Aerodynamic Design of Axial-Flow Compressors, Nasa

CASE Fi LE NASA SP-36
COPY
AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF
AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS
REVISED
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

NASA SP-36
AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF
AXIAL-FL0W COMPRESSORS
REVISED
...................................
i_II
Prepared by members of the staff of Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio.

Edited by IRVING A. JOHNSEN and ROBERT O. BULLOCK. This publication supersedes
declassified NACA Memorandums E56B03, E56BO3a, and E56BO3b, 1956
Scientific and Technical In/ormation Division 1 9 6 5

Washington, D.C.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington. D.C., 20402 - Price $3.00
FOREWORD
This work is based substantially on a three-volume Confidential

Research Memorandum first issued by the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics in 1956 and declassified in 1958 for re-
lease to the general public. The material, which was of a funda-
mental character, has been updated for the present edition in the
light of subsequent developments in tile field and h_s been carefully
reexamined for current validity by members of the st aft of the NASA
Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio. It is now published for
the first time in a single volume to meet continuing demand for the
information and to make it readily available in convenient form to
the engineering community both within and outside the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.
iii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE ........................................... 1

IRVING A. JOHNSEN AND ROBERT O. BULLOCK
II. COMPRESSOR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ............................. 9

ROBERT O. BULLOCK AND ERNST I. PRASSE
III. COMPRESSOR DESIGN SYSTEM .................................... 53

ROBERT O. BULLOCK AND IRVING A. JOHNSEN
IV. POTENTIAL FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES ............... 101

WILLIAM H. ROUDEBUSH
V. VISCOUS FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES .................. 151

WILLIAM H. ROUDEBUSH AND SEYMOUR LIEBLEIN
VI. EXPERIMENTAL FLOW IN TWO.DIMENSIONAL CASCADES .......... 183

SEYMOUR LIEBLEIN
VII. BLADE-ELEMENT FLOW IN ANNULAR CASCADES .................... 227

WILLIAM H. ROBBINS, ROBEFT J. JACKSON, AND SEYMOUR LIEBLEIN
VIII. DESIGN VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN MERIDIONAL PLANE .......... 255
CHARLES C. GIAMATI, JR., AND HAROLD B. FIN_EB
IX. CHART PROCEDURES FOR DESIGN VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION ....... 257

ARTHUR A. MEDEIBOS AND BETTY JANE HOOD
X. PREDICTION OF OFF-DESIGN PERFORMANCE OF MULTISTAGE

COMPRESSORS ............................................... 297
WILLIAM H. BOBBINS AND JAMES F. DUC, AN, JR.
XI. COMPRESSOR STALL AND BLADE VIBRATION ....................... 311

ROBERT W. GRAHAM AND ELEANOR COSTILOW GUENTERT
XII. COMPRESSOR SURGE ............................................... 331

MERLE C. HUPPEBT
XIII. COMPRESSOR OPERATION WITH ONE OR MORE BLADE ROWS
STALLED .................................................... 341

WILLIAM A. BENSEB
XIV. THREE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSOR FLOW THEORY AND REAL

FLOW EFFECTS .............................................. 365
HOWARD Z. HERZI_, AND ARTHUR G, HANSEN
XY. SECONDARY FLOWS AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL BOUNDARY-

LAYER EFFECTS ............................................ 385
ARTHUR G. HANSEN AND HOWARD Z. HEBZIG
XVI. EFFECTS OF DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT ERRORS ON COMPRES-

SOR PERFORMANCE .......................................... 413
ROBERT J. JACKSON AND PEGGY L. YOHNER
XVIL COMPRESSOR AND TURBINE MATCHING ........................... 469
JAMES F. DUGAN, JR.
REFERENCES ............................................................. 496
v
vi CONTENTS
DETAILED CONTENTS
CHAPTEH PAGE
I. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE .......................................... I

INTRODUCTION ............................................... I
DESCRIPTION OF AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSOR ............... 2
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND .................................. 2
COMPRESSOR DESIGN APPROACH ............................... 3
OBJECTIVES OF DESIGN REPORT ............................ 5
SCOPE OF DESIGN REPORT .................................. 5
CONCLUDING REMARKS ...................................... 8
II. COMPRESSOR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ......................... 9
INTRODUCTION ............................................... 9
SYMBOLS ...................................................... 9
EFFECTS OF ENGINE CHARACTERISTICS ON AIRPLANE

PERFORMANCE ....................................... 11
Engine Weight ............................................... 11
Engine Efficiency ............................................. 14
Thrust per Unit Frontal Area .................................. 16
Other Engine Requirements .................................. 18
EFFECTS OF COMPRESSOR PRESSURE RATIO, COMPRESSOR
EFFICIENCY, AND FLIGHT CONDITIONS ON ENGINE
PERFORMANCE ................................... 18
Assumptions Used in Cycle Analyses ............................ 18
Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio and Flight, Conditions on
Turboprop-engine Performance ............................... 19
Effects of Compressor Pressure Ratio and Flight Conditions on
Turbojet-Engine Performance .............................. 23
Subsonic flight ........................................... 2_
Supersonic flight ...................................... 27
Other Engine Cycles .......................................... 28
Effects of Compressor Efficiency on Engine Performance .......... 28
Turboprop engine ..................................... 28
Turbojet engine ....................................... 29
EFFECTS OF COMPRESSOR PRESSURE RATIO, FLOW CAPAC-

ITY, AND EFFICIENCY ON FRONTAL AREA OF OTHER
ENGINE COMPONENTS .................................. 30
Comparison of Frontal Areas for Subsonic Flight ................. 32
Engine inlet ............................................. 33
Combustor ............................................ 33
Turbine ................................................ 34
Afterburner .......................................... 36
Nozz]e .................................................. 36
Comparison of Frontal Areas for Supersonic Flight ............... 36
Effects of Compressor Efficiency on Size of Components Downstream_ 37
FACTORS DETERMINING COMPRESSOR FLOW CAPACITY
AND WEIGHT ............................................ 38
Flow Capacity .......................................... 38
Layout and Weight .......................................... 38
COMPRESSOR REQUIREMENTS .............................. 41

Design Point ............................................. 41
Off-Design Considerations ..................................... 42
One-Spool Turbojet Engine .................................... 42
Engine acceleration ....................................... 44
Varying flight speeds ...................................... 44
Reynolds number effects .................................. 45
Inlet flow distortions ................................... 46
Inlet matching problem ................................... 46
CONTENTS vii
CHAPTER PAGE
II. COMPRESSOR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS--Continued
COMPRESSOR REQUI REMENTS--Continued

Two-Spool Turbojet Engine .................................... 48
Outer compressor ......................................... 48
Inner compressor ......................................... 49
Turboprop Engine ............................................ 50
CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY OF COMPRESSOR
DESIGN OBJECTIVES ........................................ 50
III. COMPRESSOR DESIGN SYSTEM ................................... 53
INTRODUCTION ............................................... 53
SYMBOLS ...................................................... 54
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS UNDERLYING DESIGN SYSTEM_ 55
Equations of Thermodynamics ................................. 55

Flow through stators ...................................... 55
Flow through rotors ...................................... 56
Analysis of Time-Steady and Inviscid Flow ...................... 56
Equations ignoring radial velocity .......................... 56
Causes of radial flows ..................................... 59
Effect of radial flows on stream surface configuration .......... 63
Experimental data required ................................ 63
Analysis of Viscosity Problem .................................. 63
Two-di mensional-caseade elements ......................... 63
Hub and casing boundary layers in compressor blade rows ..... 66
Loading limits ........................................... 68
Experimental data required ................................ 69
Treatment of Time-Unsteady Flows ............................ 69
REPRESENTATIVE EXPERIMENTAL DATA SUPPORTING
DESIGN CONCEPTS ..................................... 70
Two-Dimensional Cascades .................................... 70
Aerodynamic behavior .................................... 70
Types of experimental data observed ........................ 70
Inlet Guide Vanes ............................................ 72
Free-vortex flow .......................................... 73
Non-free-vortex flow ...................................... 74
Rotors and Single-Stage Compressors ........................... 75
Free-vortex rotor blade rows ............................... 75
Non-free-vortex blade rows ................................ 78
Transonic blade rows ..................................... 79
Multistage Compressors ....................................... 79
Performance of fifth stage ................................. 80
Performance of tenth rotor ................................ 82
Significance of Results ........................................ 82
Main-flow region ......................................... 82
Viscous-flow region ....................................... 86
Accuracy of estimate of state of air ......................... 87
SYSTEM ADOPTED FOR DESIGN AND RESEARCH ............ 88
Design-Point Solution in Meridoinal Plane ....................... 90
Over-all specifications ..................................... 90
Velocity diagrams ........................................ 90
Design equations ......................................... 91
Average values of energy addition for entire blade row ........ 92
Blade loading ............................................ 92
Relative Mach number .................................... 93
Reynolds number ......................................... 93
Axial velocity ............................................ 93
Hub and tip contours ..................................... 93
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
HI. COMPRESSOR DESIGN SYSTEM--Continued
SYSTEM ADOPTED FOR DESIGN AND RESEARCH--Continued

Blade Selection ............................................... 93
Blade profile ............................................. 94
Blade-element data ....................................... 94
Chord length and number of blades ......................... 95
Off-Design Analysis ........................................... 95
REQUIRED IMPROVEMENTS IN ANALYSES ................... 95

Radial Distribution of Flow ................................... 95
Hub and Casing Boundary Layers .............................. 96
Secondary flows of blade boundary layer and wakes ........... 96
Cross-channel flows and passage vortex formation ............ 97
Flow in blade end regions with clearance .................... 97
Mixing of hub and casing boundary layers with main flow ..... 97
Loading Limits ............................................... 99
IV. POTENTIAL FLOW 1N TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES ............ 101
INTRODUCTION ............................................... 101
SYMBOLS ...................................................... 103
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ................................. 105

LOW-SOLIDITY CASCADES ............................... 106
The Direct Problem .......................................... 106
Isolated airfoils ........................................... 106
Cascades ................................................ 107
Solution of low-solidity direct problem ...................... 109
The Inverse Problem ......................................... 113
Isolated airfoils .......................................... 114
Cascades ................................................ 114
Solution of low-solidity inverse problem ..................... 114
Compressibility Considerations ................................. 118
lIodograph method ........................................ 119
Small-perturbation method ................................ 121
HIGH SOLIDITY CASCADES ................................... 122
The Direct Problem ......................................... 123
Stream-filament method ................................... 123
Relaxation and matrix solutions ........................... 126
The Inverse Problem ......................................... 130
Approximate method ..................................... 131
Exact method ............................................ 132
ANALOG TECHNIQUES ........................................ 135

Hydraulic Analog ............................................ 135
Mechanical Analogs .......................................... 138
Electrical Analogs ............................................ 142
APPENDICES .................................................. 144

A--VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION AT ARBITRARY ANGLE
OF INCIDENCE ........................................ 144
B--CASCADE MAPPING FUNCTION ....................... 146
C--RELAXATION CONSIDERATIONS ...................... 148
D_MATRIX CONSIDERATIONS ........................... 149
V. VISCOUS FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES ................ 151
INTRODUCTION ............................................... 151
SYMBOLS ...................................................... 152
QUALITATIVE BOUNDARY-LAYER TIIEORY .................. 152

General Considerations ........................................ 152
CONTENTS ix
PAGE
CHAPTER
V. VISCOUS FLOW IN TWO.DIMENSIONAL CASCADES---Continued
QUALITATIVE BOUNDARY-LAYER THEORY--Continued

Boundary-Layer Concepts ..................................... 153
Types of boundary layers .................................. 153
Boundary-layer parameters ................................ 154
Loss parameters .......................................... 155
Laminar Boundary Layer ...................................... 156
Turbulent Boundary Layer .................................... 157
Transition ................................................... 159
Infinitesimal-disturbance theory ............................ 159
Finite-disturbance theory .................................. 160
Flow about spheres ....................................... 160
Boundary-layer reattachment .............................. 162
Composite Loss Variations ..................................... 163
Zero loading .............................................. 163
Low loading .............................................. 164
Moderate loading ......................................... 165
High loading ............................................. 166
Summary ................................................ 167
QUANTITATIVE BOUNDARY-LAYER THEORY ................ 167

General Considerations ........................................ 167
Laminar Boundary Layer ..................................... 168
Thwaites' method ........................................ 168
Loitsianskii's method ...................................... 171
Turbulent Boundary Layer .................................... 171
Approach ................................................ 173
Momentum thickness ...................................... 173
Form factor .............................................. 174
Initial conditions ......................................... 175
Evaluation ............................................... 175
Transition .................................................... 175
Circulation Defect ........................................... 177
Calculation of Total-Pressure Loss .............................. 179
CONCLUDING REMARKS ..................................... 180
VI. EXPERIMENTAL FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES ........ 183
INTRODUCTION ............................................... 183
SYMBOLS ...................................................... 184
PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS ............................. 185

Description of Cascade ........................................ 185
Performance Parameters ....................................... 186
Data Selection ................................................ 186
Two-dimensionality ....................................... 186
Reynolds number and turbulence ........................... 187
Approach .................................................... 187
INCIDENCE-ANGLE ANALYSIS ................................ 191
Preliminary Analysis .......................................... 191
Data Correlations ............................................ 194
Form of correlation ....................................... 194
NACA 65-(A10)-series blades ............................... 194
C-Series circular-arc blades ................................ 195
Double-circular-arc blades ................................. 197
Other blades ............................................. 197
Effect of blade maximum thickness ......................... 198
Effect of inlet Mach number ............................... 198
Summary .................................................... 200
X CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
VI. EXPERIMENTAL FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES--Con.
LOSS ANALYSIS ................................................ 201

Velocity diffusion based on local velocities ................... 202
Velocity diffusion based on over-all velocities ................ 203
Effect of Reynolds number and turbulence ................... 205
Effect of inlet Maeh number ............................... 206
Summary .................................................... 207
DEVIATION-ANGLE ANALYSIS ................................ 209

Form of correlation ...................................... 210
NACA 65-(At0)-series blades ............................... 211
C-Series circular-arc blades ................................ 211
Double-circular-arc blades ................................ 212
Comparison of rules ...................................... 213
Effect of Reyonlds number ................................ 216
Effect of inlet Mach number ............................... 216
Variation with incidence angle ......................... 217
Summary .................................................... 221
CONCLUDING REMARKS ....................................... 222
VII. BLADE-ELEMENT FLOW IN ANNULAR CASCADES .................. 227
INTRODUCTION ............................................... 227
SYMBOLS ...................................................... 228

PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS ......................... 229
Blade-Element Concept ....................................... 229
Factors Affecting Blade-Element Performance .................... 229
Incidence angle .......................................... 229
Total-pressure loss ........................................ 230
Deviation angle .......................................... 231
Correlation Approach ......................................... 231
Experimental Data Sources .................................... 233
INCIDENCE-ANGLE ANALYSIS ................................ 234

Method of Correlation ........................................ 234
Double-circular-arc blade .................................. 237
Summary Remarks ........................................... 238
TOTAL-PRESSURE-LOSS ANALYSIS ............................ 239

Correlation of Data ........................................... 239
Summary Remarks ........................................... 239
DEVIATION-ANGLE ANALYSIS ................................ 239

Method of Correlation ........................................ 241
Double-circular-arc blades ................................. 243
Summary Remarks ............................................. 244
APPLICATION TO DESIGN ..................................... 245

Design Procedure ............................................. 245
Summary Remarks ........................................... 252
APPENDIX--EQUATIONS FOR BLADE-ELEMENT EFFI-

CIENCY ...................................................... 253
VIII. DESIGN VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN MERIDIONAL PLANE ...... 255
INTRODUCTION .............................................. 255
SYMBOLS ...................................................... 256

CONTENTS xi
CHAPTER PAGE
VIII. DESIGN VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN MERIDIONAL PLANE--Con.
STATEMENT OF DESIGN PROBLEM ........................... 257

Specification of Compressor Performance and Configuration Require-
ments ..................................................... 257
Flow and Geometry Conditions To Be Determined ............... 257
GENERAL EQUATIONS ........................................ 257

Basic Assumptions ............................................ 257
Simplified Flow Equations ..................................... 258
SOLUTIONS OF EQUILIBP_IUM EQUATIONS ................... 258

Simple-Radial-Equilibrium Equation Neglecting Entropy Gradients_ 259
Simple-Radial-Equilibrium Equation Considering Radial Gradients
of Entropy ................................................ 259
Radial-Equilibrium Equation Considering Radial Accelerations .... 260
CONSIDERATION OF WALL BOUNDARY-LAYER EFFECTS .... 262
Correction for Weight-Flow Blockage Factor ..................... 264
Correction Factor for Stagnation-Temperature Rise ............... 264
Correction Factor for Stagnation Pressure ....................... 265
Work-Done-Factor System ................................... 266
SELECTION OF DESIGN VARIABLES ........................... 266
Velocity Diagrams ............................................ 267
Compressor-Inlet Conditions ................................... 267
Variation of Design Parameters through Compressor .............. 268
Axial velocity ............................................ 268
Diffusion factor ......................................... 268
Efficiency ............................................... 268
Boundary-layer characteristics ............................. 269
Physical Aspects ............................................. 269
Off-Design Performance ....................................... 26,0
APPLICATION OF EQUATIONS ............................... 269

Design Equations ............................................ 269
General Determination of Axial Velocity Distribution ............. 271
Method I .................................................... 272
Inlet guide vanes ......................................... 272
Rotor ................................................... 272
Stator ................................................... 273
Method II ................................................... 273
Method III .................................................. 273
Remarks .................................................... 273
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE ........................................ 274
IX. CHART PROCEDURES FOR DESIGN VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION ..... 279
INTRODUCTION ............................................... 279
SYMBOLS ...................................................... 280
DESIGN EQUATIONS ........................................... 281

FORMULATION OF CHARTS .................................... 282
Radial Equilibrium ........................................... 282
Continuity ................................................... 284
Energy Addition and Efficiency ................................ 286
Vector Relations .............................................. 288
Diffusion Factor .............................................. 288
EXAMPLE ...................................................... 291
COMPARISON OF CHART AND CALCULATED VALUES ......... 295

COMPRESSORS ........................................... 297
INTRODUCTION .............................................. 297
SYMBOLS ..................................................... 298

xii CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
COMPRESSORS--Continued
METHODS OF PREDICTING OFF-DESIGN PERFORMANCE ..... 299

Blade-Element Method ........................................ 299
Performance of inlet guide vanes ............................... 299
Rotor and stator analysis ...................................... 301
Remarks on blade-element method ......................... 301
Stage-Stacking Method .......................................... 302
Stage performance ............................................ 302
Sources of stage performance .................................. 302
Stacking procedure ........................................... 303
Remarks on stage-stacking method ............................. 304
Simplified Method .............................................. 305
Background information ....................................... 305
Calculation of compressor backbone ............................ 305
Calculation of stall-limit line ................................. 306
Constant-speed characteristics ................................. 306
Comments on reference point ................................... 308
Remarks on simplified method .............................. 309
Xl. COMPRESSOR STALL AND BLADE VIBRATION ..................... 311
INTRODUCTION ............................................ 311

Off-Design Operation ....................................... 311
Inlet-stage stall ......................................... 311
Stall-limit or surge line ................................. 312
Stall Phenomena ........................................... 312
SYMBOLS ...................................................... 312
ROTATING STALL ........................................ 313

Mechanism of Stall Propagation ............................ 313
Experimental Detection of Rotating Stall ........................ 313
Characteristics of experimentally observed stall patterns ....... 314
Single-stage and multistage stall data summary .............. 315
Classification of Stall .......................................... 315
Progressive or abrupt stall ................................. 316
Partial- or total-span stall ................................. 317
Steady or intermittent stall ................................ 317
General Observations on Rotating-Stall Phenomena .............. 317
tIysteresis effect ..................................... 317
Stall-propagation rates ................................. 318
Flow and pressure fluctuations ............................. 318
Multistaging effect ...................................... 319
Variation in stall patterns ................................. 319
Effect of inlet temperature ................................. 320
Blade Vibration Incurred during Rotating Stall .................. 320
Single-stage compressors .................................. 320
Multistage compressors ................................... 320
Methods of alleviating blade vibration ................... 321
Theories of Rotating Stall ............................... 321
Emmons theory .......................................... 321
Stenning theory ......................................... 322
Sears airfoil theory ............................ 323
Sears channel theory ................................... 324
Marble theory ...................................... 326
Remarks on stall theories ............................. 328
INDIVIDUAL BLADE STALL ................................... 328

..
CONTENTS Xlll
CHAPTER PAGE
XI. COMPRESSOR STALL AND BLADE VIBRATION--Continued
STALL FLUTTER .............................................. 328

Distinction between Stall and Classical Flutter ................... 328
Mechanism of Stall Flutter .................................... 328
Brief literature survey .................................... 329
Eperimental evidence ................................... 330
CONCLUSIONS ............................................. 330
Aerodynamic Aspect ......................................... 330
Vibration Aspect ............................................. 330
XII. COMPRESSOR SURGE ............................................ 331
INTRODUCTION ............................................... 331
SYMBOLS ...................................................... 331
STEADY-STATE COMPRESSOR CttARACTERISTIC ............. 331
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS OF SURGE ................ 332

Surge Due to Abrupt Stall ..................................... 332
10-Stage subsonic axial-flow research compressor .............. 332
16-Stage subsonic axial-flow compressor ..................... 334
Surge in jet engines ....................................... 337
Surge Due to Progressive Stall ................................ 337
THEORETICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF SURGE .................. 338
Surge Due to Abrupt Stall .................................... 339
Surge Due to Progressive Stall ................................. 340
Comparison of Compressor Surge with Other Oscillatory Phenomena_ 340
SUMMARY OF RESULTS ...................................... 340

STALLED ...................................................... 341
INTRODUCTION ............................................. 341
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ................................ 342

Single-Stage Stall Characteristics .............................. 342
Stage Interactions ............................................ 343
Radial maldistribution of flow .............................. 343
Unsteady flow .......................................... 343

Complete Compressor Stall and Surge ........................... 344
STAGE STACKING ............................................. 344
Hypothetical Compressor, Cases I, II, and III .................. 345
Hypothetical Compressor, Cases IV and V ....................... 346
Range of Calculations ......................................... 346
DISCUSSION OF COMPUTED PERFORMANCE ................. 346
Case I ...................................................... 346
Computed over-all performance ............................ 347
Variation of stage flow coefficients ......................... 349
Case II ..................................................... 350
Performance with front stages unstalled ..................... 350
Performance with first stage stalled ......................... 350
Complete performance map ................................ 351
Transition from stalled to unstalled operation of inlet stage___ 353
Complete-compressor-stall limit ............................ 353
Effect of unstalling hysteresis .............................. 354
Part-speed efficiency ...................................... 354
Case III ..................................................... 355
Complete performance map ................................ 355
Transition from stalled to unstalled operation of inlet stage___ 355
Complete-compressor-stall limit ............................ 355
Effect of unstalling hysteresis .............................. 356
Part-speed efficiency .................................... 356
Multiple-valued performance characteristics ................. 356
xiv CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE

STALLED--Continued
I)ISCUSSION OF COMPUTED PERFORMANCE--Continued

Case IV ..................................................... 357
Computed over-all performance ............................ 357
Stage progressive-stall limits ............................... 357
Comparison of cases I and IV ............................... 359
Case V ...................................................... 359
Computed over-all performance ......................... 361
Stage progressive-stall limits ............................ 361
Comparison of cases I and V .............................. 361
Part-Speed Performance Problems .............................. 36]
Stage-Matching Compromises .............................. 363
Variable Geometry ........................................ 363
Inlet baffles .............................................. 363
Adjustable blading ....................................... 363
Compressor air bleed ...................................... 363
XIV. THREE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSOR FLOW THEORY AND REAL

FLOW EFFECTS ........................................... 365
INTRODUCTION ............................................... 365
SYMBOLS ...................................................... 366
DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS ........................................ 367

Axial Symmetry .............................................. 367
Simple radial equilibrium .................................. 367
Constant entropy radially ................................. 367
Blade-Element Flow .......................................... 368
Improved Design Theories ..................................... 368
COMPRESSOR DESIGN THEORIES ......................... 369
Basic Equations ........................................... 369
Equilibrium equation .................................... 369
Energy equation ........................................ 370
Entropy equation ......................................... 371
Continuity equation ....................................... 371
Axisymmetrie-Flow Theory .................................. 371
Equilibrium equation ................................... 371
Energy equation .......................................... 372
Entropy equation ......................................... 372
Continuity equation ........................................ 372
Improved Flow Theories ....................................... 372
Radial-equilibrium condition ............................... 372
Finite blade spacing ....................................... 373
Through-flow theory ...................................... 374
Blade thickness ............................................ 375
Three-Dimensional Theory ...................................... 375
Analysis ................................................. 375
Initial approximations ...................................... 377
Solutions on flow surfaces 51 and $7 ........................ 377
Evaluation and relation to previous methods ................. 378
SOME ASPECTS OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL FLOWS .......... 378
Radial-Flow Variations ........................................ 378
Radial-flow shifts ......................................... 379
Flow near blade rows ...................................... 379
Radial adjustment and blade-row interference ................ 380
Secondary-Flow Effects ........................................ 381
General discussion ........................................ 381
Commentary ............................................. 382
TIME-UNSTEADY FLOW ....................................... 382
CONTENTS xv
PAGE
CHAPTER
XV. SECONDARY FLOWS AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL BOUNDARY-

LAYER EFFECTS ............................................... 385
INTRODUCTION ............................................... 385
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF SECONDARY FLOWS___ 386

Cross-Channel Flows and Passage Vortex Formation .............. 386
Apparatus and procedure .................................. 386
Passage vortex formation .................................. 386
Passage vortex behavior and effects ......................... 388
Radial Secondary Flows in Stators ............................. 389
Apparatus and procedure ................................ 389
Indications of radial flows based on downstream measurements_ _ 390
Visual indications of radial flows ........................... 391
Evaluation of radial components of secondary flow ........... 391
Loss accumulations and passage vortices ................... 392
Flow in Blade End Regions with Clearance ...................... 395
Tip clearance ............................................ 395
Relative motion between blades and wall .................... 396
Rotor-Stator Interaction Effects ................................ 397
A Model of Secondary Flow in Compressor Blade Rows ........... 398
Flow in shrouded stators .................................. 399
Flow in unshrouded stators ................................ 399
Flow in rotors ............................................ 399
THEORETICAL. INVESTIGATION OF SECONDARY FLOWS .... 399

Discussion of Methods ........................................ 400
Nonviseous-Secondary-Flow Theory ............................ 401
Flows in channels and two-dimensional cascades ............. 401
Evaluation and conclusions ................................ 404
Three-Dimensional Boundary-Layer F_ows ...................... 404
Investigations of three-dimensional boundary-layer equations_ _ 405
Boundary-layer crossflow over fiat plate with leading edge ..... 406
Flow over fiat plate with thick boundary layer ............... 409
Boundary-layer flow in corners ............................. 410
Evaluation and conclusions ................................ 410
XYI. EFFECTS OF DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT ERRORS ON COMPRES-

SOR PERFORMANCE ............................................ 413
INTRODUCTION .............................................. 413
SYMBOLS ...................................................... 414
ANALYTICAL APPROACH ..................................... 414
Design Errors ................................................ 414
Measurement Errors .......................................... 417
CALCULATION AND PRESENTATION OF FORMULAS ........ 418
Design-Error Formulas ........................................ 418
Measurement-Error Formulas .................................. 422
Reading of Carpet Plots ....................................... 451

DISCUSSION OF FORMULAS AND CHARTS ................... 459
Sample Design and Measurement Errors ........................ 459
Interpretation of numerical values .......................... 460
Trends exhibited by sample design errors .................... 460
Trends exhibited by sample measurement errors ............. 461
Use of Design-Error Charts .................................... 461
Estimation of uncertainty intervals ......................... 461
Calculation of uncertainty intervals in performance ........... 463
Use of Measurement-Error Charts .............................. 463
Uncertainty intervals in performance ....................... 463
Evaluation of data ...................................... 464
Instrumentation .......................................... 464
xvi CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
XVI. EFFECTS OF DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT ERRORS ON COMPRES-

SOR PERFORMANCE--Continued
APPENDIX A--ACCURACY OF FORMULAS .................... 465

Local specific mass flow ................................... 466
Relative air angle ........................................ 466
APPENDIX B--DERIVATION OF FORMULAS .................. 467

XVII. COMPRESSOR AND TURBINE MATCHING .................... 469

INTRODUCTION ............................................... 469
SYMBOLS ...................................................... 471
GENERAL DISCUSSION ........................................ 471
GENERAL METHODS FOR EQUILIBRIUM OPERATION ....... 472
One-Spool Gas Generator ...................................... 473
Matching relations ....................................... 474
Matching maps and their superposition ..................... 474
Component parameters ................................... 475
Compressor operation from gas-generator performance ........ 476
Two-Spool Gas Generator ..................................... 476
Direct method of matching outer and inner spools ............ 476

[terative method of matching outer and inner spools .......... 479
Variable pressure losses in primary combustor ................ 479
Component parameters .................................... 479
Compressor operation from gas-generator performance ........ 481
Matching (]as Generator with Other Engine Components .......... 481
Simple turbojet .......................................... 481
Afterburning turbojet ..................................... 482
Turboprop with coupled power turbine ...................... 482
Turboprop with free-wheeling power turbine ................. 483
Turbojet- and turboprop-engine performance ................. 484
SIMPLIFIED METHODS FOR EQUILIBRIUM OPERATION .... 485

One-Spool Gas Generator ...................................... 485
Design point ............................................. 485
Off-design points ......................................... 485
Two-Spool Gas Generator ...................................... 486
Inner-spool matching ................................. 486
Outer-spool matching ..................................... 486
EQUILIBRIUM OPERATING LINE OF ONE-SPOOL TURBOJET__ 487

Use of Charts for Design Points ................................ 487
Use of Charts for Off-Design Points ............................. 492
METttODS FOR TRANSIENT OPERATION .................... 492

One-Spool Turbojet ........................................... 492
Compressor operation ..................................... 492
Turbine operation ......................................... 493
Time to accelerate ......................................... 494
Two-Spool Turbojet ......................................... 494
Compressor operation ..................................... 494
Turbine operation ........................................ 495
Time to accelerate ........................................ 495
REFERENCES ................................................ 496

CHAPTER I
OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE
By IRVING A. JOHNSEN and ROBERT O. BULLOCK
This first chapter oJ a report on the aerodynamic a design system, and stimulated by the urgent need
design oJ axial-flow compressors presents the general for improving gas-turbine engines, research on
objectives and scope o] the over-all report. The basic axial-flow compressors has been accelerated both
problem of compressor design is outlined, and the in this country and abroad. The results of this
approach generally taken to accomplish its solution research have been presented in numerous publi-
is pointed out. The sixteen succeeding chapters in cations. In the majority of instances, each of
the report are summarized. these reports presents only a fragmentary bit of
information which taken by itself may appear to
INTRODUCTION
have inconsequential value. Taken altogether
Currently, the principal type of compressor and properly correlated, however, this information
being used in aircraft gas-turbine powerplants is represents significant advances in that science of
the axial-flow compressor. Although some of the fluid mechanics which is pertinent to axial-flow
early turbojet engines incorporated the centrifugal compressors. It was the opinion of the NACA
compressor, the recent trend, particularly for high- Subcommittee on Compressors and Turbines and
speed and long-range applications, has been to the others in the field that it would be appropriate to
axial-flow type. This dominance is a result of assbnilate and correlate this information, and to
the ability of the axial-flow compressor to satisfy present the results in a single report. Such a
the basic requirements of the aircraft gas turbine. compilation should be of value to both neophytes
These basic requirements of compressors for and experienced designers of axial-flow compres-
aircraft gas-turbine application are well-known. sors. Realizing the necessity and importance of
In general, they include high efficiency, high air- a publication of this type, the NACA Lewis
flow capacity per unit frontal area, and high laboratory began reviewing and digesting existing
pressure ratio per stage. Because of the demand data. This report represents the current status
for rapid engine acceleration and for operation of this effort.
over a wide range of flight conditions, this high This chapter outlines the general objectives and
level of aerodynamic performance must be main- the scope of the design report and indicates the
tained over a wide range of speeds and flows. chapters in which each specific phase of compressor
Physically, the compressor should have a minimum design information is discussed. The general com-
length and weight. The mechanical design should pressor design problem and the approach usually
be simple, so as to reduce manufacturing time and taken to accomplish its solution are indicated.
cost. The resulting structure should be mechani- The various aspects of compressor design to be
cally rugged and reliable. treated in the over-all compendium are outlined,
It is the function of the compressor design as well as the specific sequence in which they will
system to provide compressors that will meet be presented.
these requirements (in any given aircraft engine Because axial-flow compressors are most ex-
application). This design system should be accu- tensively used in the field of aircraft propulsion,
rate in order to minimize costly and time-consum- and because this field requires the highest degree
ing development. However, it should also be as of excellence in compressor design and perform-
straightforward and simple as possible, consistent ance, the attention in this over-all report has
with completeness and accuracy. been focused primarily on the problems pertinent
In an effort to provide the basic data for such to the axial-flow compressor of turbojet or turbo-
1
691-564 0-65-2
2 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OFAXIAL-FLOW
COMPRESSORS
prop engines. The results presented, however, the annular flow area is reduced to correspond to
should be applicable to any class of axial-flow the decreasing volume. This change in area may
compressors. be accomplished by means of varying tip or hub
diameter or both.
DESCRIPTION OF AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSOR
In this compression process certain losses are
The basic function of a compressor is to utilize incurred that result in an increase in the entropy
shaft work to increase the total or stagnation of the air. Thus, in passing through a compressor,
pressure of the air. A schematic drawing of an the velocity, the pressure, the temperature, the
axial-flow compressor as installed in a turbojet density, the entropy, and the radius of a given
engine is shown in figure 1. In the general config- particle of air are changed across each of the blade
uration, the first row of blades (inlet, guide vanes) rows. The compressor design system must pro-
imparts a rotation to the air to establish a specified vide an adequate description of this flow process.
velocity distribution ahead of the first rotor. The HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
rotation of the air is then changed in the first rotor,
and energy is thereby added in accordance with The basic concepts of multistage axial-flow-
Euler's turbine equation. This energy is mani- compressor operation have been known for ap-
fested as increases in total temperature and total proximately 100 years, being presented to the
pressure of air leaving the rotor. Usually ac- French Academie dos Sciences in 1853 by Tour-
companying these increases are increases in static naire (ref. 1). One of the earliest experimental
pressure and in absolute velocity of the air. A axial-flow c_)mpressors (1884) was obtained by
part, or all, of the rotation is then removed in C. A. Parsons by running a multistage reaction-
the following stator, thus converting velocity type turbine in reverse (ref. 2). Efficiencies for
head to static pressure. This stator also sets this type of unit were very low, primarily because
up the distribution of airflow for the subsequent the blading was not designed for the condition of
rotor. The air passes successively through rotors a pressure rise in the direction of flow. Beginning
and stators in this manner to increase the total at the turn of the century, a number of axial-flow
pressure of the air to the degree required in the compressors were built, in some cases with the
gas-turbine engine cycle. As the air is com- blade design based on propeller theory. However,
pressed, the density of the air is increased and the efficiency of these units was still low (50 to 60
.... Inlet guide vane
--- Rotor
--Stator
FIGURE l.--Axial-flow compressor in turbojet engine.

