coefficient
A d m' E
mm2 mm kg/m N/mm2 10-6/K
ACSR 537/53 590,0 32,0 1,937 69000 19,8
ACSR 1055/45 1100,9 43,18 3,290 60000 18,1
Results
During the movement of the conductor, several maxima of the short-circuit force can be observed as
shown in Figure 4.1. The first maximum occurs a few milliseconds after the initiation of the short-circuit,
the second one at the end of the short-circuit current flow when the conductor swings out from its initial
static position. The third maximum is some hundred milliseconds after the end of the short circuit when
the conductor rotates or at the end of the fall down.
18
a)
19
a) b)
Figure 4.2: Oscillogram of the forces and conductor displacements at midspan (continued)
ip = 104 kA, Ik = 40 kA; span length 15 m
a) Conductor 4ACSR 537/53; k = 3; Fst = 4 kN
b) Conductor 4ACSR 1055/45; k = 3; Fst = 8 kN
The presentation of the results is done in two parts. In the first part, the forces during the movement of the
main conductor are shown, i. e. the second and third maxima in the time history, and afterwards the forces
due to pinch effect in the bundle, which are given by the first maxima.
At the bottom of the insulator, the strain is measured and an equivalent static load is calculated for the
maxima which acts on the top of the insulator. This equivalent static load is given in the Figure 4.3 to 4.7
as function of the ratio
0 I k2
F 2 a
r= =
G n mg n
Parameters are the bundle configuration, span length and the initial static tensile force Fst. The second
maximum (continuous lines) belongs to the swing out, the third (dotted lines) to the rotation or fall down.
The lines connect the test results for better reading.
Because these maxima are nearly independent of the number of spacers, the results are given for the tests
without spacers (k = 0).
The tests show that the equivalent static load Ff during rotation or fall of the span (third maximum) is
always higher than the load Ft during or at the end of the short-circuit current flow (second maximum), as
shown in Figure 4.3 to 4.6, except for the 4-m-span, Figure 4.7.
The second maximum of the short-circuit tensile force in the clamp at the top of the insulator is not
greater than
1,3 Ft in the case 2ACSR 537/53, l = 15 m;
1,1 Ft in all other cases with l = 15 m;
1,7 Ft in the case 2ACSR 537/53, l = 4 m.
The third maximum of the short-circuit tensile force on the top of the insulator is in the range of
0,9 Ff and 1,04 Ff in the case of l = 15 m;
0,95 Ff and 1,2 Ff in the case of l = 4 m and Ik up to 30 kA ; but 1,4 Ff for Ik = 40 kA.
20
In some tests, the movement of the conductors is recorded with a high-speed camera. The maximum hori-
zontal displacement is taken from the films and given in Figure 4.8.
20
kN
16
12
8
F
4 1,3 kN
1,5 kN
2,0 kN
0
0,0 0,4 0,8 1,2 1,6 2,0 2,4
r
20
kN
16
12
8
F
4 4,0 kN
5,8 kN
0
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2
r
21
24
kN
20
16
12
F
8
4 3,0 kN
4,0 kN
0
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4
r
24
kN
20
16
12
F
8
4
5,8 kN
7,9 kN
0
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8
r
22
8
kN
6
4
F
2
0,5 kN
0
0,0 0,4 0,8 1,2 1,6 2,0 2,4
r
0,6
0,5
0,4
b h 0,3
0,2
2 x 537/53; 2,0 kN
4 x 537/53; 4,0 kN
0,1
2 x 1055/45; 3,0 kN
4 x 1055/45; 7,8 kN
0,0
0,0 0,4 0,8 1,2 1,6 2,0 2,4
r
The equivalent static loads Fpi caused by pinch effects represented by the first maximum in the time scale
history are shown in Figure 4.9 to 4.12 as functions of the number of spacers k for the 15-m-span. Pa-
rameters are the bundle configuration, the short-circuit current and the static tensile force. The test results
are connected by continuous lines for better reading.
23
Because the equivalent static load Ft during swing out is lower than the load due to rotation or fall of
span, the latter one is also given in the figures, connected by dotted lines.
Due to the 100-Hz-component in the time scale, Figure 4.1, the tensile forces in the clamp at the top of
the insulator during the first maximum can be
up to 3,8 Fpi with 2ACSR 537/53; up to 1,8 Fpi with 4ACSR 537/53;
up to 2,5 Fpi with 2ACSR 1055/45; up to 2,0 Fpi with 4ACSR 1055/45.
