Slides09 PDF

Ren Witte
Chapter 9 Introduction
Logic
Introduction to Formal Specification Problems with Natural

Language Specifications
Paradoxes
Requirements Specification & Documentation (IV) Different Logics
Informal, Semi-Formal, and
Formal
SOEN 6481, Winter 2015/16 Propositional Logic

Introduction
Syntax
Semantics
Logical Equivalences
Tautologies and
Contradictions
Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
Motivation
Predicates
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Ren Witte Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Department of Computer Science Automated Reasoning
and Software Engineering Conclusions
Concordia University Notes and Further

Reading
9.1
Outline Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
1 Introduction Problems with Natural

Paradoxes
Different Logics
2 Propositional Logic Informal, Semi-Formal, and

Formal
Propositional Logic
Introduction
3 Predicate Logic Syntax

Semantics
Tautologies and
4 Proof Procedures Contradictions

Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
5 Conclusions
Motivation
Predicates
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
6 Notes and Further Reading Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.2
Requirements Specification & Documentation Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Problems with Natural
Paradoxes
Different Logics
Formal
Propositional Logic
Introduction
Syntax
Semantics
Tautologies and
Contradictions
Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
Motivation
Predicates
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Copyright 2009 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd, [vL09] Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.3
Logic Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Logic as a Tool Problems with Natural
Paradoxes
Boolean circuits: foundation of modern digital design Different Logics
Combinatorial explosion: logic served as a tool to formalize the theory of Formal
Propositional Logic
NP-completeness capturing the notion of combinatorial explosion Introduction
Syntax
SQL (Structured Query Language) in databases is essentially a syntactic Semantics
variant of first-order logic Logical Equivalences

Tautologies and
Contradictions
Semantics: to make sure that different implementations of programming Derivation Rules
languages yield the same results Predicate Logic

Motivation
Design validation and verification: the famous Intel bug of 1995, involving faulty Predicates
Quantifiers
floating point divisions, caused a cost of US$ 500 million Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
AI: mechanized reasoning and expert systems Negation
Proof Procedures
Security: trust of algorithms; do guarantees exist? Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.4
Problems with Natural Language Specifications Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Defects in NL Specifications Different Logics

Problems with natural language: Formal
Propositional Logic
ambiguous Introduction
Syntax
might depend on emphasis, culture, domain, fashion, etc. Semantics

Remember the train control example with and/or causing different Tautologies and
Contradictions
interpretations: Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
Full braking shall be activated by any train that receives an outdated Motivation
acceleration command or that enters a station block at speed higher than X Predicates
Quantifiers
m.p.h. and for which the preceding train is closer than Y yards. Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.5
Paradoxes Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Different Logics
Another problem: Paradoxes Informal, Semi-Formal, and
Formal
The Liars Paradox: This sentence is a lie Propositional Logic

Introduction
Another Paradox: Syntax

Semantics
A student is sued for his tuition by the school that educated him. He argues that Logical Equivalences
Tautologies and
he must win, since, if he loses, the school didnt educate him well enough, and Contradictions
Derivation Rules
doesnt deserve the money. The school argues that he must lose, since if he Predicate Logic
wins, he was educated well enough and therefore should pay it. Motivation
Predicates
All these problems led to the effort to formulate logic in a symbolic language.
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.6
Different Logics Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Different Logics
Types of Logics Informal, Semi-Formal, and
Formal
Various logics have been proposed: Propositional Logic
Propositional Logic Introduction

Syntax
Predicate Logic
Semantics
Tautologies and
Temporal Logics Contradictions
Derivation Rules
Description Logics Predicate Logic

Motivation
... Predicates
Quantifiers
Differ in expressiveness and inference procedures. Translating NL into

Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.7
Informal, Semi-Formal, and Formal Ren Witte
Introduction
Informal Specifications Logic
Unrestricted natural language (NL) specifications Language Specifications

Paradoxes
Different Logics
Formal
Semi-Formal Specifications Propositional Logic
Some formal syntax, but essential descriptive and prescriptive statements in Introduction
Syntax
informal (NL) notation Semantics
Decision Tables Tautologies and

Contradictions
Use Cases, UML

Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
Motivation
Predicates
Formal Specifications Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Formal syntax and semantics. Predicate Logic
Negation
Different logics, algebraic specification, etc. Proof Procedures