OBJECTIVES
ANDSCOPE 3
percent). Further development of the axial-flow 7). Since that time, considerable research has
compressor was retarded by the lack of knowledge been directed at extending aerodynamic lilnits in
of the underlying principles of fluid mechanics. an attempt to maximize compressor and gas-
The advances in aviation during the period of turbine performance. One of the major develop-
World War I and the rapidly developing back- ments in this direction has been the successful
ground in fluid mechanics and aerodynamics gave extension of allowable relative inlet Mac}l nmnbers
new impetus to research on compressors. The without accompanying sacrifices in efficiency
performance of axial-flow compressors was con- (ref. 8). The subject of allowable blade loading,
siderably improved by the use of isolated-airfoil or blade surface diffusion, has also been attacked
theory. As long as moderate pressure ratios per with a degree of success (ref. 9). Accompanying
stage were desired, isolated-airfoil theory was quite improvements such as these have been an increas-
capable of producing compressors with high effi- ing understanding of the physics of flow through
ciency (ref. 3, e.g.). Compressors of this ('.lass axial-flow compressor blading, and corresponding
were used in such machinery as ventilating fans, improvements in techniques of aerodynamic
air-conditioning units, and steam-generator fans. design. Therefore, in view of the rapid advances
Beginning in the middle 1930's, interest in the in recent years, it appears appropriate to sum-
axial-flow compressor was greatly increased as marize the present state of the art of compressor
the result of the quest for air superiority. Effi- design.
cient superchargers were necessary for recipro-
COMPRESSOR DESIGN APPROACH
cating engines in order to increase engine power
output and obtain improved high-altitude aircraft The flow through the blading of an axial-flow
performance. With the development of efficient compressor is an extremely complicated three-
compressor and turbine components, turbojet en- dimensional phenomenon. The flow in the com-
gines for aircraft also began receiving attention. pressor has strong gradients in the three physical
In 1936 the Royal Aircraft Establishment in dimensions (axial, radial, and circumferential),
England began the development of axial-flow com- as well as time. Viscosity effects in compressors
pressors for jet propulsion. A series of high-per- are significant and must be accounted for. In
formance compressions was developed, culminating general, the design control problem becomes
in the F.2 engine in 1941 (ref. 4). In Germany, more critical as the level of compressor per-
research such as that reported in reference 5 ulti- formance is increased. In order to provide
mately resulted in the use of axial-flow compressors ease of application, the compressor design system
in the Jumo 004 and the B.M.W. 003 turbojet en- must reduce these complications and establish
gines. In the United States, aerodynamic research rational and usable procedures.
results were applied to obtain high-performance Because of the complexity of the problem, no
axial-flow units such as that reported in reference complete solution is currently available for the
6. In the development of all these units, in- three-dimensional, time-unsteady, viscous flow
creased stage pressure ratios were sought by through an axial-flow compressor. In the main,
utilizing high blade cambers and closer blade designers have resolved these difficulties by
spacings. Under these conditions the flow pat- making approximations that permit the use of
terns about the blades began to affect each other, two-dimensional techniques. These approxima-
and it became apparent that the isolated-airfoil tions are usually based on the assumptions of (1)
approach was inadequate. Aerodynamic theory blade-element flow and (2) axial symmetry.
was therefore developed specifically for the case The blade-element approach assumes that flow
of a lattice or cascade of airfoils. In addition to in the blade-to-blade or circumferential plane
theoretical studies, systematic experimental in- can be described by considering the flow about
vestigations of the performance of airfoils in cas- blade profiles formed by the intersection of a
cade were conducted to provide the required flow surface of revolution and the compressor
design information. blading (fig. 2).
By 1945, compressors of high efficiency could be Axial symmetry assmnes that an average value
attained through the employment of certain can be utilized to represent the state of the air
principles in design and development (refs. 2 and in the blade-to-blade plane. Equations describing
4 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OF AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS
FBlade element
-Flow surfoce
of revolution
Streomline
_Streamline
FIGURE 2.--Flow in circumferential plane.
radial variations of these average values may

then be written for continuity, energy addition,
and equilibrium in the hub-to-tip or meridional
plane (fig. 3). In essence, then, a combination of FIGURE 3.---Flow in meridional plane.
two-dimensional solutions in the two principal
planes (circumferential and meridional) is used
to approximate the complete three-dimensional sional solution to the design problem, this quasi-
flow. three-dimensional approach has achieved general
In applying this approach to compressor design, acceptance in the field.
second-order corrections are used to account for In practice, the aerodynamic design of a multi-
three-dimensional variations from this simplified stage axial-flow compressor may be considered to
flow picture. Experimentally obtained data are consist of three principal phases:
utilized to account for effects such as those (1) Determination of stage-velocity diagrams
arising from viscosity, time-unsteady flow, and for design-point operation
blade-row interactions. Empirical limits are (2) Selection of stage blading
established for such aerodynamic factors as (3) Determination of off-design performance
maximum permissible Mach number and blade The first part of the design involves the determi-
loading. nation of the various air velocities and flow angles
No rigorous theoretical justification of this from hub to tip at the inlet and outlet of each
simplified design approach can be made. It blade row, to best achieve the design-point require-
appears sufficient to state that comparatively ments of the compressor (i.e., pressure ratio and
excellent compressors can be and have been weight flow). The annular configuration (varia-
designed by simplified approaches such as these. tion of hub and tip contours through the compres-
In the absence of a more complete three-dimen- sor) is determined. Next, the blading is selected
OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE 5
SCOPE OF DESIGN REPORT

to satisfy the design-point velocity diagrams and
to obtain high efficiency. BasicaIiy, this selection Because of the complexity of the compressor de-
requires knowledge of loss and turning character- sign problem, even the simplest design system
istics of compressor blade elements. With the necessarily includes many different phases. In
compressor geometry established, the final step is order to summarize existing compressor infor-
the estimation of the performance characteristics mation as clearly and logically as possible, this
of the compressor over a range of speeds and flows. over-all compendium is divided into chapters, each
In view of the importance of off-design operation, concerning a separate aspect of compressor de-
this procedure may be iterated so as to properly sign. The degree of completeness of these chap-
compromise design-point operation and the range ters varies greatly. In some cases, rather com-
requirements of the engine. plete information is available and specific data are
A more complete discussion of the compressor given that can be fitted into detailed compressor
design system adopted for this over-all report is design procedures. In other cases, the informa-
given in chapter III. The generalities of the tion is not yet usable in design. The chapters may
concepts involved have been given merely to give only a qualitative picture of the problem, or
clarify the general approach to the problem. they may merely indicate the direction of future
research. Those aspects of the compressor prob-
OBJECTIVES OF DESIGN REPORT
lem which are considered pertinent are included,
The desire to provide a sound compressor design however, regardless of the present applicability of
system has formed the basis for most research on the information.
axial-flow compressors. As a result, in this coun- The following discussion provides an over-all
try and abroad, design concepts and design tech- perspective of the material covered in this compres-
niques have been established that will provide sor design compendium. Each chapter is sum-
high-performance compressors. In general, these marized briefly, and the relation of each to the
various design systems, although they may differ over-all report is indicated.
in the manner of handling details, utilize the same In order to provide proper emphasis in the de-
basic approach to the problem. This over-all sign summarization, it is desirable to establish and
report is therefore dedicated to summarizing and evaluate the essential characteristics of compres-
consolidating this existing design information. sors. Chapter II accomplishes this objective by
This effort may be considered to have three general first evaluating engine requirements with respect
objectives: to airplane performance. These required engine
(1) To provide a single source of compressor characteristics are then used to identify essential
design information, within which the major requirements of the compressor. Characteristics
(representative) contributions in the litera- of the compressor that are directly related to en-
ture are summarized gine performance, such as compressor pressure
ratio, efficiency, airflow capacity, diameter, length,
(2) To correlate and generalize compressor
and weight, are discussed. Other considerations
design data that are presently available
in compressor design, including off-design require-
only in many different forms and in widely
ments and the relation of the compressor to the
scattered reports
inlet diffuser, combustor, turbine, and jet nozzle,
(3) To indicate the most essential avenues
are discussed. Compressor design objectives,
for future research, since, in a summariza-
based on these considerations, are summarized;
tion of this type, the missing elements
these objectives indicate tile direction in which
(and their importance to the design system)
compressor designs should proceed.
become readily apparent
Chapter III provides a general description of the
In this compressor report, an effort is made to compressor design system that has been adopted
present the data in a fundamental form. To for this report on the aerodynamic design of axial-
illustrate the use of these data, a representative flow compressors. The basic thermodynamic
design procedure is utilized. However, since the equations are given, and the simplifications com-
design information is reduced to basic concepts, monly introduced to permit the solution of these
it can be fitted into any detailed design procedure equations are sumInarized. Representative ex-
6 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS
perimental data are presented to justify these the correlations of the available data, rules and
simplifications. This chapter thus provides a relations are evolved for the prediction of blade-
valid simplified model of the flow, which is the real profile performance. These relations are devel-
basis of a design system. The elements of the oped in simplified form readily applicable to
resulting design system are then individually sum- compressor design procedures.
marized ; basic equations and techniques are given. Because of modifying effects (wall boundary
Finally, the limitations of this adopted system are layers, three-dimensional flows, etc.), blade-
pointed out, and promising directions for future element characteristics in an annular cascade
research are indicated. can be expected to differ from those obtained
The literature on plane potential flow in cascades in two-dimensional cascades. Chapter VII at-
is next reviewed (ch. IV). Many of the methods tempts to correlate and summarize available
are evaluated within the bounds of limited avail- blade-element data as obtained from experimental
able information on actual use. Some of the tests in three-dimensional annular cascades (pri-
methods that have been used successfully are marily rotors and stators of single-stage compres-
presented in detail to illustrate the mathematical sors). Data correlations at minimum loss are
techniques and to indicate the nature of the obtained for blade elements at various radial
actual computation. The potential-flow theories positions along the blade span. The correlations
discussed include both the design and analysis are compared with those obtained from two-
problems and consider both high-solidity and dimensional cascades (ch. VI). Design rules and
low-solidity applications. Compressibility is con- procedures are recommended, and sample calcula-
sidered, but effects of viscosity are ignored. tion procedures are included to illustrate their
A necessary adjunct to this subject of two- use.
dimensional potential flow is the consideration As discussed in the preceding paragraphs,

of two-dimensional viscous effects, presented in chapters IV to VII deal with the two-dimensional
chapter V. In this chapter, the problem of blade-element aspect of design. The design
boundary-layer growth in the calculation of problem in the meridional or hub-to-tip plane is
two-dimensional flow about compressor blade introduced and summarized in chapter VIII.
profiles is reviewed. A qualitative picture of This meridional-plane solution presumes the
boundary-layer behavior under various conditions existence of the required blade-element data to
of pressure gradient, Reynolds number, and satisfy the velocity diagrams that are established.
turbulence normally encountered in two- The general flow equations are presented, together
dimensional blade-element flow is presented. with the simplifying assumptions used to deter-
Some typical methods for computing the growth mine the design velocity distribution and flow-
and separation of laminar and turbulent boundary passage configuration. Techniques for accounting
layers are presented. Analyses for determining for effects of viscosity (particularly for wall
the total-pressure Joss and the defect in circulation boundary layers) are described. The application
are discussed. of these design techniques is clarified by a sample
Because of recognized limitations of theoretical stage design calculation.
calculations such as those presented in chapters Since procedures for determining the design
IV and V, experimental blade-element data are velocity distribution and flow-passage configura-
generally required by the designer. The available tions in the meridional plane are usually iterative,
experimental data obtained in two-dimensional it is desirable to have approximate techniques
cascade are surveyed and evaluated in chapter available to expedite this process of stage design.
VI. These data (for conventional compressor The equations for radial equilibrium, continuity,
blade sections) are presented in terms of signifi- energy addition, efficiency, and diffusion factor,
cant parameters and are correlated at a reference as well as vector relations, are presented in chart
incidence angle in the region of minimum loss. form in chapter IX. An example of the applica-
Variations of reference incidence angle, total- tion of the chart technique to stage design is
pressure loss, and deviation angle with cascade included.
geometry, inlet Mach number, and Reynolds In addition to the design-point problem, the
number are investigated. From the analysis and compressor designer is vitally concerned with
OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE 7
the prediction of compressor performance over a solution of this off-design problem, however, is a
range of flow conditions and speeds. Three tech- quafitative understanding of the phenomena in-
niques for estimating compressor off-design per- volved. An analysis of the part-speed operating
formance are presented in chapter X. The first problem in high-pressure-ratio multistage axial-
method establishes tile blade-row and over-all flow compressors is presented in chapter XIII.
performance by means of the integration of blade- The principal problems considered are poor low-
element characteristics. The second method uti- speed efficiency, multiple-valued performance
lizes generalized stage performance curves and a characteristics at intermediate speeds, and poor
stage-by-stage calculation. The third method, intermediate-speed surge or stall-limit character-
which is based on the over-all performance istics. The effects of compromising stage match-
characteristics of existing compressors, may be ing to favor part-speed operation are studied.
used to estimate the complete performance map Variable-geometry methods for improving part-
of a new compressor if the compressor design con- speed performance are discussed.
ditions are specified. The advantages and limita- The design approach adopted for this series of
tions of each of these three off-design analysis reports is based essentially on two-dimensional
techniques are discussed. concepts, assuming axial symmetry and blade-
Chapter XI is the first of a group of three element flow. With the continuing trend toward
concerning the unsteady compressor operation increasing requirements in compressors, however,
that arises when compressor blade elements stall. a condition may be reached where this simplified
The field of compressor stall (rotating stall, indi- approach may no longer be adequate. Therefore,
vidual blade stall, and stall flutter) is reviewed. chapter XIV is devoted to a summarization of
The phenomenon of rotating stall is particularly those existing design methods and theories that
emphasized. Rotating-stall theories proposed in extend beyond the silnplified-radial-equilibrium
the literature are reviewed. Experimental data axisymmetric design approach. Design proce-
obtained in both single-stage and multistage com- dures that attempt to remove the _wo-dimensionaliz-
pressors are presented. The effects of this stalled ing restrictions are presented. Various phases
operation on both aerodynamic performance and of three-dimensional flow behavior that assume
the associated problem of resonant blade vibra- importance in design .are discussed, including
tions are considered. Methods that might be radial flows, the over-all aspects of secondary
used to alleviate the adverse blade vibrations due flows, and time-unsteady effects.
to rotating stall are discussed. As pointed out in chapter XIV, secondary
Another unsteady-flow phenomenon resulting flows represent one of the most critical aspects of
from the stalling of compressor blade elements is the three-dimensional design problems. In view
compressor surge. It may be distinguished from of the growing importance of this subject, exist-
the condition of rotating stall in that the net flow ing literature on secondary flows and three-
through the compressor and the compressor dimensional boundary-layer behavior is sumnm-
torque become time-unsteady. Some theoretical rized in chapter XV. The material is discussed
aspects of compressor surge are reviewed in from two aspects: (1) the principal results ob-
chapter XII. A distinction is made between tained from experimental studies, and (2) the
surge due to abrupt stall and surge due to pro- theoretical treatment of the problem. Tim ex-
gressive stall. Experimental observations of surge perimental phase is directed at providing a
in compressor test facilities and in jet engines are qualitative insight into the origin and nature of
summarized. the observed secondary-flow phenomena. The
The blade-element approach to the prediction theoretical results include a sunnnary and evalu-
of off-design performance (as presented in ch. X) ation of both the nonviscous t_nd the boundary-
is essentially limited to the unstalled range of layer approaches.
operation. Because of the complexity of the flow Errors in blade-element design can seriously
phenomenon when elements stall, no quantitative affect over-all compressor performance, since these
data are available to permit a precise and accurate errors not only cause deviations from desired
synthesis of over-all compressor performance in blade-row performance, but also alter the inlet
this range. A prerequisite to the complete conditions to the next blade row. The effects of
AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS
errors in the three basic blade-element design and more approximate method. In addition, a
parameters (turning angle, total-pressure loss, and simple technique for establishing an engine
local specific mass flow) on compressor perform- oper,_ting line on a compressor map is reviewed.
ance are analyzed in chapter XV]. The results An available technique for matching during
are presented in the form of formulas and charts. transient operation is also discussed. The use of
These charts may be used to indicate those design this method permits engine acceleration charac-
types for which tile design control problem is most teristics and acceleration time to be approximated
critical and to estimate the limits in performance for either single-spool or two-spool engines.
that can be anticipated for design data of a given CONCLUDING REMARKS
accuracy. Typical design cases are considered,
and significant trends are discussed. A second The subsequent chapters in this report sum-
phase of this chapter concerns accuracy of experi- marize available information on the aerodynamic
mental measurements. Proper interpretation and design of axial-flow compressors. It is recog-
analysis of experimental data require that meas- nized that many techniques have been proposed
urements be precise. This chapter presents a for describing the flow in an axial-flow compressor
systematic evaluation of the effect of measure- and for accounting for the complex flow phenomena
ment errors on the measured compressor perform- that are encountered. Obviously, consideration
ance. These results, which are also presented in of all of these techniques is impossible. However,
chart form, can be used to estimate the required the available literature in the field is reviewed
accuracy of instrumentation. extensively, and the material presented is con-
One of the most important aspects of gas- sidered to be representative and pertinent. In
turbine engine design, particularly for applications general, the attempt is made to present the in-
where high power output and wide operating formation in its most basic form, so that it may
range are required, is that of compressor and tur- be fitted into any generalized design system.
bine matching. The existing literature on com- Because of the many difficult and involved
pressor and turbine matching techniques, which problems associated with compressor design, very
can be used to compromise properly the aero- few of these underlying problems are treated with
dynamic design of the compressor and turbine to
finality. In some cases, the problem is only
achieve the best over-all engine, is summarized
partly defined. Nevertheless, many successful
in chapter XVII. Both single-spool and two-
designs (by present standards, at least) have been
spool engines are considered. For equilibrium
made with the use of this information. The voids
operation, the basic matching technique, which
involves the superposition of compressor and in the information clearly indicate the research
turbine maps, is presented, as well as a simplified problems for the future.
CHAPTER H
COMPRESSOR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
By ROBERT O. BULLOCK and ERNST I. PRASSE
The important requirements o.I axial-flow compres- pressor. In tile strictest sense, all these inter-
sors for aircraft gas-turbine engines and the reasons relations are obtained only after a detailed study
for these requirements are reviewed. Attention is first of many airplane-engine designs and flight paths.
directed to the over-aU requirements of the engines Fortunately, however, broad design objectives
themselves; then the desired properties oJ compressors may be indicated by a more cursory analysis
are examined. such as that used in the present report.
Cycle analyses of the turbojet and turboprop engines What an airplane requires of its engine is
are presented to illustrate the effects of compressor viewed front generalized flight situations to
obtain the broad objectives for engine design.
pressure ratio and e_ciency on engine performance.
The significance of high flow capacity in compressors The important engine variables such as specific
is indicated. The compromises in compressor design weight, specific fuel consumption, and thrust per
unit of frontal area are thus defined. The rela-
dictated by aerodynamic design limitations in the
compressor itself as well as aerodynamic and struc- tive importance of these engine performance
tural design limitations in other components' are in- variables is then examined with regard to the
vestigated. The pertinent off-design problems result- flight conditions to which the airplane will be
ing .from the necessity of matching the compressor subjected.
with the inlet and with the turbine over a range of Compressor characteristics having a direct bear-
flight conditions are enumerated, and some available ing on engine performance are then discussed.
methods (_ coping with these problems are discussed. Attention is given to compressor efficiency, pres-
From these studies, the basic objectives o.f a com- sure ratio, and flow capacity and their quantita-
tive effects on specific fuel consumption, size and
pressor design system are evolved.
airflow capacity of engine components downstream
INTRODUCTION of the compressor, and turbine aerodynamic limits.
Other important considerations in compressor
The information presented in this report is pri-
design are discussed, including the mutual prob-
marily concerned with the problems encountered
lems of compressor, turbine, combustor, and inlet
in designing axial-flow compressors for gas-turbine
diffuser, for both design and off-design conditions.
engines used in aircraft propulsion. In order to
Exact quantitative relations are developed when-
enumerate these problems, the important charac-
ever this can readily be done; otherwise, qualitative
teristics required of such compressors should be
results are presented and representative examples
defined. Reviewing these requirements is the
are used to underline the trends.
object of this chapter.
Present compressor design objectives, based on
A compressor, being only one component of an
the requirements indicated by the analyses of this
engine, must have characteristics consonant with
report, are summarized. These objectives indicate
those required of the engine. The requirements
the direction in which compressor designs should
of an engine, in turn, are dictated by the demands
proceed.
of the airplane. Before the desired properties of
a compressor can be given, therefore, the inter- SYMBOLS
relations b_tween an airplane and its engines must
The following symbols are used in this chapter:
be examined. Similarly, the important compres-
sor requirements are found from a study of the A area, sq ft
interrelations between the engine and its corn- B engine-weight parameter (eq. (7b))
9
10 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COM]aRESSORS
C_r coefficient of skin friction 17 efficiency

c, jet-nozzle velocity coefficient 0 ratio of total temperature to NASA
coefficient of maneuver standard sea-level temperature of
Cp specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/ 518.7 R
(lb) (R) p density, lb/cu ft
D diffusion factor (eq. (29)) pV air weight flow per unit flow area,
diameter (lb/sec)/sq ft
d drag, lb ff solidity, ratio of chord to spacing
E pressure-ratio parameter (eq. (20)) T turbine blade centrifugal stress, psf or psi
eshp equivalent shaft power, hp turbine blade taper factor
F thrust, lb OJ angular velocity of rotor, radians/sec
F(sJc) thrust specific fuel consumption, lb/(hr)
Subseripts:
(lb)
f fuel-air ratio ad adiabatic
G pressure-ratio parameter (eq. (16)) B combustor
g acceleration due to gravity, 32.17 ft/sec 2 C compressor
H total or stagnation enthalpy, Btu/lb d design value
I-Is fuel heating value, Btu/lb e engine
J mechanical equivalent of heat, 778.2 eJJ effective
ft-lb/Btu F frontal
k fraction of gross airplane weight taken f fuel
by structural weight and useful load, g gross
h hub
W,,)/Wo,,
L lift, lb i airplane takeoff condition or that after
l length, ft refueling
M Maeh number j jet nozzle
N rotational speed, rpm M mechanical power
P total or stagnation pressure, lb/sq ft rain minimum
P static or stream pressure, lb/sq ft n nacelle
Q pressure-ratio parameter (eq. (13)) n,-fr nacelle-friction
R gas constant, 53.35 ft-lb/(lb)(R) PT power turbine
range of flight, ft pr propulsive
r radius ref reference
power specific fuel consumption, lb/hp-hr sl NASA standard sea-level conditions
T total or stagnation temperature, R st structure
U rotor speed, ft/sec T turbine
V air velocity, ft/sec t tip
W weight u useful
w weight flow, lb/sec w wetted
Ot airplane acceleration in direction of flight, x arbitrary engine station
ft/sec 2 z axial direction
air angle, angle between air velocity and
z-axis, deg Stations in engines (fig. 9):
F turbine blade metal density, lb/cu ft or 0 free stream
lb/cu in. 1 compressor inlet
ratio of specific heats 2 combustor inlet
ratio of total pressure to NASA standard 3 turbine inlet
sea-level pressure of 2116 lb/sq ft 4 turbine discharge for turbojet engine
angle between thrust axis and direction 5 turbine discharge for turboprop engine
of flight, deg 6 exhaust-nozzle exit
COMPRESSOR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS 11
Superscripts: airplane gross weight for any specific flight con-

conditions relative to rotor blade dition is
-- denotes average over flight path

Wg--\ F] \WJ (1)
EFFECTS OF ENGINE CHARACTERISTICS
ON AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE where F in H_/F represents the thrust the engine
can produce, and the same symbol in F/Wa stands
The suitability of an engine for aircraft pro- for the thrust demanded by the airplane. The
pulsion is frequently judged by three quantities two thrusts, of course, lnUSt always be equal.
the specific weight., the thrust specific fuel con- Both the thrust produced by the engine and the
sumption, and the thrust per unit frontal area. thrust demanded by the airplane vary with flight
While it is patently desirable for engines to have altitude and speed.
low values of the first two quantities and high Since the thrust of a given engine varies with
values of the third, it. frequently happens that altitude and speed, the value of 14_/F must also
the best possible values of all thcse quantities vary. 2_n example of this variation in a turbojet
cannot be obtained simultaneously. Some impor- engine is shown in figure 4, where specific weight
tant requirements for low thrust specific fuel is plotted against altitude for flight Mach num-
consumption, for example, are incompatible with bers of 0.8 and 2.0. A point is also shown for
those for either low specific weight or high thrust corresponding sea-level static conditions. For
per unit of frontal area. Moreover, some of the the purpose of generalization, the specific weights
requirements for low specific weight may be are divided by the specific weight for a flight Mach
different from those for high thrust per unit number of 0.8 at sea level. It may be noted that
frontal area. Thus, the design of an engine and specific weight is approximately doubled for
its components is always a compromise in which
every 15,000-foot increase in altitude in the
one feature of engine performance is favored stratosphere. This variation is inversely pro-
over another. The direction and degree of the portional to the change in air density. Increasing
compromise depend, among other things, on the
design and the intended use of the airplane.
IO
The best compromise is, of course, pinpointed /
o nly after detailed studies of a number of definite 8
airplane and engine designs. On the other hand, %
sore e basic knowledge of the way the design and 6 Flight Mach
number, ,
mission of an airplane affect these compromises
/
may
Some
study
cance
be obtained
of the over-all
are discussed
of specific
from a more
results outlined
in this section.
weight
general
is first examined.
study.
by such a
The signifi-
The
6
(D 4 ?/
O,
5
role of thrust specific fuel consumption is then
i
reviewed, and the relative importance of specific (D
weight and thrust specific fuel consumption is -Sea-level

2 static
noted. Some effects of the drag associated with specifi
the engine installation are then indicated. Fi- weight
nally, other engine features that affect the design
b.]
and performance of an airplane are discussed.
ENGINE WEIGHT
I
o Io 20 :30 40 50 60 70xlO 3
Specific engine weight is one of the important Altitude, ft
factors determining how much of the load-carrying
]TIC, URE 4.--Typical variation of turbojet-engine specific
capacity of an airplane is consumed by engine
weight with altitude at constant engine mechanical
weight. Since specific engine weight is defined speed. Reference condition: Altitude, sea level; flight
by WJF, the required ratio of engine weight to Mach number, 0.8.
the flight Mach number from 0.8 to 2.0 also in- Because (L/d)ert is a function of a large number of
creases the density of the air in the engine because variables, its trends cannot be generally plotted
of the effects of ram. In this example, the specific as a function of altitude and flight Mach number
weight is about halved for this increase in flight alone without leaving some misleading impressions.
Mach number. The trends described in the following paragraphs
The curve for the flight Mach number of 0.8 is may be noted, however.
also more or less applicable to turboprop engines. As the design altitude of the airplane increases,
The sea-level static value of specific weight for the maximum attainable value of Lid tends to
these engines, however, is usually much lower than increase. This trend results from increases in the
that for the jet engine; its value depends as much aspect ratio of the wings and from the fact that
on the selection of the propeller as on the engine the fuselage drag becomes a smaller portion of the
itself. total drag. High values of L/d may be obtained
The term F/We, which represents the thrust with subsonic airplanes during level flight. Values
required for a unit gross weight, is a function of a in the neighborhood of 20 are not uncommon, and
number of variables. Tile trends may be con- values approaching 30 have been sought. Air-
veniently studied by the following procedure: At planes designed for high values of Lid with
any point in flight, the thrust required of the en- subsonic flight, however, would have very poor
gines is determined by the relations values of L/d at supersonic flight. In airplanes
designed exclusively for supersonic flight, values
F cos _=d+Wg _ of L/d approaching 6 have been observed in some
g model tests, and reasonably higher values might
L = C,.W_-- F sin be obtained in the future. Again, the value of
L/d may increase with altitude. In general, an
where _ is the angle between the thrust axis and airplane designed exclusively for supersonic flight
the direction of flight, d is the dissipative drag would have undesirably low values of L/d at
force, Woa/g is the component of body force in the subsonic speeds.
direction of flight, and C,,Wa is the component of When reasonably good performance is desired
body force perpendicular to the direction of flight. at both subsonic and supersonic speeds, the
These expressions may be combined to give attainable values of L/d must be compromised
for both regimes. For subsonic speeds, the value
Cm-F L a of L/d may be expected to be slightly more than 10.
dg F
The corresponding value of Lid for supersonic
L --Wg (2)
cos e+ sin flight may be of the order of 3 or lower. The
possible increase in L/d with design altitude is
again noted for both regimes.
where Lid is the ratio of the aerodynamic lifting
force to the drag force. When the airplane is in At takeoff conditions, the value of (L/d),,t can
level flight and moving with a constant velocity, become very low for all types of airplanes. With
then C,,--1 and a--0. Moreover, when the vertical takeoff, the thrust of the engine must
thrust axis is along the direction of flight, then overcome the acceleration due to gravity; the value
e----0. Under these conditions, equation (2) of F/Wg in equation (2b) must then be greater than
becomes unity. The magnitude of (L/d),IIis thereforeless
F 1 than unity. Less stringent takeoff conditions
lVo-- L (2a) permit the value of (L/d)ef_. to be somewhat im-
(_ proved. For an ordinary takeoff, the value of
(L/d),II may be of the order of 4.
For the sake of simplicity, the complete form of A high-maneuverability requirement also re-
equation (2) is expressed by analogy as duces the value of (L/d),rl. A 2g turn, for example,
F 1 makes the value of C_ equal 2 in equation (2),
(2b)
L and (L/d),1i could be reduced by more than 50
percent.
A study of the combined effects of specific

engine weight and (LId),u on H_IWo may now be
made by combining equations (1) and (2b) to
give
w.
W,_ F (la)
2
) :e _;
- %. os _ -t-+--i-+H
Since the gross weight at any instant equals the _ 06 - -
initial weight minus the fuel expended (Wg---- Wo. _--
AWI), equation (la) may also be written as __
w,
We F {1 AWIWI "_
.01 .02 04 .06.0S.I .2 4 6 S I
We/ F
(L/d)ef f
The initial gross weight of the airplane is the Flocm_ 5.--Graphical representation of equation (4).
sum of the structural weight, useful weight or
payload, initial fuel weight, and engine weight: Wt_=0.4, the assumption that l_%/Wg.t is pro-
portional to (14_/F)/(L/d),z is again a good
approximation as long as (B%/F)/(L/d)eH is 0.2 or
W.,,=W.+W.+Wz.,+W. (3) smaller for k=0.6. Compared with the takeoff
value of I4_/Wo,,, however, H_/Wo., is reduced
about 12 percent for k=0.6 and 30 percent for
Using this equation to eliminate W_. _ in the right
k=0.3. For the same critical flight conditions (a
side of equation (lb) (setting W,,+W,,=kWa., )
given value of (WdF)/(L/d),1s), the required
gives
engine weight decreases as AH_/H,_,_ is increased
and as/c is decreased. Near the end of the flight,
equation (4) becomes
wo _- -_5_.,
(4) w,
\d Ass aWs w, F k
WV,,=dL' W,
' \--dle_ra --F
Some trends of this relation are shown in figure 5.
where 14_/Wo.f is plotted against (WdF)/(L/d)erl.
One of the curves of this figure applies to conditions For reasonably small values of (H%/F)/(L/d)em
at or shortly after takeoff, where AWs/H_.t_O the required value of H"dWg. _ is then approxi-
and H_/W_._ (14_/F)/(L/d)esr. The other four mately /c times its required value at takeoff for
curves apply to the case where AI_'I/WI.t=0.4; the same magnitude "F
of (H"d)/( /._/d)_1t.
that is, after 40 percent of the fuel weight has been The value of W,z_H'_. _ required in an airplane is
expended. These curves successively represent determined by the values of WdF, (L/d),z, and
the condition where lc=(W.t+W.)/Wo._=03, AW_/H.)._ at the critical flight condition. The
0.4, 0.5, and 0.6. value of the right side of equation (4) here is the
For conditions at or shortly after takeoff, the maximum encountered for the flight. At all other
magnitude of H_/Wg._ is independent of /c and flight conditions for the aircraft, the value of Wd
varies linearly with (WdF)/(L/d)eu. When AWt/ Wo. _ is, of course, the same, and the requirements
of equation (4) are then satisfied either by reducing conditions, it would have the value of 1.2 at the
F by throttling or by reducing (L/d)eu below its altitude of about 56,000 feet. In order to meet
attainable value. these conditions after 40 percent of the fuel is
Since the attainable value of (L/d)ell is relatively exhausted, 14_/W0._ must be 0.27 (fig. 5). An
low at takeoff, the requirements at takeoff may additional requirement of high maneuverability
determine the value of WJW0._. For example, if (C,_ 1) wouhl have to be answered by an added
the takeoff value of (L/d)_fl is 4.0 and the sea-level increase in engine weight. Even if the value of
static value of I_/F is 0.4, the value of l_'_/W0. C,_ is ozfly 1.25, then (Lid)ell becomes 3.2 and
is 0.10 (fig. 5). Suppose now that the value of We/Wo._ is increased to 0.35. Only 15 percent of
(L/d)_ u becomes 20 shortly after takeoff. Since the gross weight could then be allotted for fuel.
H_/Wo. _ is unchanged, the required value of W_/F This brief sampling shows how engine weight
is 2.0 (fig. 5). The value of F must be reduced depends on the conditions of flight. Of particular
either by throttling the engine or by increasing interest is the increase in WdWo. t associated with
the flight altitude. The value of WJF of 2.0 increases in flight altitude and Mach number.
corresponds to a value of (WJF)/(W_/F),fof about It is under these conditions that reductions in
5.9 (fig. 4). For the flight Mach number of 0.8, WdFare most appreciated. In the first of the pre-
the ordinate of figure 4 is 5.9 at the altitude of ceding examples (subsonic flight at comparatively
about 52,000 feet. As long as the flight is below low altitudes), the value of l_/W0._ was 0.1 for
this altitude, the takeoff condition would govern I_/F:0.4 at sea-level static conditions. A 50-
the selection of engine weight in this particular percent reduction in specific engine weight would
example. Suppose, however, that the airplane reduce WJi4"g._ by 0.05. This saving in weight
(with k:0.5) must achieve the altitude of 63,000 could be distributed among useful weight, fuel
feet and the Mach number of 0.8 after 40 percent weight, and structural weight. For the last ex-
of the fuel is expended. If the takeoff value of ample, on the other hand, such a reduction in
WJF is still 0.4, the value of WJF at the required specific engine weight would reduce 14_/Wo._ by
flight condition is now 3.4. Moreover, if the value 0.19. A much larger weight movement is available
of (L/d)_u is still 20, the required value of I_/W_._ to the other parts of the airplane. The fuel
is 0.145. Since We/lVo._ only had to be 0.10 at weight, for example, could be more than doubled.
takeoff, the condition at 63,000 feet would now To meet the requirements for high altitude or
determine the required engine weight. Notice supersonic flight, every effort should be made to
that _. dWg. _ would have to be reduced by 0.045 make We/F as small as possible.
in order to compensate for the increased engine ENGINE EFFICIENCY
weight if k remains at 0.5. At the same time,
however, the takeoff requirements can be made The previous discussion was centered about
more stringent; (L/d)_u can be reduced to 2.76 if the size of engines needed to meet certain thrust
the structural strength of the airplane is adequate. requirements. Of equal importance is the weight
A requirement of supersonic flight may decide of fuel required to meet the various range require-
the v_lue of W_/I_. _, because the attainable value ments demanded of the airplane. The range
of (L/d)eu is comparativelylow. Although super- requirements may be examined with the aid of
sonic flight itself tends to decrease I4_/F (fig. 4), the familiar Breguet range equation, which can
be written as
this trend may be offset by the need for making
the engines operate at high flight altitudes.
(High altitudes may be desired to make (L/d),u (5)
_]_=--Jttj_)effn L -e In (1 W,.J
Wf. _'_
as high as possible, to obtain a reasonable level
of wing loading for takeoff and landing, and to
reduce aerodynamic heating.) The low value of where the bars denote average values over the
(L/d)eu combined with the high values of W_/F at entire flight path. This expression is modified
high altitudes results in high values of WJWg. f. by using equation (3); it then becomes
Consider the case where k=0.5 and (L/d)eu=
4.0 for level flight at the Mach number of 2.0.
_]_------JH_._) - /- _ \
If the value of WJF is again 0.4 at static sea-level
Since W/H"
,',/ '_, is determined from equation (4) and where AWr/Wr., is 0 and 0.4 at the critical
at the most critical flight condition, equation (5a) flight condition. These curves show that there
may be written as is always an incentive for making (W,/F)/
(L/d) ,H as low as possible, but the need for low spe-
F ] cific engine
(W,/F)/(L/d)ez
weights becomes
increases above
more imperative
0.1. This state-
as
1--k L
I ment is particularly
and for situations
true for the higher values of k
where the critical flight condition
ell
1- W, -d !
is reached before an appreciable amount of fuel is
1 L
--d
F
eft
_W_
Wr._
..
J used.
are
With respect
required
required; when
to range,
whenever
stringent
therefore,
high-altitude
takeoff
light engines
flight
conditions
is
are
(6)
imposed; when a high degree of maneuverability
is demanded; or when high supersonic flight speeds
It is immediately noted that the range of flight is
must be attained. Notice in this connection
proportional to the average efficiency of the engine
and the heating value of the fuel used. In other that high design flight altitudes may permit the
words, the weight of fuel required for a given mis- attainment of relatively high values of (L/d),H
sion is inversely proportional to both the heating and range, and that low values of W,/F are re-
value of the fuel and the engine efficiency. The quired for this accomplishment.
range is also proportional to the average value of As previously noted, it frequently happens
(L/d)_11 over the entire flight path. Finally, the that some of the design requirements for light
range is proportional to the function in the brackets. weight are incompatible with some of the require-
The trends of this function are illustrated in ments for high efficiency. As shown by equation
figure 6. The abscissa of this figure is (W,/F)/ (6), the range is directly proportional to the aver-
(L/d),Ii at the most critical flight condition of the age efficiency during flight. Decreases in engine
airplane. The ordinate is the calculated range weight that unduly prejudice the efficiency are
divided by the range when (H_/F)/(L/d),II=O.1, therefore unwelcome. At point A of figure 6,
k=0.5, and AWt/Wf.,=0. The curves represent a decrease in specific engine weight of 10 percent
conditions where k is again 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6, improves the range about 3 percent, if there is no
change in (L/d),rr or _,. If, however, the effi-
ciency also decreased 3 percent, there would be
4 , Lii it,o; _
no change in range. At this point, then, the
35:3
- .... efficiency would not be upset in order to obtain
2 .4 _-= -_ 0.3 ........
trifling improvements in engine weight. At
point B, on the other hand, a 10-percent reduc-
tion in specific engine weight increases the range
by about 23 percent. In this case a 23-percent
__ . X., __
reduction in engine efficiency is equivalent to a
10-percent reduction in specific engine weight.
Significant reductions in efficiency could be tol-
erated here to obtain moderate reductions in en-
2- fli'ght condition __ gine weight.
I --04 !I| II values A comparison of the relative effects of a small
,L L I L2L LI ........
---- ' kQ6 5 45
change in efficiency and a small change in specific
:01 .02 .03 D4 .06 )8.1 .2 .5 .4 .6 .8 engine weight may be directly obtained by differ-
We/F
entiating equation (6) with respect to _, and WJF.
(//d)ef---
_- at critical flight condition
The values of k and (L/d),Hare assumed to be fixed,
FIGURE 6.--Graphical representation of equation (6). along with the value of AWI/WL, since these
are the values at the most critical flight condi- (Lid)ell to 0.413. Here, 1-percent change in
tions, which determine WelWo, ,: efficiency is equivalent to about 0.2-percent
change in specific engine weight. If the required
_(9_) altitude is increased by 15,000 feet, however,
=1 (Ta) specific engine weight must be reduced, regardless
of the consequences, because the required engine
Y, weight would be so large that there would be no
room for fuel.
a(9_ ) w, AWI
When engine efficiency must be compromised
F
(7b) with specific engine weight, the design and in-
w.T tended use of the airplane determine the direction
In B and the degree of the compromise. When range
_) W__ I x AWI F J is the main objective and (L/d)es and the required
F
weight of fuel are large, some liberties can be
where taken with specific engine weight to favor effi-
We
ciency. There is the provision, of course, that the
F loss in attainable altitude does not reduce the
1--] value of (L/d)esr by a significant amount. At the
other extreme, when the combination of high
B=I
We
flight speeds, high altitudes, and maneuverability
make (L/d),z low and tend to make Wo/F high,
1 F AW I
the compromise must favor specific engine weight.
p) THRUSTPER UN|T FRONTAL AREA
Part of the drag d of the airplane results from

The implications of this equation are shown in
the drag of the inlet supplying the engine with air
figure 7, where the ordinate is and from the drag of the nacelle or that part of
the fuselage housing the engine. If this drag is
a( ,._ ) a(_,) denoted by d,, then
,._ _,
d=d,+d_
i_(--_) r _--_)
Equation (2) could then be written as
W, We
F F La
Cm-F dog F
L d,,
and the abscissas and parameters are the same as _ (cos ._T)+si n W.
those in figure 6.
For a long-range airplane, where (H_/F)/
The term on the left side is again denoted by
(L/d),I1 may be of the order of 0.05, a 1-percent
1/(L/d)erl. For small values of _, the following
increase in efficiency increases the range 1 per-
can be written:
cent (eq. (Ta)); a 7-percent decrease in specific
engine weight is necessary to obtain the same range . LO_
increase if k=0.5 (fig. 7(a)). If high-altitude

requirements cause We/F to be doubled, the 1- _I--v)=_ 1 Av
percent increase in efficiency is about equivalent
to a 3-percent decrease in specific weight. For
supersonic flight, with (B_/F)/(L/d)oz=0.33, k When d,/Ap is high, obtaining low values of
----0.5, and AWI/WI._=0.4 , a 1-percent increase in d,/F requires high values of FIAt. Since the
efficiency is equivalent to a H-percent decrease highest values of d,,/Ap are usually obtained at
in specific engine weight (fig. 7(b)). A maneuvera- supersonic flight conditions, large values of FlAp
bility requirement of C_= 1.25 increases (We/F) are particularly desired for supersonic flight.
*1
(b)
[04 .06 .08 .I .2 .3 .4 .04 .06 .08 ,I .2 .5 .4 .6
We/F
-- ot crilicol flight condition
(L/d)eff
(a) AWf/ Wf,_ at critical flight condition, 0. (b) _ WI/Wt,_ at critical flight condition, 0.4.
FIGURE 7.--Graphical representation of equation (7b).
The drag of the inlet mainly consists of an

"additive drag" (ref. 10), a drag resulting from
the pressure forces acting on the outer curved Oblique shocks _, .,_ I
portion of the inlet (fig. 8), and the drag resulting

from friction. In some cases, for supersonic
flight, it may be desirable to bypass some of the
air entering the inlet to the outside. In this case
a "bypass" drag is added. The "additive" and
"bypass" drags depend on the matching of the
inlet with the engine, which is discussed in more
detail in a later section. FIGURE 8.--Representative supersonic inlet.
The drag resulting from pressure forces depends of the engine and the speed of flight; its order of
on the difference between the maximum frontal magnitude is given by
area of the engine housing and the open area of the Wl
inlet. It also depends on the slope and curvature A=(poVoo)m,.
of the outer surface of the inlet. The open area where (poVo),,_, is the minimmn value of poVo
of the inlet depends on the mass-flow requirements anticipated for steady flight. The maximum
691-504 0-65-3
frontal area of the engine housing has usually been gravity of the airplane and its load in the right
determined by the frontal area of the engine with location. For nacelle or pod installation, the
its accessories. Small engine diameters, and in wings must be strong enough to support the en-
particular small compressor diameters, are there- gines forlanding shocks or other violent maneuvers.
fore desired to keep the drag resulting from Again, light engines tend to lessen structural
pressure forces from being greater than it has to be. weight.
It should be noted in passing that the inlet The manner in which compressor design influ-
design itself usually requires the frontal area to be ences the length and diameter of the engine is
greater than the capture area for supersonic treated in subsequent sections of this chapter.
flight. The illustration of figure 8 shows such a The relations between compressor diameter and
design. This requirement follows from the neces- the diamet_rs of the other components of the en-
sity of meeting certain area requirements within gine are studied and some of the factors involved
the inlet and from the necessity of avoiding in engine length are enumerated.
abrupt changes in flow direction within the inlet.
EFFECTS OF COMPRESSOR PRESSURE RATIO,
Some requirements of variable inlet geometry COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY, AND FLIGHT CON-
aggravate this trend. DITIONS ON ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Most of the rest of the drag associated with an
engine installation is due to friction. An estimate For a specified performance of its components,
of the magnitude of the friction drag is given by the efficiency and specific thrust of an engine are
the formula calculated by cycle analyses (refs. 12 and 13).
d,,.p-_ C_,( ]'ypoM_,A,_) (8) The analysis presented here is similar to that of
these references. Sketches of typical turbojet- and
As shown in reference 11, a value of CI, of 0.00168 turboprop-engine installations with numerical
is in agreement with available data. At a Mach stations are shown in figure 9. (Note that the con-
number of 1.0 at 35,000 feet, this formula then dition of the engine gases after the work needed
becomes
to drive tile compressor has been extracted from
d_.p---- 1.84 _),l, the turbine carl be indicated at station 4 of the
turboprop engine, and that station 5 is at the
In the interest of keeping this drag low, both the
discharge of the final turbine. For the turbojet
diameter _) and the length 1 of the engine should
engine, stations 4 and 5 coincide.)
be small. In particular, small compressor lengths
The efficiency of each component is fixed in
and diameters are desired.
this analysis. The effect of compressor pressure
Another component of drag is that resulting fronl
ratio is examined for a range of flight conditions
the pressure forces at the rear end of the engine.
and turbine-inlet temperatures. The gas charts
This drag is much more closely related to other
of reference 14 were used for determining gas
eagine components than it is to tim compressor,
properties.
however, and it is therefore dismissed from further
consideration. ASSUMPTIONS USED IN CYCLE ANALYSES
OTHER ENGINE REQUIREMENTS The following values were assumed for the sev-
eral variables involved in the cycle analyses of
Besides affecting airplane drag, the length and
both the turboprop and the turbojet engine:
diameter of the engine may affect the structural
weight of the airplane. In particular, long engines
require a long and fairly rigid fuselage, which adds Inlet-diffuser
Flight Mach total-pressure
weight to the airplane without noticeably im- number, M0 recovery,
P I/ Po
pro ring the lift-drag ratio.
Engine weight also affects tile structural weight 0 0. 87
.8 .98
and other properties of the airplane, because the 2.0 .90
3.0 .60
concentration of weight in the engine must be sup-
ported by the airplane. In fuselage installations,
for example, the design of the airplane can be Compressor adiabatic efficiency, _,,d.C ........... 0. 88
unfavorably compromised to keep the center of Combustion efficiency, primary burner, ,18 ....... 0. 98
Station
0 I 2 5 4-5 6 0
I ! I Exhaust 1
J_ Inlet diffuser L Compressor-; , _--Combustor _ nozzle_ 1
' "" ;_ ." ] "%,, _-_.._____ Turbine- /' ',
(o)
Station
0 2 5 4 5 6 0
I I I Exhaust
Propeller- 7 p , nozzle 7 E
, Inlet diffuser - Compressor--: , Combustorv, / J
// ___.____--_ /'/ / ,C._J/ _L_.
>2
(b)
(a) Turbojet engine