Compared to the equivalent static force caused by the third maximum in the time scale, the tensile forces
in the clamp at the top of the insulator during the first maximum can be
up to 1,6 Ff with 2ACSR 537/53; up to 1,5 Ff with 4ACSR 537/53;
up to 1,3 Ff with 2ACSR 1055/45; up to 1,9 Ff with 4ACSR 1055/45
for Ik = 30 kA, 40 kA and usually used n = 1, 2. As the impulse length of the first maximum is very short,
the rating of the clamp should not be based on this.
a) 16 b) 16
kN kN
12 12
8 8
F F
4 4
0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
k k
24
a) 24 b) 24
kN kN
20 20
16 16
12 12
F F
8 8
4 4
0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
k k
ACSR 537/53, l = 15 m, as = 60 mm
Figure 4.10: Equivalent static load: 4
a) Fst = 4 kN b) Fst = 6 kN
1. Maximum 3. Maximum
! 20 kA 30 kA " 40 kA
a) 20 b) 20
kN kN
16 16
12 12
F 8 F 8
4 4
0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
k k
ACSR 1055/45, l = 15 m, as = 80 mm
Figure 4.11: Equivalent static load: 2
a) Fst = 3 kN b) Fst = 4 kN
1. Maximum 3. Maximum
! 20 kA 30 kA " 40 kA
25
a) 20 b) 20
kN kN
16 16
12 12
8 F 8
F
4 4
0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
k k
ACSR 1055/45, l = 15 m, as = 80 mm
Figure 4.12: Equivalent static load: 4
a) Fst = 6 kN b) Fst = 8 kN
1. Maximum 3. Maximum
! 20 kA 30 kA " 40 kA
26
PART II
27
5. CONFIGURATION FOR CASES 4 AND 5
Tests performed at FGH (Germany) in 1997
a)
b)
28
Basic data
2
cross section: 537/53 mm
short-circuit current: 20 kA (50 kA peak) and 40 kA (100 kA peak)
span length: 40 m
The test arrangement is shown in Figure 5.1, the essential data, force and strain measuring points of the
northern portal are shown in Figure 5.1 b). Its structural/geometrical parameters as well as the short-
circuit parameters are in Table 6.1 for case 4 and Table 7.1 for case 5. Three current paths (in the follow-
ing called cases) are tested:
case A: span without droppers, reference case
case B: span with droppers; the short-circuit current flows through the whole span, the droppers are
without current
case C: span with droppers; the short-circuit current flows through half the span and through the drop-
pers to the lower level buses
The support structures, beside their design drawings and construction data, are defined by their essential
structural properties stiffness and eigenfrequency measured in separate mechanical tests and listed in the
following. The mechanical tests show linear elastic characteristics for the supports given in terms of stiff-
ness values. The first eigenfrequencies are excited at mid crossarm, i.e. next to the suspension.
For each combination of test parameters as collected in Table 6.1 for case 4 and Table 7.1 for case 5 at
least two identical tests were performed to show the variance of behaviour and effects. For symmetry
reasons this gives at least 4 values for forces from 2 tests. The variance is, as can be seen, astonishingly
small.
Conductor:
M N M N M N
m kN/mm kN/mm Hz Hz Hz Hz
100 kV 4 8,22 1,551 1,229 9,0 8,3 4,6 3,5
400 kV 5 11,22 1,223 1,086 9,5 9,0 4,3 3,0
29
Characteristics of the supporting structure at the lower end of the droppers:
References:
[1] Stein, N.; Meyer, W.; Miri, A.M.: High Voltage Substation Stranded Conductor Buses with and
without Droppers Tests and Calculation of Short-Circuit Constraints and Behaviour. 8th Interna-
tional Symposium on Short-Circuit Currents in Power Systems, Brussels, Belgium, 8.-10. October
1998, Proceedings pp 115-121
[2] Stein, N.; Miri, A.M.; Meyer, W.: 400 kV Substation Stranded Conductor Buses Tests and Cal-
culations of ShortCircuit Constraints and Behaviour, 7th International Conference on Optimiza-
tion of Electrical and Electronic Equipment OPTIM 2000, Brasov (Romania), 11.12. May 2000;
Proceedings pp 251-257
[3] Stein, N.; Meyer, W.; Miri, A.M.: Tests and Calculation of Short-Circuit Forces and Displacements
in High Voltage Substations with Strained Conductors and Droppers. ETEP 10 (2000) No. 3 , pp
131138
[4] Stein, N.; Meyer, W.; Miri, A.M.: High Voltage Substations with Stranded Conductors and Drop-
pers - Tests and Calculations of Short-Circuit Constraints and Behaviour. 9th International Sympo-
sium on Short-Circuit Currents in Power Systems, Cracow (Poland), 11.-13. October 2000, Pro-
ceedings pp 221-228
30
6. CASE 4
droppers 4 4 4 4
without 4 4
1 x ACSR 537/53
3,2 3,2 3,2 3,2 1,6 3,2
droppers 4 4 4 4 4 4
1 x ACSR 537/53 B
Figure 6.1 & Figure 6.2 show oscillograms of the forces for variants 6 (current path B) and 5 (current
path C). For current path variants A, B and C, Figure 6.3 to 6.11 give the measured forces, minimum air
clearances and maximum horizontal displacements over the respective values of short-circuit duration.