Proof Procedures in
Machine-processable (automated theorem proving, etc.) Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Better support for automatic requirements validation and verification. Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.8
Outline Ren Witte
1 Introduction Introduction
Logic
2 Propositional Logic Language Specifications

Paradoxes
Introduction Different Logics

Syntax Formal
Semantics Propositional Logic

Introduction
Logical Equivalences Syntax

Semantics
Tautologies and Contradictions Logical Equivalences
Derivation Rules
Tautologies and
Contradictions
Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
3 Predicate Logic Motivation

Predicates
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
4 Proof Procedures Predicate Logic

Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
5 Conclusions Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
6 Notes and Further Reading Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.9
Propositional Logic Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Different Logics
Propositional Logic (0th-Order Logic) Informal, Semi-Formal, and
Formal
Propositional logic is a simple and well known language for representing knowledge Propositional Logic
Introduction
Syntax
Parts Semantics
Syntax: how to represent a requirement in propositional logic Tautologies and

Contradictions
Semantics: how to interpret a requirement in propositional logic Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
Proof procedures: (inference mechanisms) how to automatically create or prove Motivation
Predicates
new propositions Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.10
Statements (Propositions) Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Definition Different Logics
A statement (also known as a proposition) is a declarative sentence that is either Formal
true or false, but not both. Propositional Logic

Introduction
Syntax
Examples of statements Semantics

Tautologies and
7 is odd. Contradictions
Derivation Rules
1+1=4 Predicate Logic

Motivation
If it is raining, then the ground is wet. Predicates
Quantifiers
Our professor is from Mars. Translating NL into

Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.11
Propositional Logic Basics Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Different Logics
The five logical connectives Informal, Semi-Formal, and

Formal
Propositional Logic
Name Symbol Introduction
Syntax
and (conjunction) Semantics
or (disjunction) Logical Equivalences

Tautologies and
not (negation) Contradictions

Derivation Rules
implies (if . . . then, conditional) Predicate Logic
if and only if (iff, biconditional) Motivation

Predicates
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.12
Syntax of Propositional Logic Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Rules Different Logics
Syntax of propositional logic can be recursively defined by two rules: Informal, Semi-Formal, and
Formal
Propositional Logic
<atomicProposition> ::= true | false | <propositionalSymbol> Introduction

Syntax
<statement> ::= <atomicProposition> Semantics

| ( <statement>) Tautologies and
Contradictions
| (<statement> <statement>) Derivation Rules
| (<statement> <statement>) Predicate Logic

Motivation
| (<statement> <statement>) Predicates
| (<statement> <statement>)
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.13
Translating English to Propositional Logic Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Example Text Language Specifications
Paradoxes
Translate into propositional logic: Different Logics
If I am clever then I will pass, Formal
Propositional Logic
If I will pass then I am clever, Introduction
I am clever or I will pass, Syntax

Semantics
therefore Logical Equivalences

Tautologies and
I am clever and I will pass Contradictions
Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
Motivation
Translation Predicates
Let p be i am clever and q be i will pass: Quantifiers

Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
((p q) (q p) (p q)) (p q) Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.14
Semantics Ren Witte
Introduction
Interpretation Logic
Semantic Rules define how to evaluate the meaning of a statement. Language Specifications
Paradoxes
Interpretation: Assignment I of truth values (T , F ) to all atomic symbols (one line in

Different Logics
a truth table)
Formal
Propositional Logic
Truth Value: The meaning valI (p) of a statement p under a given interpretation I Introduction
Syntax
Semantics
Example Tautologies and

Contradictions
Given the requirements statement Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
trainMoving doorsClosed Motivation
Predicates
and an interpretation I with Quantifiers

Translating NL into
valI (trainMoving) = F and valI (doorsClosed) = F

Predicate Logic
Negation
the semantic of our statement is Proof Procedures

Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
valI (trainMoving doorsClosed) = T Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.15
Truth tables for , , and Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
p p Paradoxes
Different Logics
T F Informal, Semi-Formal, and