(b) Turboprop engine
FIGURE 9.--Sketches of turbojet- and turboprop-engine configurations showing stations used in analysis.
Heating value of fuel, He, Btu/lb ........... 18, 570 was assumed equal to P,/Po, a condition approxi-
Hydrogen-carbon ratio of fuel ................. 0. 167 mating that for maximum power.
Temperature of fuel injected as a liquid, Tt, R__ 600
The selected value of compressor efficiency
Total-pressure ratio across primary burners,
appears to be attainable up to at least a com-
P3/P2 ...................................... 0. 95
Turbine adiabatic efficiency, _/_. r .............. 0. 90 pressor pressure ratio of 12. The efficiency of the
Exhaust-nozzle velocity coefficient, Ci ......... 0. 98 turbine is high compared with the values observed
No accounting was made for turbine cooling Or in engine tests. It is comparable, however, to
other cooling that might be necessary at the high experimental efficiencies observed with uniform
temperature levels. For the afterburning turbo- inlet conditions on cold-air turbines.
jet engine, the combustion efficiency of the after- EFFECTS OF COMPRESSOR PRESSURE RATIO AND FLIGHT
burner was 0.95, the total-pressure ratio across the CONDITIONS ON TURBOPROP-ENGINE PERFORMANCE
afterburner was 0.95, and the afterburner-outlet

Cycle analysis of a turboprop engine yields
total temperature was 3500 R.
the power delivered to the propeller, the thrust
For the turboprop engine, the combined propel-
developed by the jet nozzle, and the fuel burned
ler and gearbox efficiency was assumed to be
per pound of engine air. To put the total devel-
0.86. In addition, the division of power between
oped power of the propeller-jet combination on a
the propeller'and jet was assumed to be such that
the pressure ratio P._/p_, was 1.087 to obtain a common b_sis, it is necessary to use the propeller
reasonable nozzle area for the sea-level static case. propulsive efficiency _p,. A power specific fuel
For the other flight conditions considered, Ps/po consumption ,sic may then be determined.
For level flight, thrust F is related to developed osphere. In figure 11, the curves of figure 10 are
power by the equation repeated, except that compressor pressure ratio is
replaced by enthalpy rise in the compressor 5Hc
F= (Propeller power) _- (Jet power) (9) as one parameter. This parameter is used because
V0 the enthalpy rise in a compressor tends to be more
constant over a range of flight conditions than
The propeller power is the power delivered to the
pressure ratio when the mechanical speed of the
propeller multiplied by the efficiency of the pro-
engine is fixed.
peller and reduction gear. The jet power equals
The general properties of the turboprop engine
the thrust developed by the jet multiplied by the
can be noted from figures 10 and ll. The turbo-
airplane flight speed V0. Hence, the thrust may
prop engine is fundamentally capable of develop-
be related to quantities obtained directly from
ing high shaft efficiency or low specific fuel con-
cycle analysis by writing equation (9) as
sumption. The net efficiency of the engine is the
F_ ?Tpr product of the shaft efficiency and the efficiency
of the reduction gears and the propeller. The
X [(Power delivered to propeller) _ (Jet power/_,)] shaft efficiency at a given turbine-inlet tempera-
V0
ture increases with flight speed, because ram effi-
(10)
ciently increases the cycle pressure ratio. Shaft
efficiency also increases with altitude up to the
The term in brackets is defined as the equivalent
tropopause, because tile inlet-air temperature is
shaft power eshp of the engine, which depends to
reduced and the engine total-temperature ratio
some extent on the combined propeller-gearbox
T3/T_ is increased. The specific power of the
efficiency n_r. Since the jet power is usually small
engine follows similar trends.
compared with the propeller power, the equivalent
The actual power developed by the engine at
shaft power is essentially unaffected by minor
various flying conditions is the product of specific
changes in this efficiency; therefore, the results
power and the mass flow of air through the engine.
are expressed in terms of equivalent shaft power.
The mass flow of air, in turn, depends on the
Equation (9) is not applicable to the static sea-
value of wg_/$ of the compressor and the total
level case, since V0----0. For this condition, the
pressure and temperature at the compressor inlet.
equivalent shaft power is simply the power deliv-
The way the value of w_"_/6 changes with flight
ered by the power turbine, and the value of the
conditions depends on the characteristics of the
thrust depends on the propeller selection.
compressor and the value of the equivalent speed
Curves showing specific equivalent shaft power
N/_/O. One observed variation of w_'6/_ with N/_
eshp/w_ against power specific fuel consumption
is shown in figure 12. In this figure the ratio of
sic and over-all engine efficiency _, with com-
w-_f_/ii to its design (sea-level) value is plotted
pressor total-pressure ratio P:/P_ and turbine-
against the ratio of N/_/_ to its design value.
inlet total temperature T3 as parameters, are pre-
This curve represents the general trend, although
sented in figure 10. Specific fuel consumption is
used as the main variable for the abscissas because the specific values change from one compressor
design to another.
this term is more generally used than engine
At a flight Mach number of 0.8 in the strato-
efficiency. These two quantities are related by
sphere, the value of _/0 is about 0.92. For a
the equation
constant value of mechanical speed N, the wflue
(550) (3600)
"_= H_J(sJc) of ,,_/_ is of the order of 106 percent of its
sea-level value. At. an altitude of 40,000 feet
The efficiency is practically independent of the and a flight Math number of 0.8, the value (if
heating value of the fuel, while tile specific fuel _/_-0 is 0.300. The weight flow through the
consumption is inversely proportional to the fuel engine is thus about 32 percent of its sea-level
heating value. Figures l0 (a) and (b) represent value (including the effects of the assumed diffuser
sea-level flight at Mach numbers of 0 and 0.8, recoveries). For a compressor enthalpy rise of
respectively, while figure 10(c) represents condi- 1 l0 Btu per pound and a turbine-inlet temperature
tions for a flight Mach number of 0.8 in the strat- of 2000 R, the power developed by an engine
400
350
1t Compressor
pressure rotio, ----
300 P21Pl
o 2
El 3 -----
z_ 4 !
25O
2OO
I
.20 .15
17>.
\
02 .5 .4 .5 .6 .7
L 1 1 ...... l A
.6 .5 .45 4 .55 .5 .2 .15
%
(a) Altitude, sea level; flight Mach number, 0.

(b) Altitude, sea level; flight Y[ach number, 0.8. (c) Altitude, stratosphere; flight Mach number, 0.8.
F_uuaE 10.--Thermodynamic performance of turboprop engines (compressor pressure ratio as a parameter).
under these conditions is about 55 percent of its values of specific weights under 0.2 are practical,
value at sea-level static conditions. however.
Because of the low power at high altitudes, the When the takeoff problem is secondary, one
specific weight of turboprop engines (including of the principal design problems is exploiting the
the propeller) Inay vary between 1.5 and 3.0 at inherently high efficiency of the engine. The
40,000 feet. When flying at sea level, the cor- selection of the compressor enthalpy rise or
responding specific weights are about half these pressure ratio is then governed by the requirement
values. At takeoff, the specific weights depend of high efficiency. The desired value of either
on propeller design as well as on engine design; of these quantities depends on the turbine-inlet
22 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COMZPRESSORS
4oo I
/ i _ L Entholpy rise ._ _
350!
---- _ _ - | .......... _- in compressor, l
_-4 .... _- .,_ _4- . . ' Z_H, , Blu/Ib -- .r t
3OO
;_' L /1 ......... o c:55 i i
/ i ! /f u 50 t i
250
2OO
'rT',,,I [\L
i11 &[ "1"_[
t
,W ZL-......
, o7o4z 4- o 170 .....
_ 150
_3
I00
I,',, ! %
#
5o
02 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2,4 2.6 2.8
sfc', Ib/hr-hp
CL
Ll___ I L 1 I l
,T- .45 .50 .20 .15 .10 .08 .06 .05
%
o
550 rE4_ T t T _-
_, _ Btu/Ibl_-- I ! !
c9' 450_=J_ - 170 -_----- ' i : [ _
I-_ _f m!<-_ _-_ _o_

...... F-;
$7
,_oI _'. _ -_- -----4L -'--,.-_oo4

i
5025 .35 .45 .55 .65 .75 .85 .65 .75 .85 .95
sfc, Ib/hr-hp
.6 ,5 .45 .4 .55 .5 .2 .15 .6 .5:45 .4 ,55 .5 .2 .15

'?e %
(a) Altitude, sea level; flight Mach number, 0.

(b) Altitude, sea level; i&ight Mach number, 0.8. (c) Altitude, stratosphere; flight Mach number, 0.8.
F_gvaE ll.--Thermodynamic performance of turboprop engines (enthalpy rise in compressor as a parameter).
temperature, the flight speed, and the altitude. static conditions, and 22 for a flight Mach Number
However, flight speed and altitude do not greatly of 0.8 in the stratosphere.
affect the desirable value of cnthalpy rise; and Engine weight may be adversely affected by
an enthalpy rise AHc of 170 Btu per pound gives these high compressor pressure ratios, but this
approximately maximum e_ciency for 2000 R trend is at least partially overcome by increasing
turbine-inlet temperature for the three flight the turbine-inlet temperatures. Although an
conditions considered. The corresponding com- important fraction of the engine weight is fixed
pressor pressure ratios are about 13 for a flight by the weight of the gearbox and propeller (which
Mach number of 0.8 at sea level, 16 for sea-level depend on the maximum output required of the
1.20 ture T3 as parameters, for a nonafterburning en-

gine. Thrust specific fuel consumption instead of
over-all engine efficiency is again used as the main
abscissa because it is a more familiar term and
because the efficiency of a turboiet engine is always
zero for static conditions. The relation between
F(sJc) and _e is given by
3600V0
_= HjJXF(sJc)
The efficiency is again practically independent of

the heating value of the fuel, while F(sJc) is almost
inversely proportional to it. Figures 13 (a) and
(b) represent sea-level altitude for flight Mach
numbers of 0 and 0.8, respectively. Figures 13 (c),
(d), and (e) represent conditions in the strato-
020 .40 .60 .80 1.00 1.20
sphere for flight Mach numbers of 0.8, 2.0, and 3.0,
N /_ro respectively. Figure 14 is identical with figure 13,
Equivolent engine speed, (N/_/_)d
except that lines of constant compressor total-
pressure ratio are replaced by lines of constant
FIC, URE 12.--Representative variation of equivalent airflow
with equivalent speed. enthalpy rise in the compressor AHc. Figure 15,
finally, is a carpet plot depicting the same engine
engine), attractive gains are offered by using high variables as figure 13, for an afterburning turbojet
turbine-inlet temperature together with the cor- engine with an afterburner-outlet total tempera-
responding high pressure ratios. Employing tur- ture of 3500 R. The carpet plot is used to spread
bine cooling for this purpose may reduce the the curves apart. The auxiliary curves show the
indicated gains by a small amount but would not relation between thrust specific fuel consumption
alter the general trend of the curves. and efficiency.
On the basis of this discussion, compressor The thermodynamic efficiency of a turbojet
design information must cover the problem of engine (over-all efficiency divided by propulsive
designing compressors for pressure ratios of 16 efficiency) is just as high as that of a turboprop.
or higher. Although compressor efficiency has It also follows the same trends. The propulsive
not yet been discussed, it is obvious that high efficiency of the turbojet engine, which is approxi-
levels of efficiency are required to obtain the mately given by
highest levels of engine efficiency. While com-
pressor weight may be of relatively minor impor- 2V0 1
(11)
tance at low design pressure ratios, it can represent V_+Vo-- Fg
w +1
a large portion of the engine weight when designs
are made for the higher pressure ratios. Mini-
cannot be independently controlled, however. At
mizing compressor weight for these conditions,
subsonic flight speeds, the propulsive efficiency is of
without hurting the engine efficiency, is therefore
the order of 0.50 or less, and the over-all engine
an important design objective.
efficiency is therefore low compared with that of the
EFFECTS OF COMPRESSOR PRESSURE RATIO AND FLIGHT turboprop. At supersonic flight speeds, the pro-
CONDITIONS ON TURBOJET-ENGINE PERFORMANCE
pulsive efficiency increases because of the lower
Some results of the cycle analysis of the turbo- values of F/w and the higher values of V0. The
jet engine are given in figures 13 to 15. Figure 13 thermodynamic efficiency of the engine increases
presents specific thrust F/w_ plotted against at the same time because of the greater cycle
thrust specific fuel consumption F(ffc) or over-all pressure ratios resulting from ram. The net re-
engine efficiency 'M with compressor total-pres- sult is an increase in the attainable over-all effi-
sure ratio P_/P_ and turbine-inlet total tempera- ciency with increasing flight Mach number.
8O
70
60
9O
g 50
-T '
g 3o_ '3,'" Z]
1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 26 3.0 1.4 2.2 2.6 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
f-(s/C), Ib/(hr)(Ib)
b_.. I I L A
.15 .I .3 .2 .15 .I .08
_ge _e
_> ........... 4P_IP t -_---
60 -- _ _ ....... -_-_-
_( / i/ _3000t i_
15"q't _ i 44 _ -
30 .... , -7] R
1.0 I.I 1.2 1.3 1.4 15 1.6 17 1.8 1.9 2.0 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2
F(sfo), Ib/(hr) (I b)
I I ] L J L .... J- ........ J .....
.45 .40 .35 .30 .25 .50 .45 .40 .35
_e _e
(a) Altitude, sea level; flight Mack number, 0. (b) Altitude, sea level; flight Mach number, 0.8.
(c) Altitude, stratosphere; flight Mach number, 0.8.
(d) Altitude, stratosphere; flight Mach number, 2.0. (e) Altitude, stratosphere; flight Mach number, 3.0.
F_OURE 13.--Thermodynamic performance of nonafterburning turbojet engines (compressor pressure ratio as a parameter).
By the same token, the specific thrust of a This comparison is considerably different at
nonafterburning turbojet engine in a subsonic takeoff, where the thrust and power coefficients
airplane is inherently lower than that of a turbo- of the propeller play a dominant role.
prop. For two otherwise identical engines flying Subsonic flight.--As previously noted, the
at a given flight speed and altitude, the ratio of weight flow through the engine at a flight Mach
the specific thrust of a turboprop engine to that number of 0.8 and an altitude of 40,000 feet may
of a turbojet engine is directly proportional to the be about 32 percent of the weight flow at sea-level
ratio of their respective propulsive efficiencies. static (:onditions, for a constant-mechanical-
The turbojet engine is unencumbered by a gearbox speed engine. The thrust produced by the non-
and propeller, however, so that its specific weight afterburning engine at this altitude flight condi-
in level flight is about half that of the turboprop. tion is about 30 percent of its sea-level static
.2 .15 I .O8
Ve
Enfholpy rise
in compressor,
O0 -- I AHc:,
I _ Btu/Ib
o 55
0 45
[] 50
_> 65
-- O/ A 70
o
--- ._j o 140
e 150
170
220
D 230
<_ 240
-.q _ 260
o 350
_. 525
LLg,_
1.9 t.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2
Ib/(hr)(Ib)
L 1 I I
.50 .45 .40 .55
(a) Altitude, sea level; flight Mach number, 0. (b) Altitude, sea level; flight Mach number, 0.8.
(e) Altitude, stratosphere; flight Mach number, 0.8.
(d) Altitude, stratosphere; flight Maeh number, 2.0. (e) Altitude, stratosphere; flight Mach number, 3.0.
F_ouaE 14.--Thermodynamic performance of nonafterburning turbojet engines (enthalpy rise in compressor as a

parameter).
value for a turbine-inlet temperature of 2000 R ample, reducing (WJF)/(L/d),,from 0.4 at point
and a compressor enthalpy rise AHc of ll0 Btu B to 0.2 increases the ordinate from 0.44 to 1.0.
per pound. A turbojet engine having a specific The same critical flight conditions are met, and
weight of 0.4 at sea level thus has a specific weight the net improvement in range is about 14 percent.
of about 1.3 at this altitude condition. At point B, however, a 1-percent decrease in
If a subsonic turbojet engine has about half specific engine weight is equivalent to a 2.2-
the efficiency and about half the specific weight percent increase in efficiency (fig. 7(a)). At the
of a turboprop engine, it is profitably used when new point (for the turbojet engine) a 1-percent
the ordinate of figure 6 is more than doubled by decrease in specific weight is equivalent to only a
reducing (I_/d),(L/F)/_ by 50 percent. For ex- 0.65-percent increase in efficiency. Even though
(a) Altitude, sea level; flight Mach number, 0. (c) Altitude, stratosphere; flight Mach number, 0.8.
(b) Altitude, sea level; flight Mach number, 0.8. (d) Altitude, stratosphere; flight Mach number, 2.0.
(el Altitude, stratosphere; i%ight Mach number, 3.0.
F_GURE 15.--Thermodynamic performance of afterburning turbojet engines.
the lighter and less efficient, turbojet engine is of afterburning is advantageous. Comparison
more suitable for the flight than the turboprop of figure 15(c) with figure 13(c) shows that the
engine, improvements in its efficiency are now specific thrust can be increased 50 to 100 percent
somewhat more desirable than improvements in by afterburning. At the same time, however,
specific weight. Compressor pressure ratios the engine efficiency is reduced by the order of
greater than that for maximum specific thrust 50 percent. If the use of afterburning is limited
are thus desired. For the conditions of figure to a short period of time, the extra weight of
13(c), pressure ratios of 16 or higher might be fuel expended is small and the average efficiency
indicated. The rate at which the compressor is only slightly reduced. The reduction in the
weight increases with pressure ratio is the govern- critical value of W_/F is sufficient to more than
ing factor, however, in the selection of pressure overcome this loss in efficiency, and an increase
ratio. Design information permitting the de- in the range results. Referring to figures 6 and 7,
velopment of high pressure ratios with light- the value of (W_/F)/(L/d),zis now decided by the
weight compressors is thus necessary, just as it afterburning condition. The mean efficiency,
was for the turboprop engine. however, is practically that at the nonafterburning
When the high thrust levels are required for conditions. Because of the low value of engine
only a short time or for a short distance, the use specific weight at the critical flight condition,
further improvements should favor a small in- level, its specific weight at 55,000 feet and a
crease in tile average efficiency rather than a Mach number of 2 would be about 0.75. For
further decrease in specific engine weight. There values of (L/d)eH of the order of 3, (W_/F)/(L/d)eI,
is the provision, of course, that the critical con- becomes 0.25. At 70,000 feet (WJF)/(L/d)_z is
dition is the one desired and not compromised to increased to 0.50. The range of flight is thus
favor range to begin with. drastically curtailed by the combination of high
Employing an afterburner may increase the specific engine weights and low values of (L/d)_I,
engine weight from l0 to 30 percent. The (fig. 6). With lighter engines, higher altitudes
specific engine weight is consequently not reduced are available and larger values of (L/fl)_I, might
in proportion to the increase in specific thrust. be obtained. Even at the same value of (W_/F)/
Because it offers resistance to the flow, the after- (L/d)_z, a greater range would then be obtained
burner also decreases engine efficiency even when if (L/d)eI, is increased (eq. (6)). Emphasis is
it is not burning fuel. Moreover, its added thus placed on low engine weights for this type of
length increases nacelle drag, moves the center flight condition. As indicated in equation (7a),
of gravity of the engine rearward, and increases however, engine efficiency is of equal importance
the structural weight of the airplane. The net and must not be unduly prejudiced by efforts to
gains from its use are thus less than those in- reduce specific engine weight.
dicated by the simple calculations of specific In order to obtain low specific weights at
thrust. flight Much numbers of the order of 2, the use of
Supersonic flight.--The turbojet engine, by it- afterburning engines is attractive. According to
self, is capable of providing the thrust for takeoff, figures 15 (d)and (e), high pressure ratios and
climb, and acceleration to Mach numbers between high turbine-inlet temperatures would be desired
2 and 3. It is therefore being seriously considered for afterburning engines, since the highest specific
for this range of supersonic flight. At the flight thrust and efficiency are thereby attained. This
Much number of 2.0 in the stratosphere, the value desire is tempered, however, by the weigh t problems
of N/-_/O is 86 percent of its sea-level value at the high pressure ratios and the problems associ-
for a constant-speed engine. It is 69 percent of ated with the use of high turbine-inlet temperatures.
its sea-level value at the flight Much number of At lower turbine-inlet temperatures, there is a
3.0. The corresponding values of w_/O/_ are maxfinum desirable pressure ratio. At higher or
about 80 and 50 percent of their sea-level values lower pressure ratios, both the specific thrust and
(fig. 12). With the previously assumed inlet efficiency decrease. At a flight Mach number of
recoveries at an altitude of 55,000 feet, the 2, the pressure ratio for the highest specific thrust
associated values of 5/_ are about 0.5 and 1.4. and efficiency is about 8 for a turbine-inlet
Under these conditions, the weight flow of air temperature between 2000 and 2500 R. The
at a flight Mach number of 2.0 is approximately corresponding pressure ratio at sea level for a
40 percent of that at sea level; at M0----3.0, it is constant-mechanical-speed engine is about 14.
about 70 percent of its sea-level value. High turbine-inlet temperatures without after-
The ratio of the developed thrust for these burning are also attractive at the flight Mach
flight conditions to that at sea level depends on number of 2 (fig. 13(d)). Although the specific
the enthalpy rise or pressure ratio of the com- thrust is reduced from the afterburning case, the
pressor as well as the turbine-inlet and after- engine efficiency is increased. Moreover, the
burner-exit temperatures. If the static sea-level afterburning engine is penalized by the engine and
pressure ratio is 8, if the turbine-inlet temperature airframe weight penalties previously discussed.
is 2000 R, and if the afterburner-outlet tempera- These effects may more than counterbalance the
ture is 3500 R, then the specific thrust at a loss in specific thrust. The pressure ratios
flight Much number of 2 is about the same as desired for the nonafterburning engine are, of
that for sea-level static conditions for the after- course, higher than for the afterburning engine.
burning engine. At 55,000 feet and the Mach At the high flight Much number of 3, the
number of 2, the total thrust would be about 40 required compressor pressure ratios are low.
percent of its sea-level value. ]f the specific With a turbine-inlet temperature of 2000 R, a
weight of the afterburning engine were 0.3 at sea pressure ratio of the order of 2 is desired for
either an afterburning or nonafterburning engine Compressor efficiency is defined by the equation

(figs. 13(e) and 15(e)). This value corresponds
"rC--1
to a pressure ratio of about 4 at sea level. Since
the resulting subsonic performance is poor,
higher turbine-inlet temperatures nmst be used to (12)
,ae. C-- AHc
realize the advantages of the higher compressor TlC_
pressure ratios. At the turbine-inlet temperature
of 2500 R, the desirable pressure ratio lies Rearranging this expression and differentiating
between a value of 3 and 4 at the high flight Much it, while holding the value of AHc/Tlcp constant,
numbers. For constant-mechanical-speed engines, yield the following result:
the corresponding sea-level pressure ratios are
between 8 and 12. The necessity for lightweight
compressors developing this order of pressure
P2 -- Q d_a_.c (13a)
ratio at sea level is again apparent. _,c
P1
OTHER ENGINE CYCLES
where
There are many thermodynamic cycles sug- _.C--I
gested for aircraft propulsion. The ducted-fan

or bypass engine, for instance, is an intermediate Q=_ "Y_' (13b)
_c-- 1 _,C--1
engine between the turboprop and the turbojet
engines. The desired characteristics of the main
compressor and fan are thus expected to be
similar to the ones just outlined. The design The effect of a percent change in compressor total-
data required are consequently the same. Simi- pressure ratio on the total pressure Px at any
larly, the design data would be applicable to the point in the engine downstream of the compressor
design of other low-pressure-ratio compressors is thus
such as those used in the turborocket.
d(I;'] dfP,'_
EFFECTS OF COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY ON ENGINE \ Po] \P,] Q dn_,c (14)
PERFORMANCE
The effect of a change in compressor efficiency Po Pl

on the results of the preceding section can be
estimated by the following considerations. At a Turboprop engine.--For a turboprop engine,
given flight speed and altitude, the enthalpy rise neglecting the contribution of the jet, the me-
due to ram is fixed, as is the temperature T, chanic_d energy AHM developed in a complete
(fig. 9). With a given inlet recovery, the ram expansion of the engine gases through the power
pressure ratio P,/Po is constant. For a given turbine is given by
enthalpy rise in the compressor, the combustor-
inlet temperature T2 is fixed. The compressor
iH_f=v_,prT4cp 1-- 05)
total-pressure ratio P2/P_ is then a function of
compressor efficiency only. The turbine-inlet and
temperature T3 is given a fixed value as is the P0 1
combustor pressure ratio P3/P2. Since the work P4 P, P_
done by the turbine approximatley equals the Po P'
enthalpy rise through the compressor, the turbine-
outlet temperature 7'4 is fixed. For a given For given values of compressor pressure ratio
turbine efficiency, the turbine pressure ratio P4/P3 P2/P_ and engine temperature ratio T3/T,, the
is also fixed. Since tile output and efficiency of value of P4/P_ may be found from figure 16. (In
the engine ultimately become functions of 7'4 and this figure, the quantity P4/P_ is plotted against
P_/Po, the effect of compressor efficiency is P2/P_ with T3/T1 as a parameter. These data
examined by noting its effect on P4/po----P2/PI are a byproduct of the cycle calculations of the
times a constant. previous section. For a constant value of specific
I _ T T T T r _ T T
Engine temper- cu
ature ratio, 81C _,
<D
o 30
o "6
(1)
Q)
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Compressor pressure ratio,P2/Pi
FIaURE 17.--Variation of parameters G and E with com-

pressor pressure ratio (eqs. (16) and (20)).
ratio PUP_, with the ratio PolP4 as a parameter.

4 8 12 16 20 24 28 52 56 40 In the calculation of this figure, values for 3'c and
Compressor pressure roho, P2/PI 3'r of 1.4 and 1.3, respectively, were assumed.
Examination of figure 17 reveals that G is large
FIGURE 16.--Chart for estimating total pressure behind
when both PUP_ and po/P4 are large. For these
turbines driving compressors.
conditions, the power output and efficiency of a
heat and _, these curves would be independent of turboprop engine are sensitive to small changes
the flight condition. Actually, the variations in in compressor efficiency (eq. (16)).
these quantities cause these curves to vary about For a turboprop engine developing a pressure
6 percent from the values shown over the entire ratio of 16 while flying at a Mach number of 0.8
range of flight conditions considered. The im- in the stratosphere, a 1-percent decrease in com-
portant trends of the curves are not affected, pressor efficiency reduces the power and engine
however.) Since the ram pressure ratio PUPa efficiency by a little less than 1 percent. The
is also known, po/P4 may be determined. results of figures 16 and 17 also show that the
Differentiating equation (15) and utilizing effect of compressor efficiency diminishes slightly
equation (14) while holding (_a_.prT4c_) constant as turbine-inlet temperature is increased. Since
yield compressor pressure ratio for a given enthalpy
rise decreases as the efficiency decreases, a drop
d (AHM) dil,,,l, c
A[IM = G (16a) in compressor efficiency decreases the pressure
where ratios for both maximum specific power and
"rT--1 maximum engine efficiency.
Turbojet engine.--In the case of a turbojet
7T_l Q (16b) engine, a small change in compressor efficiency

affects the total pressure Ps in the jet nozzle,
\PJ which in turn affects the jet velocity and the
thrust. The magnitude of these effects may be
Equation (16a) shows the general effect of a small examined as follows. The jet velocity Vj is
change in compressor efficiency on the power expressed in terms of the jet-nozzle pressure ratio
output of a turboprop engine. Since this equa- Po/P_ as
tion was derived with the assumption of a con-
stant heat input to the engine, the percent change / [- _-1_
in power output is the same as the percent change (]7)
in engine efficiency or specific fuel consumption. v,=c, . 2T,gJLI-( ) ", j
Figure 17 shows the quantity G from equations
(16) plotted against compressor total-pressure Differentiating this equation while holding the
3O AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OFAXIAL-FLOW
COMPRESSORS
quantity C_v/-2TscpgJ constant provides the rela- as for the turboprop engine, corresponds to high
tion compressor pressure ratios and low turbine-inlet
-rr--1
temperatures. Figure 13(a) shows that these con-
ditions are required for high values of engine effi-
dV__yr--1 P-_ _T"_ Qd,l_.c (18) ciency. When engine efficiency is highly impor-
Vj 2"$T r/ad.C tant at sea-level static conditions, therefore, high
compressor efficiencies are necessary.
When a reasonably high flight speed is involved,
using equation (14). The specific thrust F/w1 is the ratio Vo/(1 _-f) Vj cannot be ignored. Notice,
related to the jet velocity Vj by however, that the denominator of the coefficient of
d_d.c/_.c in equation (20a) can be written as
F (I_/)Vj--Vo
(19)
wl g
Fg__ 1
Then d(F/wl)=(l+f)dV_/g, assuming a constant Wl Vo
fuel-air ratio.f, and hence

If F/w_ is 80 pounds per pound per second at a
d _ "_F flight Mach number of 3, the value of this expres-
\_] E dv_.c (20a) sion is about 0.5, and the coefficient of d_,_,_.c/_,d.c
F 1 V0 _. c in equation (20a) approaches the value of (7. If
w, (1 _-Jc)Vj
F/w_ is 60 pounds per pound per second at a flight
where Mach number of 0.8, this expression has the value
_r--1
of about 0.7.
For the subsonic airplane, in which the com-
E_____,T-- 1 (_)_
2_r _-_ Q (20b) pressor pressure ratio is of the order of 16, a per-
cent decrease in compressor efficiency reduces the
\Psi specific thrust and engine efficiency by a little less
than 1 percent for constant enthalpy rise in the
using equations (18) and (19). Tile expression compressor. Since the ratio T3/T_ is low for super-
for the parameter E is seen to be half the value of sonic flight, the value of P4/PI is low (fig. 16). On
(7 if the power-turbine pressure ratio Po/P_ is
the other hand, the value of P]/Po is high, and a
replaced by the jet-nozzle pressure ratio Po/Ps. percent decrease in compressor efficiency reduces
Figure 17 may therefore be used to evaluate E for the thrust and efficiency by the order of only 0.5
given values of P2/P_ and Po/P5 by taking E----(7/2.
percent.
The value of po/Ps is determined from figure 16
It is again noted that a reduction in compressor
in the same way that Po/P4 is found for the turbo-
pressure ratio accompanies a decrease in efficiency
prop engine. for this analysis. The optimum pressure ratio for
Equation (20a) shows the effect of a percent either maximum specific thrust or minimum spe-
change in compressor efficiency on the specific cific fuel consumption, therefore, decreases as com-
thrust of a turbojet engine. As in the case of the
pressor efficiency decreases.
turboprop engine, the percent change in specific
thrust may be taken as equal to the corresponding EFFECTS OF COMPRESSOR PRESSURE RATIO,
FLOW CAPACITY, AND EFFICIENCY ON FRONTAL
percent change in engine efficiency or thrust AREA OF OTHER ENGINE COMPONENTS
specific fuel consumption.
For the static case (V0--0), the effect of a per- Compressor pressure ratio, flow capacity, and
cent change in compressor efficiency on either spe- efficiency play a prominent role in determining the
cific thrust or efficiency can be determined directly relative frontal areas of the engine components.
by evaluating E from figure 17. Equations (20) The frontal areas of these components are also in-
and figure 17 show that for this case specific thrust volved in engine weight. In this discussion, only
or engine efficiency is sensitive to small changes in the internal frontal area is considered. This area
compressor efficiency when both P2/P_ and Po/P5 is defined by Try, where rt is the radius to the
are large. This situation for the turbojet engine. internal surface of the casing of the component
under consideration. Of interest now is tile ratio into equations (21a) and (21b). The results are
of the internal frontal area of a conlponent to that
1
of the compressor.
The flow area A of any component is determined w_fO /,g V / 771 V 2 ,_y_-I
by stipulating the weight flow and either a maxi-
mum velocity V or a Mach number M at the en-
[l__(_y'] P" (22a)
trance or exit of the component. These nlaximuin \r,] A
values may be either absolute or found from ex-
perience; in either case, undesirably high losses .r+l
result from attempting to exceed these limits.

w_i_ /_-gM(I+7___M, ) ,or-l,
The required flow area may be expressed in terms
of the velocity V by the equation
1 (%'1 (22b)
vT, t
A i
(21a)
7- VP / 3'--1 V 2 "_5-1 Notice that, when V/_/-@gRT or M is slnall, these
_'rg _ ( 1 2 7g-fiT/ equations are approximated by
or in terms of the Mach number 31 by w_ V Pl (rh'_ 2-] p'_ (22a')

.r-4-1
-Xfi= L -\7,/A R_/_
--- / _-- 1 \2(.r--l)
A_w_/RT C1T_- M') (21b) p,' (22b')

MP_
At a value of V/_/-4-ggRT of 0.2, the error is

When the values of w and ,1I or V are given, the
about 2 percent. For the same value of M, the
annular area is determined by the total pressure
error is about 2.4 percent. A quantitative evalu-
and teinperature at the point considered. The
ation of equations (22) may be obtained from
internal frontal area is related to the annular area
figures 18 and 19. In figure 18(a), w_/O/Ar,_ is
A by the equation
plotted against V/_/_, with the hub-tip radius
A=ArFI_(r2"_ 2"] ratio rut, as a parameter and with ,= 1.4. Figure
L \r,/A 18(b) is the same, except that "r= 1.3. In figure
19 the flow Math number .AI replaces V/_/_ggRT
Since the weight flow through a conventional
as the abscissa.
engine is essentially constant, the ratio of,the
When the given or allowable flow Mach number
frontal area of any component to the frontal area
is known, together with the ratio of the inner to
of the compressor is given by
the outer radius, the value of w-_-OIAF_ may be
determined from figure 19. The ratio of the
__ required frontal area of any component to that of
the compressor may be expressed as
The equivalent weight flow per unit frontal area

(AF): t-XJ._ c__\-A--_ ]c (P, _) (23)
w_FO/A_,_ of the compressor or of any other engine
component may be expressed by substituting
The value of the last term in parentheses in

A-=Av[1--(_)*]
equation (23) may be determined from figure 20
for the combustor inlet. For the turbine discharge
P=p_ _
this term may be evaluated from figure 21. The
T= T,_O data for these figures were obtained as a byproduct
52
Hub-tip radius ratio, Hub-tip radius ratio,
rh/r, -_
48
1
44
40
2,
_ 56
N 32
o 28
i I
-6
g
._ 24
c
20
o
,_a,
_ _6
c
Q)
cr
0 .4 .8 1.2 16 2.0 2.4 0 .4 .8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8

Ratio of flow velocity to stognation velocily of sound, W_vfTqRT
(a) Ratio of specific heats, 1.4. (b) Ratio of specific heats, 1.3.
FIouaE 18.--Variation of equivalent weight flow per unit frontal area with V/)f:tgrT for several values of hub-tip
radius ratio.
of the cycle analyses previously presented. While order to determine V/_/_-gRT, which is the abscissa
figure 20 exactly represents the condition for the of figure 18. These total-temperature ratios may
given assumptions, figure 21 is subject to the same also be evaluated from figure 20 for the combustor
error discussed in connection with figure 16. The inlet and from figures 16 and 21 for the turbine
value of (P1/P_)_f-T_/TI at other engine stations outlet.
can be calculated readily with the aid of these

COMPARISON OF FRONTAL AREAS FOR SUBSONIC FLIGHT
curves. If the flow velocity rather than the flow

Mach number is of interest, the total-temperature Consider the situation for a flight Mach number
ratio across the component must be known in of 0.8 in the stratosphere with a compressor pres-
2.8 5.2 0 .4
Moch number M
(a) Ratio of specific heats, 1.4. (b) Ratio of specific heats, 1.3.
FIGURE 19.--Variation of equivalent weight flow per unit frontal area with Mach number for several values of hub-tip
radius ratio.
sure ratio of 16. Assume w_/O/A_4 of 30 pounds ratio of the inlet frontal area to compressor in-
per second per square foot, for the eontpressor ternal frontal area is 0.62. This ratio is directly,
and a turbine-inlet temperature of 2000 R. Com- proportional to both the total-pressure recovery
ponent efficiencies are those used in the cycle of the inlet diffuser and the flow capacity of the
analyses previously presented. compressor.
Engine inlet.--Although it is not affected by Combustor.--In determining the size of the
compressor pressure ratio, the area of the inlet is combustor, the average velocity in the annulus
also of interest and will be considered first. For is frequently taken as a critical factor, although
reasonably high flight speeds, the internal frontal Mach number is probably just as applicable.
area of the inlet is equal to or greater than that The magnitude of the velocity influences com-
of the free-stream tube passing the required mass bustion efficiency as well as the pressure drop
flow. Assuming the internal inlet area to be equal through the eombustor. For a limiting velocity
to the free-stream area (the capture area), the of 150 feet per second and rh/rt of 0.4, the internal
wflue of w_/-O/Ae5 for the inlet is given by figure frontal area of the combustor is 43 percent of the
19(a) with ;_l----free-stream Mach number and compressor internal frontal area. This number
rh/rt----O. With a pressure recovery of 0.98, the is inversely proportional to the limiting velocity
691-564 0-65-4
area of the turbine to that of the compressor

is 0.54. With leaving Mach numbers of 0.5 and
0.4, the respective ratios are 0.61 and 0.72. De-
creasing the compressor pressure ratio increases
24 this number. At a compressor pressure ratio of
2O 8 it is 0.70 instead of 0.54. Again, increasing
the turbine-inlet temperature to 2200 R (T3/TI=
5.0) decreases this number from 0.54 to 0.50.
For a fixed turbine-inlet temperature, a reduction
in compressor-inlet temperature increases T3/TI
with an attendant reduction in this internal-
frontal-area ratio.
The flow capacity of the turbine is controlled
by the stresses in the turbine blades and the
required work output of the turbine, as well as
FIaVEE 20.--Chart for estimating total pressure and the Mach number at the turbine exit. This
temperature behind compressor; Tc=l.4. effect is outlined in reference 16 and given de-
tailed study in reference 17, Briefly, the per-
Engine temperoture missible annular flow area A is proportional to
4.0 ] ro]io, T3/T I
the allowable centrifugal stress r at the blade
-4 1 4
root according to the equation
5.2 A 2rrg
_ : 5.0i
where is a taper factor defined as the ratio of the

actual root centrifugal stress to the centrifugal
stress in a blade having a constant spanwise
cross-sectional area. Combining this relation
with equation (21b) and noting that Ut=rt_
provide the result
y+I
i I _ i
8 12 16 20 24 28 52 56 40
Compressor pressure roho, P2/_
If reference values of compressor tip speed U,, r,

FIGURE 21.--Chart for estimating equivalent weight flow
behind turbines driving compressors. and are assigned and attention is focused on
the turbine, equation (24) becomes
(eqs. (22a') and (23)). It increases as com-
pressor pressure ratio decreases; at a pressure
ratio of 8, the internal frontal area of the com- -A_F_
/, r.,f _ .U,,..:/
-/+1
bustor is 70 percent of that of the compressor,
other conditions being the same. This ratio is _ M, 1 +_--_ Mi
again proportional to the flow capacity of the
compressor. P" "'--q-g (25)
Turbiae.--For the turbine, the axial Mach num- u;.,,,/
ber at the turbine outlet is decisive. This Mach
number should be less than about 0.7 to avoid for a constant weight flow throughout the engine.
the limiting loading discussed in reference 15. A quantitative study of equation (25) is obtained
For a leaving Mach number of 0.6 and a hub-tip from figure 22, in which a set of curves showing
radius ratio of 0.6, the ratio of the internal frontal the left side of this equation as a function of
Turbine- ex[l o[ol