The mean values are connected by straight lines only for better readability.
31
Results
Figure 6.1: Oscillogram of short-circuit test: case B (variant 6); Ik = 40 kA, tk = 0,305 s
Traces:
1 short-circuit current
2 force at the anchoring point of the main conductor
3 force at the bottom of the supporting insulator
4 force at the bottom of the steel support structure
5 force in the clamp at the upper end of the dropper
6 time scale
32
1
Figure 6.2: Oscillogram of short-circuit test: case C (variant 5); Ik = 40 kA, tk = 0,305 s
Traces:
1 short-circuit current
2 force at the anchoring point of the main conductor
3 force at the bottom of the tower (MAFU2)
4 force in the clamp at the upper end of the dropper
5 time scale
33
Figure 6.3: Short-circuit tensile force Ft and drop force Ff
a) Case A b) Case B c) Case C
34
Figure 6.4: Minimum air clearance dmin
a) Cases A and B b) Case C
300 40 kA
F T 200
28,3 kA
100
20 kA
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 s 0,5
b) 500
kN
400
300
40 kA
F T 200
28,3 kA
100
20 kA
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 s 0,5
c) 300
kN
200
40 kA
F T 100
28,3 kA
20 kA
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 s 0,5
tk
Figure 6.6: Forces FT at the bottom of the support struture N (MAFU1 and MAFU2)
a) Case A b) Case B c) Case C
36
a) 8
kN
Fz
4
F ds 40 kA F xy
2
F xy
28,3 kA Fz
20 kA F xy
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 s 0,5
b) 6
kN
4 40 kA F xy
F ds F xy
2 28,3 kA
F xy F z
20 kA
Fz
0
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 s 0,5
tk
Figure 6.7: Forces Fds at the top of the supporting structure : Fxy horizontal, Fz vertical
a) Case B b) Case C
37
a)
6
kN FS
4 40 kA FI
F Bs FS
2
FI
28,3 kA
FS
20 kA FI
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 s 0,5
b) 6
kN
FI
4
40 kA FS
FI
F Bs
2 28,3 kA
FS FI
20 kA
FS
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 s 0,5
Figure 6.8: Forces FBs at the bottom of the supporting structure : FI insulator, Fz steel sup-
port structure
a) Case B b) Case C
38
a) 30
kN
20
F dt
10 40 kA
28,3 kA
20 kA
0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 s 0,5
b) 20
kN
10
40 kA
F dt
28,3 kA
20 kA
0
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 s 0,5
tk
Figure 6.9: Forces Fdt in the clamp at the upper end of the dropper
a) Case B b) Case C
39
a)
1,5
m
20 kA
1,0
28,3 kA
d dmin
0,5
40 kA
0,0
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 s 0,5
b)
1,5
m
1,0
20 kA
d dmin 28,3 kA
0,5
40 kA
0,0
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 s 0,5
tk
40
a)
2,0
m
1,5 40 kA
28,3 kA
1,0
b dh 20 kA
0,5
0,0
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 s 0,5
b)
2,0
m
1,5 40 kA
28,3 kA
1,0 20 kA
b dh
0,5
0,0
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 s 0,5
tk
41
7. CASE 5
Table 7.1: Test parameters
test arrangement 8 9 10
span 40 m 2 x ACSR 537/53 a = 3 m as = 60 mm
droppers
without
1 x ACSR 537/53
7 7 7 7
test arrangement 11 12
current path:
span 40 m 2 x ACSR 537/53 a = 3 m as = 60 mm
A
droppers B
1 x ACSR 537/53
7 7 7 7
Figure 7.1 & Figure 7.2 show oscillograms of the forces for 9 variants (current path B) and 10 (current
path C). For current path variants A, B and C, Figure 7.3 to 7.5 give the measured forces, minimum air
clearances and maximum horizontal displacements over the respective values of short-circuit duration.
