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FERROUS METALS

INTRODUCTION

Metals
- The most useful building materials
- Derived from ores by removing the impurities
Ferrous Metals
- Classification of metals that are used for engineering purposes.
- Iron is the main constituent of ferrous metals.
- Other examples of ferrous metal include cast iron, wrought iron and steel.

STRUCTURES OF FERROUS METAL

Different Allotropic Structures of Iron

Alpha Iron (-iron)


- Weak and ductile, possesses magnetic properties and is unable to dissolve iron
- It has body-centered cubic (bcc) structure formed at temperature from 912C to 273C
o Ferritic- alpha iron containing carbon
- It contains empty spaces (holes) that are comparable to the size of carbon atom.
- Hard, brittle, non-magnetic and dissolves carbon.
Delta Iron (-iron)
- It has properties similar to -iron
- It is commercially unimportant
Gamma Iron (-iron)
- It absorbs negligible carbon and non-magnetic
- Common commercial form with face-centered cubic (fcc) structure formed at temperature
from 1394C to 912C
o Austenitic- gamma iron containing carbon
- The holes are nearly half the diameter of the carbon atom
IRON
- Most important of the metals used in engineering construction.
- The iron content of the main ores are:
Magnetite (Fe3O4) - 70-75%
Haematite (Fe2O3) -70%
Limonite (2Fe3O3.H2O) -60%
Iron pyrite (FeS3) - 47%
Siderite (FeCO3) - 40%
- It alloys freely with other elements and its inherent properties are altered and improved for
varying conditions of service.
PIG IRON
- It is an iron core dressed by crushing, calcined to drive off moisture and smelted in blast furnace.
The iron is then deoxidised and sulphur is removed. The limestone is added that acts as flux to
finally remove the sulphur. Finally, the molten metal is tapped from furnace and cast in form of
pigs.

Classification of Pig Iron


Bessemer pig
Foundry pig also known as grey pig, contains sufficient quantity of free carbon
Forge pig also known as white pig, produced when fuel provided is insufficient and sufficient
sulphur id present in the ore.
Mottled pig in between the grey and white varieties and they exhibit mottled fracture.
Composition
Carbon - 3 to 4%
Silicon - 0.5 to 3.5%
Manganese - 0.5 to 2%
Sulphur - 0.02 to 0.1%
Phosphorus - 0.03 to 1%
Properties
Hard, brittle with fusion temperature of 1200C, melts easily.
Uses
Used in making columns, base plates and door brackets