Formal
F T Propositional Logic
Introduction
Syntax
Semantics
Tautologies and
p q pq p q pq Contradictions
Derivation Rules
T T T T T T Predicate Logic
T F F T F T Motivation
Predicates
F T F F T T Quantifiers
Translating NL into
F F F F F F Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.16
Truth tables for and Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Different Logics
Formal
p q pq p q pq Propositional Logic
Introduction
T T T T T T Syntax
T F F T F F
Semantics
F T F F T T Tautologies and
Contradictions
F F T F F T Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
Motivation
Predicates
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.17
Logical Equivalences Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Different Logics
Formal
Propositional Logic
Introduction
Definition Syntax
Two statements are logically equivalent if they have the same T/F values for all
Semantics
cases, that is, if they have the same truth tables. Tautologies and
Contradictions
Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
Motivation
Predicates
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.18
Using truth tables to (dis)proof logical equivalences Ren Witte
Contrapositive Introduction
p q is logically equivalent to q p: Logic
p q pq
Paradoxes
q p q p Different Logics
T T T F F T Informal, Semi-Formal, and

Formal
T F F T F F Propositional Logic
F T T F T T
Introduction
Syntax
F F T T T T Semantics
Tautologies and
Contradictions
Derivation Rules
Converse Predicate Logic

Motivation
q p is not logically equivalent to p q: Predicates
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
p q qp pq Predicate Logic
Negation
T T T T Proof Procedures
T F T F Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
F T F T Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
F F T T Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.19
Tautologies Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Example Problems with Natural

Example: (p q) p is always true: Paradoxes

Different Logics
p q pq (p q) p Formal
Propositional Logic
T T T T Introduction
T F F T Syntax
Semantics
F T F T Logical Equivalences
Tautologies and
F F F T Contradictions
Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
Motivation
Definition Predicates
Quantifiers
A statement that is true under any interpretation I is called a tautology. Notation: Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
|= (p q) p Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.20
Example: modus ponens Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Prove Language Specifications
Paradoxes
Different Logics
p Informal, Semi-Formal, and
q Formal
pq Propositional Logic
Introduction
Syntax
Semantics
Proof Logical Equivalences

Tautologies and
Contradictions
p q pq p (p q) [p (p q)] q Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
T T T T T Motivation
T F F F T Predicates
Quantifiers
F T T F T Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
F F T F T Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.21
Contradictions Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Different Logics
Formal
Definition Propositional Logic

Statements that are never true are called contradictions. For example: Introduction
Syntax
Semantics
p p p p Logical Equivalences
Tautologies and
T F F Contradictions
Derivation Rules
F T F Predicate Logic
Motivation
Predicates
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.22
Equivalence Rules Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Examples Problems with Natural

Paradoxes
Equivalence Rule Name Different Logics

Formal
p p double negation Propositional Logic
p q p q implication Introduction
Syntax
(p q) p q De Morgans laws Semantics
(p q) p q Tautologies and
Contradictions
pq qp commutativity Derivation Rules
pq qp Predicate Logic
Motivation
p (q r ) (p q) (p r ) distributivity Predicates
p (q r ) (p q) (p r ) Quantifiers
Translating NL into
p (q r ) (p q) r associativity
Predicate Logic
Negation
p (q r ) (p q) r Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.23
Inference Rules Ren Witte
Deriving new knowledge

Inference rules (derivation rules) allow us to obtain new statements from existing Introduction
Logic
ones. Problems with Natural
Paradoxes
Example Rules Different Logics

Formal
Inference Rule Name Propositional Logic

Introduction
p Syntax
pq conjunction Semantics
q Logical Equivalences
p Tautologies and
Contradictions
q modus ponens
pq Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
q Motivation
p modus tollens
p q Predicates
Quantifiers
pq Translating NL into
pr chaining Predicate Logic
qr Negation
Proof Procedures
pq
qr resolution Proof Procedures in
p r
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
pq p simplification Automated Reasoning
p pq addition Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.24
Satisfiability and Validity Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Satisfiability Different Logics

A propositional formula p is satisfiable if there is some interpretation I such that

Formal
Propositional Logic
valI (p) = T . The satisfying interpretation I is called a model of p, written I |= p Introduction
Syntax
Semantics
Validity Logical Equivalences
Tautologies and
A formula p is valid, written |= p, if it is true (T ) in all interpretations (i.e., p is a Contradictions
Derivation Rules
tautology). Predicate Logic
Motivation
Unsatisfiability Predicates
Quantifiers
A formula p is unsatisfiable (or contradictory) if it is false (F ) in all interpretations. Translating NL into

Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.25
Outline Ren Witte
1 Introduction Introduction
Logic
2 Propositional Logic Paradoxes
Different Logics
Formal
3 Predicate Logic Propositional Logic
Motivation Introduction
Syntax
Predicates Semantics
Quantifiers Tautologies and
Contradictions
Translating NL into Predicate Logic Derivation Rules
Negation Predicate Logic

Motivation
Predicates
Quantifiers
4 Proof Procedures Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
5 Conclusions Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
6 Notes and Further Reading Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.26
Problems with Propositional Logic Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Good enough for RE? Paradoxes
Different Logics
Some limitations of propositional logic Informal, Semi-Formal, and
Formal
We can just state sentences with P, Q, R, etc. Propositional Logic

Introduction
Consider that P denotes the sentence Syntax
It rained on Sunday
Semantics
Tautologies and
Can we access parts of the sentence? Contradictions
Derivation Rules
No components of proposition P Predicate Logic

Motivation
Q denotes Bill jogged on Sunday Predicates
Quantifiers
What about P Q? Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Can we find out from P Q that both propositions refer to the same day? Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.27
Predicate Logic Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Different Logics
Predicates Formal
Predicate logic offers a solution Propositional Logic

Introduction
The sentence It rained on Sunday is denoted as weather( sunday, rain ) Syntax

Semantics
describes relationship weather between sunday and rain Logical Equivalences

Tautologies and
Contradictions
The sentence Bill jogged on Sunday is denoted as jogged(bill, sunday) or Derivation Rules
activity(bill, jogging, sunday) or . . . Predicate Logic

Motivation
Now we can formally find out that sunday is mentioned in both formulas. Predicates
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.28
Predicates Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Definition Problems with Natural

A predicate is a declarative sentence whose T/F value depends on one or more Paradoxes
Different Logics
variables. In other words, a predicate is a declarative sentence with variables, and Informal, Semi-Formal, and
Formal
after those variables have been given specific values, the sentence becomes a Propositional Logic
statement. Introduction
Syntax
Semantics
Example
Tautologies and
Contradictions
Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
P(x) = x is even Motivation

Predicates
Q(x, y ) = x is heavier than y

Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
are predicates. The statement P(8) is true, while the statement Q(feather, brick) is Proof Procedures
false. Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.29
Quantifiers Ren Witte
Introduction
Universal and Existential Quantifier Logic

A quantifier modifies a predicate by describing whether some or all elements of the Language Specifications
Paradoxes
domain satisfy the predicate. Different Logics

Formal
Universal quantifier: Propositional Logic
Existential quantifier:
Introduction
Syntax
Semantics
The statement Logical Equivalences

Tautologies and
( x)P(x) Contradictions
Derivation Rules
says that P(x) is true for all x in the domain. Predicate Logic
Motivation
Predicates
The statement
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
( x)P(x) Negation
Proof Procedures
says that there exists an element x of the domain such that P(x) is true; in other Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
words, P(x) is true for some x in the domain. Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.30
Order matters Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Different Logics
Note Formal
In general, Propositional Logic

Introduction
( y )( x)G(x, y ) Syntax
Semantics
is different from Logical Equivalences

Tautologies and
( x)( y )G(x, y ). Contradictions

Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
Motivation
For example, G(x, y ) = x > y . Predicates

Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.31
Translating NL into Predicate Logic Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Two common constructions Paradoxes
Different Logics
1 All hobjectsi are hsomethingi. translates as Informal, Semi-Formal, and

Formal
Propositional Logic
( x)(P(x) Q(x)). Introduction

Syntax
Semantics
For example, all baseball players are rich Logical Equivalences

Tautologies and
Contradictions
Derivation Rules
2 There is a hobjecti that is hsomethingi. translates as Predicate Logic
Motivation
( x)(P(x) Q(x)). Predicates

Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
For example, some oysters taste funny Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.32
Example Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Domain = all cars. Problems with Natural

With Paradoxes
Different Logics
P(x) x gets good mileage.