The mean values are connected by straight lines only for better readability.
42
Results
1
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Figure 7.2: Oscillogram of short-circuit test: case C (10 variant); Ik = 40 kA, tk = 0,305 s
Traces:
1,5 short-circuit current
2 force at the anchoring point of the main conductor
3 force at the bottom of the steel support (MAFU3)
4 time scale for traces 1 to 3
6 force in the clamp at the upper end of the dropper
7 force in x-axis at the top of the supporting insulator
8 force in y-axis at the top of the supporting insulator
9 horizontal force at the top of the supporting insulator
10,16 time scale for traces 6 to 15
11 force in z-axis at the top of the supporting insulator
12 force in x-axis at the bottom of the supporting insulator
13 force in y-axis at the bottom of the supporting insulator
14 horizontal force at the bottom of the supporting insulator
15 horizontal force at the bottom of the steel support structure
45
a) 50
kN
Ff
40 40 kA
Ft
30 Ff
Ff
Ft Ft
28,3 kA 20 kA
F 20
10
0
b) 50
kN
Ff
40 40 kA
Ft
Ff
30 Ff Ft
Ft
20 kA
F 20
28,3 kA
10
0
c) 40
kN Ft
40 kA
Ff Ff
30
20 kA Ft
20
28,3 kA
F
10
0
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 s 1,0
tk
46
a) 3,0
m
2,5 28,3 kA 20 kA A
A B
2,0
40 kA
1,5
d min 1,0
0,5
0,0
b) 3,0
m 20 kA
2,5 28,3 kA
40 kA
2,0
1,5
d min 1,0
0,5
0,0
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 s 1,0
tk
0,75 40 kA B
A
0,50 28,3 kA B
bh
A
0,25
20 kA
B
0,00
b)
0,75
m
0,50 40 kA
28,3 kA
b h 0,25
20 kA
0,00
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 s 1,0
tk
47
PART III
48
8. CASE 6
Tests performed at sterreichische Elektrizittswirtschafts-AG (Austria) in 1963
cross section: ACSR 537/53 mm2 twin bundle (n = 2)
short-circuit current: 4 kA eff to 21,5 kA eff
span length: 12 m
Bus-Bar Geometry
2 2
3 i/2 3
l P1
1 as 4
ls
P2
5
i/2
as
i if as = 800 mm)
D = 2200 mm
(D = 3600 mm
i
as
as
l span length
ls centre-line distance between spacers
D centre-line distance between return conductors
as centre-line distance between subconductors
k number of spacers
49
Basic data
Conductors:
cross-section mass per Young's temperature
diameter
unit length modulus coefficient
A d m' E
mm2 mm kg/m N/mm2 10-6/K
ACSR 537/53 590 1,937 32 69000 19,8
Reference:
[1] Wagner, E.: Dauer- und Kurzschlubeanspruchung von Bndelleitern in Hochspannungsschaltan-
lagen. sterreichische Zeitschrift der Elektrotechnik 18(1965), 18-25.
50
Results
4 4
kN a s = 35 mm kN a s = 45 mm
3 3
2 2
F F
8 kA 1 11,5 kA
1 11,5 kA 15 kA
15 kA
21,5 kA 21,5 kA
0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 m 12
0 2 4 6 8 10 m 12
ls
ls
6 6
kN a s = 60 mm kN a s = 85 mm
5 5
4 4
3 3
F F
2 2
4 kA 4 kA
8 kA 8 kA
1 1 11,5 kA
11,5 kA
15 kA 15 kA
21,5 kA 21,5 kA
0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 m 12
0 2 4 6 8 10 m 12
ls
ls
6 6
kN a s = 200 mm kN a s = 800 mm
5 5
4 4
3 3
F F
2 2
8 kA
1 11,5 kA 1
15 kA 15 kA
21,5 kA 21,5 kA
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 m 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 m 12
ls ls
Figure 8.2: Short-circuit tensile force F in the bundle as a function of distance between spacers
ls for different sub-conductor distances as
51
9. CASE 7
Tests performed at Lehrstuhl fr Elektrische Energieversorgung (Germany) in 1985
cross section: ACSR 340/30 mm2 and ACSR 605/70 mm2 twin bundle (n = 2)
short-circuit current: 3,5 kA eff to 11 kA eff
span length: 7,6 m
Test arrangement
a) b)
The arrangement was built up for measuring only the pinch effect. The tested bundles are in vertical posi-
tion to eliminate the influence of changes in sag. The short-circuit current flows through the bundle and
back through four conductors situated in the corners of a quadrate. With this the return current does not
induce electromagnetic field inside the quadrate and does not influence the movement of the bundle con-
ductors.