1
Moth number, M4
.4 .3 Engine temperature
I raho, T31T
!
1 i 5.6t "
20O 160 120 80 40 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

Stress-limited weight tow P2
Compressor pressure ratio PW
,_rs ), _rr_l \U,,,er/ _b/seo
r sq fl
:Te_
FIGURE 22.--Stress-limited airflow and tip speed for compressor or turbine (eq. (25)).
(PUP1)_ilT4 and Xlf4 is adjoined to the curves ratios are thus well within those permitted by
of figure 21. The following values were assumed the assumed stress limits and compressor flow
in the calculations for this figure, with appro- capacities. Higher compressor speeds or lower
priate units where necessary: _=1.3, 7J=0.6, turbine stress limits would, of course, reduce
U,.,ez= 1000 feet per second, r,es:30,000 pounds the compressor flow capacity permitted.
per square inch, and F,,I=0.3 pound per cubic The relation between the work output of the
inch. turbine and the flow capacity of the compressor
When F, r, and U, assume their reference may be eamined in a similar gross way. As a
values, the left side of equation (25) is identically rule of thumb, the maxinium output of a turbine
wl_!_/AFal, the flow capacity of the compressor stage is determined by the quantity JAH/(_rh) _,
as limited by turbine stress. For the reference which is inversely proportional to the square
condition, the permissible values of w_/Ap_ of the blade- to jet-speed ratio. An upper
are considerably higher than those assumed in limiting value (of about 2) may be assigned to
the previous study. The assumed hub-tip radius this quantity, and the permissible enthalpy drop
in a stage is given when the speed of rotation Both the values of P2/P, and T3/T, are generally
is known. Only a small enthalpy drop is obtained lower for supersonic flight than they are for sub-
with the low rotative speeds and at the hub of sonic flight. As a result, the values of P4/P_ and
turbines with low hub-tip radius ratios; accord- (P4/PI)_/7_j 7"4are reduced (figs. 16 and 21). For
ingly, small enthali)y drops are obtained for tile a given value of (w_/-O/AF5)C, the value of (AF),/
conditions of high flow capacity. High flow (-/L.)c therefore increases with flight Math num-
capacity is thus associated with a relatively ber (eq. (23)). As shown in figure 12, however,
large number of turbine stages. Iligh rotative the flow capacity of the compressor also decreases
speeds and large hub-tip ratios, on the other hand, with flight Mach number when tile mechanical
reduce the flow capacity but tend to decrease the speed of the engine is fixed (since 0 increases with
number of turbine stages. flight Math number). This beimvior decreases
Afterburner.--At the inlet to tile afterburner, the value of (ZtF)x/(AF)c.
a limiting velocity is again used for the same In order to examine these trends, consider the
reasons that govern its use in the primary conl- situation at flight Mach numbers of 2 and 3 in the
bustor. For the present example the limiting stratosphere. I_et the respective values of P2/P,
velocity is assumed to be 55t) feet per second. be 8 and 4, and let the turbine-inlet temperature
With this limit, the ratio of the internal frontal be 2500 R for both cases. Assume, moreover,
area of the afterburner to that of the compressor that (w_/O/Ar6)c is 30 pounds per second per
is 0.58, (rn/rt=O). Changing the cycle pressures square foot for the compressor at sea level.
and tenlperature will vary this number in about
At the flight Math number of 2, tile equivalent
the same proportions as those given for the
flow capacity of the compressor may drop to 24
turbine.
((lb/see)/sq ft) for constant engine speed. With
Nozzle.--The area of the jet nozzle depends on
an inlet recovery of 0.90, the ratio (Aro(/Ay)c
the amount of afterburning, the amount of super-
becomes 0.74. At the flight Mach number of 3
sonic expansion in the nozzle, and whether or not
and a recovery of 0.6, the value of (w_VO/Ay_)c is
an ejector is employed. With sonic velocities at
15 pounds per second per square foot and (At)o
the nozzle exit and no afterburning, the area
(Ay)c----0.77. Notice that this number applies
ratio is 0.29. Altering the cycle will change this
only to the internM capture area. As indicated
number somewhat in proportion to the corre-
in figure _, the actual frontal area of the inlet may
sponding turbine areas.
be substantially larger than this.
It appears that a compressor having a flow
With a limiting average combustor velocity of
capacity of 30 pounds per square foot (----(w_/O/
150 feet per second, the ratio of the internal
A_-_)c) could have tile largest internal frontal frontal area of tim combustor to that of the
area of all the components in an engine for sub-
compressor is 0.70 at the flight Mach number of 2
sonic flight. Since the area ratios are propor- (r_/rr-:O.4). I t is 0.88 at tim flight Mach nuinber
tional to compressor equivalent flow capacity, of 3. This value is ahnost inversely proportional
there is a strong incentive to make the flow
to compressor pressure ratio for a given flight
capacity of the compressor as high as possible. condition.
The maximum value of compressor flow capacity
If the hub-tip radius ratio of the turbine is 0.6
is 49.4 pounds per second per square foot (fig.
and the leaving Mach number is 0.6, the ratio of
18(a)), however, so that all tile other components the internal frontal area of the turbine to that of
could presutnably have a smaller frontal area than
the compressor is 0.62 at the flight Mach number
the compressor when the high pressure ratios re-
of 2 and 0.5,_ at the flight Mach number of 3.
quired for good engine efficiency are used.
Increasing either the compressor pressure ratio
COMPARISON OF FRONTAL AREAS FOR SUPERSONIC FLIGHT or turbine-inlet temperature decreases this ratio
in inverse proportionality to the resulting change
For a given mass flow, the free-stream-tube area
in (P4/P,)_/T_I/T4 shown in figure 21. Notice that
increases with Macil number in the supersonic
the assumed flow capacity of the compressor is
regime. The temperature at the compressor
inlet increases and that at the compressor outlet low enough to satisfy the turbine stress require-
thus also increases with flight Mach number. ments of figure 22 for the reference conditions.
Again using an afterburner-inlet velocity of possible to the natural limit of 49.4 pounds per
550 feet per second, the ratio of tile internal second per square foot of frontal area. This high
frontal area of the afterburner to that of tile value could then be used when it is desired.
compressor is found to be 0.77 at the flight Mach EFFECTS OF COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY ON SIZE
number of 2. At the flight Mach number of 3, it OF COMPONENTS DOWNSTREAM
is 0.71. These values are again ahnost inversely

Compressor efficiency also affects the size of
proportional to (P4/P,)_/_/T4, and changes in
engine components downstream of the compressor.
compressor pressure ratio and turbine-inlet tem- Tim magnitude and interrelation of these effects
perature will change tiffs ratio following the
are estimated by the following technique. When
trends shown in figure 21.
the weight flow w and the velocity or Mach number
The area of the nozzle again depends on the are given, the annular flow area is seen by equa-
factors previously mentioned. It is noted, how- tions (21) to be determined by the total pressure
ever, that for complete expansion the outlet area 1 ) and the total temperature T at the point
of the nozzle is 92 percent of the internal frontal considered.
area of the compressor at the flight Much nunlber Presuppose a fixed enthalpy rise in the com-
of 2. At tim flight Much number of 3, the area pressor and a given fuel flow so as to nlake the
ratio for complete expansion is 1.14. When the total temperature T at any point in the engine
nozzle area equals the frontal area of the compres- independent of the compressor efliciency arid
sor, the jet velocity I._ is reduced about 2.5 pressure ratio. Equation (14) then shows how
percent, with a resulting loss of thrust of about a small change in compressor efficiency affects the
1.5 percent compared with the complete-expansion total pressure at any point in the engine down-
case. Although the developed thrust is de- stream of the compressor. Holding w, T, and V
creased slightly by limiting the expansion, the or 1I constant and differentiating either equation
actual thrust minus drag is probably increased. (21a) or (21b) with respect to A and P give
Internal plugs on an ejector have been recom-
mended frequently when large nozzle pressure dA Qdn_.c (26)
ratios are developed. In these cases, the actual A---- V_.c
flow area is effectively less than the internal
frontal area. utilizing equation (14). A curve showing the
parameter Q as a function of P2/P_ for 3'c= 1.4 is
For the example chosen, the compressor has a
simwn in figure 23. This curve indicates that the
greater frontal area than either the primary com-
sensitivity of the flow area of the components
bustor or the turbine. The flow through the
downstreanl of the compressor to small changes in
compressor is much less than its natural capacity,
however; and a 20- to 100-percent increase in the compressor efficiency is greatest when the com-
flow capacity of the compressor at supersonic pressor toUd-pressure ratio P2/t'_ is higil. Under
these conditions, the frontal area of the compo-
flight speeds could easily be obtained by some
nents behind the compressor is usually low.
means or another. Thus, engines could be de-
When the components behind the compressor
signed in which the compressor diameter is smaller
than that of any other component in the engine.
If the increase in flow capacity is obtained by <2.4_
increasing the mechanical speed with fight Mach -_2.0"
number, so as to reduce the severity of the drop 0
in N/_:_, then turbine stress problems arise 1.6--
(eq. (25)). On tile other hand, if the value of N _o ,.2.

is sufficiently low to avoid this difficulty, the en- 2
thalpy drop per turbine stage is low, and a large 2 .8--
number of turbine stages is required. Therefore, u_
the selection of compressor flow capacity is fre- v

a_ .46- 4 8 )2 16 20 24 28 32 56 40
Compressor pressure ratio, '2/PI
quently based on a number of considerations
other than frontal area. Design information is FIGURE 23. Variation of parameter () with compressor
required, however, to permit designs as close as pressure ratio (eqs. (13) and (26)); Tc= 1.4.
decide the frontal area, however, low compres- blade stress tends to be the deciding factor. At
sor efficiency can be costly with respect to size higher levels of these quantities, with cooled
as well as engine efficiency and specific thrust. turbines, compressor blade Mach number becomes
tile critical item. In order to overcome this latter
FACTORS DETERMINING COMPRESSOR FLOW
limitation, considerable attention must be given
CAPACITY AND WEIGHT
to _he problem of efficiently coping with high
FLOW CAPACITY
Mach numbers relative to the compressor blades.
The flow capacity selected for a compressor
The radial distribution of w,_/A_, as well as
represents a compromise among several factors
that also control engine weight. Some of these the hub-tip radius ratio, is required to determine
factors are discussed in tile next main section of the net equivalent flow capacity of the compressor.
The radial-distribution problem is treated in chap-
this chapter. For tile moment it is sufficient to
ter VIII. It will not be discussed here except to
note that, among other thi_lgs, tile flow capacity
note tlmt the flow capacity can be affected by the
depends on the rotational speed of the engine.
distribution. The hub-tip radius ratio is affected
Two causes of this dependency, turl)ine blade stress
and turbine work, were outlined in the previous by two factors: (1) the problem of attaching the
blades to the disks, which is chiefly a mechanical
section. A similar limit involving stress in the
problem, and (2) the aerodynamic problem of
compressor blades could also be deduced. The
stress in the turbine blades is frequently the designing the blades near the hub. The gains in
flow capacity are small when the hub-tip radius
governing factor, however, because of the elevated
ratio is reduced below about 0.35 (see figs. 15 and
temperatures.
Another factor making the flow capacity depend 16), and it is at the lower values of hub-tip radius
ratio that the at tachnmnt and aerodynamic design
on tile speed of rotation arises from aerodynamic
causes in the compressor "itself. At tile present problems may become serious. Below some value
state of the design art, dictates of efficiency limit of hub-tip radius ratio, therefore, the possible
tim Mach number relative to the compressor gains in weight flow per unit of frontal area could
be too small to justify the effort and expense
blades. This Mach number may be written as
required to obtain them.
LAYOUT AND WEIGHT
M_=M'csO'_/l+(vaUcos_, tan 0,) 2 (27)
Some of the problems associated with the size
and weight of a cotnpressor are illustrated with
The equivalent weight flow per unit of flow area
the aid of a schematic drawing of a representative
at any radius is, however,
current compressor and its diffuser (fig. 24). The
-q+l pressure ratio, turbine-inlet temperature, and
cos weight flow of air of tile engine

this compressor are presumably
associated
determined
with
from
preliminary design studies. The speed of rotation
(2s)
is also assumed to have been selected from this
Because of other considerations, the value of _ study. The flow capacity of tlle compressor is
is usually made as small as possible, and even then fairly well defined, either by stress or aero-
negative values of fl, may be desired. With a dynamic considerations.
given value of _, and a limiting value of Mt, the
flow capacity is critically dependent on the wheel
speed U, decreasing as the wheel speed increases.
If, now, the wheel speed is independently deter-
- - Compressor u dfu se
mined, the maximum flow capacity of the com-
pressor is automatically stipulated either by the
limitations of blade stress or by the limitations of
compressor blade Mach number. At low com-
pressor pressure ratios and low ratios of turbine- FIGURE 2.t.---Typical current layout of axial-flow com-
inlet to compressor-inlet telnperature, turbine pressor and exit diffuser.

COMPRESSOR
DESIGN
REQUIREMENTS 39
The number of stages required by the compressor requirements then dictate the use of small blade
is determined by the pressure ratio or enthalpy heights to the detriment of efficiency.
rise that each stage can produce. At the present The number of compressor stages and the com-
time, the permissible enthalpy rise per stage may pressor layout shown in figure 24 were determined
be approximately expressed by by these principles. As a result of this particular
layout, an awkward flow passage is required to
connect the compressor to the combustor. More-
All -- 2_V'_U(
j V'
D+_--I ) (29) over, the bulk and weight of the compressor are
large.
where D is a measure of the blade loading as pre- The length of each stage is decided by the axial
sented in reference 9. The enthalpy rise in a
clearance required and the chord length of the
stage is thus directly proportional to the blade blades themselves. The spacing is usually set
speed and to the stage-inlet velocity relative to
by mechanical tolerances and the location of the
the rotor. Obtaining high flow capacity by re- thrust bearing. The chord length of the blades
ducing the blade speed increases the number of is frequently determined by arbitrarily limiting
stages required to obtain a given enthalpy rise. the bending stress at the blade root. The bending
This result is similar to that previously noted for
moment normally used to calculate the stress is
the turbine.
that caused by the steady aerodynamic forces on
The enthalpy rise in a stage also depends on the the blade. Because of the dangers of blade
relative velocity ratio V_/V'_ across the stage. vibration, however, a large factor of safety is
If D has a limiting value of 0.4, changing V_/VI used, and the calculated steady-state bending
from 1 to 0.9 reduces the enthalpy rise in the force is well below the value that the blade can
stage by 25 percent. The limitations imposed by withstand. The blade chords, and hence the
this velocity ratio affect the layout and the number engine length, are thus greater than required by
of stages required by a compressor. In order to aerodynamics for steady-state stresses. (At high
meet tile velocity requirements in the combustor, altitudes, however, large blade chords may be
the axial component of air velocity is sometimes re- required to avoid poor performance at low Reyn-
duced by a factor of 5 or more between the com- olds numbers. More information is required on
pressor inlet and the combustor. Avoiding excessive this subject before definite statements can be made.)
losses in the diffusing section behind the compres- Because of the large diameter and high internal
sor requires that a considerable part of this pressure at the outlet, the casing is heavy. For
deceleration be absorbed in the compressor. Since the type of mechanical design shown in figure 24,
V_ V_2cosS, ' / V z2\. a considerable amount of weight is also associ-
' _= -'- xa number less than 1.0 ated with the rear disk, which has a large diameter.
v, vz, cos ,)
If the metal in this solid disk had to resist only
the ratio V'2/V'_ must be appreciably less than the stresses created by centrifugal force, the thick-
1.0 in the majority of the blade rows. The ness could be considerably less than that actually
enthalpy rise per stage is thus restricted, and the used. Its weight would then be relatively small.
number of stages is greater than that required if It must, however, be stiff enough to be manufac-
V,. _/V,. 1 could be greater. tured readily and handled without danger of
Continuously decreasing the axial velocity warping. The disk must also be stiff enough to
through the compressor also causes V'_ to be con- withstand the axial force resulting from the
tinuously reduced. The enthalpy rise per stage pressures acting on the disk face. These forces
is consequently much less in the latter stages of increase with the diameter of the disk and with
the compressor than it is in the early ones. compressor pressure ratio.
Obtaining a reasonable enthalpy rise in the latter For a given Mach number limit, increasing the
stages thus requires the use of fairly high blade design weight flow through the compressor by
speeds, even if the inlet flow capacity of the reducing the design rotative speed reduces the
compressor is prejudiced. Moreover, the casing diameter of the compressor and hence reduces the
diameter at the rear stages is usually kept large weight of an individual disk and a unit length
to obtain these high blade speeds. Continuity of casing. On the other band, the number of
4O AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS
stages is increased. More disks and a longer mitigated by such methods as interstage bleed
and variable stators. As indicated in reference
casing length are needed. It would appear that,
for a given limitation between flow capacity and 20, ramps at the inlet are also useful for evading
speed, there are opt.imunl values of these quanti- the blade-vibration problem. Through the use
ties that yield the mininmnl compressor weight. of this type of equipment, the hazards of blade
As pre_dously noted, the same reasoning applies vibration are relieved. The permissible bending
to the turbine. stresses can be raised, and marked reductions in
The size and length of the other engine compo- chord length are possible. Reducing the chord
nents are fairly independent of the actual design length and the number of stages reduces com-
of the compressor after the pressure ratio and flow pressor length and offers significant reductions in
capacity are given. An exception to this state- compressor weight.
ment might be the diffuser between the compressor The necessity of adding stages to a compressor
and combustor, but this element should be con- just to reduce the axial velocity is a problem that
sidered to be part of the compressor itself. needs more attention. It is possible that too
Since the Mach nulnber relative to the compres- great a penalty is being paid for the lack of complete
sor blades has an important bearing on tile flow information about the pressure loss in diffusers
capacity of the compressor and the number of and combustion chambers.
stages required, the highest permissible Mach As indicated in reference 21, a basic combustor
number level should be used in design. This parameter governing pressure loss may be the
statement is particularly true of the inlet stages, velocity in tim secondary-air passage. An im-
where the Mach numbers naturally tend to be the portant w_i'iahle governing the etIiciency of a
highest, hnportant impi'ovements of these stages diffuser is the ratio of the maxinmm surface
have been Inade in recent years (see refs. 8 and velocity before deceleration to the minimum sur-
18). As a result., higher airflow capacity can t)e face velocity after deceleration. If the minimum
coinbined with high stage pressure ratios. velocity were that in the secondary-air passage
Identifying the true loading limit of a blade of the combustor and the ratio of maximum to
has also been given attention. The coarser the mininmn_ surface velocity were given, the velocity
definition of the loading limit, the greater is the entering the diffuser could not be greater than the
aerodynamic factor of safety that must be em- product of the allowable secondary-air velocity
ployed. The design pressure ratio of a stage thus and the allowable velocity ratio. If the diffuser
suffers. While reference 9 and equation (29) passage causes local velocity maximums and
are definite advancements in this direction, there minimums, however, the inlet velocity must be
is still considerable roonl for iiuprovement. less than the otherwise allowable value. Potential-
Although the number of stages is reduced flow methods, such as those proposed in reference
through the use of high Mach numbers and 21, afford a means of eliminating unnecessary
accurately defined loading limits, the over-all inaximums and minimums in the surface velocities.
length tends to remain the same if the bending- Figure 25, which is taken froin reference 21
stress limits are unaltered. The higher pressure illustrates a diffuser designed along these lines.
ratios result partially from larger blade forces, An insert controls the flow area in the passage be-
which in turn cause larger bending moments at tween the compressor outlet and the secondary-
the blade roots. With a fixed allowable bending- air passage of the combustor. The rate of change
stress limit, the chord length of the blades increases of this area has the major effect in controlling the
as the stage pressure ratio increases. Recent rate of diffusion. Gentle curvatures are used to
observations have shown, however, that blade ininimize the undesirable gradients due to curva-
vibrations are primarily the result of rotating ture. Deceleration of the primary air is efficiently
stall (ref. 19).. Blade wakes and the pressure obtained by the stagnation of the air ahead of the
fields of fixed obstacles may have contributory insert. Such a device should permit higher veloc-
effects, but these sources can be avoided or ities at the compressor outlet and should tend to
otherwise treated by appropriate design. These shorten the diffuser length. These higher ve-
investigations have also shown that vibration locities eouhl be used to enable the rear compres-
induced by rotating stall can be eliminated or sor stages to develop greater pressure ratios. On
Diffuser and
Outer wall of diffuser
Air- _
flow --
(2:
2D
,2p
-- Outer wail
o I0 ..... inner wall FmURE 26.--Possible layout of axial-flow compressor and
exit diffuser.
"o g 8-
2_
>- 6_- at the compressor discharge. These high veloci-
ties, together with the high rotative speed, permit
-- d i
the casing diameter to be reduced as shown with-
2 out any untoward effects on length.
This arrangement is in no sense a recommended
Axial dislance
one. It merely serves to indicate how several
Fm_mE 25.--Streamlines and velocity distributions in critical aerodynamic factors can greatly influence
symmetric diffuser with continuous diffusion between the shape and weight of a compressor and the
compressor and eombustor (ref. 21).
weight of the associated engine. The optimum
arrangement depends, of course, on the mechani-
the other hand, the diameter of the easing (and
cal design and the materials used. Although
hence blade speed) could be reduced between the
these factors are not given any other consideration
inlet, and outlet of the compressor without in-
in this report, advances in mechanical design and
creasing the number of stages over those presently
materials are as important as advances in aero-
required. In the latter ease, a lighter easing may
dynamics. For example, obtaining the required
result and the diameter and weight of the disks
disk stiffness with lightweight disks is an impor-
are reduced. The pressure forces on the disks
tant mechanical problem. Improving the strength-
are also reduced, and the disks nlay be thinner.
weight ratio of materials is obviously anotlmr.
Because of the greater radial length of the blades
in the rear stages, higher efficieneies may be COMPRESSOR REQUIREMENTS
obtained.
DESIGN POINT
A schematic drawing of a compressor in which

the compressor design incorporates the ideas sug- The preceding discussions have indicated many
gested is shown in figure 26. The pressure ratio of the over-all design-point requirements of
and weight flow are the same as for figure 24. compressors. High efficiency is shown to be
Higher rotative speeds and flow capacities result important for several reasons. The thrust and
from raising the permissible blade Maeh number. efficiency of the engine increase with compressor
For this layout, the turbine stresses are higher efficiency, particularly with high compressor
than those normally used, but it was assumed that pressure ratios or low ratios of turbine-inlet to
turbine cooling can be used to obtain the necessary compressor-inlet temperature. The diameters of
strength in the turbine blades. The diameter of the components downstream of the compressor
the compressor and the number of compressor decrease as compressor efficiency increases.
stages are reduced. Interstage bleed and a ramp Moreover, the number of compressor and turbine
are assumed to eliminate the vibrations caused by stages required for a given compressor pressure
rotating stall, and snlall blade chords are used. ratio decreases as compressor efficiency increases.
The controlled diffusion without reacceleration in High airflow capacity is also an important
the diffuser permits comparatively high velocities compressor attribute. When the maximum fron-
42 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COM_PRESSORS
tal area of the engine is controlled by compressor best design within the limits of these quantities
diameter, high flow capacity is required to reduce results from a cut-and-try procedure in which
nacelle drag. High flow capacity is also a factor several tentative, equivalent aerodynamic designs
in minimizing specific engine weight. are made and their estimated weights compared.
One of the most important requirements of OFF-DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
compressors concerns engine weight. The weight
The preceding general comments apply to any
of the compressor itself must be small, and its
operating condition, but they are particularly
design must not prejudice the weight of the other
directed at the design point of the engine and its
components. For those flight conditions which
compressor. The design point refers to a particular
are critical to specific engine weight, this re-
flight condition and engine operating condition
quirement is obvious; it is also an important factor
where the engine components and subcomponents
when high engine efficiency appears to the critical
are deliberately matched to achieve certain desired
item. High engine efficiency is invariably asso-
engine characteristics. Besides meeting its obliga-
ciated with high compressor pressure ratio,
tions at this point, however, the compressor must
particularly for subsonic flight. The full benefits
be able to provide suitable performance at other
of this high pressure ratio cannot be realized,
operating conditions imposed upon it. It must
however, when the increase in engine weight is
permit the engine to be started readily and acceler-
out of proportion to the increase in engine
ated rapidly to its design speed. It must also
efficiency.
provide satisfactory performance over a range of
Obtaining relatively lightweight engines and
engine speeds, pressure ratios, and weight flows
compressors requires each element to be operated
when varying flight conditions require them.
near the limit of its aerodynamic and structural
The exact nature of these off-design require-
capacity. The dead weight carried must be a
ments depends on the type of engine and on the
minimum. The compressor blades must tolerate
design of the components themselves. The general
large relative Mach numbers so that high flow
off-design problems are very similar for all engines,
capacity and high relative speeds can be realized.
however, and the general requirements of the
Provisions must be made for eliminating the sources
associated compressor can be obtained from the
of blade vibrations so that the thickness and
study of the problems of a typical one-spool
chord length of the blades can be small. The
turbojet engine. The particular problems of other
diffuser at the compressor outlet must permit high
engine types, such as the two-spool turbojet engine
entering velocities in order to obtain the maximum
and the turboprop engine, are then indicated.
output from the rear stages of the compressor.
The study of the off-design conditions requires
Another important factor in compressor design
an investigation of the matching of the compressor
concerns the mating of flow passages. Aerody-
to the other engine components. The techniques
namically clean passages are required for tran-
for this investigation are discussed in chapter
sitions between the inlet diffuser and the compres-
XVII, and the following results were obtained
sor inlet, and between the compressor discharge
through the use of these procedures.
and the combustor. Abrupt increases in the
ONE-SPOOL TURBOJET ENGINE
flow area or in the curvature of the passages
invite undesirable losses. These losses may im- The off-design requirements of a compressor
mediately result from separation of the flow. The are conveniently shown on the compressor per-
losses, on the other hand, may appear in the formance map in figure 27(a). In the usual
downstream components as the result of the thick representation, compressor pressure ratio is plotted
boundary layers (or distortions) developed in against equivalent weight flow w_/$. Lines of
the transition passages. Notice that, by the constant equivalent speed N/_/O and constant
same token, thick boundary layers from any source efficiency are parameters. The stall-limit (or
entering or leaving the compressor are objectiona- surge) line represents the highest pressure ratio
ble because they represent potential sources of attainable at a given equivalent weight flow.
loss. The break in this line represents the region where
These general requirements are necessary the stall-limit line is not well defined because of
ingredients for efficient lightweight designs. The mnltivalued characteristics of the compressors
71
/j
r' /
Xi !,47
/
region 80 DO iIO
- 1 Eqwvalenl speed,
o9 J /V/,,/_, percent design
deshign
___]
:_[ ' LLJ -- L . i ,r, ,
i(d)[ , <_'_60 J l /V/_'_, percent d g
:_]ii x
Stall limit line
+ _ . i f t ,.
Rotating-stall " " ' i J
t region 1
I
|I
M I0( Ii , I1( ]
percent des,g_ f )__x/_Tpe/cent_de_gn"

90 I00 I10 ,7_ 40 50 60 70 80 90 I00 IlO
Equivalent weight flow, _f_/$, percent desiqn
(a) Operating line for sea-levelstatic conditions. (b) Sea- intersecting stall-limit line at low flight speeds in
stratosphere.
level static operating line intersecting stall-limit line.
(e) Change in operating point resulting from increasing
(c) Operating line for fixed engine mechanical speed over
engine speed and opening exhaust nozzle. (f) Effect of
range of flight Mach numbers. (d) Operating line inlet flow distortions.
F[eva_, 27.--Compressor maps for various operating conditions

(ch. XIII). The shaded area of the map represents or variable inlet guide vanes and stators are used.
a region where one or more of the individual blade When the operating line intersects tim stall-limit
rows are stalled; here rotating stall and the line (fig. 27(b)), the stall margin is negative, and
attendant dangers of blade vibration may be such devices are necessary if design-speed opera-
prevalent (ch. XI). tion is to be reached. An alternative to using
In the ensuing discussions of off-design per- these variable features is to relocate the design
formance, the pressure ratio, equivalent speed, point to A' of figure 27(b). This procedure is
and equivalent weight flow are expressed as per- equivalent to making the compressor too big and
centages of their design-point values. Thus, too heavy for the pressure ratio it is required to
point h of figure 27(a), where the pressure ratio, produce (in particular, tile rear stages are too
equivalent speed, and equivalent weight flow are lightly loaded); it is thus an undesirable remedy.
denoted by 100 percent, represents the design The rcas()n lha_ s()me compressors have good
point of this particular compressor. and others p,,,,r stall margins is not completely
For any operating condition of the engine, the understood, hTati,mal design practices have con-
corresponding point on the compressor perform- tributed to the problem. Otherwise, the avail-
ance map is given when any two of tile following able stall margin usually becomes less as the
variables are stipulated: the equivalent com- design l)ressure ratio increases. Compromising
pressor weight flow, the equivalent compressor the design so i hat the best compressor performance
speed, and the ratio of turbine-inlet to compressor- is sought at, say, 90-percent speed (lower design
inlet temperature. Frequently one of these vari- pressure ratio) has been suggested to help the
ables is known directly and the others are functions low-speed s_all margin. The benefits obtained
of the flight _ach nunlber, the recovery of the by this pr(,ce(lure arc usually small, however, and
inlet diffuser, the amount of afterburning, and the this type of design tends to put the compressor in
jet-nozzle area. jeopardy _Lt higher speeds. Since some devices
Engine acceleration.--With a fixed jet-nozzle are desired anyway to deal with blade vibrations,
area, the compressor equilibrium operating points it is reasonable to extend their use to increase tile
may lie along the line SC of figure 27(a) for sea- stall margin and not compromise the design of the
level static conditions. The principal off-design compressor to(, much to combat the acceleration
problems here pertain to blade vibrations and problem.
engine acceleration in the low-equivalent-speed Varying flight speeds,--As previously indicated,
regions. Blade vibrations may occur anywhere the compressor operating point is a function of a
in the shaded region; and, for the time being at number of variables. The general trend of opera-
least, this danger appears to be inevitable unless tion over a r_ng,_'_ of flight speeds, however, may
some variable feature is incorporated into the be indicated by line SC of figure 27(c). Along
compressor design. Such devices as outlet or this line, the mechanical speed of the engine is
interstage bleed, variable inlet guide vanes and constant. Point C thus corresponds to small
stators, or ramps have been used, or suggested, values of 01 (h)w inlet, temperatures resulting from
to circumvent the vibration problem. low flight Math numbers in the stratosphere).
For the purpose of discussion, the problem of On the other ham], point [3 corresponds to large
engine acceleration may be conveniently measured values of 0_ (high flight Mach numbers). Speci-
by the difference between the pressure ratio of the fically, values of (N/-_,)/(N/_)d of 0.7, 0.8,
stall-linfit line and that of the equilibrium operat- 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, and 1.13 correspond, respectively, to
ing line at a given equivalent weight flow. This flight Mach numbers of 2.93, 2.30, 1.79, 1.28,
difference is called the stall margin. When the 0.71, and 0.45 in the stratosphere for constant
stall margin is large, the turhine-inlet tempera- mechanical speed.
ture, and hence the torque of the turbine, can be At flight Mach numbers below 1.28 in the
appreciably increased without encountering the strat()sphere, the equivalent speed of the com-
stall limit. Rapid accelerations are then possible. pressor is above its design value. The Mach
When the stall margin is small, the acceleration number of the flow relative to the blades near the
rate is also small unless such devices as an adjust- compressor inlet is higher than that assmned in
able jet nozzle, interstage bleed (refs. 22 and 23), design. Moreover, the matching of the corn-
pressor stages is upset. These effects combine to from B to B' in figure 27(e). Not only is the
reduce tile efficiency of the compressor and to operating point removed from the stall-limit line,
reduce tile slope of tile stall-limit line at the higher but the compressor handles more weight, flow and
equivalent speeds. Besides reducing thc efficiency the engine develops more thrust.
of the engine, this drop in compressor efficiency Because of the higher flow rate, the flow capacity
moves tile equilibrium operating line upwards. of the turbine must be higher for this kind of op-
If tile design of the compressor is compromised eration. The higher required flow capacity in-
too much to favor low-speed engine acceleration, creases the stresses in the turbine for a given rota-
the compressor efficiency and slope of the stall- tire speed (fig. 22). For a given turbine stress
limit line may both drop so rapidly that the limit, therefore, the speed at the compressor design
operating line intersects the stall line at a slight point is lower than it would otherwise be. One or
overspeed (fig. 27(d)). In this event, tile rotative more additional compressor stages may be re-
speed of the engine may have to be reduced so quired to attain the original design-point pressure
that the operation is at point. D. Instead, the ratios if this is considered necessary. The specific
area of the jet nozzle may be increased in order to weight of the engine at the original design point
move the operating point, to g. Either procedure is then increased. Whether or not tile greater
causes the performance to decrease, and the latter thrust at the high Maeh numbers more than com-
procedure is ineffective when the turbine is at or pensates for the increase in engine weight depends
beyond the point of limiting loading. on the actual design and flight plan. However,
Avoiding these efficiency and stall-limit diffi- the potential benefits from this kind of operation
culties requires that considerable attention be make it, worthy of detailed consideration in the
given to tile high-equiwflent-speed operating con- initial design studies.
dition during design. Either the design should There may be good reasons, however, for ac-
be made for the assumed overspeed condition, or tually reducing the pressure ratio required at. de-
the design should be reviewed at this condition. sign speed for this type of engine. Not only is the
Some approximate methods of making this review number of stages reduced, but the internal pressure
are presented in chapter X. forces are lowered and the specific thrust is in-
With high flight Mach numbers (above 1.28), creased. A lighter engine is then obtained. In
the equivalent, speed of the compressor is lower this case, the reduced engine speed at the low
than its design wllue. If tile flight Maeh number flight Mach numbers offers a saving in engine
is high enough, the compressor efficiency and stall- weight at the expense of engine efficiency for this
limit, problems plaguing low-equiw_lent-speed op- flight condition. At the high flight Mach nmn-
eration reappear. Again, such devices as inter- bers, however, the higher thrust and lighter
stage bleed and variable inlet guide vanes and weight combine to offer significant increases in
stators might be helpful, since they actually im- altitude and flight speed.
prove compressor performance in this regime. Reynolds number effects.--At high flight alti-
Variable inlet guide vanes and stators, however, tudes and low flight speeds, the Reynolds number
frequently tend to reduce compressor weight flow of the flow through the inlet stages of a compressor
at the high Mach numbers to the detriment of becomes so low that their performance is often
thrust. Interstage bleed, however, nfight be use- impaired. Two-dimensional-cascadedata (ch. VI)
ful if the problems of handling the bleed air in indicate that this is a universal trend. The per-
flight are not. too complicated. formance of such a cascade invariably deteriorates
An alternative, however, is to increase tile rota- when the Reynolds number, based on blade chord,
tire speed of the engine, at least to some extent, decreases below about 100,000. This behavior is
as the flight Math number increases. If the com- attributed to laminar separation (ch. V). Some
pressor is normally required to operate at 70 per- concurring evidence is also provided by investiga-
cent of its design speed, increasing the mechanical tions of multistage compressors, either by bench
speed 14 percent moves the operating point ahnos{. tests or as part of an engine.
to the 80-percent-speed line. If thc area of the In spite of these over-all performance data, the
jet nozzle is increased so that tile turbine-inlet actual effect of Reynolds number on compressor
temperature is constant, the operating point shifts performance is not completely known. The re-
snlts of the two-dimensional-cascade data are not current inlets invariably create disturbances
directly valid, because the behavior of their resulting from nonuniform shock waves and from
boundary layers is believed to be different from shock and boundary-layer interactions. Sharp
that of a blade row (ch. XV). Over the greater curvatures in the inlet ducting also contribute to
part of a blade row the boundary layer may be these distortions.
expelled by centrifugal forces before it separates. When distortions are present, the performance
Moreover, a much higher level of turbulence is of the compressor usually deteriorates. As shown
expected in a compressor, which tends to alter in figure 27(f), the stall-limit line drops (dashed
the influence of Reynolds number (ch. V). What line), and the shaded region (rotating stall) moves
are the significant characteristic lengths and to the right. Design speed, overspeed, and under-
velocities remains an unanswered question. speed performance suffer. In order to avoid
Compressor bench tests at low Reynolds num- compressor-stall difficulties, the operating line
bers have not been completely conclusive, be- must be dropped.
cause the results are frequently contaminated by
Because of the penalties incurred by inlet flow
uncontrolled leakage of air from the atmosphere
distortions, a large anmunt of effort is being
to the low-pressure regions in the compressor, and
devoted to eliminating them. The eventual
by heat transfer. The difficulty of obtaining
result of this work is unknown. At the higher
accurate data at low pressures and small pressure
equivalent speeds (low flight Mach numbers), the
differences adds to the confusion. These diffi-
compressor nmst be designed to produce a greater
culties are also encountered in engine tests.
pressure ratio than that available when distortions
Moreover, the latter results naturally include the
are present. The engine is either heavier than it
effect of Reynolds number on the other engine
otherwise needs to be, or else the efficiency is low.
components, as well as the effects of changes in
At the lower equivalent speeds (high flight Mach
the matching of the components.
numbers) the compressor-stall and blade-vibration
In order to meet the Reynolds number problem difficulties may be so severe that constant-
it may be necessary to use one engine, with a big
mechanical-speed operation is impossible. In-
compressor, instead of two. Increasing only the
creasing the mechanical speed of the engine with
chord lengths of the early stages has been advo-
flight Mach number, as discussed in connection
cated, but there is no guarantee that this remedy
with figure 27(e), alleviates this problem.
will do anything but add weight to the engine.
Inlet matching problem.--The characteristics of
As an alternative, a lower level of performance in
the inlet over the intended range of flight Mach
the early stages may be anticipated and the
numbers nmst be recognized in designing the
matching of the rest of the stages modified ac-
compressor and selecting the type of engine
cordingly. This procedure would prevent a small
operation. The matching problem, discussed in
decrease in performance of the early stages from
reference 24, is briefly reviewed here. At a given
being amplified in the rest of tile compressor.
supersonic flight Mach number, an ideal matching
There is an urgent need for reliable and applicable
of the engine and inlet is achieved when a flow
data in the near future.
pattern similar to that shown in figure 28(a) is
Inlet flow distortions.--Uniform flow at the
produced. The flow ahead of the minimum inlet
inlet is the usual assumption in compressor design,
area is decelerated by one or more oblique shocks.
and extreme precautions are taken to assure uni-
It then passes through the minimum area with
form flow at the inlet during bench tests of a
reduced supersonic velocities. A normal shock
compressor. Severe inlet flow distortions, how-
just behind the minimum area causes the Mach
ever, are encountered in flight. These distortions
numbers to be reduced to high subsonic values.
may result from many sources. They may occur
Thereafter, the flow is gradually decelerated to
when the airplane is flying at a high angle of
attack. They may result from disturbances the velocity required by the compressor. This is
the flow situation that occurs at critical inlet
created by the engine inlet. Distortions may
also result from disturbances created by other operation. (Notice that a compressor designed
parts of the airplane or armament fire in the for high axial Mach numbers requires little sub-
vicinity of the inlet. At high supersonic speeds, sonic diffusion in the inlet.)
is then supercritical. The thrust and engine

efficiency are reduced, and the flow ahead of the
compressor becomes disturbed.
On the other hand, if the ideally delivered
value of w_/_ is too great for the compressor,
the value of w] must decrease. Either the Mach
(a] number immediately ahead of the minimum area,
or the total pressure of the flow ahead of the mini-
mum area, or both, must decrease. In this case,
the shocks ahead of the minimum area deflect part
of the flow around the inlet (fig. 28(c)). The
operation of the inlet is then subcritical. The
shocks also decelerate the inlet flow, usually with
comparatively high recoveries. The over-all re-
covery of the diffuser is consequently not impaired
t_o drastically. The deflection of the flow, how-
ever, does cause an additional drag (ref. 10), which
(b)
can appreciably reduce airplane performance.
This flow condition is also frequently accompanied
by an unsteady-flow phenomenon known as "buzz."
Over a range of flight Mach numbers, the inlet
flow capacity of a fixed-geometry inlet follows the
/ trend shown in figure 29. The equivalent weight
flows are those for critical operation. With a
fixed mechanical speed of the engine, the equiva-
/I lent weight flow demanded by the compressor is
also shown. To the left of the intersection of
/ 1
these curves, the inlet wants to supply less air
than the compressor requires. It is thus forced
(c) to operate supercritically, with the attendant loss
in total-pressure recovery. To the right of the
intersection, the inlet wants to supply more air
(a) Critical operation.
than the compressor can use. It then operates
(b) Supercritical operation.
subcritically, with the attendant increase in na-
(c) Subcritical operation.
celle drag.
FIGURE 28.--Shock-wave configurations on engine inlets.
If it happens that the value of wL__/_ ideally

r
delivered to the compressor with this flow pattern ,-Compressor requiremenl 1 i
is lower than that required by the compressor, the

value of _ must decrease. (The weight flow
itself cannot increase, and e_ is determined only
by the flight Mach number and altitude.) What o_
happens physically is that the normal shock EE