CAST IRON
Methods of Casting
Sand Casting- most common procedure, it involves pouring metal into a cavity in a mass of packet
sand.
Hollow Casting- used for making columns and piles.
Vertical Sand Casting- the mould box and the solid core is kept in vertical position. Alter cooling the
core is taken out by crane.
Centrifugal Casting- molten material is poured in a revolving metallic cylindrical mould in a
controlled manner, rotating at the rate of 10,000 revolution per minute.
Die Casting- cheap for commercial production. It is done under pressure, which may be as high as
140 MN/mm2, into a split die cavity. (
Properties
-
- Hard, brittle and neither be riveted nor welded
- Strong in compression (600 N/mm2)
- Weak in tension (150 N/mm2) and shear
- Specific gravity: 7.50
- Low melting point (1200C) and affected by sea water
- May be rendered white (by cooling rapidly) or grey (by cooling slowly)
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- Effects of Impurities
Carbon- the proportion of carbon and its form more or less influence most of the physical and
mechanical properties of cast iron. (As the percentage of combined carbon increases, the melting
temperature of cast iron decreases.
Silicon- increases the fluidity of the molten iron in small percentages, decreases blow holes, increases
the density of cast, and reduces solubility of carbon in iron and shrinkage.
Sulphur- undesirable element in cast iron and is limited to less than 0.1%
Phosphorus- no marked effect on cast iron when it is less that 0.5%. Usually present to the extent of 0.1-
1.5% and the iron is considered to be embrittled and strength diminished if more than 2%.
Manganese- if present in 0.4-1.2%, it combines with satisfied sulphur and carbon to form manganese
carbide. It increases the tensile strength and hardness of iron. High percentage of manganese increases
shrinkage and hardness.
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- Uses
- Making ornamental castings (wall brackets, lamp posts)
- Bathroom fittings (cisterns, water pipes, sewers, manhole covers, sanitary covers)
- Rail chairs, carriage wheels and machine parts subjected to shocks.
- Basic material for manufacturing wrought iron and mild steel
- Defects
Checks- iron with high sulphur content are liable to have small cracks running transverse to longitudinal
axis due to greater shrinkage and lack of strength.
Segregation- pronounced in high phosphorus iron.
Blow holes- due to improper venting of the mould or due to a high proportion of sulphur.
Coarse or open grain- caused by too slow cooling or may be due to a very high Phosphorus content.
Spongy spots- exaggerated forms of open grains
Cols shuts- faults planes in the metal produced by the solidification of part of the casting before the
remaining molten metal was run into place.
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WROUGHT IRON
- It is considered to be pure iron and produced by removing the impurities of cast iron
- It is manufactured in reverberatory or puddling furnace.
- Total impurities (0.5%) are
o Carbon- 0.15%
o Silicon- 0.15-0.2%
o Phosphorus- 0.12-0.16%
o Sulphur- 0.02-0.03%
o Manganese- 0.03-0.1%
- Properties
- Ductile, malleable, tough and moderately elastic
- Ultimate crushing strength is 200 N/mm2 and ultimate tensile strength is 40 N/mm2
- Modulus of elasticity is 1.86105 N/mm2
- Melting point is 1500C
- Specific gravity is 7.80
- Can be forged and welded
- Resists corrosion
- Becomes soft at 900C
- Alloying elements: nickel, copper and molybdenum
- Uses
- Roof coverings
- Rivets
- Chains
- Ornamental iron works (gates)
- Defects
Red shortness- wrought iron crumbles in forging and welding due to a very high sulphur content (0.3-
0.5%)
Cold short- iron becomes brittle at low temperatures due to phosphorus content of 0.4-0.5%. It cannot be
refined by heat treatment.
Silly places- spongy spots in wrought iron sheets and plates due to burning of portions of the iron in
puddling.
Blisters- found on plates and sheets of inferior wrought iron due to the oxidation of carbon in the iron by
the oxide of iron in the slag.
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STEEL
- - Most suitable building material among metallic materials (due to physical and
mechanical properties that it can have)
-
- Manufacturing Methods
- The prominent steel-making processes are:
1. Bessemer process introduced in 1856; most prominent present-day steel-making process
2. Cementation process obsolete technology for making steel by carburization of iron; increased
the amount of carbon in iron
3. Crucible process involves melting of blister steel or bars of wrought iron in fire crucible
4. Open Hearth process a.k.a Siemens-Martin process, produce more homogeneous steel than
by Bessemers
5. Electric Smelting process costly but no ash or smoke is produced
6. Duplex process combination of Acid Bessemer process and Basic Open Hearth process
7. Lintz and Donawitz (L.D.) process modification of Bessemer process in which there in no
control over temperature; steel can be made in hardly 25
mins.