Formal
= Propositional Logic
Q(x) = x is large. Introduction

Syntax
Semantics
( x)(Q(x) P(x)) translates as Logical Equivalences

Tautologies and
Contradictions
For all cars x, if x is large, then x does not get good mileage. Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
or Motivation
Predicates
All large cars get bad mileage. Quantifiers

Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
or Negation
Proof Procedures
There arent any large cars that get good mileage. Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.33
Negation rules for predicate logic Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Different Logics
Formal
Propositional Logic
Equivalence Name Introduction

Syntax
[( x)P(x)] ( x)(P(x)) universal negation Semantics

[( x)P(x)] ( x)(P(x)) existential negation Tautologies and

Contradictions
Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
Motivation
Predicates
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.34
Example: Domain = all cars, revisited. Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
P(x) = x gets good mileage. Different Logics

Q(x) = x is large. Formal
Propositional Logic
Introduction
Negate the statement All large cars get bad mileage. Syntax
Semantics
Statements Reasons Tautologies and

Contradictions
1. [( x)(Q(x) P(x))] given Derivation Rules
2. ( x)(Q(x) P(x)) universal negation Predicate Logic

Motivation
3. ( x)(Q(x) P(x)) implication Predicates

Quantifiers
4. ( x)((Q(x)) (P(x))) De Morgans law Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
5. ( x)(Q(x) P(x)) double negation Negation
6. ( x)(P(x) Q(x)) commutativity Proof Procedures

Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.35
Outline Ren Witte
Introduction
1 Introduction Logic
Paradoxes
2 Propositional Logic Different Logics
Formal
Propositional Logic
3 Predicate Logic Introduction
Syntax
Semantics
4 Proof Procedures
Tautologies and
Proof Procedures in Propositional Logic Contradictions

Derivation Rules
Proof Procedures in Predicate Logic Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning Motivation

Predicates
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
5 Conclusions Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
6 Notes and Further Reading Propositional Logic

Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.36
Proof Procedures Ren Witte
Introduction
Proof Procedure Logic

A Proof Procedure is a combination of Language Specifications

Paradoxes
an inference rule, and Different Logics

Formal
an algorithm for applying the rule to a set of expressions Propositional Logic
Introduction
Syntax
Examples Semantics
Tautologies and
Direct Proof: We have the facts F1 , F2 , . . . , Fn and want to show that G is a logical Contradictions
Derivation Rules
consequence. Prove by showing that (F1 F2 . . . Fn ) G is a Predicate Logic
tautology: Motivation
Predicates
Quantifiers
|= (F1 F2 . . . Fn ) G Translating NL into

Predicate Logic
Negation
Refutation Proof: Prove by showing that adding the negation of G to the facts: Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
(F1 F2 . . . Fn G) leads to an inconsistency Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.37
Inference in Propositional Logic Ren Witte
Soundness and Completeness Introduction
Inference Rule: formal way of generating new expressions from (a set of) existing
Logic
propositional calculus expressions S

Paradoxes
Different Logics
but we only want to generate expressions that logically follow from a given Informal, Semi-Formal, and
Formal
expression S Propositional Logic
if our inference rules only generates such expressions, it is sound Introduction

Syntax
and if we can generate all expressions that logically follow from a set S, it is
Semantics
called complete Tautologies and

Contradictions
Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
Notation Motivation
Given an inference rule r and a set of expressions S, if we can derive a new

Predicates
Quantifiers
expression from S using r , we write Translating NL into

Predicate Logic
Negation
S `r Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
This is also called the turnstyle symbol. It is a syntactic operation. Mind the Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
difference to the semantic operation |=. Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.38
Proof Methods Ren Witte
Introduction
Truth Table Logic
exhaustive proof method Language Specifications
Paradoxes
becomes intractable for large number of variables Different Logics

For n variables, O(2n ) combinations Formal
Propositional Logic
NP-Complete (Boolean Satisfiability problem) Introduction
Syntax
Semantics
Resolution Logical Equivalences

Tautologies and
Proof by contradiction Contradictions

Derivation Rules
Convert all statements to conjunctive normal form (CNF) Predicate Logic

Motivation
Add the negation of the desired conclusion (in CNF) Predicates

Quantifiers
Apply resolution rule: from , produce Translating NL into

Predicate Logic
until you arrive at the empty clause (showing a contradiction and thus the validity of Negation
Proof Procedures
the original goal). Proof Procedures in
or you cannot apply any more axioms (i.e. goal cannot be proven from the Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
statements) Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.39
Proof Procedures in Predicate Logic Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Example: Modus Ponens Different Logics
Modus ponens is a sound (but not complete!) inference rule for predicate calculus: Formal
Propositional Logic
If we have P and P Q, then we can infer (add to our knowledge base) Q Introduction
Syntax
Example: Semantics
Fact: Socrates is a man: man(socrates) Tautologies and