O
moves downstream as shown in figure 28(b). The

Mach number ahead of the shock is thus increased, C:T
t._
and the pressure loss through the shock is in-

creased. The shock automatically positions itself
.4 8 1.2 16 20 24
so that the loss in pressure through it is exactly Flight Mach number, M0
that required to make w_/_ conform with that
required by the compressor. The inlet operation Fmb*R_ 29.--Engine and inlet matching requirements.
The unhappy alternatives of accepting either presser; the diameter of the inner-spool compres-
large pressure losses or large drags at off-design sor may thus be decreased. The higher air
conditions has stimulated research oil variable- temperature permits the use of higher blade speeds
geometry inlets and on methods of bleeding air for a given limit in the relative blade Mach number.
from a point between the mininmm area of the Notice that the value of PlyI" downstream of the
inlet and the face of the compressor. While con- inner turbine is higher than that for the other
siderable improvelnents in inlet, and engine per- turbine. According to equation (24), the tip
formance have been demonstrated, nmch work speed of the inner turbine, or compressor, can be
remains to be done to obtain an inlet that is both increased if the other design factors are fixed.
mechanically and aerodynamically desirable. The higher compressor blade speeds thus are also
In some instances, the severity of this problem consistent with the turbine blade stress limitations.
can be reduced by modifications "in compressor With uncooled blades, the allowable stress limits
design and engine operation. ]n theory, the en- are lower for the inner turbine because of the
gine curve of figure 29 can be made to coincide higher tempera! ure; less marked increases in wheel
with any desired inlet curve by appropriately speed are then offered. The smaller diameters
adjusting compressor equivalent speed with the and higher t)lade speeds of the inner spools in any
flight Mach number. Essentially constant equiv- event offer possible reductions in engine size and
alent speed is required over the flight Mach number weight.
range where the inlet curve is flat. Beyond the Because of the complicated interrelations be-
break in the curve, the equivalent speed would tween the two compressors, the two turbines, and
decrease with Mach number. The change in the other engine components, the trends of the
equivalent speed with Mach nunlber depends on operating lines are not as readily exposed as they
the characteristics of the inlet and compressor. are for one-spool engines. The important trends
(In this connection, it is noted that the rate of are indicated, however, in references 25 to 27, and
change in compressor airflow with speed appears tile following disrussion and the associated figures
to decrease as the inlet axial Mach number in- are taken from these reports.
creases.) This type of engine operation is not Representative performance maps and operating
inconsistent with that described in connection with lines for the outer and inner compressors, respec-
figure 27 (e). tively, are shown in figures 30 (a) and (b). In
The degree to which compressor design and this example, the ratio of the design pressure
engine operation can accommodate the inlet de- ratio of the outer c.ompressor to that of the inner
pends on the attendant changes in specific engine compressor is 0.75. The trends described, how-
weights, engine efficiency, and engine frontal area ever, are fairly independent of this ratio. The
that can be tolerated. Again, the decision must operating line represents the conditions where the
be based on the intended design and use of tile inner-turbine-inlet temperature is constant, the
airplane. The engine and airphme must be an mechanical speed of the outer-spool compressor
integrated unit rather than separate entities. is constant (at its design value), and the fright
Mach number is varying. At any flight Mach
TWO-SPOOL TURBOJET ENGINE
number, therefore, the equivalent speed of the
In the two-spool turbojet engine, the pressure outer compressor and the engine temperature
ratio is developed in two separate and independ- rt_t,io (ratio of inner-turbine-inlet to outer-com-
ently driven compressors. Tile upstream compressor-inlet temperature) are defined. These
pressor is called tile outer compressor; the down- two variables are sufficient to define the operating
stream compressor, the inner compressor. Since point of each c(mltlonent of the over-all compressor-
the design pressure ratio of each compressor is less turbine unit completely, as for tile one-spool engine.
than that of the equivalent one-spool compressor, The points A, B, and C on tile map, respectively,
fewer difficulties might be expected with the slope represent tile ('(_nditions for sea-level takeoff and
and the discontinuities of the st_dl-limit line. for flight Math ntunbers of 0.9 and 2.8 in the
Because of the higher pressure of the air enter- stratosphere.
ing the inner-spool compressor, tile value of Outer eompressor.--The performance map and
w_/t there is less than that at the outer com- operating line of the outer compressor are shown
margin appears. The operating line tends to

140--- " 1Adiabatic
1-- IA ...... move towards the stall-lilnit line at low engine
speeds. For the example illustrated, tim slope
cl30 efficiency, 1/85 , 'X
of the stall-limit line increases with the equivalent
/ Math
120
Flight Allitude ! "qud, C//
i ....
k _1 speed. With a more critical compressor design,
/WO
number however, thig trend may be reversed. At the
_ ,iot_A O Sea level l //_" 1 .85_ high flight Maeh numbers or low engine tempera-
o_ C 2.8 Stratosphere ture ratios, the operating line approaches the
stall4imit line. This behavior is similar to that
of one-spool compressors. The equilibrium op-
erating line at sea-level static conditions describes
a similar trend.
With the possible exception of the overspeed
problems, the outer spool experiences the same
o 7o--
sort of difficulties that a one-spool engine encoun-
t.ers under off-design conditions. This statement
Equivalent : / includes the difficulties associated with Reynolds
speed,
number and inlet distortions. The possible rem-
5o w/j-8,
edies are also similar, except that bleeding air
j percent design _80 9;L (':_,0(
4eL i J _70 between the two compressors might be substituted
-40 50 60 70 80 90 leo IIO 120
for interstage bleed. These remedies could, how-
Equivalent weight flow at outer-compress-or intel,
percent design ever, result in a greater reduction in thrust for
the two-spool engine than they do for a single-
(a) Outer-compressor performance map.
spool engine.
FIGVBE 30.--Off-design compressor performance in two-
Inner compressor.--The operating line of the
spool turbojet engine (ref. 26).
inner compressor differs from that of the outer
compressor in two respects: The slope of the
F T T _ -- 7
, Adiabotic :
operating line is greater, and the change in equiva-
Flight Altitude . -- efficiency, ,
.'50' Mach number, ";?ud,C. I lent speed for a given change in flight conditions
Me
.... /9o8 t is less. For equilibrium operation, the principal
, o Seele e, /./X / stall-limit problem arises at the higil equivalent
125 b B .9 Str0t0sphere - /// " \ , ]
speeds of the inner spool (low flight Mach numbers
or high engine temperatttre ratios). This prob-
/ Operating line /_.'_"_ l.--_.Nfb/ I I lem responds to the same treatment indicated for
_ 100 _ t -//. _ )_/ t. 80
the similar problem of the one-spool compressor,
but, again, the thrust penalties may make the
Stolid mit line /1"/ / V/ ./_ _ /I '
7o
solution an undesirable one.
2
Q An important point to note is that higher-than-
i equilibrium engine temperature ratios momen-
tarily move the operating point of the inner com-
pressor towards the stall-limit line, even though
o
LD ........ I 0 -II
the surge margin is increased when equilibrium is
2 ' - 8o I00
" : 2 L
120
finally attained. This higher-than-equilibrium
Equivolent weigh! flow ot inner-compressor in et temperature is required for engine acceleration.
percent design Bleeding air between the two compressors to assist
the outer spool may also narrow the stall margin
(b) Inner-compressor performance map.
of the inner spool. For transient conditions,
Fmt'RE 30.--Concluded. Off-design compressor perform-
therefore, the benign indications of the equilibrium
ance in two-spool turbojet engine (ref. 26).
operating line may be deceiving.
in figure 30(a). At low flight Math numbers or As the inner compressor is started from rest,
high engine temperature ratios, a large stall its front stages are inevitably stalled. The at-
691-564 0-65-5
tendant rotating stall may induce vibrations in the propeller bIades. When the propeller is inde-
the blades. Similarly, rotating stalls developed pendently driven by its own turbine, the speed of
by the outer compressor may induce vibrations the compressor depends on the turbine-inlet tem-
in the inner compressor. In addition, the rotat- perature and the power delivered to the propeller.
ing stalls originating in the outer compressor may The best location of the compressor operating
impair the performance of the inner compressor point at the high power condition depends on the
and lower the stall-limit line. The published characteristics of the propeller, the stress margin
data are too meager to settle this point definitely, of the engine components, and the characteristics
but the apparent wide stall margin of the inner of the airplane. The stall margin required at de-
compressor may disappear during engine accelera- sign or higher speeds thus depends on individual
tion as a result of these phenomena. studies of the engine and its intended service.
The inner compressor itself may not be subject As a rule, however, the required margin is no
to any Reynolds number problems, as both the greater than that required of subsonic jet-engine
density and the turbulence are relatively high. compressors (see ref. 28).
It can, however, amplify any deterioration in Except for starting and acceleration, operating
performance encountered by the outer com- the compressor below the design pressure ratio
pressor. The solution of this problem is again has been thought to be undesirable because of
subject to speculation, but it should yield to the the incurred loss in engine efficiency. An excep-
same treatments that may be found for the tion to this principle has been made for takeoff
one-spool compressor. and low-altitude flight. The pressures and power
Inlet distortions may affect the performance of developed are so high that engine weight is
the inner compressor because the inner com- decided by the low-altitude operating conditions.
pressor amplifies changes in the performance of While high sea-level power is desired for rapid
the outer spool. A wide margin between the takeoff and climb, the sea-level output and com-
operating line and the stall-limit line is therefore pressor pressure ratio of a turboprop engine can
desired. This requirement may be particularly be kept considerably below their maximum values
needed at the high equivalent speeds where the without seriously hurting airplane performance.
stall margin is the smallest. The resulting decrease in specific engine weight
at altitude improves the altitude performance
TURBOPROP ENGINE
and range of the airplane. Although compressor
In general, the design and off-design require- speed is reduced at sea level for this type of opera-
ments of compressors for turboprop engines are tion, the reduction in most cases is small enough
similar to those of the turbojet engine. Since to avoid the stall and blade-vibration difficulties
high compressor pressure ratios are desired for associated with low-speed operation.
the turboprop engine, the stall margin and vibra- Because of its high specific power, the airflow
tion problems at low speeds cannot be overlooked. required by the engine is small. The diameter
Variable stator blades, interstage bleed, or some and blade chords of the compressor are also small.
similar device may be absolutely necessary to The compressor is therefore more susceptible to
obtain satisfactory engine acceleration at the low Reynolds number problems at high flight altitudes.
speeds and still use the pressure-ratio capacity of As before, this problem can only be pointed out.
the compressor at high speeds. Its definition and cure require much research.
At the design point, the efficiency of the engine
CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY OF
should be the maximum obtainable for continuous
COMPRESSOR DESIGN OBJECTIVES
operation. Practically speaking, this point then
represents the maximum power that the engine The final specifications for a compressor grad-
can develop-under continuous operation. Higher ually emerge from a detailed study of a number of
power can be obtained for brief periods by in- engine and airplane layouts. The design-point
creasing the pressure ratio and speed of the pressure ratio, flow capacity, and rotative speed
compressor. When the compressor is coupled to of the compressor represent a compromise that
the propeller, the compressor speed can be con- is established only after extensive preliminary
trolled independently by adjusting the pitch of studies have been made of various engine and
COMPRESSOR
DESIGN
REQUIREMENTS 51
airplanedesignsfor a givenmissionor missions. sources, such as blade vibrations, must be antic-
These tentative values may be subsequently ipated and the design made so that these prob-
modified for selecting the best method of meeting lems can be either overcome or successfully
the various off-design conditions encountered. evaded. Finally, with respect to manufacturing,
The weight, complexity, and efficiency or drag the component parts should be as few in number
penalties associated with the available techniques as possible and their shape should be simple.
for varying the geometry or performance of com- The material presented in the subsequent
ponents are involved in this decision.
chapters is the result of research specifically aimed
Regardless of the final specifications, the com-
at realizing the objectives set forth in the previous
pressor should produce the required pressure
paragraphs. Because of the importance of light
ratio with high efficiency. It should, moreover,
and compact designs for aircraft, attention is
be subjected to tile highest aerodynamic loading
paid to many problems that may not be so impor-
and Mach number allowed by available knowledge.
The resulting design should not require ex- tant in other fields of application. This point of
tensive development. The performance esti- view does not limit the usefulness of the informa-
mates at the design and off-design points must tion. Many successful designs, by present
therefore be reasonably accurate. Moreover, standards at least, have been made in a wide
mechanical problems arising from aerodynamic variety of commercial fields with this information.
CHAPTER III
COMPRESSOR DESIGN SYSTEM
By ROBERT 0. BULLOCK and IRVING A. JOHNSEN
A general description is presented for the com- passages formed by the blades, the hub, and
pressor design system that has been adopted .[or this the casing.
report on the aerodynamic design of axial-flow In order to obtain more tractable methods of
compressors. The basic thermodynamic equations analysis, various techniques have been devised
are given, and the simplifications commonly intro- that combine simplified theories with empirical
duced to permit the solution of these equations are data. The simplifications made to the equations
summarized. Representative experimental data are of motion are essentially the same as the simplifi-
presented to justify these simpb_cations. Thus, a cations that have been developed for airfoil anal-
valid simplified flow model (which is the real basis yses. The foundations of the simplified theories
of a design system) is provided. The individual are thus the time-steady equations of tile motion
elements of the design system and the basic calcula- of an inviscid gas. In this attack, it is tacitly as-
tions required to execute the aerodynamic design of sumed that any important effects of viscosity and
a compressor are summarized. The improvements time-unsteady flow can be treated as correction
in knowledge required to make compressor design a factors and that the effects of viscosity are con-
truer science and promising directions of future fined to thin boundary layers. The important
research are indicated. flow properties not directly given by the simplified
equations of motion must be obtained elnpirically.
INTRODUCTION
The simplified equations, together with the
The problem of designing axial-flow compressors empirical data required to calculate the flow with
ultimately becomes the problem of accurately a reasonable degree of accuracy, constitute a
calculating the flow through compressor blade framework for analysis or a design system. The
rows. In order to be accurate and have the techniques presented in references 29 to 33 are
greatest range of applicability, these calculations representative of such a system. It is the purpose
should be based on the fundalnental laws of of the present series of reports to derive an up-to-
motion as much as possible. At the same time, date design framework and to review the extensive
they should be of such a nature that they can be published analytical and experimental results that
made readily with available computing techniques are the building blocks for this framework. The
and equipment. function of this particular chapter is to coordinate
To be strictly accurate, the fundamental theory the subsequent chapters by summarizing the im-
should account for the fact that the motion of the portant ideas presented in them. Therefore, the
air has components in the three physical dimen- following are reviewed: (1) the important ideas
sions. It must also account for the effects of underlying the design system, (2) some experi-
viscosity as well as time-unsteady motion. By mental investigations directed at examining these
assessing each particle of air with these require- ideas, (3) the design system and the basic calcula-
ments, the differential equations of motion may tions required to execute the aerodynamic design
be derived. The Navier-Stokes equations are, of a compressor, and (4) the improvements in
for example, obtained from this procedure. knowledge required to make conlpressor design a
Although they are of great theoretical interest, truer science.
these equations themselves are of little use in The basic thermodynamic equations are first
compressor design. They cannot yet be solved presented, and the general goals of aerodynamic
to express the flow through the complicated flow flow analyses are outlined. The equations of
53
54 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COM:PRESSORS
motion for an inviscid time-steady flow are intro- g acceleration due to gravity, 32.17 ft/sec 2
duced. The problem of solving these equations is H total or stagnation enthalpy per unit
then discussed. Some of the commonly used In ass
simplifications are presented, and the experimental I modified total enthalpy, H--_(rVo), see
data necessary to justify these simplifications are eqs. (39) and (48b)
noted. Some rather obvious ways of treating the i incidence angle, angle between inlet-air
important viscous effects are indicated, and the direction and tangent to blade mean
experiments required both to evaluate these meth- camber line at leading edge (see fig.
ods and to supply the necessary empirical data 32), deg
are enumerated. Some causes of time-unsteady J mechanical equivalent of heat, 778.2
flows and the approach used to account for them ft-lb/Btu
are then presented. K_ weight-flow blockage factor, implicitly
Representative experiments that answer the defined in eq. (53a)
questions raised in the foregoing analyses are then M Mach number
reviewed. These results provide a valid simplified P total or stagnation pressure
model of the flow, which is the real basis of a de- p static or stream pressure
sign system. In developing this model, the results R gas constant, 53.35 ft-lb/(lb)(R)
of experiments with the simplest conceivable flows r radius
are first considered. The effects of complicating S entropy per unit mass
flows are then discussed one by one whenever pos- AS entropy increase in stream tube between
sible. The scope of the investigations is the inlet and outlet of a blade row
range over which data are available, s blade spacing, see fig. 32
The elements of the resulting design system are T total or stagnation temperature
then individually summarized. The basic equa- t static or stream temperature
tions and techniques are given. The interrelations V air velocity
among the various elements are pointed out, but w weight flow
no attempt is made to prescribe an actual sequence z distance along compressor axis
for their use. In this manner, the structure of a a angle of attack, angle between inlet-air
compressor design system is provided, within direction and blade chord (a=B_--7 ,
which the individual designer may work with see fig. 32), deg
considerable freedom, fl air angle, angle between air velocity and
Finally, the shortcomings of the previously axial direction (see fig. 32), deg
outlined approaches are enumerated, and the Aft turning angle, B2--B1 (see fig. 32), deg
direction of future research is discussed. Some F circulation, r Vo
promising though unproved techniques of analysis ratio of specific heats
are mentioned. _o blade-chord angle, angle between blade
chord and axial direction (see fig. 32),
SYMBOLS
deg
The following symbols are used in this chapter: _i boundary-layer thickness, see fig. 42
6 deviation angle, angle between outlet-air
aa stagnation velocity of sound direction and tangent to blade mean
C curvature of meridional streamline, see camber line at trailing edge (see fig.
fig. 64 32), deg
c chord length, see fig. 32 angle between tangent to streamline
D diffusion factor, defined by eq. (54) projected on meridional plane and axial
o_ centrifugal force due to curvature of direction (fig. 64), deg
meridional streamline, see fig. 64 vorticity
o_t,.T radial component of frictional force efficiency
,_R centrifugal force due to rotation of air 0 angular distance
about axis of compressor viscosity
COMPRESSOR DESIGN SYSTEM 55
P mass density total temperature in the stream tube of the gas is

o- solidity, ratio of chord to spacing equated to the mechanical energy transferred to
blade camber angle, difference between it by the compressor rotors. The changes in
angles of tangents to mean camber line both the total and static states of a gas can then
at leading and trailing edges (see fig. be expressed in terms of the component velocities.
32), deg Flow through stators.--Since no energy is added
oJ angular velocity of rotor to the flow by the stators, the total enthalpy and
_atr angular velocity of air for solid-body total temperature of a stream tube of the flow
rotation through stators are constant:
"5 total-pressure-loss coefficient, see eq. (58)
Subscripts:
ad adiabatic From the definition of total and static states, this

h hub equation may be written as
i initial or reference position
/d ideal
Hl=-_ gRt_+_ _ 1V2 .1
m arithmetic mean
P polytropic
radial direction 7 t 1 2 1 2 1
r -- -r--1 gR 2+_ Vr,2+_ V_,_+-_ V_._=H2
t tip (31)
2 axial direction
0 tangential direction This equation relates the change in static tempera-
1 station at inlet to blade row ture to the changes in the individual components
2 station at blade-row exit of velocity.
If there is an increase in entropy through a
Superscript: stream tube (e.g., from friction or an interchange
of heat within the stream tube itself), the total
relative to rotor
pressure changes according to the equation
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS UNDERLYING
J
DESIGN SYSTEM
P2 -_ as (32)
EQUATIONS OF THERMODYNAMICS
The design or analysis problem may be stated When the change in entropy, or total pressure, is
as the problem of determining how the shape of known, the changes in static pressure and density
a blade row alters the thermodynamic flow prop- corresponding to the changes in static temperature
erties and velocities of each particle of gas flowing may be determined. Static pressures are related
through it. The changes in the total (or stagna- by the equation
tion) state as well as the changes in the static v
state of the gas are of interest.
In order to avoid unnecessary complications p- (33)
in the thermodynamic equations, it has usually
been the custom to assume that the entire flow The densities are then related to the pressures
may be subdivided into individual tubes of flow and temperatures by the gas law
that maintain their identity. Another assump-
p=pgRt (34)
tion is that there are no important effects of heat or
transfer into or out of these tubes of flow. (In
P2=p__2tA (35)
the discussion of experimental data, it will be p_ p_ t:
shown that these assumptions usually do not
cause serious errors.) By virtue of these as- Equations (34) and (35) may, of course, also be
sumptions, the change in the total enthalpy or used to relate the total conditions of state.
56 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL=FLOW COMPRESSORS
If the changes in the velocity components and The corresponding changes in total pressure are
the entropy in a stream tube are known, the given by
resulting changes in static temperature, total and
3" j 3"
static pressure, and total and static density can be
determined. -_=\Z] =\T,]
Flow through rotors.--Since the rotors do work
3"
on the gas, the enthalpy of a tube of flow changes
through the rotor according to Euler's turbine (41)
equation:
H_--HI---- _ (r2Vo, 2-- rJZo, l) (36)
or T j
_,-- , e R (42)
11 \T,]
Y gRtl+_ 1 V,.I+_
2 1 V_.I+_ 1 V_,t--wrlVo._
7--1
(The magnitude of AS for absolute quantities is the
2 ll/= 1 same as for relative quantities.) The resulting
-- ,y--"YI gRt_+_ V, ' 2+-_ "'_.2+ 3 V_. 2--_r2V_ 2
(37) change in static pressure is given by
I"2 I"_
Notice that the changes in lze due to casing
friction are ignored in these equations.
t 3" (43)
Since a stationary observer could not observe
Vl _'lff (T2_m \'1"/ f T2"_
continuous tubes of flow through a rotor, recourse \Tj.] "_'\T1]
is frequently made to relative flow conditions,

where the observations are theoretically made from The corresponding density changes may be de-
the rotor itself. Continuous stream tubes can ternfined by equations (34) and (35).
then be distinguished. The relative velocities With these relations, the changes in total and
are related to the absolute velocities by the static states of a gas can be determined when the
equations changes in the velocity components, the entropy,
and the radius of the stream tube (measured from
v;=v, l the axis) can be estimated. The concepts dis-
v;=v [ (as) cussed in the rest of this section were developed
V_= Vo--cor J with the idea of making these estimates.
ANALYSIS OF TIME-STEADY AND INVISCID FLOW

(V_ is usually negative in the compressor case in the
sense that _or is positive.) Equation (36) then As will be shown in chapter XIV, the three-
becomes dimensional equations of motion of even time-
steady and inviscid flow are much too complicated
]I=H;-- w2_=H_ - co2_=I2 (39)
for general use at the present time. Coping with
where
all the three-dimensional gradients in the nmtion
and properties of the gas is too big a problem for
H'-- _
-_-T gRT'=_@I gRt +_1 (v ,).,- routine analysis. An inviting simplification ap=
pears, however, when the radial components of
(40) velocity in a blade row are small enough to be
+31 (VI)2_F1 (V,e) 2
ignored.
When only the flow ahead of and behind the Equations ignoring radial velocity.--Stationary
rotor is of interest, the use of relative quantities blade row: Ignoring the radial components of
is not, necessary; in this case equation (37) may also velocity is tantamount to assuming that a stream-
be applied to relate the changes in total and line of the flow lies on the surface of a right circular
static temperatures with the changes in the cylinder (fig. 31). If this surface and its stream-
individual components of velocity. lines are developed into a plane, the streamlines
_o
_.#,"
// Oompressor blades
_::
,//_, Mean line
//.// _'_/ t //////
FIGURE 31.--Sketch of flow surface and streamlines when

assumed flow lies on the surface of a right circular
cylinder.
through a two-dimensional cascade of airfoils are

\\ -
\\ \
\. \ \\._
obtained (fig. 32). \ _ \ \_/'\\ 'o
_! \\ \ X i 'x'x,;
When tile radial velocity is ignored, the equation
of continuity (reviewed in ch. XIV) becomes
b(pVo) + b(pV,)_O (44)

_z-z -
The basic equations

gential components
for the radial,
of vorticity
axial, and tan-
are, respectively, +00,
bVz
rbO
bVo
_ =
_ (45) . \\\"
Z \
1 b(rVo) bVr
r br rbO-- _ (46)
'Streamlines
bVr bVz _o
bz _ = (47)
If the inviscid flow is originally without vorticity, FmURE 32.--Sketch of two-dimensional cascade showing
it will remain this way; _'r is then zero. Since r streamlines and nomenclature.
is assumed to be constant along a streamline, equa-

tions (44) and (45) then represent the flow through and rVe=I'=constant along a radial line. This
a two-dirnensional cascade of airfoils. Figure 32 distribution of tangential velocity is known as free-
is thus again shown to represent the flow at a given vortex flow. Similarly, equation (47) becolnes
radius for the assumed conditions of figure 31.
If V_ as well as _'_is zero, equation (46) becomes bV,=O
br
and V_=constant along a radial line.

58 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OFAXIAL-FLOW
COMPRESSORS
Besidestheserelations,equation(378b) (ch.
_1 _(rV;) O(rVe) OV,
XIV) mustalsobesatisfied. This equationmay OV'r _,1
z 2w=G-2oo
r Or O0' r Or O0
be writtenas,neglectinganyradialforcesexerted
(46a)
by theblades,
ov'_ ov;
_H 5S Vo V 0Z Or _'_= _'o (47a)
5r t-_= G-- _'0 (48)
If the radial flows and absolute vorticity are

If radial flows are neglected, this equation becomes
again assumed to be zero, equations (44a) and
(45a) become the equations of a two-dimensional
OH OS Vo O(rVo) q-V_ OVz (48a)
& t Or r &r Or cascade. This simplification of flow equations is
thus applicable to rotors as well as stators.
When i', and D are zero, then the right side of this Equation (46a) may then be integrated along a
radial line to become
equation must be zero. The left side of this equa-
tion must also be zero--a condition which is
rV' o= r--_or_=r(Ve--ow)
realized when there are no radial gradients in
enthalpy or entropy.
In order to meet the requirements of no tangential
It may be noted that equation (48) is also ap-
gradients in the radial flow through a rotor, the
plicable when the axial and tangential components
absolute flow along a radial line must be defined by
of vorticity are not zero. For the condition of no
radial flow, one component of vorticity (say G) rVs=P
may be stipulated by the radial variation of 170
(eq. (46)). If the radial variations in enthalpy This is the same requirement previously derived
and entropy are also given, then the radial varia- for stators. The tangential velocity distributions
tions in V, are determined by equations (47) and for rotors and stators are thus compatible. Simi-
(48). larly, the integration of equation (47a) shows the
Rotating blade rows: In order to utilize steady- compatibility of axial velocity, namely,
flow equations in rotors, the flow in rotors is re-
ferred to a coordinate system that rotates at rotor V_=constant
speed. The velocities in the rotating coordinate
As shown in chapter XIV (eq. (378c)), the
system (the relative velocities) are related to the
equation analogous to equation (48a) is
absolute velocities by equations (38), which are
rewritten here as
OI OS V; O(rV,) OV,
(48b)
Or t Or-- r Or bV, Or
Vr =V',
V ' (38) where, according to equation (39),
z=V, [
V_=V'o+wr ) I= H '-- Jr:= H--owVo= H-- o?r _-corV'e
Again V'r=O; the relative velocities are then di- If H and rV8 are constant along a radial line,
rectly substituted for the absolute velocities in then I is also constant along a radial line. If the
equation (44), and entropy is also constant along a radial line, equa-
tion (48b) is satisfied for free-vortex flows. Equa-
0(pG) O(pV',) tion (48b), like equation (48), may be used when
r0O' } 0z =0 (44a)
the vorticity components are not zero. The pro-
cedure involved is similar to that previously
The corresponding equations for the radial, axial,
outlined.
and tangential components of vorticity are
When radial flows do not have important effects,
ov'. ov; the analysis of flow in a blade row is relatively
rO0' Oz = _-',= G (45a) simple. The three-dimensional problem for both
stators and rotors is broken down into the two- In the vicinity of the tip, rpV, has a greater
dimensional-cascade problem and the separate value behind the blade row than in front of it
problem of determining the radial distribution of (fig. 33). The distance (rt--r_) between two ad-
the flow. It is, of course, practically impossible jacent streamlines near the tip is therefore ex-
to eliminate radial flows completely. Because of pected to decrease as rpYz increases if rc is constant.
the simplification offered by this type of approach, As shown by streamline h of figure 34, this trend
however, it has been deemed advisable to seek does occur and the streamline moves radially
and study those designs in which the radial flows outward. (This drawing actually represents the
are small. Attention is therefore directed to the projection of the flow on a plane through the
study of the causes of radial flows in a blade row. axis. This representation is conventionally called
The question concerning admissible radial flows is the flow lines in the meridional plane.) A radial
temporarily deferred to the review of experimental component of velocity, as indicated by the slope
data. of the dashed streamline, must therefore exist
Causes of radial ttows.--Changes in radial within the blade row. Near the hub, on the other
density gradients: One cause of radial flows is the hand, the value of rpI_ decreases through the
change in the radial density gradient between the blade row, and the distance between streamline B
inlet and the outlet. If the radial velocities are and the hub is greater behind the blade row than
zero, the hydrodynamic equation of equilibrium in front of it. In this case, the motion of the
(eq. (377), ch. XIV) becomes streamline is again radially outward, and radial
components of velocity must again exist within
1 _p_V_ the blade row.
p i_r r Even for ideal conditions, therefore, where the
tangential and axial components of velocity up-
If Ve----F/r and there are no radial gradients in stream and downstream of the blade row satisfy
entropy (i.e., p = Cp_), this equation may be solved the requirements for no radial velocities, some
to read radial flow must take place within the blade row.
The magnitudes of the radial flows increase with
_' Co_-_= eonstant--_r _ the change in F through the blade row and with
the corresponding change in rpV_.
A change in F through a blade row therefore Blade thickness distribution: Another source of
makes the radial distribution of density behind radial flow is the radial distribution of blade
the blade row different from that in front of it. thickness. Some aspects of this problem are
Figure 33 shows a representative change in the discussed in reference 34. Ahead of the blade
radial distribution of density for a blade row row, a cross section of the stream surface in a
through which F is increased from 150 to 300 feet plane normal to the axis would look like that
squared per second. Also shown in this figure is shown in figure 35(a). A streamline of the flow
the change in rpV,. between two adjacent blades lies within the area
Continuity of mass flow requires the following of the sector bounded by h-h and B-B. Because
equation to be satisfied in a stream tube: of blade thickness, these lateral boundaries are
changed to C-C and [:)-D within the blade row
_rrt,l [_rt 2 (figs. 35 (b) and (c)). If C-C and [:)-D are also
plV,.lr dr=] ' p2V_ 2r dr (49)
t, I tJr_ ,2 ' radial lines (fig. 35(b)), the area of each of the
original stream tubes is reduced uniformly along
where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to conditions the radius. The radial position of the streanflines
far enough upstream and downstream of the then tends to remain unchanged. In the more
blade row that Vr is practically zero and any usual case, the lines C-C and [:)-D are not radial
circumferential gradients have disappeared; and lines; then, as indicated in figure 35(c), the flow
r_ and r_ refer to the radius of a given streamline would be deflected outwards with respect to that
and that of the tip (or casing), respectively, (see of figure 35(a). The areas of the original stream
fig. 34). Notice, however, that equation (49) is tubes are not uniformly reduced, and some radial
valid even when V, is finite. adjustment of the streamlines is required to
_ _ :_
T
f
FIGURE 34.--Radial shift of streamlines due to change

in radial density gradient through a blade row.
between this surface and a radiM line. Depending

upon ]low the blade elements are radially alined,
inward or outward radial velocities could be
generated In the blade of figure 37(a), the pre-
dominant force is radially outward ; so is the radial
component of the flow. For figure 37(b), in
which the shape of the individual cascade elements
at each radius is the same as that. of figure 37(a),
r/r m
the flow would be first inward, then outward.
FmL'RE 33.--Changes in distributions of p and rpV, duc Non-free-vortex flow: In order to alleviate some
to change in F through bNde row. problems arising from Maeh number limits, such
as those described in reference 35, tangential
velocity distributions differing from the free-
compensate for this. Some notion of tile resulting
vortex type are frequently used. One type of
flows is given in reference 34. This reference
indicates that radial flow starts ahead of the blade tangential velocity distribution that tends to
overcome these difficulties is given by the equation
row, as shown in figure 36. A maximum radial
displacement occurs within the blade row, and F
thereafter a radially inward flow begins and con- Vo=w,,r+-- (50)
r
tinues downstrea_n of the blade row.
Radial component of blade force: Still another where both _,, and r are constant. Other dis-
source of radial flow is the radial component of tributions could also be used, but this type permits
blade force. This concept is reviewed in chapter a simple discussion of nonvortex distributions.
XIV. The turning of the air at any point in a Suppose now that uniform flow entered a row of
blade row is the result of tangential forces originat- blades designed to produce this distribution at
ing on the surface of a blade. The direction of the outlet. Since the flow is originally without
these forces, however, must be perpendicular to vorticity, equation (46) becomes
the corresponding blade surfaces. If the surfaces
are inclined to the radius, a radial component of 2 c3V,
force is imposed on the flow, and radial flows may OJatr---_ =_)
thereby be induced. Since the forces on the high-

pressure surface of the blade are dominant, the and tangential variations in radial velocity are
radial movements of the flow depend on the angle thus introduced.
COMPRESSOR
DESIGN
SYSTEM 61
Af _B AC Slream surface-. DB AC DB
1
Blade
A B AC DB A C D B
(a) [b) (c)
(a) Zero blade thickness. (b) Radial blade surfaces. (c) Tapered blades.
FlaURE 35.--Effect of blade thickness on radial location of stream surfaces.
Tile resulting flows can be visualized by dividing The velocity V0. _ is that required for free-vortex
V0 into three parts, flow. The circumferential-plane streamlines for
the condition of no through flow are shown in
I,_ = Vo, a+ I'_. b+ Vo,, figure 38(a). The velocity V0.b represents the
where rotation of a solid body, and the corresponding
streamlines are shown in figure 38(b). The flow
1 b(rVo,)= 0
r _)r determined by Vo._ is more complex. No general
solution to this flow has been found, but solutions
for several particular conditions are presented in
r _r reference 36. The streamlines for two of these
solutions are shown in figure 38(e). In general,
1 b(rVo.,) bV,
both V0._ and V, must vary in the tangential
r Or ri}O _---2_i"
direction. This trend is suggested by figure 38(c).
It is evident that the velocity defined by equation
(50) really cannot exist at every circumferential
position. Equation (50), however, is approxi-
mated at every circumferential position when the
blades are close enough together that the actual
circumferential changes in V0 and V_ are very
small. The velocity V0._ might then be ignored.
The change in V, along the circumference could
also be ignored. In this event, one could write
F
r
The resulting streamlines are those of figure 38(a)

combined with figure 38(b).
The vorticity represented by this flow, however,
is 2_. This result means that vorticity must
FIGURE 36.--Radial shift of streamlines due to blade be added to the flow by the blade row. Such a
thickness. thing cannot be done in an ideal fluid, because the
Stream surface
(a) (b)
,, I (cl
c
Rotation
(a)
(a) Radial line through leading edge. (b) Radial line

through center of gravity. Rotation
FIGURE 37.--Various radial alinements of compressor (a) Free-vortex rotation. (b) Solid-body rotation.
blade elements having the same radial distribution of (c) Eddy flow (ref. 36).
cascade elements.
FIGURE 38.--Circumferential-plane streamlines for no
through-flow.
vortex lines would extend downstream of the
blades and they would be confined to infinitesi-
With uniform enthalpy and entropy, equation
mally thin sheets. Between them, the flow would
(48c) is written
be irrotational. Since these vortex sheets actually
enclose the wakes in a real fluid, they eventually VA'e=2_.V8
do permeate the entire flow field by the mixing of
the wakes with the rest of the flow. Accordingly, By using equation (47), this equation becomes
for a reasonably close spacing between the blades,
the entire flow could be assumed to have an axial bV, . /)V,
2_..Ve+V, -_ =v, bz
component of vorticity of 2o_r downstream of a
blade row, even though the upstream vorticity is
Here again, radial flows are required, since bV,/bz
zero. (For a further discussion of this point, see
cannot, in general, be zero. In many designs,
ref. 5.)
these radial flows are far from negligible within a
In this event, equation (46) may be used, and
blade row and may be considerably more severe
than those previously discussed. Far enough
1 b(rVe)
r br --2_af,= L downstream of the blade row, the radial flow must
disappear. Some studies of these flows are re-
viewed in chapter XIV.
Equation (48) can then be written as
For other radial distributions of tangential
bH bS components of velocity, other equations must be
b_-- t _= 2_a,,Ve- V,_e (4Sc) used to describe the flow. The important point to
COMPRESSOR
DESIGN
SYSTEM 63
I
t
f
f
f J
1
J
FIGURE 39.--Radial shift of streamlines due to hub and casing curvature.
note, however, is that additional radial flows tend indicated in figure 40(b). The increased twisting
to be introduced whenever the distribution is not of the surfaces results from the flows shown in
that of a free vortex. These radial flows not only figure 38(c) (left side).
exist within the blade row but also may be found Experimental data required.--Although the
upstream and downstream of it. magnitudes of these radial flows can sometimes be
Shape of hub and casing: Some radial flows estimated by mathematical analyses, their actual
must exist in the vicinity of the hub and casing effects on the performance of a blade row must
when the slope is not zero (fig. 39). Such con- eventually be measured by experiment. The
figurations usually cannot be avoided because of deflections of the air at a given radius of a blade
the exigencies of other considerations (blade sur- row and those of a two-dimensional cascade having
face velocity diffusion, attainable total-pressure identical geometry and inlet conditions may be
ratio, etc.), which are discussed later in this compared; the agreement between the two sets of
chapter. The magnitude of the radial flows within results is a measure of the usefulness of the simple
and without the blade rows naturally increases as concepts obtained by ignoring radial flows.
the slope of the boundaries increases. Similarly, a comparison of the measured radial
Effect of radial flows on stream surface con- distributions of flow with those given by equations
flguration.--As previously shown, the simplifying (46) to (48) (with Vr----0) provides another test of
assumption of no radial flow presumes the stream- these concepts. The representative experimental
lines of the flow to lie on the surfaces of right data subsequently presented are examined from
circular cylinders (fig. 31). The radial flows re- these points of view to show that, in many cases,
sulting from the changes in radial density gradi- the simple equations just derived provide an
ents, the blade thickness distribution, and the accurate estimate of the main flow.
radial component of blade force make these stream-
ANALYSISOF VISCOSITYPROBLEM
line surfaces undulate and twist as shown by
comparing the upper surface of figure 40(a) with Two-dimensional-cascade elements.--Follow-
the lower surface. The additional disturbances ing the procedures used in other fields of aerody-
encountered when rVe is not constant along a namics, compressor design and analysis techniques
radial line and when annulus walls converge are assume that the important effects of viscosity are
64 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLO_ T COMPRESSORS
the retarded flow of the wakes is mixed with the

rest of tile flow. The shaded areas, therefore,
become wider in the direction of the flow. Far
enough do_lstream, complete mixing would occur
and tile flow would be homogeneous.
A representative example of the velocity varia-
tion within a boundary layer is shown in figure
_/_ _ .dP"_t-- / cbrcular
41(b), which presents the velocity distribution
along a line A--A in figure 41(a). Between points
a and b of figure 41(b), the effects of viscosity are
small, because the velocity gradients are relatively
small. Between the blade surfaces and points
a or b, however, the velocity gradients are severe
and viscous effects are dominant. Besides the
indicated change in velocity, the total pressure,
the entropy, and even the total temperature also

vary. rhe static pressure, however, is likely to
be approximMely constant through the boundary
layer.
One of the most important effects of viscosity
is that it retards the relative flow in the boundary
layers. (In making this statement, it is implied
that the flow is viewed from the coordinate
system attached to the blades. For starers, such
a coordinate system is stationary, as previously
noted; for rotors, it moves at blade speed.)
Because of the low relative flow, the boundary
layer may be almost replaced by a region of no
flow for inviscid-flow analyses. Effectively, then,
the boundary layer changes the aerodynamic shape
of the blades, a phenomenon which must be
recognized in interpreting inviscid-flow analyses.
Although some methods of partially correcting
inviscid-flow analyses for these changes in bound-
ary conditions have been developed, it has usually
been more practicable to use experimental results
(b)
as a source of two-dimensionM-cascade data (ch.
VI). Two-dimensional-cascade inviscid-flow
(a) Free-vortex design. theory (oh. ]V) may then be used to correlate
(b) Non-free-vortex design with converging annulus area. these data.
FIGURE 40.--Warping of stream surfaces through a blade Important data derived from two-dimensional-
row. cascade experiments are the deflections or turning
angles as functions of blade shape and inlet flow
confined to thin boundary layers and to blade conditions. The turning angles are given by
wakes. For the cascade elements (defined in fig.
32), the boundary layers are indicated by the afl=(fl_&)=Ftan__ Vo , , Vo,2"]
shaded areas immediately in contact with the L _-_':-- tan
blades in figure 41 (a). Beyond the trailing edge
of the blade, the boundary layers are shed as When the turning angle is known, the change in
wakes. Within the shaded areas of the figure, Ve is a function of the change in I_. Also of
A C
I
J
!
Wake
A
I
Concave Convex
surface surface
>.
0
(3)
O9
-V V
Q_
"5
F- I'--
Distance Distance Distance

b
(b) (c) (d)
(a) Sketch of boundary layers and wakes.