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- *Cast steel so obtained is very hard and is used for making surgical equipments.
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- Properties and Uses
-
Mild Steel a.k.a low carbon or soft steel
- - Ductile, malleable; tougher and more elastic than wrought iron
- - Can be forged and welded, difficult to temper and harden
- - Rusts quickly and can be permanently magnetized.
- - Properties are: Sp. gr. = 7.30, ultimate compressive and tensile strengths 800-
1200N/mm
- - Used in the form of rolled sections, reinforcing bars, roof coverings and sheet piles and
in railway tracks
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High Carbon Steel a.k.a hard steel
- Tougher and more elastic than mild steel
- Carbon content in high carbon steel varies from 0.55 to 1.50%
- Ultimate compressive and tensile strengths are 1350 N/mm and 1400-2000 N/mm respectively
- Sp. gr. = 7.90
- Used for reinforcing cement concrete and prestressed concrete members
- Can take shocks and vibrations
- Used for making tools and machine parts
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High Tensile Steel high strength steel and is essentially a medium carbon steel
Carbon content - 0.6-0.8%
Manganese (Mn) 0.6%
Silicon (Si) 0.2%
Sulphur (S) 0.05%
Phosphorus (P) 0.05%
- 2000 N/mm, minimum elongation of 10%
- Used in prestressed concrete construction
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- Factors influencing the properties of steel
- Chemical compostion
- Heat treatment
- Mechanical work
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- Chemical Composition
-
Carbon
- Gives high degree of hardness and strength in steel
- Addition to iron decreases the malleability and ductility of the metal, reduces its permeability to
magnetic forces
- Elastic limit and ultimate strength increases but at a lower rate
- Increase of carbon content : Ductility of steel and resistance of steel to heavy shocks or blows
decreases
- Effects of Impurities
Silicon often added to molten metal, remove oxygen and diminish blow holes; 1.75% appears
to increase both ultimate strength and elastic limit without decreasing ductility.
Phosphorus promote enlargement of the grains, hence produce brittleness; ductility decreases
by 0.3-0.5%; yield point, ultimate strength and hardness increase. Resistance to
shock is reduced by 0.1%.
Sulphur has a tendency to segregate and form brittle networks when present in iron or
steel; forms iron sulphide (FeS) when combined with iron which causes lack of cohesion
between adjacent grains when heated above a red heat. Red shortness, brittleness
at high temperature which makes steel or iron hard to roll or forge. When sulphur is
present along with manganese it improves the machineability of steel.
Manganese has strong affinity for ocygen and sulphur, acts as a cleanser of the molten metal
by withdrawing much of the undesirable impurities. It increases the tensile strength,
hardenability and dilutes the effects of sulfur.
Copper increases resistance to corrosion when present in small percentage
Arsenic has a tendency to raise the strength and brittleness
Non-metallic impurities mechanically suspended in the metal, often called slag inclusions
causing brittleness
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- Heat Treatment
Develop desired properties in steel.
Properties of steel can be controlled and changed.
Affects the nature, and character of the metallographic properties.
Influences the solubility of the constituents, changes the crystallization (form or degree and
aggregation), introduces or relieves internal stresses in the metal.
- Purposes:
1. To enhance properties such as strength, ductility, hardness and toughness.
2. To relieve internal stresses and strains.
3. To refine the grain.
4. To remove gases.
5. To normalize steel after heat treatment.
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- Hardening
Heat treatment consists of heating the steel above the upper critical temperature until equilibrium phase
has been established, then quenching rapidly to produce a martensite structure.
- *Martensite chief constituent of hardened steel and is fibrous or needle like structure
Hardened steel- very brittle, cannot be used for practical purposes
Fully hardened steel are not suitable for most commercial uses because they are hard, brittle, and have
poor toughness.
- Objective:
1. To secure a given hardness to a desired depth in steel.
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- Tempering
Modification of steels that do not have properties desired for specific uses is affected by tempering.
Slowly heating the steel to a predetermined subcritical temperature and then cooling it slowly
Temperature varies from 100C to 700C
The higher the temperature of tempering the softer is the product
Toughness and ductility are introduced after this treatment
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- Annealing
General term used for heating and slow cooling of metal, glass or any other material, which has
developed strain due to rapid cooling,
Consists of heating the steel to a temperature below the critical range, but high enough to obtain strain