The upper clamp is fixed on a steel frame. The tensile forces are measured at the lower clamp. The static
tensile force is adjusted using a turnbuckle.
52
Basic data
Conductors:
cross-section mass per Young's temperature
diameter
unit length modulus coefficient
A d m' E
mm2 mm kg/m N/mm2 10-6/K
ACSR 340/30 369 25 1,174 62000 20,5
ACSR 605/70 680 33 2,22 68000 19,4
Results
Figure 9.2 gives the oscillograms of the current and the tensile forces. The time scale of the tensile force
shows from its beginning a 100-Hz-component due to the bend between the rotationally symmetric lead-
in wires at the lower clamp. This also explains the reduction of the force after initiation of the short-
circuit; this had been observed in other tests, too.
Figure 9.2: Oscillograms. ACSR 605/70 mm2; sub-conductor distance as = 115 mm; Fst =1,15kN;
Ik=10,2kA; three spacers
a) current b) tensile force
53
The measured maximum forces F are represented in the figures 3 and 4 related on the static tensile forces
F/Fst for the two types of conductors and different short-circuit currents and static tensile forces.
a) 6 b) 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
F F
F st 2 F st 2
1 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
k k
c) 12
11
10
F 6
F st
5
0
0 1 2 3
k
54
a) b) 8
6 6
5 5
4 4
F
F st
3 3
F
F st 2 2
1 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
k k
c) 8
4
F
F st
3
0
0 1 2 3
k
References:
[1] Kieling, G.: Kurzschlukrfte bei Zweierbndeln Messungen und analytische Lsung mit dem
Parabelmodell. etzArchiv 10 (1988), 53-60.
[2] Kieling. G.: Die dynamische Kurzschlubeanspruchung von Seilanlagen Analytische und nume-
rische Berechnungsverfahren. Dissertation Universitt Erlangen-Nrnberg, 1988.
55
10. CASE 8
Tests performed at VEIKI Laboratories (Hungary) in 1997
cross section: CONDOR 455, twin bundle (n = 2)
short-circuit current: 35 kA eff and 48 kA eff
span length: 60 m
35/90 KA
25
$ Configuration One subspan 60 m
$ Exact tension/subconductor: 13 kN 20
Tension (kN)
$ Duration: 0.18 s
15
1000
500
0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8
time (s)
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2
Zoom on spacer compression and tension time
-500
evolution
Sagging tension 15 kN - 35/90 kA
-1000 19
17
-1500
15
time (s)
Tension (kN)
13
Configuration : 7
60 5
4000
3000
measurement 2000
compressive load (N)
1000
Sagging tension 15 kN - 35/90 kA
4000 0
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,2
3000 -1000
2000 -2000
compressive load (N)
time (s)
subspan length 60 m
1000
0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
-1000
-2000
time (s)
subspan length 60 m
57
Sagging tension 15 kN - 35/90 kA
35/90 KA 25
Tension (kN)
$ Short-circuit level: 35/90 kA 15
$ Duration: 0.17s
10
Sagging tension15 kN- 35/90 kA
1000
5
0
500
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2
time (s)
Current (uncalibrated)
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2
Zoom on spacer compression and tension time
evolu-
-500
tion
Sagging tension 15 kN - 35/90
-1000 30
25
-1500
time (s)
20
Configuration : Ten
sio
n
(kN
) 15
30 m
10
0
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,2
time (s)
measurement
Sagging tension 15 kN - 35/90 kA
4000
6000
2000
compressive load (N)
5000
4000
1000
Compressive loads (N)
3000
0
2000 0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,2
1000 -1000
0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 -2000
-1000 time (s)
subspan length 60 m
-2000
-3000
time (s)
subspan length 30 m
58
Sagging tension 25 kN - 35/90 kA
35/90 KA 31
$ Exact tension/subconductor: 25 kN 27
Tension (kN)
25
$ Duration: 0.16 s
23
Sagging tension 25 kN - 35/90 kA
21
1000
19
500
17
0 15
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
Current (uncalibrated)
-1000
evolution
Sagging tension 25 kN- 35/90 kA
-1500
33
31
-2000
time (s)
29
Configuration : 27
60
Tension (kN)
25
m 23
21
19
17
measurement 15