(b) Velocity distribution along A-A. (c) Total-pressure distribution along B-B.
(d) Total-pressure distribution along C-C.
FIGURE 41.--Boundary layers and wakes formed by cascade elements.
importance are the losses in the relative total It is noted that all changes in flow properties
pressure suffered in the boundary layer, because occurring ill the boundary layer are passed on to
these represent part of the over-all change in the wakes, which are eventually mixed with the
entropy. rest of the flow. The distribution of losses as
691-564 0--65--6
66 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF
indicated by total pressure behind a two-dimen- duced even by assuming the flow to be isentropic.
sional cascade thus varies in two dimensions. Beyond these lines, at the blade ends, the cir-
Along the line [3-B of figure 41 (a), the distribution cumferentially averaged losses are more severe.
of total pressure resembles that shown in figure Since the flows causing these end losses have no
41(c). Farther downstream, along C-C, the total- coun_rpart in a truly two-dimensional cascade,
pressure distribution is more uniform (fig. 41(d)). loss data and flow-angle data from such cascades
Rigorously coping with the loss distributions is are expected to be useless in the vicinity of the
not practical at the present time. An average hub and casing. Therefore, pertinent data must
flow condition behind the blade row is therefore preferably come from the blade row itself.
sought. Such an average is also required when This retarded flow in the hub and casing bound-
unsteady flows are prevalent, as discussed in the ary layers poses an important problem in design.
later section on Treatment of Time-Unsteady The nature of this problem may be studied from
Flows.
the following considerations.
The best way of averaging the flow conditions
The requirements of continuity may be ex-
behind a two-dimensional cascade is not estab-
pressed by the following equations:
lished at the present time. Discussions on this
point in reference 37 indicate that one method of
averaging is probably as good as another as long w--_2_rf_"'o,V,.,rldr,=2_-fr"_p2V,._r2dr_ (51)
Jrh,_ Jr^,2
as the trailing-edge boundary layers are thin and
the flow Mach numbers are subsonic. Since these where
conditions are satisfied at the design point of
many compressors, no case has yet been made for V'+V_'+V"_-_ -_ (52)
P
P=g-RT ( 1 3'--1
2.), = gRT_ =]
a particular method of averaging.
Hub and easing boundary layers in compressor
blade rows.--The hub and casing boundary layers This expression is derived from equations (31),
are indicated by the shaded areas of figure 42(a). (33), and (34). The various flow quantities here
The corresponding radial distributions of the must be the circumferentially averaged values
circumferentially averaged total pressure ahead of ahead of and behind a blade row. For the flow
and behind a blade row are shown in figure 42(b). behind a blade row, _ equations (51) and (52) may
Between a_ and b_ of this figure the total pressure be combined to read
at the inlet is practically constant. Beyond these
lines, it drops rapidly. The distance from the ,, I'". 2 P2V,.
W=_" I
hub to al (fig. 42(b)) is indicative of the boundary-
J,h,2 gI_I_
layer thickness at the hub of the inlet. The 1
distance from the casing to bl (fig. 42(b)) indicates _,-1 V_,.2+V_._+Vo.2 r_ dr2 (53)
the boundary-layer thickness at the casing. Simi- 1 2_ gRT,
larly, the lines a2 and b2 represent the extent of
the boundary layer at the outlet. The boundary If the circunfferentially averaged flow properties
layer is also indicated by the distribution of cir- were known as a function of radius between the
cumferentially averaged axial velocity at the inlet hub and casing, it would be a simple matter to use
and outlet of a row of blades (fig. 42(c)). equation (53) to relate the hub and tip radii to
Reference to figure 42(b) shows that the cir- the mass flow. Unfortunately, computing the
cumferentially averaged losses between a,-b_ and extent of the boundary layer and the distribution
a2-b2 can be small. (The difference between inlet of flow within it remains an unsolved problem
and outlet total pressure is a measure of the loss.)
except for extremely simple flow situations.
Within this area the flow properties might be
Therefore, methods of making reasonable allow-
considered to be a function of the two-dimensional
ances for it have been sought.
cascade, where the circumferentially averaged
losses are usually quite small. In these cases, When the circumferentiaUy averaged flow
little error in the state of this main flow is intro- between a-a and b-b of figure 42 is known,
Casing boundary layer ,,
rt,
l_St,L_!__lli]!ii!!iiiii!iiii;iliiii!iil
i_!!!i_i!i!i!iii_i!i_i_i_!_i_i_i_i_i_i_i_i_i_i_?_!_!!._ii_i_!i?;_i_]iii_i_i!i_i_!_!!i!ii._..
..... ....:.:: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

"" " :::_ ':::::':'""'"' \ y Ioyer
_H _r
rhl
(a)
Hub Cosine Hub Casing
,,_ _ h, 2 -_,,-- _"_ 81,2-'

-_t,2-"
/e- X
//
\
#
\!
f!
!
>. !
0
I'--
-- Inlet
.... Oullet 0I o2 b2 bj
(b) c)
Radius Radius
(a) Sketch of boundary layers.

(b) Total-pressure distribution. (c) Velocity distribution.
Fieua_ 42.--Boundary layers at hub and easing.

equation (53) may be written as fully developed pipe flow, this method of
accounting for viscous effects may leave something
, f" (r,._-_,,2)P2V_. 2 to be desired. It should also be noted, moreover,
W:zTr /
J<r^, 2+8h. :) g/_J2 that, when the boundary layers are relatively
I
thick, a consistent system of handling the
1- 3'--1 _.2-_v,.2T e.2_ dr_ boundary layers is especially imperative. Serious
I72 11"72 _V 2 \7--1
errors can result, for example, if one system is
used to estimate P2 and another to select the
+[r<'h,2+_h,2' P,V_,_
L-,, "n,2 gR I'2 correction factor Kbe.
1
In addition to complicating the continuity
i. "y--I _.2-c ,. .2 r2 dr2 relation, the existence of wall boundary layers
2_ gRT2 could make the determination of average total
pressure and total temperature difficult,. It may
+ f',, 2 P2V_, 2
.s (,,,2-_,,2) gRT2 be noted that the total pressures and total
1
temperatures of the boundary layers may
T--1 Vz,2m r,21 a_2 appreciably differ from those in the main stream.
( 1 23" I12 _V2
9RT2 _r2 ) 7-I r2 dr_ ]
The problem of correctly averaging the total
pressure and total temperature thus arises. A
The first integral is readily evaluated from data. technique similar to that just discussed for
The last two integrals, within the brackets, continuity suggests itself. Correction factors,
represent the relatively small mass flow through when they are required, could be applied to the
the space-consuming boundary layers. For lack main flow to estimate the mass-averaged quanti-
of a better way of coping with these two integrals, ties. These correction factors are again functions
they have usually been assumed to be adequately of the blade design, the inlet flow, and the posi-
handled by the factor K_k in the equation tion of the blade row in the compressor.
Loading limits.--Any flow device using a diffu-
1" rt, 2 P2Vz 2
sion process will have a limiting diffusion at which
1
the flow breaks down. This flow breakdown, or
separation, can be directly attributed to the
7--1 v_, 2-r- r.2-l-V#,2_
r2 dr2 (53a)
1 23' 12"2 IV2 _-7_ 13172 ]N7--1 boundary layers; they do not have enough
momentum to overcome the adverse static-pressure
where the blockage factor Kbk is a function of the gradient accompanying the diffusion. In the
design of the blade row, the inlet flow, and the usual compressor design, the velocity diffusion
position of the blade row in the compressor. required on the blade surface increases as the
The quantities P_, V_.2, V,.2, and Ve.2 are taken ideal turning in a blade row increases. The
as those in the main flow. However, an estimated intensity of this diffusion is frequently taken as a
average value of total pressure over the entire measure of the t)lade loading. The condition at
flow passage (including the boundary layer) might which serious flow separation begins to occur is
also be used; in this case a different value of Kbk therefore called the loading limit.
would be necessary. The details determining the loading limit are
As long as the boundary layers are really thin, still imperfectly understood. This statement is
one technique is probably as good as another. true even for relatively simple flow devices, and
If the boundary-layer correction itself amounts to this situation is therefore not uniquely familiar to
1 or 2 percent, a 20-percent error in the correction compressors. One of the important variables
amounts to only 0.2 or 0.4 percent in the estimate involved seems to be the ratio of the required
for a single blade row. Notice, however, that static-pressure rise to an appropriate velocity
the compounding effects in a multistage compressor pressure (refs. 9 and 38). The shape of the blades,
might make even this error excessive. When the inlet flow conditions, and the required down-
the boundary layers become thick, greater stream flow conditions are thus expected to be
accuracy is needed. When the flow resembles involved in the loading limit. It should be noted
that the previously discussed radial shifts in the system that is also stationary. Similarly, a co-
streamlines also influence the diffusion; this effect ordinate system moving at rotor speed must be
is particularly noteworthy for non-free-vortex used for the rotor. From a purely theoretical
distributions and at Mach numbers in the neigh- point of view, the flow through a rotor is there-
borhood of 1.00, where slight changes in stream- fore always unsteady with respect to uniform flow
tube distribution can cause large changes in in a stator, and vice versa.
velocity distribution. Some important differences Moreover, time-steady circumferential varia-
between the loading limits of blade rows and those tions in the flow ahead of or behind a rotor cause
of corresponding two-dimensional cascades may the flow in the preceding or following stator to be
therefore be anticipated. Since the demands of time-unsteady irrespective of tim coordinate sys-
aircraft encourage the use of compressors with tem used. Similarly, tinIe-steady circunlferential
highly loaded blades (ch. II), at least some loading- variations with respect to the rotor induce inevita-
limit information is a vital necessity. Experi- ble time-unsteady flows in the preceding and
ments on actual blade rows are again the only succeeding stators. It may also be noted that
positive source of data. time-unsteady flows are also inevitable when either
Experimental data required.--There are a num- rotating stall (eh. XI) or surge (ch. XII) occurs.
ber of questions relating to viscosity that can only Circumferential variations in the flow behind a
be answered by experiment. The losses and load- blade row, and thus unsteady flows in the following
ing limits of two-dimensional cascades over a blade row, are encountered even when the flow is
range of blade shapes and inlet flow conditions completely inviscid. Some circumferential gra-
are of interest. Data for various blade rows and
dients in the flow persist for some distance up-
inlet flow conditions in the actual compressor are stream and downstream of even an ideal t,-o-
required to evaluate the usefulness of the loss and dimensional cascade. Similar circumferential
loading-limit data obtained from two-dimensional gradients are associated with the types of flow
cascades. Data are also required to establish the presented in figure 38(c).
effect of staging on the losses suffered and the
Additional circumferential gradients are brought
loading limits.
about by the blade wakes (fig. 41). These gra-
Data are required for the performance of the
dients are made even more complicated by the
hub and tip sections of the blades as well as for
fact that a fluctuating pressure fieht ahead of a
those in the main flow regions. Because of the
blade row periodically changes the character of
increase(| viscous effects in the wall regions, the
the wakes leaving the previous blade row. As a
turning-angle data, loss data, and loading-llmit
result of all these phenomena, both the rotor and
data can be quite different from those obtained
stator are beset by complex unsteady flows.
under ideal two-dimensional-flow conditions.
Notice that any two adjacent blade rows, one
Some examples of the studies required are given rotating and the other stationary, experience the
in the section of this chapter devoted to experi- same sort of disturbances.
mental data. Representative turning-angle, loss,
Because of these time-unsteady components of
and loading-limit data are first presented for two-
the flow, average values of flow properties leaving
dimensional cascades. The trends of these vari-
one blade row have been used to represent the
ables in various compressor blade rows and under
inlet flow to the next blade row. In this way, the
various conditions are then noted. The relative
unsteady-flow problem is rather arbitrarily re-
thicknesses of the hub and tip boundary layers
duced to a steady-flow problem. As discussed in
are discussed.
chapter XIV, some theoretical considerations
TREATMENT OF TIME-UNSTEADY FLOWS indicate that additiomd time-unsteady effects may
Time-unsteady flows must exist in a compressor, be of importance. How vital these effects are
because both stationary and rotating blade rows must eventually be determined by experimental
are used. Even for ideal/tow conditions, as pre- data.
viously noted, the flow in a stator can be steady The validity of this treatment of unsteady flow
only when the motion is referred to a coordinate can also be judged by experimental data. Corn-
paring the performance of isolated blade rows with for indicating important missing gaps in available
those subjected to unsteady flows provides the knowledge.
basis for this evaluation. This problem is con- For each experiment, the turning-angle data are
sidered in the discussion of experimental data presented and the loss or efficiency data are noted.
presented in the following section. Flow conditions in the main flow are discussed.
The influence of the hub and tip boundary layers
REPRESENTATIVE EXPERIMENTAL DATA
are also noted. Comments are made about the
SUPPORTING DESIGN CONCEPTS
indicated effects of radial flows and unsteady
Many of the questions that have been raised flows. The significant knowledge derived from
about the simplified flow concepts in the previous these classes of experiments is then summarized
section have been answered by the published by outlining a model of the flow that can be used
results of a large number of experiments and for design.
analyses. Some representative examples of these TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES
experiments and the indicated conclusions are Aerodynamic behavior.--Five quantities deter-
presented in this section. Through this review, a mine the aerodynamic behavior of a cascade with
qualitative picture of the flow is established that ideal flow. One of these is the shape of the blades,
becomes the basis of a design system. Moreover, which is usually expressed in terms of the distri-
the results presented indicate the classes of as- bution of thickness and camber. Another quan-
sumptions and calculation techniques that may be tity is the orientation of the blades with respect to
used with a reasonable degree of confidence. The the cascade axis; this orientation may be defined
areas where design information must be tempered by the blade-chord angle .yo (fig. 32). The third
by intuition and judgment are also spotlighted. quantity is the solidity (a----c/s), although the
Before presenting the data on actual compres- pitch-chord ratio, the reciprocal of this number, is
sor blade rows, attention is first focused on the sometimes used. With these three quantities,
aerodynamic properties of tile two-dimensional the geometry of the cascade of blades is defined.
cascade, since this type of reference data is the The fourth quantity identifies the direction of the
basis for many of tile deveh)ped procedures. flow ahead of the cascade. The relative inlet-air
Typical data from inlet guide vanes are then re- angle f_'_ is frequently used for this purpose.
viewed. For inlet guide vanes with free-vortex Finally, the relative Mach number of the flow at
flow distribution, the assumption of no radial some point must he known. This quantity is
flow is examined under conditions where the radial also usually referred to the relative inlet flow.
flows and viscous effects may be reduced as much Theoretically speaking, all details of the flow of an
as possible and the unsteady-flow effects are coln- ideal inviscid fluid can be determined from these
pletely eliminated. The effects of changes in data.
radial density gradients, of blade thickness dis- For real flows, the factors involving friction are
tribution, of blade force, and of the hub slopes are also pertinent. The Reynolds number of the rela-
noted. Radial flows resulting from non-free- tive flow thus becomes an important item. The
vortex flow distributions are then examined.
Reynolds number is usually based on the properties
Representative data obtained from rotating of the inlet flow, using the chord length as the
blades are also reviewed. The effects of blade
characteristic dimension. The factors involved
rotation, over and above the effects considered for
are the turbulence of the incoming flow and the
inlet guide vanes, are thus evaluated. Some
condition of the airfoil surfaces (see chs. V and VI).
effects of uns_ady flows and the mixing of wakes
Because of the complicating effects of friction, the
are noted from the results of tests of both stationary
nmst reliable cascade data are derived from experi-
and rotating blades.
Several significant results obtained from ex- ment rather than analysis.
periments on multistage compressors are next Types of experimental data observed.--One of
reviewed. These data indicate the validity of the the most important pieces of cascade data required
simplified flow concepts under adverse, but is the deflection of the flow (/_--f_2), since deflecting
typical, conditions. They also provide a basis the flow is the main purpose of the cascade. A1-
though analytical techniques have been developed O8
and are occasionally used for determining this

deflection (ch. IV), the greatest amount of data is
obtained by experiment. A typical sample of the
experimental data is shown in figure 43, which was
obtained from reference 39. These data were ob-
tained for fixed values of blade shape, solidity, and
inlet-air angle. The blade angle was varied, the
magnitude of the variation being described by the
angle of attack _=3,--_ . The deflection, or turn-
ing angle, is measured by the angle Aft-=-#,--#2.
The losses incurred by the cascade may be de-
scribed in a variety of ways. In reference 39 the
loss is measured by a drag coefficient; an average
total-pressure loss or an average entropy increase
could also have been used. (Notice that the drag
coefficient is independent of the position of the
downstream measurement and that no averaging 28
techniques are required. The total-pressure loss /
/
and the increase in entropy, however, depend on 24
the axial position of the measurements, the Mach
number of the flow, and the method of averaging.) 20
Of particular importance are the regions where the
/
<_ /
loss rises rapidly; the rapid rise in loss and the
accompanying droop in the turning-angle curve
/
ol2
J
indicate the point of flow separation or the loading
limit of the cascade. For the particular family of r
C
/ t
blade shapes discussed in reference 39, it has been I

possible to correlate the loading limit by the follow-
ing equation, developed in reference 9:
O_ 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
D=(1--V_)-_ 2av,AVe (54)
Angle of attack, u, deg
All the blades reached their loading limit at a value FmURE 43.--Drag and turning-angle distribution for
of D of approximately 0.6. This equation is simply cascade combination. Blade section, NACA 65-(12)10;
inlet-air angle, 45; solidity, 1.0 (ref. 39).
an empirical means of estimating
Downstream static pressure--Minimum static pressure on blade surfaces

(55)
Maximum velocity pressure on blade surface
Since it was derived for one family of blades, it is of a typical experimental measurement in a two-
not expected to be univerally applicable. It dimensional cascade are shown in figure 44. The
does, nevertheless, provide an indication of the velocity distribution presented corresponds to the
loading limit as good as or better than many other operating condition indicated by point h in figure
recommended empirical rules. A more funda- 43. These data are valuable for interpreting
mental approach would utilize equation (55) with over-all results, since comparing these data with
the actual velocity and pressure data (see ref. 38). similar measurements in a compressor blade row
Other details of the flow within a blade row may provides a means of comparing the internal flows.
also be partially examined by studying the velocity The data described thus far were obtained at
distribution about a cascade element. The results low inlet Mach numbers, the operating condition
72 AERODYNAiMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COI_YPRESSORS
14 two-dimensional cascade can then be used as an

important source of design turning-angle data.
INLET GUIDE VANES
12
Tests of inlet guide vanes alone have been
o
invaluable for studying and developing flow con-
cepts and theory. In the laboratory setup, the
E
flow ahead of inlet guide vanes has no tangential
component of velocity, so that the inlet guide vanes
have the function of creating a preconceived dis-
tribution of tangential velocity. When tested
o alone, the inlet guide vanes are exposed to essen-
> 6 tially time-steady flow; therefore, time-unsteady-
flow effects are eliminated. Moreover, the flow
velocity behind the guide vanes is usually greater
4 than that in front; thus, many adverse effects of
0 20 40 60
viscosity arising from unfavorable pressure gradi-
Percent chord
ents are avoided. Inlet guide vanes, therefore,
FIGURE 44.--Blade surface velocity distribution for provide an excellent vehicle for studying the effects
cascade combination. Blade section, NACA 65-(12) 10; of radial flows brought about by the changes in
inlet-air angle, 45; solidity, 1.0 (ref. 39). radial density gradients through a blade row, by
the radial distributions of blade thickness, by the
for most published cascade data. Increasing the radial components of blade force, by the slope of
inlet Mach number in two-dimensional-cascade the hub or casing, and by nonvortex distributions
rigs has the effect shown in figure 45, which was of tangential velocity.
obtained from data of reference 40. As the Mach A typical setup used to conduct flow investiga-
number increases, the range of angle of attack tions is schematically shown in figure 47. Meas-
decreases. When the Mach number becomes high urements are made ahead of and behind the blade
enough, the cascade is choked and the flow deterio- row to determine the velocities and state properties
rates to such an extent that the cascade is com- of the air at these two stations. Sufficient data are
pletely ineffective. The behavior of the flow at taken behind the blade row to determine the
high Mach numbers is shown by the schlieren
radial gradients of the circumferentially averaged
photographs of figure 46, which is taken from
reference 41. The strong shocks that have
developed cause the boundary layer to separate
at all angles of attack. This type of data indicates
an interrelation between loading limit and flow
Mach number. I
These results represent the principal knowledge
obtained from numerous tests of two-dimensional
cascades. As previously noted, the turning-angle
data obtained are of primary interest. When the
observed turning angle in an actual blade row
15 2O
agrees with that observed in two-dimensional
cascades, credence may be given to the simple
equations obtained by ignoring radial flows in that FIGURE 45.--Efl'ect of inlet Mach number on loss charac-
type of blade row. The relatively inexpensive teristics of cascade blade scctions (ref. 40).
COMPRESSOR DESIGN SYSTEM: 73
Much number, 070 Mach number, 0.75
Mach number, 0.82 Mach number, 088
Much number, 0.95 Mach number, 0.95
FIGURE 46.--Schlieren photographs for a range of .-_Iaeh number.
properties of the main flow. Ahead of the blade of entropy and the tangential component of
row, precautions are taken to ensure a uniform vorticity are not zero. Care is taken, however,
distribution of the flow. Complete uniformity to make these boundary layers as thin as possible.
cannot, of course, be achieved in the hub and Free-vortex flow.--A representative result of all
casing boundary layers, where the radial variation investigation with free-vortex blades is shown in
numbers were therefore not extremely sensitive

k Downstream to small changes in the area of the stream tubes.
Upstream meosur- measuring At Mach numbers nearer 1.0, a small change in
_. ing slalions stations
stream-tube area accompanying radial flows may
give different results.
The loss data reported in reference 42 show
that the average losses in total pressure were small.
iN" This
data.
trend agrees with two-dimensional-cascade
In the hub and casing boundary layers,
the losses increase; and eventually, of course, all
the dynamic pressure is lost at the hub and casing
surfaces. The main thing to notice with respect
to losses is that radial flows themselves do not
necessarily create large additional losses. The
FIGURE 47.--Schematic diagram of an inlet-guide-vane
important losses, when the blades are operated
test rig.
within their loading limits, appear near the hub
or casing. Probably the most important effect of
these losses is the fact that they occupy space
figure 48, which was obtained from reference 42.
without transporting much mass. The correction
(The experimental setup was essentially the same
K0k in equation (53a) is thus an important quantity
as that shown in fig. 47.) In figure 48, the ob-
that depends on loss data. Therefore, two-
served turning angle of the cascade elements of
dimensional-cascade loss data do not tell the whole
the blade row is compared with the turning angle
story; data from actual blade rows are required to
that the same cascade elements would have in a
complete the loss picture.
two-dimensional cascade. As indicated in this
Non-free-vortex flow.--Several investigations
figure, the observed turning was substantially
have been made with inlet guide vanes designed to
the same as that of the corresponding two-
establish the type of flow described by equation
dimensional cascade. The order of magnitude of
(50). Except for the type of velocity distribution
the radial flows in this blade row is just about the
created, these blade rows are physically similar to
same as that in many conventional compressors
many of the free-vortex blades that have been
having free-vortex subsonic blade rows. There
tested. Studies of the non-free-vortex blade rows,
are strong indications, therefore, that the radial
therefore, provide a means of studying the effects
flows themselves have relatively minor effects, if
of radial flows resulting from the radial gradients
any, on the turning angle at subsonic Mach
in circulation.
numbers. Some discrepancies are noted in the
In figure 49 are shown representative data from
vicinity of the blade ends. Those differences
within the boundary layers are not unexpected,
but the observed boundary layers were thin enough
for these variations to be disregarded. The cir-
culation gradients, or vorticity, within the bound-
ary layer do, however, induce some deviations in
the main flow. As shown in reference 43, these
deviations are sometimes significant; however, t ,
they can be accurately treated by the technique
reported therein. Design, based on two-dimensional-
cascade data
The radial distribution of circumferentially 0 Measured
averaged flow was also studied in reference 42. 1 ; i L i J 1
6 7 8 9
In general, the flow was fairly accurately described
Radius, in.
by equation (48a). An important point to note,
however, is that the flow Mach numbers were not FIGURE 48.--Comparison of measured and design turning
very close to 1.0, and the values of the local Mach angles for free-vortex guide vanes (ref. 42).
COMPRESSOR
DESIGN
SYSTEM 75
28_ r T T T 1 as the tests of inlet guide vanes--to study the net

5 | - - Guide vanes / effects of radial flows. In addition, the effects of
o, [- .... Design !
rotation that are not accounted for in shnplified
T *
theories are investigated. Tests of inlet guide
vanes and rotors examine the effects of unsteady
flow and other phenomena for interferences be-
co :>
o
20
tween rotating and s_ationary blade rows that are
otherwise neglected. Tests of a complete stage
add the effects of another blade row.
88 92 96 IO0
A representative schematic layout for testing a
Radius raho r/Q
complete stage is shown in figure 50. As with the
FIC, L'RE 4(.}.--Comparison of measured and designt urning
inlet-guide-vane investigations, care is exercised to
angles for non-free-vortex guide vanes (ref. 44).
have thin hub and casing boundary layers at the
a test of inlet guide vanes designed for wheel-type inlet. Circumferentially uniform flow without dis-
rotation (F=0 in eq. (50)). These data are taken tortion at the inlet of the first blade row is also
from reference 44. The average flow angles at. the sought. Enough measurements are taken up-
exit of the inlet guide vanes agree fairly well with stream and downstream of each blade row to ob-
those obtained from two-dimensional-cascade contain an accurate picture of the behavior of the
siderations. The effect, of radial flows themselves cascade elements at several radii. These data also
is again quite small, if there is any effect at all. enable the radial distribution of flow to be com-
The other effect of circulation gradients, as re- pared with that indicated by simple theory.
ported in reference 43, cannot be completely Free-vortex rotor blade rows.--A representative
ignored, however; and the correction techniques
investigation of a free-vortex rotor with axial in-
developed in this reference are frequently neces-
flow is presented in reference 45. The observed
sary for refining the analysis. But., when the
turning-angle data are compared with those of the
radial gradient of tangential velocity is correctly
established, the radial distribution of through flow corresponding two-dimensional cascades in figure
usually agrees with the distribution expressed by 51 for three radial positions: (a) near the tip,
equation (49a) (with radial flows ignored). The
finite values of both _'_ and _'e required for axisym-
metric flow are apparently suitable; the compli-
I I
cating flows shown in figure 38(c) seem to have I _ Measuring
I stations
little effect on the radial distribution of the ! I
I
circumferentially averaged flow.
The loss data available are similar to those
obtained with free-vortex blade rows. Almost
negligibly small losses are impressed on the main
flow. The important losses again appear at the Depression tank
blade ends. Even here, the losses themselves are
not as serious as their blockage effects are. The
important loss information to be obtained is that
required to evaluate Kbk in equation (53a) (or
some similar function).
ROTORS AND SINGLE-STAGE COMPRESSORS
1 ' Stator blades
A large number of investigations have been
_; - Rotor blades
made with rotors alone, rotors with inlet guide
_- Guide vanes
vanes, and complete stages formed from inlet
guide vanes, rotors, and downstream stators.
Tests of rotors alone have many of the same aims FIC_URE 50.--Schematic layout of compressor stage.
76 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OFAXIAL-FLOW
COMPRESSORS
:_sCc_ I
!! I
,oil ]_ i:o,j
16 18 6 8 I0 12 14 16 i8 20 I0 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Angle of oltock a, deg
(a) Near rotor tip. (b) At midspan. (c) Near rotor hub.
FmvaE 51.---Compressor rotor and cascade turning angles (ref. 45).
(b) at the center of the span, and (c) near the hub. lent, except for some irregularity of the cascade
As shown in figure 51(a), the observed turning at curves between the 40- and 80-percent-chord
the tip is slightly higher than that of the corre- points on the upper surface. The irregularities,
sponding two-dimensional cascade. The rate of however, are attributed to laminar separation
change of turning with angle of attack is about the (see ch. V), which may have occurred during the
same for both, however. At midspan (fig. 51(b)), cascade tests but which did not occur during the
the agreement in turning angle is good at low rotor blade tests. The agreement near the tip is
angles of attack. With high angles of attack, the not quite so good, but there apparently are no
turning through the rotor is greater than that pronounced effects of radial flows in the main
indicated by two-dimensional-cascade data. Tile stream.
faired turning-angle curve for the data at the These and other similar data indicate that the
rotor hub (fig. 51(c)) has a steeper slope than the flow around the blade elements of a rotating row
corresponding cascade curve. In this respect, is reasonably the same as that in the two-dimen-
the flow about the blade near the hub is compa- sional-cascade counterpart, except at the blade
rable to ideal two-dimensional flow. Apparently ends. In the main flow, the anticipated enthalpy
this section can operate at much higher angles rise is realized as long as flow separation is avoided.
of attack than cascade data would indicate. In the boundary layer at the tip, however, the
In the vicinity of the design angle of attack of the energy added by the rotor is usually higher than
cascade, the difference in turning is small. that anticipated from two-dimensional-cascade
In this particular investigation, the pressure data. The total-temperature distribution indi-
distribution about the blades was also measured at cated in figure 53 is fairly representative. There
the same time. These data arc compared with is always some scattering in the rotor data, which
those of the corresponding cascade in figure 52. inight be attributed t,o radial and time-unsteady
At the hub and midspan, the agreement is excel- flows as well as to instrument errors. The higher
(a) (b) (c)
c
1.4
1.0
l;
/
\ x
\ r
/
_9
.4 z
I
,\
z A_
.... Cascade IO 16.9
-- Rotor 1.0,5 177
I
0 20 40 60 80 I00 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 I00
Percent chord
(a) Near rotor tip. Angle of attack, 12.2 .

(b) At midspan. Angle of attack, 14.1; solidity, 1.183. (c) Near rotor hub. Angle of attack, 15.3; solidity, 1.355.
FIGURE 52.--Compressor rotor and cascade pressure distributions. Relative inlet-air angle, 60 .
energy addition at the blade ends may be ex-

pressed in terms of a higher turning angle; how-
ever, a gross correction for the higher temperature
rise is probably just as good as any other at the
present time.
As was the case with inlet guide vanes, the

rotor loss or efficiency is not always comparable __
with that of the corresponding two-dimensional -6
cascade. A typical radial distribution of coin-
pressor rotor blade-element efficiency is shown in
figure 53. Losses increase rapidly near the casing,
and the loading limit frequently appears at lower
values of D (eq. (54)) than suggested by two-
dimensional-cascade data. It must be empha-
sized, however, that the changes in the absolute
total pressure do not follow a simple trend. They
depend on the relative magnitudes of the tem-
perature rise as well as the loss in relative total _-
pressure (see eqs. (41) and (42)).
The problem of accurately correlating the net
effects of the flows in the hub and casing boundary
layers is still somewhat confused. As proposed
in the previous section on Analysis of Viscosity
Problem, the space-consuming properties of the
boundary layer can frequently be correlated by Root Tip
Radius
factor Kbk in equation (53a). In using this factor,
a fictitious mass flow for ideal flow conditions is FIGURE 53.--l{adial distribution of total temperature and
computed or assumed and the result is multiplied efficiency through compressor rotor.
78 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OFAXIAL-FLOW
COMPRESSORS
Station
cI
Inlet guide vane Rotor V_ew of inlet guide vanes

looking upstream
FIGURE 54.--Schematic layout for tests of inlet guide vanes and rotor (ref. 44).
by Kbk to obtain the true mass flow. Similarly, arrangement of the inlet guide vanes and rotor
the ideal temperature rise and total pressure could reported in reference 44 is shown in figure 54.
be estimated by analyzing the ideal flow and The large pitch of the inlet guide vanes suggests
then multiplying the result by an empirical cor- that the warping of the flow surfaces (fig. 40(b))
rection factor. Satisfactory answers to these must be more than negligible. Notice also that
problems are still to be found. Except for their the gap between the inlet guide vanes and the
effects on blockage, the variatioas in total tem- rotor is small. It is doubtful whether complete
perature and pressure at the blade tips are usually readjustment of the flow (that ideally occurring
either ignored or are treated together as part of at an infinite distance downstream of the vanes)
the over-aU efficiency. could have taken place at the rotor inlet. The
Investigations of the type just described have radial distribution of flow at the rotor inlet might
been extended to rotors with inlet guide vanes and be in question, and severe time-unsteady flows
to complete single stages. The results of these might be anticipated.
investigations are comparable with those indicated As previously noted, the average flow angle at
previously. As far as could be determined, the the exit of the inlet guide vanes alone agreed fairly
unsteady flows introduced by the alternate sta- well with that anticipated from two-dimensional
tionary and rotating blade rows had little effect blade-element considerations (fig. 55). The pres-
on the turning angle of the blade row; the turning ence of the rotor may have had some additional
over a large part of the annulus was primarily influence on the flow angle, and some of this
decided by the corresponding two-dimensional- discrepancy might be attributed to time-unsteady
cascade variables. Moreover, the losses were flow. The major cause of the differences, how-
not drastically increased by unsteady flows in ever, is believed to be minor changes in the average
the normal operating conditions. radial distribution of flow due to the presence
Non-free-vortex blade rows.--An investigation of the rotor. Even this effect is not excessive,
was conducted on a setup consisting of inlet guide however. Therefore, it has generally been ignored
vanes and a rotor to study the effect of circulation in practice, and equation (48a), obtained by
gradients on the performance of a rotor and stator. ignoring radial flows, is usually quite accurate for
The inlet guide vanes, the performance of which this type of design.
is presented in reference 44 and in figure 49, were The average turning through the rotor (fig. 56)
designed to established a solid-body type of rota- was observed at the five radial positions indicated
tion (o_a_0, F_-----0in eq. (50)). No change in in figure 54. At radial position a, the observed
_,,, was then required of the rotor; instead, the turning was slightly higher than that of the
value of F was increased through the rotor. The corresponding two-dimensional cascade. At the
from two-dimensional-cascade data with sufficient

lip speed,
-o. %design accuracy to correlate actual blade-row data.
o I00 } With rotor; weighl flow Transonic blade rows.--Recent investigations
I _rrected rotor approximating design angle
_; 2s _ SOl of attack at mean radius on free-vortex rotors (see refs. 8 and 18, e.g.)
c n 60 !
o Without rotor J demonstrate the feasibility of obtaining high

> --- Design 1- efficiency from rotors in which tile Mach numbers
24
at the tips are as high as 1.35. The turning angle
of the blade elements at these higher Mach num-
o
bers cannot be compared with similar two-
-_ 2O dimensional-cascade data, because usable two-
(:3 dimensional cascades for transonic flows are yet
o to be developed. The compressor blade-element
LL
I data that have been obtained, however, seem to
.84 .88 .92 .96 1.00
lend themselves to tile same correlation techniques
Radius ratio, r/_
that have been developed for two-dimensional-
FIGURZ 55.--Radial variation of flow angle leaving inlet, cascade data (ch. VI). It may be inferred from
guide vanes with and without rotor (ref. 44). these data, for tile time being at least, that radial
flows themselves do not seriously affect the turn-
low angles of attack, the trends of the two curves ing angle in the main-flow regions of the blade
are similar. The flow at tile tip section of the rOW.
blade apparently separated at a slightly lower Studies of the radial distribution of the cir-
angle of attack than cascade data would indicate.
cumferentially averaged flow properties indicate
In this particular type of flow distribution, the that equation (48a) or (48b) is not entirely
static-pressure rise near the casing is higiier than adequate for the types of blade rows investigated.
that for the corresponding two-dimensional cas- Reliable solutions to this problem have not, yet
cade. If equation (55) is a criterion for the loading been found, but the treatment discussed in the
limit, this premature separation is expected. The last section of this chapter offers some promise.
rise in turning following the dip in the curve is not The loss picture is not different from that in
related at all to normal two-dimensional-cascade
subsonic blade rows, except that low losses are
performance.
obtained only over a very narrow range of inlet
At the other radial positions, the agreement is flow angles at high Mach numbers. The viscous-
surprisingly good. Moreover, tile trends observed flow regions near the hub and tip frequently have
are the same as those observed with free-vortex different total-pressure and total-temperature
flow. The hub regions appear to be capable of changes from those of the main flow. Their
operating at much higher angles of attack than principal effect is again that of blocking part of
the corresponding two-dimensional cascades. At the flow area. Whether the flow is subsonic or
those angles of attack where the data may be transonic is immaterial with regard to the factor
compared, the turning of the rotor is somewhat Kbk in equation (53a), if the loading linlits are not
lower than that of the two-dimensional cascade. exceeded. The loading limit of the blade row,
The similarity of these trends to those of rotors as indicated by the value of D, is about the same
alone suggests that the effect of unsteady flows is as that for conventional subsonic blade rows.
relatively trivial. The allowable values of D near the casing of the
The loss problem appears not to differ from that rotor appear to be lower than those elsewhere on
the blade row.
of the free-vortex designs. Only small losses are
imposed on the active flow. The problem intro- MULTISTAGECOMPRESSORS
duced by the boundary layers is principally that
A representative example of tile perfornmnce of
of boundary-layer blockage, although the different the 1)lade rows of _ multistage compressor is shown
total temperatures and pressures in the boundary in references 46 to 48. A schematic layout of this
layers introduce complications that confuse the unit is shown in figure 57. This compressor was
theory if not the flow. Losses cannot be predicted designed (see ref. 46) for finite values of both o_,_,
44 -
o Dolo
Two- dimensiono
coscooe
56
28
2O
28l 12
/
/
/
._ ,2L
c 441 ,
56
28 . _c(_
28 /
2O ' i 2O
]
8 16 24 32 8 16
Angle of oltock, e, deg
(a) Near casing.