recrystallization and then cooled in any manner
Temperature is frequently between 500C to 600C
- Removing strain properties:
1. Introduces softness, ductility and malleability.
2. Alters electrical, magnetic and other physical properties
3. Removes gases
Full annealing - consist of heating iron alloy 20 C to 50 C, convert it to austenite after the required
period the followed by slow cooling; decreases hardness, strength and resistance to abrasion, and
increases ductility and mechaneability.
- Normalizing
Heating steel above critical range and cooling rapidly in air, but at rate slower than the critical cooling
rate
- Purpose: Refine the grain structure resulting from rolling, forging or other manufacturing processes.
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- Mechanical Works
May be hot or cold; involves many stages of hot working and may or may not include cold working
Hot working steel
- Important methods:
- Hot rolling
- Hammer forging
- Hydraulic and mechanical press forging
- Hot extrusion
- (Miscellaneous hot working methods include: hot spinning, hot deep drawing, hot flanging and
hot bending)
Cold working steel
- Principle Method (cold working steel):
- Cold rolling: increases tensile elastic limit from 15 to 97%, tensile strength from 20-45%
- Cold drawing
- Cold extrusion
- Used to:
- Provide increase strength
- Accurate dimensions
- Bright and scale free surface
- Results in increased:
- Density
- Hardness
- Brittleness
- Produces an internally strained condition in the steel
Mechanical work alters the form of the crystalline aggregate and introduces internal stresses
Beams, rails, steels, bars, reinforcement, pipes ---manufactured by rolling
Rivets and bolts are made by forging operations
Thin walled items (tubes) and round, square, hexagonal rods of small cross-sectional areas (up to
10mm)---drawing
Stamping and pressing increases the buckling strength of plates
Rolled steel sections and reinforcing bars, most common and application of steel in buildings
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ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS
- Structural steel can be rolled in rolling mills
- Sections having larger moduli of section in proportion to their cross-sectional areas are preferred
- Cross section and size are governed by a number of factors:
o Arrangement of material for optimum structural efficiency
o Functional requirements (surfaces that are easy to connect to, flat surfaces suitable for
supporting other materials etc.,)
o Dimensional and weight capacity of rolling mills
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o Material properties (inhibit the rolling of wide thin elements because of excessive
warping or cracking might occur)
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- Types of rolled structural steel sections:
1. Rolled steel I-sections
2. Rolled steel channel sections
3. Rolled steel T-sections
4. Rolled steel angle-sections
5. Rolled steel tube-sections
6. Rolled steel bars
7. Rolled steel flats
8. Rolled steel plates
9. Rolled steel sheets
10. Rolled steel strip
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- Angle sections were probably the first shapes rolled and produced in America
- I-beam shape was introduced by Zores of France in 1849;
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- 13.9 REINFORCING STEEL BARS
- Cement concrete
- -most versatile and established construction material
- -extremely weak in tension- needs reinforcement
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- Steel reinforcement
- -uses bars with specific diameters and different chemical compositions according to use
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- Characteristics of Good steel
- Carbon content not more than 0.25%
- Sulphur content more than 0.05%
- Phosphorus content more than 0.05%
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- Enhance the effectiveness of Concrete Reinforcement by:
- Using low-alloy steel
- Mechanical strengthening (drawing, stretching, twisting)
- - yield point rises by about 30%
- Heat treatment
- -improves strength and mechanical properties for 30%- 40%
- Cold drawing or Cold working
- - increases the yield stress of mild steel
- -reduce the ductility of steel(negative effect)
- -reduce shear strength of RCC beams
- -reduce longitudinal tensile reinforcement
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- *Heating cold worked steel to high temperatures results in annealing of steel causing loss of
increased strength due to cold working.
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- Classifications Of Steel For Reinforcing Bars According To Use
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- *Plain mild steel bars- earliest steel used for construction purposes ( Fe-250)
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- Table 13.2 Types And Grades Of Reinforcing Bars
- - B A R - YIE -
T D I A M E T E LD MI
R STR
- ESS -
OR ELO
0.2%
PRO
FF
STR
ESS
- - Up to and - -
M including 2
20mm 5
- 0 -
- Over 20mm up to N
and including / -
50mm m 23
m