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,2
time (s)
8000
6000
6000
4000
Compressive loads (N)
4000
Compressive loads (N)
2000
2000
0
0 0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,2
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
-2000
-2000
-4000
-4000
time (s)
time(s)
subspan length 60 m
subspanlength60m
59
Saggingtension25kN- 35/90kA
35/90 KA 36
$ Duration: 0.16 s
Tension (kN)
30
100
26
80 24
60 22
20
Current (uncalibrated)
40
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6
time(s)
20
8000
-60
time (s)
Configuration : 6000
30 m 4000
Compressive load (N)
2000
0
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,2
measurement
-2000
subspanlength30m
6000
4000
Compressive load (N)
2000
0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6
-2000
-4000
time (s)
subspan length 30 m
60
Saggingtension35 kN- 30/90 kA
35/90 KA
$ Configuration One subspan 60 m
40
$ Exact tension/subconductor: 35 kN 38
Tension (kN)
$ Duration: 0.2 s 36
1000 34
32
500
30
Current (uncalibrated)
-1000
7000
6000
-1500 5000
time (s)
4000
Configuration : Co
m
pr 3000
es
60 si
ve 2000
m lo
ad
s 1000
(N
0
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,2
-1000
-2000
-3000
measurement time(s)
subspan length 60 m
7000
6000
40
5000
4000 38
Compressive loads (N)
3000
Tension (kN)
2000 36
1000
34
0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
-1000
32
-2000
-3000
time(s) 30
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,2
subspan length 60 m
time (s)
61
tion :
10.8. CASE IV.5 2 X 30 M 35 KN Saggingtension35kN-30/90kA
35/90 KA 45
Tension (kN)
Sagging tension 35 kN - 30/90 kA
1000
30
500
25
Current (uncalibrated)
0
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,2
20
-500
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
time(s)
-1000
Saggingtension35kN- 30/90kA
7000
-1500
time (s)
6000
Configuration : 5000
4000
30 m
Compressive loads (N)
3000
2000
1000
0
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,2
-1000
measurement -2000
-3000
time(s)
subspanlength30m
Sagging tension 35 kN - 30/90 kA
5000
40
4000
Compressive loads (N)
3000
35
Tension (kN)
2000
1000
30
0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
-1000
25
-2000
-3000
20
time (s)
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,2
time (s)
subspan length 30 m
62
Sagging tension 25 kN - 35/90 kA - 6x10 m
35/90 KA 80
$ Exact tension/subconductor: 24 kN
$ Short-circuit level: 35/90 kA
Current (uncalibrated)
40
0
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,2
-20
-40
-60
tiem (s)
Configuration :
10 m
measurement
Sagging tension 25 kN - 35/90 kA - 6x10 m Zoom on spacer compression and tension time
15000 evolution :
Sagging tension 25 kN - 35/90 kA - 6x10 m
10000 60
Compressive load (N)
50
5000
40
0
Tension (kN)
-5000
20
-10000
10
time (s)
subspan length 10 m
0
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,2
Sagging tension 25 kN- 35/90 kA- 6x10 m
time (s)
60
Sagging tension 25 kN - 35/90 kA - 6x10 m
15000
50
40 10000
Tension (kN)
30 5000
20
0
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,2
10
-5000
0
-0,2 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 -10000
time (s) time (s)
subspan length 10 m
63
10.10. CASE VI.1 2 X 30 M 25 KN Sagging tension 25 kN - 48/122 kA
48/122 KA 45
$ Duration: 1. S
Tension (kN)
Sagging tension 25 kN - 48/122 kA
30
150
25
100
20
-0,1 0,1 0,3 0,5 0,7 0,9 1,1 1,3 1,5
time (s)
Current (calibrated)
50
Series1
-50 45
40
-100
time (s)
35
Tension (kN)
20000 30
15000 25
20
10000
-0,1 -0,05 0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2
Compressive load (N)
time (s)
Series1
5000
0 20000
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4
-5000 15000
10000
-10000
Compressive load (N)
time(s)
subspanlength 30 m
5000
0
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,2
-5000
-10000
time(s)
subspanlength30m
Configuration :
30 m 30 m
measurement
64
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