Contradictions
Rule: All men are mortal: X (man(X ) mortal(X )). Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
We can now deduce: mortal(socrates) Motivation
Predicates
Note that we substituted socrates for X . Quantifiers

Translating NL into
This step is called unification. Predicate Logic

Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.40
Decidability Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Mathematical foundation: Gdels completeness theorem (1930-31) Language Specifications
Paradoxes
Different Logics
For first-order logic: any sentence that logically follows from another set of Informal, Semi-Formal, and
Formal
sentences can be proved from that set Propositional Logic
Thus, we can find a complete proof procedure R Introduction

Syntax
if KB |= , then KB `R Semantics
But he only showed that R must exist he did not provide it Tautologies and
Contradictions
Derivation Rules
This was done by Robinson (1965): resolution algorithm Predicate Logic
Note: the theorem says that if it follows, then it can be proved. But we dont Motivation
Predicates
know that until we proved it! Quantifiers

Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
And worse: if it doesnt, we cant always show that first-order logic is Negation
semidecidable Proof Procedures

Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.41
Automated Reasoning Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Applications of Automated Theorem Proving Different Logics
Automated Reasoning (Automated Theorem Proving) is an important foundation for Formal
many tasks: Propositional Logic

Introduction
Reasoning in natural languages Syntax

Semantics
Automated proving of mathematical theorems

Tautologies and
Contradictions
Expert System Shells Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
Requirements Verification & Validation Motivation
Predicates
Formal Software Verification Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Semantic Web Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.42
Outline Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic

Paradoxes
Different Logics

Formal
Propositional Logic
Introduction

Semantics
Tautologies and

Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
5 Conclusions
Motivation
Predicates
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.43
Formal Requirements Specifications Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
General Idea Language Specifications
Paradoxes
Elicit and evaluate requirements as before Different Logics

Formal
Translate requirements into a formal system (here: propositional and predicate
Propositional Logic
logic) Introduction
Syntax
Then, we can use tools (automated theorem provers) to Semantics
Check internal consistency (no contradictions) Tautologies and
Contradictions
Derive new facts (verify with stakeholders!) Derivation Rules
Test for assertions: e.g., does a given invariant such as doorsOpen trainStopped Predicate Logic
logically follow from the requirements (knowledge base)? Motivation

Predicates
(more on this in the QA lecture) Quantifiers

Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Predicate logic is also widely used for specifying pre- and postconditions (e.g., Negation
in Use Case specifications) Proof Procedures

Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.44
Soundness, Completeness, Decidability Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Syntax vs. Semantics Language Specifications

Paradoxes
Different Logics
Entailment models define the semantics Informal, Semi-Formal, and

Formal
entailment is a semantic notion Propositional Logic

Introduction
Inferences inference is a syntactic notion Syntax
Semantics
Tautologies and
Quality measures for computing inferences Contradictions
Derivation Rules
Soundness something can be inferred only if it is entailed by the knowledge base Predicate Logic
Motivation
(KB) Predicates
Quantifiers
Completeness anything that is entailed by a KB can be inferred Translating NL into

Predicate Logic
Negation
Decidability sound and complete and terminating Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.45
Logics weve seen so far Ren Witte
Propositional Logic
Introduction
Logic
simple (not very expressive) Problems with Natural
sound, complete, decidable Paradoxes
Different Logics
Formal
Predicate Logic Propositional Logic

Introduction
very expressive Syntax

Semantics
sound, complete, but only semi-decidable Logical Equivalences
Tautologies and
Contradictions
Derivation Rules
Compromise? Predicate Logic

Motivation
More expressive than propositional logic, yet decidable? Predicates
Quantifiers
Description Logics (DL) Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Formal basis for (Semantic Web) Ontologies Negation
Web Ontology Language (OWL), W3C standard Proof Procedures

Proof Procedures in
Subsets of predicate logic with efficient decidability procedures for automated Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
theorem proving Predicate Logic

Automated Reasoning
Can be used for e.g. domain modeling Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.46
Outline Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic

Paradoxes
Different Logics

Formal
Propositional Logic
Introduction

Semantics
Tautologies and

Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
5 Conclusions
Motivation
Predicates
Quantifiers
Translating NL into
Predicate Logic
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.47
Reading Material Ren Witte
Introduction
Logic
Paradoxes
Required Different Logics
Formal
[vL09, Chapters 4.44.4.1, 4.4.7, 4.5]
Propositional Logic
Introduction
Syntax
Supplemental Semantics
Tautologies and
[Mey85] Contradictions
Derivation Rules
Predicate Logic
Motivation
Further Reading Predicates
Quantifiers
[GK13] Translating NL into

Predicate Logic
Negation
Proof Procedures
Proof Procedures in
Propositional Logic
Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.48
References Ren Witte
Introduction
[GK13] Michael Genesereth and Eric Kao.

Logic
Introduction to Logic.
Paradoxes
Synthesis Lectures on Computer Science. Morgan&Claypool Publishers, Different Logics

second edition, 2013. Formal
Propositional Logic
http://www.morganclaypool.com/doi/abs/10.2200/ Introduction
S00518ED2V01Y201306CSL006. Syntax
Semantics
[Mey85] Bertrand Meyer. Tautologies and
Contradictions
On Formalism in Specifications. Derivation Rules
IEEE Software, 2(1):626, 1985. Predicate Logic
http://se.ethz.ch/~meyer/publications/computer/formalism.pdf.
Motivation
Predicates
Quantifiers
[vL09] Axel van Lamsweerde. Translating NL into

Predicate Logic
Requirements Engineering: From System Goals to UML Models to Negation
Proof Procedures
Software Specifications. Proof Procedures in
John Wiley & Sons, 2009. Propositional Logic

Proof Procedures in
Predicate Logic
Automated Reasoning
Conclusions
Notes and Further

Reading
9.49

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Ren Witte

Introduction to Formal Specification Problems with Natural

SOEN 6481, Winter 2015/16 Propositional Logic

and Software Engineering Conclusions

Concordia University Notes and Further

Outline Ren Witte

1 Introduction Problems with Natural

2 Propositional Logic Informal, Semi-Formal, and

3 Predicate Logic Syntax

4 Proof Procedures Contradictions

Notes and Further

Requirements Specification & Documentation Ren Witte

Notes and Further

variant of first-order logic Logical Equivalences

languages yield the same results Predicate Logic

AI: mechanized reasoning and expert systems Negation

Notes and Further

Problems with Natural Language Specifications Ren Witte

Defects in NL Specifications Different Logics

Problems with natural language: Formal

might depend on emphasis, culture, domain, fashion, etc. Semantics

interpretations: Derivation Rules

Notes and Further

Paradoxes Ren Witte

The Liars Paradox: This sentence is a lie Propositional Logic

Another Paradox: Syntax

Notes and Further

Propositional Logic Introduction

Description Logics Predicate Logic

Differ in expressiveness and inference procedures. Translating NL into

Notes and Further

Informal, Semi-Formal, and Formal Ren Witte

Unrestricted natural language (NL) specifications Language Specifications

Decision Tables Tautologies and

Use Cases, UML

Different logics, algebraic specification, etc. Proof Procedures

Notes and Further

Outline Ren Witte

2 Propositional Logic Language Specifications

Introduction Different Logics

Semantics Propositional Logic

Logical Equivalences Syntax

3 Predicate Logic Motivation

4 Proof Procedures Predicate Logic

6 Notes and Further Reading Conclusions

Notes and Further

Syntax: how to represent a requirement in propositional logic Tautologies and

Semantics: how to interpret a requirement in propositional logic Derivation Rules

Notes and Further

Statements (Propositions) Ren Witte

true or false, but not both. Propositional Logic

Examples of statements Semantics

1+1=4 Predicate Logic

Our professor is from Mars. Translating NL into

Notes and Further

Propositional Logic Basics Ren Witte

The five logical connectives Informal, Semi-Formal, and

or (disjunction) Logical Equivalences

not (negation) Contradictions

implies (if . . . then, conditional) Predicate Logic

if and only if (iff, biconditional) Motivation

Notes and Further

<atomicProposition> ::= true | false | <propositionalSymbol> Introduction