-
- 2
4
0
N
/
m
m

- - Up to and - -
M including 2
20mm 2
- 5 -
- Over 20mm up to N
and including / -
50mm m 23
m

-
- 2
1
5
N
/
m
m

- - Up to and - -
M including 3
16mm 5
- 0 -
- Over 16mm up to N
and including / -
32mm m 20
- m
- Up to and -
including 50mm -
- 3 -
4 20
0
N
/
m
m

-
- 3
3
0
N
/
m
m

- - A l l - -
Hi s i z e s 4 1
1
- 5 -
Def N 8%
/ -
- m 6%
ste m

- 5
0
0
N
/
m
m

- 5
5
0
N
/
m
m

- - A l l - -
T s i z e s 4
1
5 -
N 20
/
m -
m 18

- 5
0
0
N
/
m
m

- 5
5
0
N
/
m
m

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- High yield strength deformed (HYSD)
- - have lugs, ribs, or deformations
- -have better bond between reinforcement and concrete
- -do not have a definite yield point
- -results in a considerable increase in yield, tensile and bond strength when twisted hot or cold
- Cold twisted deformed (CTD) - most suitable for building purposes
- - bars with TOR are called TOR-steel which is a high strength deformed bars with high
yield and bond strength
- - results in almost 40% economy
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- Thermo-mechanically treated (TMT)
- - extra high strength
- -eliminate any form of cold twisting
- -receive a short intensive cooling
- -exhibits a definite yield point
- -more ductile than CTD bars
- -possess excellent bendability
- -have very good weldability
- -has unique feature of high fatigue resistance
- -more suitable for use in places prone to fire hazards (thermal stability)
- -have high percentage of uniform elongation (high formability)
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- *reduction in temperature converts the surface layer of the steel bar into a hardened structure
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- Table 13.3 Saving In Steel By Using TMT Bars
- - - -
T T T
M M M
T T T

4 5 5
1 0 5
5 0 0

- - - -
4 5 5
1 0 5
5 0 0

- - - -
4 4 4
0 4 7
% % %

- - - - -
1 1
4 9
% %

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- Thermo-mechanically treated high-strength corrosion resistant (TMT-HCR) rebars
- -latest development in steel reinforcing bars
- - a concrete embedded bars
- - have superior resistance to aggressive weather conditions
- - exhibits higher thermal resistance ( temperature up to 600 degree Celsius)
- - resistance to softening ( presence of tempered martensite layer and absence of of cold
worked structural zone)
- - substantially reduces atmospheric and marine corrosion
- -has unique combination of strength, ductility, and bendability
- - can withstand even close bend without surface crack
- -fulfils the requirements of Indian specifications
- -ideal for use in places prone to fire hazards
- -exhibits superior corrosion resistance
- -easily welded (do not require pre and post heating treatments)
- -permits independent combinations in reinforcement structures (can be welded in CTD
rebars)
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- Advantages of TMT-HCR rebars over Conventional CTD rebars include:
- -saving in steel
- -reduction in costs
- -enhanced strength combined with ductility, superior atmospheric and marine corrosion
resistance
- -good weldability
- -no loss of strength at welded joints
- -better high temperature thermal resistance
- -easy welding at site owing to better ductility and bendability
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- Applications of TMT-HCR rebars include:
- -Coastal and marine environments which are susceptible to corrosion
- -Bridges
- -Flyovers
- -Dams
- -Industrial structures
- - High-rise buildings
- -Underground platforms
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- 13.10 RUSTING AND CORROSION
- Why do steel rust and corrodes?
- It is due to the exposure of the rust to the atmosphere and due to the action of atmospheric agencies such
as humid air and rain.
- What will happen if the steel rust?
- Its physical and mechanical properties change or being affected.
- Cracks and discontinuities may form in oxide film
- Initiated rusting gradually increases and corrodes iron
- Rust in scales are peeled off
- Surfaces of the steel became rough with rusted iron projections
- It may injure users
- May cause failure of structural elements
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- ACID THEORY as an applicable theory for the corrosion of iron
- Rusting is caused by action of oxygen, carbon dioxide and moisture converting the iron into ferrous
bicarbonate then the ferrous bicarbonate on oxidation changed to ferric bicarbonate and subsequently to
hydrate ferric oxide.
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- Methods to make iron safe from rusting and corrosion
- Enamelling; applying metal coatings- consists in melting a flux on the surface of iron in muffle
furnace and coating it with a second layer of more fusible glaze
- Galvanizing- coating iron with a thin film of zinc
- Tin plating- a film of tin is coated
- Electroplating- some metal coating such as chromium, nickel or zinc is applied to the irons
surface
- Applying organic coatings
- Painting and coal tarring- applying a coat of read lead then applying a coat of enamel or
aluminum paint/ coal tar is applied.
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- *Painting- most common method
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- 13.11 TENSILE TESTING OF STEEL SECTIONS (IS: 1608)
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- Tensile test- determines the elastic modulus, yield and tensile strength, elongation, strain
hardening rate, poisons ratio and many other mechanical properties of material.
- -conducted on a test piece that differs in cross-sections (circular, square, rectangular, etc)
- -strained by a tensile stress, in general to fracture for determining maximum sustainable stresses.
- Its main objective is to arrive at the appropriate stress-strain diagram to estimate the behavior
of the material.
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- *Test piece in rectangular shape- width to thickness ratio should be less than 8:1.
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- Table 13.4 Dimensions Of Circular Section Test Pieces
- C - - - -
R D G MI MI
O
S - - - -
S- D L L r
S - - -
E - (m
C - - (m
T ( (m
I
O
N
A
L
A
R
E
A
- S
- (
m
m
)
- 40 - - - -
0 2 11 12 23.