(b) Between casing and mean radius. (d) Between mean radius and hub.
(c) At mean radius. (c) Near hub.
FIGURE 56.--Variation of turning angle across rotor bladcs with angh" of attack at design speed (ref. 44).
and r (eq. (50)). Strong ra(ti_d flows and time- similar [.o lhat in single stages, _md the results are
unsteady flows are thus expected to be prevalent, similar to those previously presented.
particuhtrly in the latter stages. Performance of fifth stage.--In spite of the fact
In reference 48 data for the l)erforJmmce of the that the hub aud casing boundary layers seem to
first, fifth, and tenth stages are presented. Only have ample oi)i)orlunily to tihi(!ken, the [low dis-
the fifth and tenth stages are discussed here, how- tribution enteriHg the fifth rotor at design speed
ever, since the flow entering the first stage is (see fig. 5.9) w_s almost that expected ['or ideal
,- Depression- lank
stohon
Discharge Diffuser
stalion station Collector
Bellmouth-
\
Compressor
Airfl
i
J
[ I
FIGURE 57.--Cross section of 10-stage axial-flow compressor, inlet bellmouth, and discharge collector (ref. 47).
flow, which was the basis for design computations. These results suggest that the turning angle of
The observed turning angles through the rotor are the main flow is not significantly affected by the
shown for several radial positions ill figure 59. wakes introduced by the upstream blade rows.
Near the tip, the turning-angle data suggest that The effect of the unsteady flows created in this
the blade is stalled; the loading limit is apparently compressor is apparently within the _wcuracy of
exceeded even though the angle of attack and the instrumentation.
value of D are within the limits of good two- Qualitative observations of the losses in the main
dimensional-cascade performance. At the next flow indicate that no unexpected developments
two radial positions, good agreement with cascade have occurred. The main point of concern is the
data is found. At the two lowest radii (closest to apparent premature stalling at the rotor blade tip.
the hub), the turning angle is somewhat below that As previously indicated, this phenomenon is fre-
obtained in two-dimensional cascades. These quently observed, and the loading limits near the
trends are similar to those presented in figures 51 extremities of a blade row are frequently much
and 56. different from those in the corresponding two-
The turning-angle data for the following stator dimensional cascades. An important point to
are presented in figure 60. The agreement with notice, however, is shown in figure 61. Because
cascade dat_ is fairly satisfactory, parlicularly of the poor flow created by the rotor, significant
near tim design angle of attack. The ti l) (outer entropy gradients were found in the entire flow
radius) of the stator appears to have a greater field behind the fifth stage. In other words, thick
range of useful operation than is indicated by two- hub _nd casing boundauF layers _ppeare(t. When
dimensiomfl-(._scade data. This Itch(I, whi('h is the observed entropy gradients were used in
opposite to that of rotors, is flfirly common for equation (48a), reasonably good correlation be-
stators. tween the observed and computed axial velocity
691-564 0-65--7
distribution was found. If the entropy gradients

were ignored,
the importance
however,
only poor but misleading.
the correlation
of recognizing
This experience
entropy
was not
shows
gradients
4 T:t!I I
when the boundary layers are thick. This point li: -- _ Meosured i I I I I I |
is elaborated in reference 49. .4 _ ] _ _ i I _ I i l
Performance of tenth rotor.--In contrast to the

flow conditions at the entrance to the fifth rotor, E
the flow ahead of the tenth rotor was quite differ- m" L- i
ent from design (fig. 62). The axial velocity is
lower than the design value at all radii. Instead
of being fairly uniform, as designe(1, tlte velocity
distribution is parabolic. The boundary layers
at the hub and casing resemble those of fully de-
IO
veloped pipe flow. The design values of absolute
flow angles f_l are realized near the center of the
passages; at the hub and casing they tend to be
high. The resulting relative angles of attack on
the rotor blades are higher than the design values
at all radii, the greatest angles occurring at the
hub.
76 .80 . .88 .92 .96 1.00
In spite of the difference between the design
Hub-tip radius ratio, rh If!
and observed inlet conditions, the observed turn-
ing angle at a given angle of attack (fig. 63) is FIGt:RE 5g.--Radial distribution of flow properties entering
surprisingly similar to the corresponding turning fifth rotor row of 10-stage compressor (rcf. 48).
angle of the two-dimensional cascade. The trend
is the same as that observed in investigations of make accurate designs, if this type of flow cannot
single blade rows and single stages. Tiffs result otherwise be avoided.
is consistent over a wide range of compressor tip
SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS
speeds and operating points at a given speed.
These and similar tests indicate that the turning The results of experiments like those presented
angle of a cascade element in a blade row is just show that many features of the flow can be corre-
about completely determined by the correspond- lated with the aid of a few simple concepts. As
ing two-dimensional-flow conditions. The one long as the loading limits are not exceeded, the
important qualification is that the cascade element flow tiirough a blade row may be divided into two
must not be stalled. Two-dimensional-cascade regions. ()ne of these regions is the main flow,
data are not always a reliable source of stalling where the viscous effects are comparatively small.
data, however. In the other region, the velocity gradients are steep
The poor flow distribution at the rotor inlet and the viscous effects are large.
caused the over-all losses to be rather high. How Main-flow region.--In the main-flow region, the
this flow can be estimated properly in design re- deflection of the flow at a given radius obeys about
mains an unanswered problem. Both intuition the same laws that govern the deflection in a two-
and judgment are still required to estimate the dimensional cascade having the same geometry
appropriate values of Kb_ and P in equation (53a). and inlet flow conditions. Two consistent dif-
The radial distribution of the flow is adequately ferences are noted, however: (1) At a given angle
described by equation (48a). All the terms must of attack the turning angle is usually slightly
be used in this equation, because the entbalpy and higher near the casing of a rotor than that of the
entropy gradients permeate the entire flow in- corresponding two-dimensional cascade. (2) Near
the hub of a rotor the rate of change of turning
stead of being confined to thin boundary layers.
Accurate estimates of the radial gradients in with angle of attack is greater than that of the
two-dimensional cascade.
enthalpy and entropy would thus be necessary to
24 I-
" i
i Data
[_ Two- dimensional
/ cascade
24
/ o
i
24 2O
0
i o
16
/
(d)
12
J
,2Lt (b)
i
28
/
m_
J
24 r
/ / V
/
/ [
/ 4 _Io / A
V
2O
i
/ El)
.4
z_
/
/
/
s / !i
/
/
(c) / (e) l
12
3 12 16 20 z4 8 12 16 20 24
Angle of attack, a, deg
(a) Near casing.

(c) Near mean radius. (e) Near hub.
FIGURE 59.--Variation of fifth-rotor turning angle with angle of attack at five radial positions (ref. 48).
-----
!1, Tw_,-dimensionol
2o 4- ! -
coscode
(c)
,6_/L _j i
32 28
z_
0o
A
28 24---
z_
20
_:_ 24
.<]
-'_zlj
J
o _TV
J '_', i
J
7-- 20 /
2 / !
16
28
-f
24 A i .....
J
J i
-- --4
A J
/ _t
20 20 ...... ,.,4:---
i
%7
/ :_v'a/ a
i
(b) /
(e) ]
1612 v 28 16 L 12 16 20 24
16 20 24
Angle of ottock, a, deg
(a) Near casing.

(c) Near mean radius. (e) Near hub.
FmuRE 60.--Variation of fifth-stator turning angles with angle of attack at five radial positions (ref. 48).
COMPRESSOR
DESIGN
SYSTEM 85
I.O
"ID
(D
o9
---o-- Measured O-
o
--a-- Calculated by eq.(48o) neglecting
__ .9 I observed entropy gradients I
---a-- Calculated Axial
by eqvelocity t
,_ (48a) including I
a_ observed entropy gradients
r: I I
I O I J
_.8 I K \
o
k. J
I I/
.7
<_
.4
k'
I I
.6
.80 .84 .88 .92 .96 1.00
Qo. .... Design
--o--Measured
/
_,30 I /
Hub-tip radius ratio, rh/r t c
o I /
FIGURE 6l.--Axial velocity distribution after fifth stage of /

10-stage compressor (from ref. 48).
_2os 'f\
In the previous discussion, the governing flow JD

<I0 I
has been assumed to be parallel to the axis of the
blade row. These and other data may also be
4O I
used to show that no accuracy is sacrificed when
the cascade
assumed
element
to lie along
and the governing
a conical surface
flow are
(fig. 64).
o !
d
This device is frequently useful when there is a _30 I
I
pronounced radial shift in the streamlines through
a blade row.
_62o i
The radial distribution of flow ahead of and o k
behind subsonic blade rows is quite accurately c
described by equation (49a), the form obtained by

neglecting radial flows. As long as the boundary
,% , .92 .94 .96 .98 1.00
layers are rather thin, the entropy-gradient term Hub-tip radius ratio, rh/f t
is ignored. When thicker boundary layers are FIGURE 62.--Radial distribution of flow properties entering
encountered, the entropy gradients must be rec- tenth rotor row of 10-stage compressor (ref. 48).
ognized. For some transonic blade rows, this
technique leaves something to be desired. In blade rows in similar flow environments should be
these cases, it is believed that techniques similar used. The losses would then also be a function
to those used in turbines and mixed-flow com- of the radial positions of the cascade element.
pressors may be useful. In these more erudite Of vital importance is the question of loading
analyses, only axial symmetry is assumed, and the limits and Mach number limits. Although the
radial-distribution problem is treated as part of diffusion factor of equation (54) is far from the
a two-dimensional-flow problem involving axial perfect criterion of blade loading, it does offer
and radial gradients. This point is discussed in some guide for selecting the deflection required of
more detail in the last section of this chapter. a blade row. When the static-pressure rise near
To a first approxhnation, the losses encountered the casing of a rotor is of the order of that of the
by the main flow may be ignored if the design is corresponding two-dimensional cascade, the limit-
not too critical. Recognition of the losses in the ing value of D for the rotor tip seems to be about
main flow, however, may be made by using two- 0.35. When the static-pressure rise is higher than
dimensional-cascade loss data. In order to obtain that for the corresponding two-dimensional flow,
greater accuracy, the losses measured from similar lower values of D seem to be necessary. The
28
24
2O
16--
Meridionml
Pro_ect_on cf
streamline
copJr:ol surfoce
12
t
b-----
32 I :I:
_'24 /
g 2o
FI(II;RE 64.--Sketch showing typical projection of stream-
E lines on meridional plane.
details is not yet a science, however; there have

12 [b)
been too few successful designs above the Much
number of 1.2 to clarify the problem. Up to the
Much number of 1.2, however, the design problem
does not appear to be much more complicated
than the problem of executing a subsonic design.
32 _ _ Data I
For design, then, the main flow at the inlet of a
blade row may be known or assumed. The main
flow downstream of the blade row may be stipu-
lated, if it can be prescribed within known loading
24 x -/
. _ limits, and if the distribution meets the require-
ments of equation (48) or its equivalent. Two-
20 >- --
C) : : i'/ ___,,__._.<_.i i'__-_ dimensional-cascade data or the equivalent may
._ then be used to select blades to obtain the required
16 ! ,o , ,
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 deflection of the main flow.
Angle of oltock, a, deg
Viscous-flow region,--Between the main flow
ta) Near casing. and the hub and between the main flow and the
(b) Near midspan. casing is the second flow region, where viscous
(c) Near hub. forces dominate the motion. The laws governing
FIGURE 63.--Variation of tenth-rotor turning angle with the movement of flow in this region are very
angle of attack at: three radial positions (ref. 48). imperfectly understood. Since the actual mass
flow in these regions is often small, the areas
selection, for the time being, must be left to the usually contribute little to the mass-averaged
judgment of the designer. If development time is enthalpy. Therefore, this effect is usually either
to be minimized, low values of D are to be favored, ignored or given partial recognition by the use of
even though the mmiber of |)lade rows may be gross correction factors. By the same token, the
increased. losses at the bla(|e ends offer only a small con-
Up to Mach numbers at. least as high as 1.35 tribution to the local mass-averaged loss. Signifi-
there appears to be no fundamental reason for cant additional losses may result from subsequent
prescribing a Mach number limit. As the design mixing, however. One important factor that can-
Mach number is increased, however, more and not be ignored is the space-consuming property of
more attention must be paid to the details of the these viscous-flow regions. This problem is dis-
flow. Defining and accounting for the important cussed in the section on Analysis of Viscosity
Problem, where the use of tile correction factor and the energy addition is higher than its design
Kbk is suggested. Methods of accurately estimat- value. (This trend of energy addition with turn-
ing K_k have not yet heen developed, however, ing angle is required by the relations expressed in
and frequently an educated guess is the best eqs. (39) to (40)). If the efficiency and the value
technique available. It is the lack of information of Kbk for this stage were correctly estimated, the
on this problem that has led to serious errors in total pressure of the leaving flow would be too high
estimating the flow in the latter stages of many and the axial velocity further reduced from its
compressors. This point is developed more fully design value. Repeating this trend of error from
in the following paragraphs. stage to stage eventually causes an important error
Accuracy of estimate of state of air. Many of in the estimated axial velocity to result from only
the difficulties encountered in development have a small error in estimating the blockage effects of
resulted from the fact that the flow towards the the hub and casing boundary layers. Of course,
rear of the compressor is different from that antici- the same kind of result is obtained if the efficiency
pated in design. A common experience has al- happens to be higher than the design value.
ready been mentioned in connection with figure A qualitative indication of these trends is shown
62. In this particular instance, the magnitude of in figure 65. The dashed lines of figure 65(a) rep-
the velocity is lower than the design value at all resent a design distribution of axial velocity and
radii. In other compressors, however, the oppo- efficiency through the blade rows. A typical trend
site behavior has been observed, the average veloc- of the observed values of these quantities is shown
ity being higher than its design value. The high by the solid lines. Because of tim lower-than-
angles of attack shown in figure 62 increase the
turning through the rotor; the enthalpy rise
Design
through the rotor is then increased, and the per- .---o--- Measured
formance of the following rotor blade row deterio-
rates. The difference between the design and ob-
served values of the average axial velocity is one
of the principal reasons for this result. The error
Axial velocity
in turning angle owing to different radial gradients
in flow properties ]nay have contributed to the _,,_ "-1 I
problem, but these effects are usually small (fig.

63) and in any event are masked by differences in
the average velocity. (a)
Errors in estimating the axial velocity can fre-
quently be attributed to small errors in estimating
the various terms in equation (53a). Suppose, for
example, that the effective thicknesses of the hub
and casing boundary layers after the first stage of
a compressor are smaller than those anticipated; _--------.._
,..._...._
that is, K_k is actually greater than the value used
in design. ]f the estimated increase in enthalpy
and total pressure in the main flow are otherwise Axial velocity h--------"
I'------'( --'---'-- I
accurately predicted, the axial velocity actually
obtained after the stage is lower than that antici-
pated (eq. (53a)). (Notice that the same result
would occur if Kbk were correctly predicted but the
(b)
efficiency of the blade row or the turning angle of
the cascade elements were underestimated in Axial station
design.)
(a) Case I.
The angle of attack on the blade elements of the 09 C,,sc II.
next rotor row is too high as a result of the low I,'l(_uR_.' 65. Axi'fl (listrihution of efficiency and axial
axial velocity. The turning angle is increased, velocity iil mult_i-stagc axial-tlow compressors.
_ AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOV_r COI_PRESSORS
estimated boundary-layer thicknesses or the The inability to estimate Kbk correctly is the
higher-than-estimated efficiencies obtained in the principal reason that most successful compressors
front stages of the compressor, the annular area have required at least some development. There
for these stages is greater than it should have been. is an urgent need for better design information on
If the flow ahead of the compressor were that de- these problems. The present difficulty is not due
signed, the axial velocity leaving the front stages to the fact that the problems trove not been recog-
would be too low. Towards the middle of the nized. Instead, the difficulty lies in obtaining the
compressor, the observed axial velocity would be required data. Multistage data are required be-
so much less than its design value that the angle cause efficiency and boundary-layer thickness are,
of attack on the blade rows would cause the stage among other thin_, functions of the axial posi-
efficiency to suffer and the boundary-layer block- tion, which, in turn, partially determines the dis-
age to increase. Flow separation might even tribution of flow ahead of a blade row. Actual
occur. The axial velocity thereafter would not measurement of the blockage in numerous com-
decrease as rapidly as before. It might still stay pressors is of little value, since the blockage ad-
lower ttlan the design value, however; and in any justs itself to the design anyway. The blockage
event the efficiency of the compressor always be- that is required for maximum efficiency, which is
comes low enough or the flow distribution dis- really the blockage desired, remains undetermined.
torted enough for the air to fill the passage made Systematic readjustments in the annular area or
for it. the blade setting of a number of compressors will
The opposite trend in axial velocity distribu- probably be required before correct estimates of
tion occurs when the efficiency is lower or the the minimum required blockage area (that for
boundary-layer thickness is greater than the de- highest blade-row efficiency) can be made. In
sign value. As indicated in figure 65(b), if the the meantime, some development effort must be
design mass flow were obtained, the axial velocity expended to exploit, the merits of a given design
leaving the first stage would then be too high. fully.
The subsequent energy rise and pressure ratio SYSTEM ADOPTED FOR DESIGN
would be too low, and the axial velocity would in- AND RESEARCH
crease with respect to its design value. The axial
velocity would eventually become so high that the The preceding discussions have presented the
angle of attack on the blade rows would be too low techniques that have been useful for describing
for efficient performance, and the efficiency would the important features of the three-dimensional
drop still further. In the extreme case, the veloc- time-unsteady motion of tim viscous fluid through
ity would become so high that the rear stages would an axial-flow compressor. They have also indi-
be choked. In this case the mass flow is limited, cated the general approaches that have been uti-
so that the axial velocity in the front stages may lized in compressor design. These design proce-
be reduced below that shown. dures simplify the three-dimensional aspect of the
As a matter of fact, experience indicates that, problem by considering the main flow to be de-
while the trends of figure 65 are observed, the flow scribed essentially by two-dimensional solutions
usually adjusts itself so that the middle stages in two principal planes, thus making the problem
operate at about the optimum angles of attack ; the mathematically tractable.
front stages deviate in one direction about as far First, the blade-element approach is used. That
as the rear stages do in the other. In this way the is, the flow in the blade-to-blade or circumferential
excessive losses due to high angles of attack at one plane is treated by considering flow about the
end of the compressor are about equal to those re- developed blade profiles formed by the intersection
sulting from low angles of attack at the other end. of flow surfaces of revolution and the compressor
It should be noted that an overestimated value blading (fig. 32). The performance of such a
of K6k in equation (53a) is just as bad as an under- blade element in the main flow is then described
estimated value. The same thing may be said by a circumferentially averaged value of (1) turn-
of the estimated blade-row turning and the total- ing and (2) loss; these data are obtained experi-
pressure loss or efficiency. mentally, preferably under conditions similar to
those existing ill the compressor. Thus, effects cal and tested three-dimensional design procedure
such as those arising from viscosity, time-unsteady is yet available.
flow, and blade-row interactions are accounted for In practice, the design system can be considered
in a gross manner. Losses may be treated as to consist of three principal phases:
functions of cascade geometry of the [)lade ele- (1) Design-point solution in the meridional
ment, inlet Mach number, diffusion factor, radial plane: As previously indicated, this phase of the
position of the blade clement, and axial position problem is based on the assumption of axial
of the blade row. Turning may be treated as a symmetry. The problem is reduced to a two-
function of cascade geometry, loss, Mach number, dimensional system, in which only radial and
and radial position of the blade element. On the axial variations are considered, by assuming cir-
basis of available experimental data, limits are cumferential averages to represent the flow at all
suggested for certain critical design parameters points along the meridional-plane streamline. In
such as Mach number and blade loading. nlany cases, the problem may be further reduced
Secondly, under the assumption of axial sym- by ignoring the axial gradients as well. Equa-
metry, the average quantities in the blade-to-blade tions describing radial variations of these average
plane are used to describe the distribution of the values are written to account for equilibrium,
flow in tile hub-to-casing or meridional plane (fig. continuity, and energy addition. For a given
64). Equations representing the radial variation flow distribution ahead of a blade row, a quantity
of this average state of the air are written for like the radial distribution of tangential velocity
continuity, energy addition, and radial equilib- may be selected. Another quantity such as the
rium. In this system, certain difficulties are cre- axial velocity at the casing (required for a certain
ated by the hub and casing boundary layers. It loading limit) may also be selected. The radial
is eventually hoped that reliable estimates of the disiril)ution of the axial component of velocity
state of the air can t)e made at all radial positions, may then be calculated. Velocity diagrams (fig.
even within the wall boundary layers. For the 66) may be then constructed at each of several
present, however, the lneridional-plane analysis is radii to depict the air velocities and flow angles at
based on the main-flow region (A_-B1 of fig. 42), tile entrance and discharge of each blade row.
and tile effects of wall boundary layers are ac- The functions of the blade elements are thus
counted for by applying gross corrections. given.
In essence, then, a combination of two-dimen- (2) Blade selection: This phase of the problem
sional solutions in the two principal planes (cir- is based currently on tile concept of blade-element
cumferential and meridional) is used to approxi- flow, with the flow limited to the surfaces of a
mate the complete three-dimensional flow.
Comparatively excellent compressors have been
and can be designed by this approach, if the
essence of the derived technique is used in its
entirety and if the data are not extrapolated too
far.
It is recognized that this quasi-three-dimen-
sional design procedure can be an oversimplifica-
tion of the problem, particularly as performance
is extended to higher levels. However, this
simplified flow model has been adopted for this
series of reports on the basis that (1) it correlates
experimental data as well as the more complicated
systems that have been tested; (2) it provides
adequate compressor designs, at least up to cur-
rent levels of performance; (3) it has received FIGURE 66.--Typical rotor velocity diagram for a cascade
general acceptance in the field; and (4) no practi- clement.
_{} AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS
cone that approximates the surface of revolution these preliminary studies, the following data may
generated by rotating the ineridional-plane stream- be given:
line (for the circuinferentially averaged flow) (1) Design weight flow
about the axis (fig. 64). Blade elements IllUSt (2) Design over-all pressure ratio
then be selected that are consistent with the aver- (3) Design equivalent speed
age conditions established in lhe meridional-plane (4) Desired level of efficiency
analysis. This requires a knowledge of loss and (5) Range of operation for which a high level
turning characteristics of compressor blade ele- of efficiency must be obtained
ments. This information is usually provided by (6) Inlet and outlet diameters
correlated empirical data, which are obtained (7) Maximum velocity of air at compressor
from both two-dimensional cascades and from outlet
actual blade rows. (8) Desired length and weight
(3) Off-design performance: With the compres- (9) Some idea of velocity distortions likely to
be encountered at inlet
sor blading and geometry established, the final
phase of design is the estimation of the performance In the process of design, adjustments in some of
characteristics of the compressor over a range of these initial specifications are necessary when they
speeds and flows. A rigorous solution to this are not completely compatible.
"analysis" problem involves the use of the rela- Velocity diagrams.--Initially, the meridional-
tions previously established in the meridional and plane solution is directed at determining the
blade-to-blade planes. velocity diagrams throughout the compressor for
As might be inferred from the preceding brief the design operating conditions. In the past,
description, such a design system is not direct in analyses have been made in the attempt to estab-
lish the most desirable radial distribution of
the sense that a single step-by-step procedure will
result in the desired compressor. For example, velocity diagrams for aircraft gas-turbine applica-
because of the large number of factors involved in tion. For example, reference 35 showed that, for
design (including matching with other engine given Mach number and lift-coefficient limitations,
components), the optimunl compressor for any the use of a symmetrical velocity diagram at all
application is obtained only after a series of com- radii would produce higher mass-flow and pressure
promises among these various factors. Obtaining ratios than the free-vortex type of diagram. With
the required off-design characteristics usually the use of blade-element theory based on incom-
necessitates a trial-and-error screening of a num- pressible airfoil concepts and with the assumption
ber of alternative designs. Therefore, this chapter of constant axial velocity across the blade row, it
does not attempt to outline a complete systematic was also shown that the symmetrical velocity
step-by-step design procedure. Instead, the vari- diagram at all radii was also optimum with respect
ous elements entering into the design system that to profile efficiency.
must be considered in the design process are sum- With advances in the field, such as the raising
marized and interrelations are pointed out. The of Mach nuiuber limits (ref. 41) and the establish-
actual sequence in which these elements are then ment of more significant paraineters for blade
utilized is left to the individual designer. In the loading (ref. 90), specific velocity-diagram types
following discussion, the design concepts are begin to lose their significance. Research results
grouped under the three principal phases previ- have shown that satisfactory performance can be
ously listed. achieved for a wide range of velocity diagrams.
Although specific velocity-diagram types may still
DESIGN-POINT SOLUTION IN MERIDIONAL PLANE
be used because of the resulting conveifience in
Over-all specifications.--As indicated in chapter design calculations, the present trend in compres-
II, the specifications for an axial-flow compressor sor design is toward a greater freedom in their
in an aircraft gas-turbine engine cannot be stipu- choice.
lated in an arbitrary fashion. Preliminary design For example, raising the Mach number limita-
studies and combined engine and airplane analyses tions has made free-vortex velocity diagrams
are usually needed before the requirements are attractive because of their simplicity. The design
sufficiently explicit to define the design. Based on can be further simplified by specifying zero inlet
and exit whirl in each compressor stage. With The vdocity V_ at any radius is then expressed in
constant work input from hub to tip, as is fre- terms of V_._, the velocity at any reference point
quently specified in compressor designs, calculat- (e.g., the hub). By interchanging the linfits of
ing the radial distribution of the velocity diagram integration, the casing radius could be used as a
becomes a rather simple process. High-perform- reference point.
ance compressors have been obtained througtl the Another relation between V, and Ve is given by
use of this design approach (refs. 50 and 51). the continuity equation:
1
Design equations.--In order to satisfy tile aero-
(lynamic and thernlodynandc requireinents for the w=27rK_ ', 1- _,-] I _+V;+V,'_ r dr
J 'h _ gRT ]
circumferentially averaged flow in the meridional
(53b)
plane, a number of tile previously given equations
are used. Tile enthalpy change brought about by
Notice that V_+V_=V_ secSe (fig. 64). With a
a blade row in a tube of flow is given by tile energy
known value of _, the value of V, may now be
equation :
determined at any radius. For example: A value
of V_. _ may be tentatively assumed; equation (56)
H_-HL=-_I gR(T_--T_)----_(rsVe. 2--r_Vo, l) (36) then enables the corresponding values of V_ to be
or found at various radii; substituting the known
T2 1-_ V0,2--V,.1 (36a) values of Ve and the tentative values of V, into
T1 (-),--0_a,1zi)wr, (r_ )
equation (53b) determines the resulting mass flow
w as a function of rh and rz. If rtis given, rhis
If the inlet flow conditions are known, for example, then found. If the values of rh and r, are inde-
and the outlet tangential velocity is assumed, the
pendently given, the mass flow calculated may dif-
temperature ratio Ts/T] may be computed. An
fer from the known value; another trial value of
assumed radial distribution of tangential velocity
V_ is then assumed, and the procedure is repeated.
at the outlet thus determines the outlet radial
In making this calculation, a value of Kbk must be
distribution of enthalpy. The associated radial selected. For this and other details in these
distribution of axial velocity between blade rows
calculations, see chapter VIII.
must satisfy equation (49), which is frequently
The static tenlperature at various radii at the
called the equilibrium equation since it may be
outlet may now be determined by
derived from the consideration of the radial equi-
librium of forces:
5,--1 gRt=___i gRt+ l V,+_
_ 1 V,+_
-2 1 V_ (37a)
i)H i)S V
i)----/---t _-_= ot,--V,_6 (48)
If V, is known, V, may be estimated to be V, tan
where (see fig. 64).
1 5(rVe) 5V, The change in the total pressure of a stream tube
_'_--r i_r ri_0 (46) through a blade row may be estimated by one or
and another form of the following equation:
_V, _V,
i'e= b, _r (47)
P2= ( _'_ "--i e -J as= ( T,'_ , ---i',
P, \T,] \T,]
3"
For axial symmetry with no radial flows, equation
(48) assumes the following form:
=EI+(T:-I) ,.,] "-' (4,)
dH
dr t dS
dr--- Ve d(rVo)+V
_ _ dV_
dr (48a)
Estimates may be made of _p or n,d to determine
Ps/P_. Or, the change in the relative total pres-
By integratidn, this equation becomes sure may be estimated and the entropy change
2 2 2 2 determined from
V_-V,., = 2(H-- H,) -- (VrV,. ,)
2'
--2 ' V-3 dr--2

r
F
J r_
t _ dr (56) p;_dT;_---i
___
P1
_
\T,]
e -y_
J as
(42)
92 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OFAXIAL-FLOW
COMPRESSORS
where pressure, temperature, or efficiency is given in
chapter VIII.
gR T'-- "Y 1 _ 1 2 l Blade loading.--In the preceding sections, rela-
"y--1 "r--1 gRt+_ V_+_ V,+:2 (Vo--_r) 2 tions have been presented that permit the designer
(40a) to determine velocity diagrams. In general, de-
signers establish these velocity diagrams on the
Notice that I_ may frequently be used in the
basis of optimizing such performance character-
t]mrmodynanfic equations even though it is effec-
istics as specific mass flow, stage pressure ratio,
tively ignored in other correlations and equations.
and efficiency. Unfortunately, the conditions for
By using the entropy change in equation (41), the
obtaining maximum values of all three factors are
change in total pressure of a stream tube through
not usually compatible. Therefore, the designer
a blade row is estimated. Notice that different
must consider the selected values of the design
efficiencies and entropy rises are required when the
parameters on the basis of their effect on each of
average change in total pressure over the entire
the several factors describing compressor perform-
blade row is desired.
ance. Blade loading is one of the primary aero-
The change in the static pressure of each stream
dynamic factors influencing this performance that
tube may now be determined by the equation
must be selected in the process of determining
_ P2 compressor velocity diagrams. It is apparent
that large values of AVe are desirable with respect
p2=(t(_v-' P, (43)
Pl \tl] to obtaining a large pressure ratio per stage (eqs.
(36) and (41)). In the past, the concept of maxi-
El mum lift coefficient as used in isolated-airfoil
design has been also applied to compression to
The total pressures in this equation nmst be those
estimate the maximum blade turning angle, or
in the given stream tube ahead of and behind the
loading limit, for which high efficiency may be
blade row. The associated change in density is
obtained (e.g., the (_2a limit of ref. 35). It has
finally given by
been recognized, however, that the lift coefficient
p=pgRt (34)
is not completely adequate as a measure of loss
or
variation and of loading limits in a compressor.
02_p2 t_ (35) An improved approach to the problem is one
ol p_ t2
previously outlined. It considers the pressure
distribution about a two-dimensional blade ele-
Average values of energy addition for entire blade
ment in cascade and its influence on boundary-
row.--In order to determine mass-flow-averaged
layer growth and separation. References 9 and
values of pressure and temperature (or efficiency)
38 show that loading parameters based on the
at the discharge of a compressor blade row, the
diffusion on the suction surface provide improved
contributions of the boundary layer must be
criteria for loss and for limiting loading. The dif-
accounted for. As previously dis('ussed, a precise
fusion factor as proposed in reference 9 is given for
integration from wall to wall is not possible,
the case of a rotor with no radius change as
because of a lack of knowledge of the conditions
within the boundary layer. In the main-flow
region, however, all the conditions of state may be D= 1-- -_2-_]
presumed to be known. A possible technique for
accounting for the effects of wall boundary layers A discussion of diffusion limits, as well as empirical
is to write the equations as if the main-flow condi- loss correlations based on available experimental
tions prevailed across the entire annular height, data, is given in chapters VI and VII. Notice
and to utilize modifying coefficients (based on the that, for a given value of 5V_ and a given value
experimental data) to correct for the defects in the of D, the corresponding value of V_ is auto-
boundary layer. As previously noted, this tech- matically determined. This value could be used
nique is similar to that used for satisfying conti- as a guide for selecting l_._ in equation (56), or,
nuity. A detailed discussion of techniques avail- instead, V_.t couht be independently scheduled
able for establishing mass-averaged values of and Ve._ determined.
COMPRESSOR
DESIGN
SYSTEM 93
Relative Mach number.--Another important at the compressor exit is usually fixed by the
aerodynamic factor that has been discussed diffuser and combustor requirements. The exact
previously is the Mach number relative to rotor scheduling of axial velocity between these points
blade elements. As a result of the demand for is largely a function of blade-row design. Large
high stage pressure ratios and high mass-flow reductions of axial velocity across any one blade
capacity, tile trend in compressor design has been element should be avoided whenever possible,
toward higher compressor relative Mach lmmbers. since, for a given value of AV0', the diffusion factor
The earliest attempts (ref. 52) to utilize these is thereby increased.
high relative Mach numbers led to large sacrifices Hub and tip contours.--In a multistage axial-
ill efficiency. However, with an improved un- flow compressor, configurations are possible in
derstanding of tile physics of flow over compressor which the tip diameter, the hub diameter, or
blading (ref. 41), the gains associated with high both, vary from stage to stage through the com-
Mach numl)ers have been achieved without cor- pressor. As pointed out in reference 35, a pro-
responding reductions in efficiency. High per- gressive increase in tip diameter is desirable with
formance has been demonstrated in multistage regard to maintaining high pressure ratios per
axial-flow compressors utilizing local relative stage and keeping the relative Mach number below
entrance Mach numbers above 1.0 (refs. 51 and a given value. However, the weight flow per
53). Mach numbers up to 1.35 have been suc- unit frontal area is reduced. Furthermore, an
cessfully utilized in single-stage units (ref. 18). increase in tip diameter results in reduced annular
It it generally accepted that this high level of heights (for a given flow area) and reduced aspect
relative Mach number can be maintained in com- ratios (for a given blade chord). Consequently,
pressors if proper consideration is given to the tip-clearance and annulus losses are probably
accompanying value of diffusion factor and to larger for the increased tip diameter than for a
the form and thickness of the blade profiles. For comparable constant-tip-diameter design. More-
routine design purposes, Mach numbers up to 1.2 over, the high relative Mach numbers that may
may be contemplated. For higher Mach num- now be used tend to reduce many of the advan-
bers, more refined techniques must be used. tages cited in reference 36.
Reynolds number.--Compared with the effects Constant-hub- or constant-tip-diameter designs
of loading and Mach number, the effect of Reyn- offer some advantage with respect to fabrication
olds number on compressor performance is of and therefore are frequently used. However,
secondary importance for the current types of there is increasing evidence that a configuration
aircraft. Reynolds number in a compressor is with a decreasing tip diameter may provide the
usually expressed in terlns of blade chord pVc/t*, best compressor layout., even though it may
and tile effect of a reduction in Reynolds number require one or two more stages for a given over-all
is to reduce the pressure ratio, weight flow, and pressure ratio. With respect to aerodynamics,
efficiency of the compressor. This reduction in the increased annular heights near the exit may
performance depends basically on the develop- also offer higher efiqciencies.
ment of the boundary layer over the airfoil Thus, the final selection of the configuration in
surfaces, the magnitude of the effect depending the meridional plane is seen to depend to a large
on the magnitude of Reynolds number, the tur- degree on the application being considered.
bulence level, and the pressure gradients in the Again, this is a phase of design in which the
flow. Discussions of Reynolds number effects are designer has considerable freedom ; at least, several
included in chapters V, VI, and VII. Although designs should be evaluated to establish an
Reynolds number has been largely ignored in the optimum for a given application.
past, it may play an important role in establish-
BLADE SELECTION
ing the size of the compressors in high-altitude
aircraft. The basic principle of compressor blade selec-
Axial velocity.--In a multistage axial-flow com- t.ion is that, if the blade element turns the air
pressor, tile axial velocity at the inlet is usually through the required angle with the predicted
fixed by the mass flow per unit frontal area and loss, the desired blade-row velocity (liagrams will
the compressor hub-tip ratio. The axial velocity be closely achieved. The selection of blade
(}4 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW CO_[PRESSORS
sections and settings for a given turning may be (1) Incidence angle i (angle between inlet
obtained from two-dimensional-cascade testing airflow direction and tangent to mean line
(ch. VI and refs. 39 and 54) or from blade-element at leading edge, fig. 32)
measurements made in rotating or stationary (2) Deviation angle _o (angle between outlet
annular cascades (ch. VII). Loss data are usually airflow direction and tangent to mean line
based on measurements made in the actual com- at trailing edge, fig. 32)
pressor environment (ch. VII). By using data (3) Total-pressure-loss coefficient _'
such as these, elements are selected to obtain the Incidence angle has been selected as the basic di-
desired turning with a minimum loss and to rectional approach parameter rather than angle
provide a maximum range of operation. The of attack, since incidence angle is independent of
complete blade is built up from the blade-element blade camber and therefore provides a more sig-
profiles determined at several selected stations nificant description of flow around the blade lead-
along the radial height of the passage. ing edge. Deviation angle is selected as a measure
Blade proflle.--Basic blade shapes for com- of the blade guidance capacity; turning angle can
pressor application are usually obtained by (1) then be determined by the relation
establishing a mean line and (2) imposing a thick-
ness distribution on this mean line. This method At_=,+i-, (57)
of designation is a carryover from isolated-airfoil
The loss coefficient is defined as
experiences. It should be noted that the mean
line and thickness distribution do not have the
pr
2
same significance in cascades as they did in
Pl
isolated airfoils. Mean lines may be based on 1
geometric shapes (e.g., circular- or parabolic-arc) _l L)r p
P_]u
or on prescribed loading distributions (NACA A_0).
P;-p, -\P;],_
The mean-line shape is then scaled to give any
desired camber. Thickness distributions are simi-
larly determined; two popular thickness distribu-
tions are the NACA 65-series and the British
C.4. Variations in absolute blade thicknesses are (58)
obtained by proportionally scaling the basic where (P_/P'_)_a is

thickness distribution.
In the past, only a limited number of basic blade
(P_'_
P_]_-- --(1-_'Y--1 2 (_r2)'
"ygRTi [ 1 _(r,'_'l'_'-i
\_/_1) (59)
shapes have been used in compressor design, pri-
marily because of the lack of adequate cascade
data. In the United States, the NACA 65-series Blade-element characteristics are presented in
blade section has found the greatest application. terms of these turning and loss parameters in
In England, the blades with circular and parabolic chapters VI and VII. In chapter VI, the data
mean lines have been used extensively. With the are correlated for blades in a two-dimensional
recent trend toward high Mach number applica- low-speed ('ascade; in chapter VII, the data are
tions, however, blade sections such as the double given for blade elements of single-stage rotors and
circular arc (ref. 55) and the modified 65-series stators.
blades (ref. 54) have received the most attention. in the latter case, data are presented as func-
All these common denominators for developing tions of the radial position of the element.
blade families are rather synthetic. The aero- Through the use of this type of experimental
dynamic significance of geometric blade shapes data, obtained in the actual compressor environ-
changes so much with solidity and blade angle ment, it is hoped that the important effects of
that some implied correlations are misleading. three-dimensional flows will be accounted for.
Blade-element data.--The basic parameters se- This concept is probably valid if the design under
lected in this report for the description of flow consideration does not deviate too greatly from
about compressor blade elements are the conditions under which the data were obtained.
COMPRESSOR DESIGN SYSTEM 9_
Chord length and number of blades.--The aero- the radial distribution of flow in compressors of
dynamic design normally establishes the desired advanced design. The second area concerns the
value of the cascade solidity. The actual selec- problem of treating the boundary layers at the
tion of the chord length and number of blades hub and casing. The third area deals with the
then involves a consideration of a large number of problem of estimating loading limits. Some of
factors, including blade-chord Reynolds number, the work that has been done to clarify these
weight, available length, blade root choking, problems is discussed in this section. While none
blade root fastening, steady-state stresses, vibra- of the work is far enough advanced to be included
tory stresses, and manufacturing problems. Over in a recommended design system, some phases can
and above many of these factors is the fact that be useful for refining the design calculations. In
the curvature of the hub and easing changes with other cases, the work has progressed only far
chord length. This factor is discussed in the enough to partially identify the real underlying
section REQUIRED _MPROVEMENTS IN ANALYSES. problems.
OFF-DESIGN ANALYSIS RADIAL DISTRIBUTION OF FLOW
With the coinpressor flow channel and the The problem of accurately estimating the radial
blading established, the final phase of compressor distribution of the flow in compressors of advanced
design is the estimation of the performance of the design may be appreciated from the following
compressor over a range of speeds and flows. considerations. In order to obtain high flow
Basically, the same relations and data are re- capacity and short length, the first rotor of ad-
quired for a thorough treatment of this problem. vanced multistage compressors may look more
This blade-element type of solution, however, like those shown in figures 67 (a) and (b) than
necessitates a rather complete knowledge of the
that shown in figure 67(c), which represents
blade-element flow, radial equilibrium, boundary-
current practice. The higher pressure ratios in
layer growth, blade-row interactions, radial mix-
the new designs require a greater change in the
ing, and so forth. Unfortunately, this type of
information is limited, and the prediction of com- annular area through the blade row, and the
pressor performance on the basis of the integration chord length will be as small as possible. In
of tilade-element characteristics is probably limited order to obtain high airflow capacity, the new
to operating points close to design. In particular, designs will have lower hub-tip ratios and higher
this technique always breaks clown when a stalled axial velocities.
condition occurs in the blade rows and may break Because of these differences in geometry, the
down sooner owing to the lack of appropriate curvature of the streamlines of figure 64 will he
(lata concerning tim belmvior of Kb, and loading
gTeater for the new designs. In flowing through
limits in the latter stages of a compressor.
Other simpler and more approximate approaches
to the prediction of off-design performance have
been developed. In particular, a stacking tech-
nique that utilizes certain generalized stage per-
formance curves has been used effectively in the
qualitative study of off-design operating prob-
lems. A discussion of those techniques which are
available for prediction of off-design performance
of multistage compressors is given in chapter X.
REQUIRED IMPROVEMENTS IN ANALYSES (o) (b) (c)
As previously noted, there are three areas in (a) Advanced design. (b) Advanced design.
which a better understanding of the flow is re- (c) Current design.
quired in order to improve design techniques. FI(;URE 67.--Schematic drawing of several compressor-
One area encompasses the problem of estimating inlet stages.
,(}6 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OFAXIAL-FLOW
COMPRESSORS
the stream tubes, the air exerts a centrifugal I.t
E
force:
O'c=C v: "xN
f [
I.
The large curvatures and high axial velocities I
make _c have the same order of magnitude as
O .9 _m
r
Tip
<_ Hub
which is the centrifugal force resulting from the
3 4 5 6 7
rotation of the air about the compressor axis. Radius, r, m.
(Eqs. (48a) and (48b) are essentially based on
the premise that e,_c is low enough in comparison FIGURE 68.--Irfl(_t axial velocity distribution for compres-
sor of reference 57.
with _ to be ignored.) Since JR has been
found to be quite important (it is a dominant
term in eq. (48a)), it follows that o_ must also instances, premature choking within the blade
be taken into account in the new designs. row could be recognized and avoided in design
An indication of the problems encountered by only by using such an analysis.
neglecting curw_ture is obtained from reference The extent to which these methods can beused in
57. An investigation was made of a single-stage axial-flow compressors is unknown. The small
compressor with an inlet hub-tip ratio of 0.4 and chord length compared with the blade spacing
an inlet axial velocity that was intended to be and the sp_n makes some of the necessary assump-
constant along the radius. Tests showed, however, tions rather tenuous. Perhaps some of the
that the inlet axial velo('ity actually had the techniques reviewed in chapter XIV may have
variation shown in figure 68. The ordinate in to be used. One critical prol)lem is that of
this figure is the ratio of the measured axial estimating the circumferentially averaged flow
velocity to that at the mean radius. While the distribution through the blade row for flows at
difference between the design and observed high Mach numbers. Some hope is offered by the
velocities did not seriously affect the average approximate methods of reference 18. In partic-
performance of this particular rotor, it did upset ular, the method used for designing the Mach 1.35
the flow in the neighborhood of the casing. Both rotor in reference 18 may be of value, crude
the angle of attack and the blade loading can though it is. More work along these lines is
be critically upset by this order of error, and the necessary.
multistaging effects become undesirable. HUB AND CASING BOUNDARY LAYERS
Some methods of including the effects of stream-