- 20 - - - -
0 1 80 88 15

- 15 - - - -
0 1 69 76 13

- 10 - - - -
0 1 56 62 10

- 50 - - - -
7 40 44 8

- 25 - - - -
5 28 31 5

- 12 - - - -
.5 3 20 22 4

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- *Gauge length (L)- measured elongation at any moment during the test
- L=5.65 S
- *Initial Area of Cross-section (S)
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- Table 13.5 Dimension of Rectangular Section Test Pieces (Non- Proportional)
- Wid - Gau - Min - App
th ge imu roxi
- b Len m mat
- (m gth Tra e
m) - L nsiti Tota
- (m on l
m) Rad - Len
ius gth
- (m - L
m) - (m
m)
- 40 - 200 - 25 - 450
- 20 - 200 - 25 - 375
- 25 - 100 - 25 - 300
- 12.5 - 50 - 25 - 200
- 6 - 24 - 25 - 100
- 3 - 12 - 25 - 50
- *Test pieces with gauge length equal to L=5.65 S are permitted.
- *Gauge length of 50mm may be used for width ranging from 3 to 25 mm. Total length are
adjusted accordingly.
- *A straight parallel test piece without enlarged ends is permissible for any size.
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- Doing the Test:
- Mark and specify the gauge length.
- The standard piece must be put on a suitable apparatus that may exert an axial pull so that
the steel is being stretched until it breaks.
- Know the conditions for determining the tensile strength
Plastic range: the rate of separation of the cross-heads should at any moment be not greater than
twice the minimum specified elongation +10.
Elastic range: as high as that permitted in the plastic range if a yield of proof of distress is not
determined.
- Speed of testing time should be as uniform as possible and the change of speed from one range to
the other should be made gradually and without shock.
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- *Ultimate strength=ultimate load divided by original cross-sectional area A
- *Breaking strength= load at which specimen breaks when divided by area A
- *Percentage of elongation at failure gives an idea of the ductility of the material.
- Percent Elongation= [(Elongated length between gauge point- L)/ L] x100
- *P= Proportional Limit = the stress up wherein the stress and strain are proportional to each
other.
- Youngs modulus- modulus of elasticity or ratio of stress up
- It is given by the formula ---- E=/
- Where = uni-axial stress below P
- = strain corresponding to *Yield stress for steel- stress obtained at an instant
during the test at which plastic deformation continues to increase at nearly constant stress
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- Actual rate of strain of parallel length at the time of yielding should not exceed 0.15/min
- Elastic stress rate should be less than 30N/mm per second
- Upper yield point- first point of stress (U)
- Lower yield point- upward trend in the stress-strain curve beyond the first yield (L)
-
- 0.5% total elongation proof stress- may be regarded as L if U and L cannot easily
obtained from the stress-strain diagram.
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