line curvature in the flow analysis have been One of the greatest limitations of current design
developed for mixed-flow compressors (ref. 58). techniques is the fact that the flows in the hub and
These methods are similar to those attributed to casing boundary layers cannot be correlated
Fliigel in reference 59 (vol. I). Sut)stantial im- against anything definite. The importance of
provements in the design performance of these this problem has been the impetus for a con-
siderable amount of research, both in the field of
compressol_ imnlediately resulted from the use of
this technique (refs. 60 and 61). It enabled the compressors and in the allied field of turbines.
The results of preliminary studies suggest that
designer to eliminate a(Iverse or impossible flow
situations that would otherwise be unknown. the key to the problem may be an understanding
The method has also t)een extended to turbines of secondary flows. Some noteworthy advances in
this understanding are described in the following
(ref. 62). As shown in references 63 to 65,
techniques such as this had to be used when the paragraphs.
curvature of the hub and the axial velocities Secondary flows of blade boundary layer and
were high. Otherwise, the measured velocity wakes.--Detailed studies of the flow distribution
distribution differed so much from that designed in annular stators (ch. XV) reveal that some of the
that poor performance was inevitable. In other losses at the blade ends may be created or trans-
ported there by secondary fows. One type of Cross-channel flows and passage vortex forma-
secondary flow arises from the requirement of tion.--Secondary flow also descrihes a movement
radial equilibrimn (eq. (377), ch. XIV): of the boundary layer on the hub or casing.
The flow is from the higtl-pressure side of one
1 _p OV,+v OV_+v _ 5V, V_ o__z_,r blade to the low-pressure side of the adjacent.
P _Vr _- tO0 bZ r
blade (fig. 69(a)). The phenomenon is fundamen-
tally the same as that for the radial flows just
Within the boundary layers and wakes of a blade
described. The transverse pressure gradients in
row, the pressures and pressure gradients are
the main flow are again greater than those which
approximately the same as those in the adjacent
the slowly moving boundary layers can support..
potential-flow streams. In the type of stators
Part of these gradients are resisted by friction
normally used, the value of V_ is small in the main
and the rest tend to accelerate the flow to the
stream, and the values of Vo and I'_ are lower in
low-pressure region. The experiments reviewed
the boundary layer and wakes than they are in
in chapter XV show that the boundary layers
the main stream. Unless og_r_._ is also large, the
move across the passage and then roll up into a
derivatives of l'_ must increase (in the absolute
vortex (fig. 69(b)). It is conceivable that this
sense), and I'r may thus assume moderately
movement of boundary layer may cause tim flow
high values. When the boundary layers are thin,
near the suction surface of the blade ends to be
the value of aTs_,_ throughout the entire boundary
more easily separated than the corresponding flow
layer may be high enough to prevent large radial
in ideal two-dimensional cascades.
movements of the flow. When the boundary
Flow in blade end regions with clearance.--
layers are thick, however, the frictional forces are
Other secondary flows result from the clearance
relatively low. The boundary layer on the stator
between the blades and the adjacent wall. If the
blades then flows from a region of high pressure
blades and tile wall are stationary, air flows
to one of low pressure--that is, toward the hub.
through the clearance space from the high- to tile
Since the wdue of o9_I_., is small in the wakes, the
fluid in the wakes also moves toward the hub. low-pressure side. It then rolls up as a vortex
(fig. 70(a)). If the wall is moving with respect to
Physical evidence of this flow is presented in
the blades (such as an unshrouded rotor tip or
chapter XV.
stator hub), the blades may also scrape the bound-
In rotors, on the other hand, the boundary
ary layer from the walls: a vortex similar to that
layers and wakes travel radially outward. Since
of figure 70(b) is then formed near the pressure
the tangential velocity of the blades is greater than
side of the blades.
that of the main stream, the value of t% in the
boundary layer exceeds that of the main stream. Mixing of hub and easing boundary layers with
The sign of the derivatives of V, is thus reversed. main flow.--After the boundary-layer distribu-
Existing evidence, such as that reviewed in tions are established behind a blade row (e.g., a
chapter XV, suggests that a considerable portion rotor), the following blade row (in this case a
of the losses near the casing of a rotor and near stator) tends to mix them with the main flow.
the hub of a stator may be attributed to losses This behavior is clearly shown in reference 66.
created at some other point of the blade and trans- Figure 71 (a), taken from this reference, shows tho
ported to these regions. Besides just being there, measuring stations and radial positions of meas-
the boundary layers at the blade ends may disturb urements taken to determine the radial distribu-
the flow enough to induce flow separation and tion of the efficiency of the rotor and the corre-
thereby create additional losses. Conversely, sponding radial distribution of efficiency of rotor
the movement of boundary layers away from the and stator. An example of the efficiency distri-
rotor hubs and stator tips may permit these bution is shown in figure 71(b). Because the
regions to operate at conditions that wouhl be rotor was severely loaded (large D), the rotor
impossible for their two-dimensional counterparts. efficiency dropped rapidly in the vicinity of the
This reasoning couhl partially explain why the outer radius. Measurements after the stator,
cascade elements of rotor hubs and stator tips however, indicated that the over-all efficiency at
_'an sometimes operate at higher angles of attack the outer radius was higher than that measured
than their two-dimensional counterparts. after the rotor. At the inner radii, the efficiency
691-564 0-65-8
Main
stream
//_-,o., .. //
SS
Pressure,' -Centrifugal
force-" force
(a) (_)
(a) Cross-channel flow. (b) Corner vortex.
FIGURE 69.--Secondary flow resulting from boundary layer on annulus walls.
1_ TflowiP-clearance _ craping
vortex
Suction Z//, Pressure Suction Pressure

surface _ surface sur fac surface
G
(a) . , ,
Rotation
(b)
(a) No relative motion (stator). (b) Relative motion between blade and casing (rotor).
FmvaE 70.--Secondary flow in blade end-clearance region.

COMPRESSOR
DESIGN"
SYSTEM 99
was much lower. The increase in efficiency at

the outer radius can only be explained by a radi- Measuring
ally inward movement of the thick boundary stations
I
layer as the flow passes through the stator. This
movement also helps to explain the low efficiency
of the air leaving the stator at the inner radii.
E)epress_on
Because of the different boundary-layer motions lank
in a rotor and stator, a stator tends to mix up the
boundary-layer distributions set up by a rotor,
and vice versa. Although the energy added to
the main flow by tile hub and casing boundary
layers usually does not noticeably increase the
enthalpy of the main flow, these wayward move-
i _ Rotor blades
ments of the boundary layer make the correlation
(o) _Guide vanes
of losses a difficult problem. Among other things,
the losses transported by the boundary layer to a,
given radius must be separated from those created .8O
at that radius. The losses created must, in turn,
be divided into those which are inherent at the
# .6o
radius in question and those which are induced or
allayed by the inward or outward flux of the c
i1J
boundary layer. To date, no satisfactory tech-
5 o [
nique has been found for separating these losses. .40 Rolor
At present, perhaps the best alternative is to con- "' I i a Stage I

i
(b) i I
tinue to report the observed losses as a function ,20 l 1 I I I. I
of four quantities: the aerodynamic loading of the Hub e d c b a Ti
Radial position
blade element, which involves relative Mach
number and something akin to the diffusion fac- (a) Measuring stations.
tor; the geometry of the cascade element; the (b) Efficiency variation.
radial position of the element with respect to the FmURE 71.--Measuring stations and radial variation of
hub and tip; and the distribution of flow ahead of efficiency for comprcssor A of reference 66.
the blade row.
LOADING LIMITS swered is whether or not the ideas expressed by
equation (55) are the important ones. Another
The analyses presented in references 9 and 38
important question is concerned with estimating
suggest that tile loading limits of a two-dimen-
the various terms of this equation. Still a third
sional cascade can be quite ably described. Ex-
problem is the determination of the way the inlet
perience in actual blade rows, however, indicates
flow conditions influence the loading parameter.
that the loading limit of a cascade element de-
pends upon the location of the element. Cascade Improving the understanding of these loading
limits is another incentive for continued effort in
elements near the casing of a rotor seem to stall
at lower loadings than those near the center of the the study of ideal flows and the study of boundary
span or near the hub. There are also some indi- layers. Reasonably simple yet accurate methods
cations that the hub regions of a stator are critical. of estimating the critical velocities about various
Moreover, the condition of the hub and casing cascade elements are required. The interrelation
boundary layers is suspected to play an important between boundary-layer behavior and the pres-
role in determining the loading limit of the nearby sure gradients created by the main flow must be
cascade elements. better understood. Intensive efforts, both theo-
Because of the importance of the problem of retical and experimental, will probably be re-
loading limits, a large amount of work is being quired to pinpoint the answers within a tolerable
devoted to it. One of the questions to be an- range.
CONCLUDING REMARKS equations, are summarized. Also noted are some

of the important gaps in knowledge, where urt
A general picture of the flow characteristics of must be substituted for science. This informa-
axial-flow compressors has been developed, indi-
tion provides a design system and summarizes
cating those features that must be considered in
much of the work presented in the succeeding
the design process. On the basis o_ this qualita-
chapters. This general treatment is expanded in
tive description of flow, the structure of a design
system is outlined. The individual elements of these chapters to provide specific design data that
the design system, including basic techniques and describe the techniques of application in detail.
CHAPTER IV
POTENTIAL FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES
By WILLIAM H. ROUDEBUSH
The comp/e.rity of the flow oJ a fluid through a one of the very difficult practical engineering
rotatiT_g blade row makes a direct theoretical attack problems.
on the general problem very difficult. Ilowever, the Since a complete solution is not currently ob-
flow through axial-flow eompre,_sors, at least near tainable, another approach must be used. His-
the mean radius, i.s"often xufieiently close to a mathe- torically, a problem of this nature is treated by
matically two-dimensional flow that raluable results making simplifying assumptions. Chapter Ill
ca_ be achie_ed by u._ing tv,o-dimensional theory. indicates that flow through an axial-flow com-
,.ln extensire reHew is presented +_f the literature pressor can be represented in many important
omeerning plane potential flow in cascades. No instances by a combination of essentially two-
method oj determining the flow is preferable under dimensional solutions. Generally speaking, on( _
all c,TMitions. The nature oj the indiz'idual prob- of these solutions is from hub to shroud and the
lem and the computing equipmel_t available will other is from blade to blade.
dictate the method to be used. Some oj the available Within the limitations discussed it, chapter l I I,
techniques for soh'ing the two basic problem.s', de- the change in radius of a particle passing through
sign and analysts, are evaluated: and several of the a compressor blade row can be assumed small,
metho2s that have been used satisfactorily are and the two-dimensional bhtde-to-blade flow sur-
presented in considerable detail. face is taken as cylindrical. This cylindrical
The potential-flow cascade theories to be discussed surface can be developed into an infinite plane
are indicated by author in the chart on page I02, cascade. The theoretical determination of the po-
which is arranged with regard to general regions oJ tential flow about, such a cascade is treated in the
applicability. The division._ are not absolute and present paper. Some of the, methods considered
ca_ serz,e only as a general guide. The asterisks are not restricted to phme flows, as will be indi-
denote those authors whose methods are presented in cated in the discussion.
detail in this chapter. The exact theoretical treatment of two-dimen-
INTRODUCTION sional-cascade flow is not a simple problem, and
past investigators have relied heavily on experi-
Compressor design techniques should always mental cascades to obtain basic flow information.
reflect the current basic knowledge of airflow. Early experimental cascades, however, did not
Time limitations may prevent a designer from successfully achieve two-dimensional flow. The
using refined theoretical methods in individual de- data obtained in different cascades exhibited a
sign problems, but the simplifying assumptions considerable lack of uniformity, primarily as a
made should be based on a sound theory. Unfor- result of using blades of small aspect ratio in differ-
tunately, the flow through a rotating blade row is
ent tunnel geometries without adequate boundary-
very complex. '['he three-dimensional potential-
layer bleed. It was difficult to separate thc essen-
flow equations, representing a highly idealized
tial characteristics of the two-dimensional flow
flow and a substantial simplification of the true
about a given blade system from the characteris-
t)roblem, still cannot be solved satisfactorily. The
tics introduced into the flow by lhe individuality
added difficulties of boundary-layer buildup and
displacenwnt, s(,paration, tip-clearance effects, of the particular cascade operation. As a result,
compressibility eft'acts, unsteady flow, and local comparison of early experimental and theoretical
regions of supersonic flow make compressor design results was not always practicable.
101
I I
l Incompressible [ I Compressible ]
I
I
Inverse
D[irect I
F. Weinig E. Pistolesi
E. Pistolesi V. Lieblein
V. Lieblein H. Woolard _l IInvirse[]
H. Woolard W. Mutterperl
N. Scholz
A. Howell
S. Katzoff *
R. Finn
C. Laurence
I. Garrick
W. Mutterperl
J. Erwin
L. Yacobi I High Solidity i
I
J I
] Incompressible I ICmpressiblei
I
I [ I
] Direct I [ Inverse] IInverseI
I I I D_ect I
I
M. Huppert /* J. Ackeret M. Huppert l*
C. MacGregor| S. Alpert C. MacGregorl J. Stanitz | *
J. Stanitz [ * f
L. Sheldrake 1
C. Brown
C. Wu }* L. Sheldrake| C. Wu
C. Brown }* C.
S. Wu
Alpert . ]
J. Stanitz J. Stanitz * J. Stanitz C. Brown
V. Prian C. Wu V. Prian
C. Brown
] Any Solidity I
I
[ I
[ Incompressible I [Compressible]
I [
I I l
[ Inve_e ] I Inverse I
i I
A. Goldstein
M. Jerison
M. Lighthill F. Claver
F. Weinig
A. Goldstein *
A. Hansen
P. Yohner
*Methods presentedin detailIn thischapter.

POTENTIAL FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES 103
This situation has been corrected in recent unobtainable. Subsequent examination may re-
cascades by the development of successful bound- veal, however, that some of these approximations
ary-layer controls. A close approximation of two- are substantially valid in the region of interest to
dimensionality has been obtained, and accurate designers of axial-flow compressors.
data are now available (see ch. VI). Therefore, An extensive review of the literature on the poten-
it. has become possible and highly desirable to tial flow about cascades is presented herein. Many
interpret experimental cascade results in the light of the methods are evaluated within the bounds
of theoretical analyses. In the future develop- of limited available information on actual use.
ment of axial-flow compressors, more accurate No method is universally applicable. The indi-
predictions of turning angles and loss character- vidual nature of a particular problem and the
istics will probably be required over a wider range computing equipment available are large factors
of operating conditions. A careful coordination of in determining the method of solution to be used.
theory and experimental data may make possible Some of the methods that have been used success-
accurate extrapolation of present data and should fully are presented in detail to illustrate the
also provide a guide to future experimentation. mathematical techniques and to indicate the
Research on the off-design problems, in particular, nature of the actual computation.
can profitably employ this coordinated approach.
SYMBOLS
The flow of a viscous fluid through a cascade
cannot yet be determined in its general form. The following symbols arc used in this chapter:
However, since the effects of the viscosity are
concentrated, in many cases, at the blade surfaces, a speed of sound
the problem can be treated by boundary-layer dimensionless blade thickness
theory. In this event the flow outside a narrow curvature
region at the boundaries is practically irrotational. c chord length
Potential-flow calculations often provide reason- cp specific heat at constant pressure
able pressure distributions, although they com- c* characteristic length of thin blade for
pletely ignore viscosity. At times when thick small-perturbation theory
boundary layers or separation exists or when D height of water surface
knowledge of loss is desired, the potential-flow E electric-field strength
solution does not alone suffice. Even then, how- 4-e K locations of singularities in circle plane
ever, the pressure distribution obtained from tile g acceleration due to gravity, 32.17 ft/sec 2
potential-flow calculation is indispensable for h mapping function defined by eqs. (72) to
boundary-layer computation by existing methods. (75)
For these reasons the two-dimensional potential- h_ real part of h
flow solutions provide what is probably the most h2 imaginary part of h
important single theoretical tool for analyzing the h* mapping function corrected to satisfy
flow through an axial-flow compressor. closure conditions
A survey of the large body of existing plane I electric-current density
potential-flow theory may help to increase its l distance along streamline
present application. Although the theory has l_ leading-edge stagnation point
attained a high degree of completeness, the time
lle.p trailing edge approached from pressure
involved in obtaining exact solutions is consider- surface
able. A reduction in time may be anticipated if
trailing edge approached from suction
the methods are used and understood and if
surface
attempts are made to adapt them to modern
function relating corrected distance about
computing equipment in the most practical man-
blade perimeter to circle central angle
ner. There are also simplified approximate solu-
M Mach number
tions that save time and may be quite worthwhile.
Often the range of application of such methods is m plate thickness
quite restricted; and accurate results in certain I' total or stagnation pressure
regions, such as the leading edge, are sometimes p static or stream pressure
q velocity in compressible medium electric potential function

vector velocity in compressible medium disturbance potential function
q disturbance velocity in small-perturba- central angle in mapping circle plane
tion theory _z, angle corresponding to leading-edge stag-
R electrical resistance nation point
r radius _ t_.P angle corresponding to trailing edge ap-
8 blade spacing proached from pressure surface
(limensionless blade spacing _te,, angle corresponding to trailing edge ap-
T total or stagnation temperature proached from suction surface
t static or stream temperature ,I, stream function
velocity ill incompressible medium electric-current function
,I/
V vector velocity in incompressible medium
pressure coefficient
velocity in cascade plane expressed as f_ specific resistance
function of circle plane coordinates
velocity in cascade plane expressed as Subscripts:
function of circle phme coordinates a stagnation conditions
corrected for closure condition add additional
disturbance velocity in small-perturba- add, additional due to sources
tion theory add, additional due to vortices
H" complex potential function av arithmetic average of values at suction
w complex velocity and pressure surfaces
&w rate of mass flow C compressible
A
W complex velocity in cascade plane ex- curvature
pressed as function of circle-plane c compensating
coordinates c_ compensating due to sources
abscissa, in cascade plane c, compensating due to vortices
axial length of region of validity of cr critical
solutions by ref. 136 d disturbance
dimensionless distance along x-axis d, disturbance due to sources
Y ordinate in cascade plane d, disturbance due to vortices
A
Y dimensionless distance along y-axis inc incompressible
z complex variable in cascade plane l arbitrary position along potential line
fl angle between air velocity and x-axis le leading edge
P circulation m mean of upstream and downstream condi-
ratio of specific heats tions
blade-chord angle, angle between blade max maximum
chord and x-axis (fig. 72) o isolated airfoil
increment in x-direction P pressure surface
increment in y-direction r radial direction
,fv
suction surface
complex variable in phme of mapping s
circle te trailing edge
direction of x-axis
'7 imaginary part of _" x
A constant in affine transformation (117) y direction of y-axis
# angle made by tangent to blade profile z in cascade plane
and x-axis r circulatory
thickness ratio, b/_ _" in mapping circle plane
real part. of _- 0 tangential direction
P density 2_ total
o* solidity, ratio of chord to spacing 1 upstream at infinity
(b potential function 2 downstream at infinity
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS direction of the y-axis. Similarly, a knowledge of

the flow field between streamlines aa and cc con-
Potential-flow theory, as it pertains to two-
dimensional cascades of blades, is concerned with stitutes a complete solution. When the cascade
flow field is considered to be made up of sections
two basic problenls, referred to as "direct" and
"inverse." In the direct (or analysis) problem, of the type bbdd, the cascade is pictured as an
infinite array of isolated bodies. On the other
the geometry ()f a cascade and a characteristic
hand, when sections of the type aacc are consid-
velocity (usually ?_, the velocity vector far up-
stream, or 7',,, the mean free-stream veh)city vector; ered, the cascade appears as an infinite array of
see fig. 72) are given. A solution yields the velocity adjacent channels.
As a result of these two basic points of view,
distribution in the region of the cascade. For the
inverse (or design) problem, the velocity distribu- different mathematical techniques are enlployed
tion on the surface of a cascade blade is given in the two cases. Either point of view is theoreti-
cally applicable for a given cascade. However,
along with the vector velocities far upstream and
far downstream. A solution, if one exists, gives the mathematical techniques employed in the
the geometry (blade shape, chord angle, spacing) "isolated-body" approach become clumsy and
of the cascade. tedious as the effects of the neighboring blades on
each other become large. Similarly, the "channel-
In solving either the direct, or inverse problem,
flow" approach works well only when the neigh-
an important distinction exists in the underlying
boring cascade blades exert an appreciable guid-
approach. From figure 72 it can be seen that the ance on the fluid. Hence, the cascade solidity a
flow about the cascade is given from a knowledge
(ratio of chord length to spacing) determines the
of the flow between streamlines bb and dd as a
point of view that should be adopted for a given
result of the periodicity of the flow pattern in the cascade. The solutions considered are divided
into "low-solidity" and "high-solidity" methods,
where each of these distinctions is subdivided into
Y its relation to the direct and inverse problems.
It must be noted that the classification by solidity
is not rigidl but may depend on such factors as
cascade stagger angle, experience with the tech-
nique, and the computational equipnient available.
Although few of the methods of solution have
been widely used, in most instances some solutions
have been obtained by the author of the method.
In some cases, experimental cascades have been
investigated and compared with the theoretical
results. Some authors have compared their solu-
tions with other theoretically obtained solutions.
While the ultimate objective of any theoretical
method is to design or analyze an actual cascade,
there exists a practical difficulty in appraising a
x
theoretical method by comparison with an actual
cascade. Such an evaluation is indecisive, since
the fluid has been divested of at least some of its
natural properties by the mathematician. There-
fore, the most reasonable test. of a given theoretical
method is comparison with an exact known
theoretical solution. Such exact solutions do exist
comparable to the Joukowski airfoils of isolated-
airfoil theory. If this comparison is good, the
_l _mfi2
new method is satisfying its function by predicting
FIGURE 72.--Two-dimensional cascade, the flow of an idealized fluid. Determining the
flow relations that actually exist about the experi- the history of the application of these two ap-
mental counterpart of a theoretically determined proaches to the isolated-airfoil problem is dis-
cascade is an entirely different problem, which has cussed briefly in the following section.
not t)een adequately investigated. Isolated airfoils.--Early significant results con-
In this chapter an attempt is made to discuss cerning the flow of fluid about an isolated airfoil
and, to some extent, to evaluate many of the were achieved by Kutta and Joukowski. The
theoretical methods available to the designer. theory was extended and improved by yon
Experimental data are not used for purposes of K_trndm, Trefftz, yon Mises, and many others
ewduation for the reasons given in the preceding (see ref. 67). This is an exact theory of special
1)aragraph. Three design mctho(ls (two for high airfoil shapes that are obtained front a circle by
solidity and one for low solidity) and three analysis simple conformal transformations. The airfoils
methods (two for high and one for low solidity) thus obtained are not superior aerodynanlically
are presented in detail. to many others, arm a method to analyze the flow
about arbitrary wing profiles was considered
LOW-SOLIDITY CASCADES
necessary.
Ahnost all the available work on low-solidity A significant contribution to the problem was
cascades has been done on incompressible flow made by ._|unk (ref. 68), who presented a tech-
because of the intractability of the nonlinear nique for determining the over-all characteristics
equations involved in the compressible-flow prob- of the flow about a thin, slightly cambered airfoil
lem. The assumption of constant density is of otherwise arbitrary shape. The mapping
justifiable for a considerable range of low Mach z--f+l/f is used to transform the thin airfoil
number flows. When sonic speeds are approached (actually the camber line) into a near-circle in the
in regions of the flow field, the effects of density _--plane. The near-circle is transformed into an
variation are, of course, pronounced. If shock exact circle resulting in a simple integral equation
waves occur, qualitative as well as quantitative for determining the stagnation point of the flow
about the exact circle. When the location of the
errors may be introduced. Therefore, some
methods of treating colnpressible flows and cor- stagnation point is known, the circulation (and
recting incompressible-flow solutions for the effects conse(luently the lift) ('.an be (letermined about the
of compressibility are discus,_ed following the sec- circle and hence about the airfoil. The technique
lions concerning the direct an<l inverse prot>lems. is improve(l and utilized by Glauert in reference
69, where several comparisons are made with
THE DIRECT PROBLEM
experimental data.
The pattern for solution of lhe direct problem In 1923, Birnbaum (ref. 70) applied a method of
has developed along two distinct lines. The first singularities to the same problem. The thin air-
approach is to find a conformal mapping of the foil is replaced by a continuous distribution of
cascade onto a simple geometric shape, such as a vortices along the mean camber line. This method,
straight line or a circle. The flow about the which is applicable to the inverse as well as the
simple shape is readily determined, and the direct problem, is set forth in detail by Glauert in
mapping function is applied to yiehl the desired his text on airfoil theory (ref. 71). Glauert uses
flow about {he original body. This method of the trigonometric series
solution has been of eonsideral)le mathematical
interest for many
The second approach
years.
to the problem is based on
2v (A0 cot o-
+_-_, A,
n=l
sin nO )
the following fact: The effect of a solid body on the
for the distribution of vorticitv. The abscissa x of
fluid surrounding it can be closely approximated
the airfoil is related to 0 t)y
by replacing the body with a carefully chosen
system of flow singularities (sources, sinks, vor- C
tices). The characteristics of these singularities x=_ (1-cos 0)

are well-known, and their effect on the uniform
flow can be obtained. The constants A, are determined by tim shape of
By way of introduction to the cascade problem, the camber line. The first term of the expression
for the vorticity distribution represents the dis- eral theory will be mentioned later in its connection
tribution on a straight-line airfoil, and the sine with other methods that have been developed
terms compensate for the curvature of the thin from it.
airfoil. This expression has been used in cascade In 1937, Pistolesi (ref. 81) extended the work
work as well as in isolated-airfoil theory. of Birnbaum and Glauert to cascades of thin
In later work along ttlese lines, source and sink blades. This work is significant theoretically, but
(listributions were added by Allen (ref. 72) to tile complexity in the case of a staggered cascade
approximate tile effect of airfoil thickness. How- makes computation difficlflt. In addition, the
ever, since lhe solution still applied only to thin inherent limitation to thin, lightly loaded blades
airfoils of small camber, '_ more general solution is an undesirable restriction in present-day design.
was desired. This technique has been extended by V. Lieblein
In 1931, Theodorsen (ref. 73) and Tbeodorsen (ref. 82) to include the effect of thickness distxi-
and Garrick (ref. 74) produced an exact solution bution. The approximatmns made in this analysis
to the direct problem of two-dimensional, incom- become increasingly inexact, with higner camber
pressible flow about an airfoil of arbitrary shape. and greater thickness. A closer examination of
A Joukowski transformation is used to map the such approximate methods may indicate that they
airfoil into a near-circle. The mapping of the are reasonably vahd in the ordinary range of
near-circle into an exact circle then leads to an compressor blade shapes. If this should be the
integral equation, solved by an iteration process. case, such methods will become important because
(The numerical evaluation of the cotangent inte- of the savings in time realized over the more exact
gral ill the Theodorsen method is considered in methods.
refs. 75 and 76.) This general solution had con- An approximate theory of practical interest has
siderable significance both in the impetus it. gave been developed by Erwin and Yacobi (ref. 83),
to the work on the _irfoil problem and in its utilizing the principle of superposition common in
direct, application to later work on cascades of isolated-airfoil theories. The local velocity on the
airfoils. A consideration of conditions sufficient cascade blade surface is taken to be the stun of the
to assure convergence of the iteration process of average velocity in the passage and incremental
Theodorsen appears in ret'erence 77. velocities due t_) thickness, camber, and angle of
Cascades. The development of the theory of attack. The average velocity is determined from
flow about cascades of blades is similar to the area change througl_ the cascade, and the incre-
development of the isolated-airfoil theoD-. Par- mental velocities are related to corresponding
ticular cascades, corresponding to the so-called incremental velocities on an isolated airfoil of' the
"lheoretical airfoils" of the isoh_ted-airfoil theory, SCale shape. The relation is determined em-
were (leveloped (refs. 78 and 79). Solutions were pirically in the report, but could probably be
also found for cascades of thin, slightly e_mbered, determined theoretically as well. This method
but otherwise arbitrary, blades. Finally, solu- provides solutions to the direct cascade problem
tions for general blade shapes were obtained of a quite rapidly when the characteristics of the
more or less exact nature. corresponding isolated airfoil are known.
In 1935, a comprehensive text on the theory of Other approximate methods, using a technique
turbomachines was presented by Weinig (ref. 80), employing singularities, have been presented by
in which was introduced and demonstrated the Woolard (ref. 84) and Scholz (ref. 85). Results
concept that every cascade has a corresponding obtained in reference 84 show fair agreement with
straight-line cascade that is equivalent insofar as results obtained by the more exact method of
it produces the same turning and has the same leference 86 for NACA 4412 airfoils in a cascade of
circulation. Methods for approximately deter- nearly unit solidity over a range of angle of
mining the equivalent-line cascade are given, and attack.
the foundations are laid for exact solutions to the In 1941, Howell (ref. 87) produced an exact
general cascade problem. The theory of equiva- solution to the general problem, employing the
lent-line cascades will not be discussed herein, method of conformM mapping. A cascade, lo-
since it does not give information about local cated in the z-plane, is transforlned into a dis-
conditions on the blade surfaces. The more gen- torted airfoii n the z_-plane by the equation
z_=-tanh z. The distorted airfoil is then trans- putational time, some difficulty has been en-
formed into a near-circle by two successive countered at the Lewis laboratory in obtaining
Joukowski transformations. Finally, the near- accurate numerical results. It is difficult to de-
circle is transformed into an exact circle by using termine when the results have converged to a
conjugate Fourier series. Since four transforma- valid solution. This method was used in an in-
tions are involved, the work is necessarily lengthy. vestigation by Resnick and Green (ref. 97), but the
However, a detailed computational layout and validity of the pressure distributions obtained
some suggestions for decreasing tile labor involved cannot be determined.
are avnilahle in reference 88, and a number of An exact solution, using a continuous distribu-
theoretical solutions are obtained for a cascade tion of vortices on the perimeter of a cascade of
with a solidity slightly greater than 1.0. In blades, was developed by Katzoff, Finn, and
reference 87 theoretical results are compared with Laurence (ref. 86). With the velocity distribution
experimental data for a cascade with a solidity of an arbitrary isolated blade known, the velocity
of 0.85. distribution about the blade in cascade can be
Howell's method appeam to give reasonable and accurately determined with reasonably little com-
consistent results for solidities as high as 1.0. putation, and can be approximated in even less
Higher solidities could be used, but the shape time. Experience enables the user to compare the
obtained in the first transformation would be greater accuracy obtainable at any step of the
distorted and the amount of labor would be in- solution with the attendant cost in computational
creased. It is estimated in reference 88 that a time. Comparison of a solution by this method
complete solution for several angles of attack can with one for a cascade about which the ideM flow is
be made in 3 weeks. If only the deviation angle known exactly shows good agreement (fig. 73).
is required, the time is reduced. Some further
simplifications of the method are given in
reference 89.
In 1944, Garrick (ref. 90) presented a solution
using the well-known mapping (refs. 91 and 92) of
a straight-line cascade into a circle. By means of
melhod
this transformation, a cascade is mapped into a i_--- o Source vortex method; -
near-circle, and finally the near-circle is mapped %2 -- first opproximotion
Derived by conformol
--
-
into an exact circle. A computational procedure transformohon
is given, and an example is worked out. As in the %
case of Howell's solution, tbe computations are
lengthy.
A different approach was presented by Traupel
(ref. 93), who mapped the flow field of the cascade t[ttttlti!i
onto the interior of an internally concave closed 3 4 5 6 ,7 8 9 1.0
X/C
curve. A minimum of four transformations is
generally required, and the computer must exer- FIGURE 73.--Comparison of velocity distribution for blade
cise a certain amount of skill and judgment in the shown, computed by methods of reference 86, with exact
selection of some of the transformations. Using solution known from actual conformal-mapping func-
Green's second formula, the author arrived at an tion.
integral equation that he solved by an iterative

procedure. No comparison with other results is In reference 98 a comparison is made of experi-
made in the report:, although an example is com- mental results and theoretical results obtained by
puted. The method is mentioned also in con- the Katzoff, Finn, and Laurence method. As an
nection with an experimenlal investigation on example of the magnitude of agreement between
internal-combustion prime mo_'ers in reference 94. experiment and theory when good two-dimen-
3[utterperl (refs. 95 amt 96) mapped the sional-cascade data. are available, a typical figure
arbitrary cascade directly onto a straight-line from reference 98 is presented (see fig. 74). The
cascade. Although the method does reduce corn- disagreement is due largely to the use of the Kutta
POTENTIAL FLOW IN TW'O-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES 109
I
a=c/s) and the mean free-stream velocity v_ (i.e.,
18 vector average of the velocities far upstream and
far downstream of the cascade) are given (see
1.6 fig. 72). The problem is to find a flow with mean
free-stream velocity _, having the blade profiles
1.4 as partial streamlines and leaving the blades at a
fixed point. In the case of a sharp trailing edge,
the Kutta condition places this point at the trailing
1.2
edge. If the trailing edge is rounded, the position
of the trailing-edge stagnation point must be
1.0
prescribed from an empirical knowledge of this
type of flow.
.8 The cascade will be considered to consist of a
central blade (the one containing the origin) and a
lattice of external, or interference, blades. The
solution obtained will be a superposition of flows,
Lift coefficienl Angle formed by mean/ derived by first treating the central blade as an
.4 free-stream velocity
isolated body in the mean free stream of the cas-
and blade chord, deg4
1.51 (theoretical) 6.5 / cade and then finding the interference flow due to
.2 .... 96 (experimental) 6.5 the presence of the external blades. Such a super-
.96 (experimental) 5.3 (reduced)_
o Experimental position of solutions is possible because of the
0 i 20k,, 40 I 60I ' 80 ' I C)0 ' ' ' linear and homogeneous character of the equations
Slation, percent chord governing a two-dimensional, irrotational, and in-
compressible flow.
FZGURE 74.--Comparison of experimental and theoretical
velocity distribution on airfoil in cascade. Airfoil, The total complex potential function Wz----z
NACA 65-(12) 10; inlet-air angle, 60; blade-chord angle, i_I,Z will be composed of the following parts:
45.9; solidity, [.0 (ref. 98). (1) The function Wo----(_o+iq_o of the flow about
the isolated central blade oriented as in the cascade
condition for establishing the branch point of the with respect to the mean free-stream velocity.
flow, as indicated in the figure by the results ob- Since the blade profile forms part of a streamline,
tained when the experimental lift coefficient is
I'o will be zero on the blade.
used instead to determine circulation. Finally,
(2) The interference flow function _I=4)_+i_d
very good agreement is obtained by reducing the representing a distribution of isolated singularities
angle of attack slightly. Although this reduction
along the mean camber lines (or a continuous
in angle was made arbitrarily to obtain good distribution of vortices along the profiles) of the
agreement, it can be justified qualitatively on the
infinitely many external blades. The central-
basis of boundary-layer formation on the blade
blade profile will not be a streamline in this flow.
surface.
(3) The function I=_p_+i_ of the compen-
The method of Katzoff, Finn, and Laurence
sating flow necessary to make the central-blade
(ref. 86) is developed in the following section in
profile a streamline in the disturbance flow;
greater detail as an illustration of an adequate
_=--_I'd on the blade. This flow function is
method for solving the direct problem for a low-
analytic exterior to the central blade.
or medium-solidity cascade. (Solutions are pre-
(4) The function Wr=_rTi_I'r of the circula-
sented in tile literature for solidities up to 1.5.)
tory flow, which causes the compensating flow to
The mathematics involved is not complicated.
leave the blade at the trailing edge. Since the
This method is advantageous in that it can be
blade profile forms part of a streamline, _r=-0 on
used as an approximate method with any desired
the blade in this flow.
degree of accuracy.
Solution of low-solidity direct problem.--]n the The problem of finding the flow about an iso-
direct problem, the geometry of the cascade (blade lated profile in a free stream is well-known and
will be considered as already having been solved
shape, cascade chord angle _, and solidity
for this application. An extensive treatment can required. In instances where some doubt may
be found in references 73 and 74. The potential exist concerning the accuracy of results thus ob-
distribution, as well as the mapping function of tained, _ somewhat different approach is available
tile central blade onto a circle (derived from the for finding the disturbance flow. It has been
isolated-profile computation), is assumed in what shown (ref. 100) that a cascade of blades in a uni-
follows. The presentation given herein of the cas- form stream can be represented exactly by a con-
cade solution is concerned only with finding tile tinuous distribution of vortices on the perimeter
disturbance effects of the external blades on the of each blade, where the vortex strength per unit
central blade. length at each point is equal to the velocity of the
For purposes of demonstrating the technique, flow about the blade at that point. With this
the assumption is made that the final velocity result in view, the blade model is placed with a
distribution about the cascade is already known. point of its contour on the origin, and the effects
The applicability of an iteration process will be are computed _s in the preceding discussion. At
indicated later. Using the known velocity dis- each point the vortex strength is v dl, where dl
tribution and blade shape, the first step is to is an increment of the airfoil arc length. The
represent the external blades by singularities ar- velocity is taken as positive on the suction surface
ranged on the mean camber lines at intervals and negative on the pressure surface; that is, the
measured along the chords. A good approxima- velocity is taken as positive in the positively
tion can usually be obtained with two sources, oriented arc-length direction (see fig. 76).
three sinks, and five vortices. A guide to the The disturbance flow function is then given at a
location of these singularities is given later. To point zo=xo_-iyo on the central blade by
evaluate the effect on the central blade of these
infinite rows of singularities, the chart (first ap-
pearing in ref. 99) shown in figure 75 is used.
(60)
This chart represents an infinite row of vortices
(or sources) of unit strength placed a unit distance
apart with the central vortex omitted. A drawing
of the cascade blade is now prepared, with chord where (I) and _I, are the values read at z0 from the
length chosen to give the proper solidity when chart (note that these values are for vortices of
used with the graph. To find the effect on the unit strength and unit spacing) when the origin
central blade of an infinite row of vortices, located is at z on the central, blade. The integration is
at a point x on each exterior blade, the drawing performed over the blade profile. It is convenient.
of the central blade is placed with the point x on to rewrite equations (60) as
the origin of the graph and with the blade properly
oriented with respect to the y-axis. The values
of the stream function and potential function can (61)
be read from the graph at selected points on the
central-blade profile. The values indicated on the
graph must be multiplied by the vortex strength
at the position being considered. If the singu- From equations (61), _d and _IQ are readily evalu-
larity involved is a source, the lines marked _I, ated by plotting (I, and _I, against (I'z and integrat-
become --q, and those marked _ become ,I,. A ing numerically or with a planimeter.
sink is regarded as a negative source. In this A disturbance flow has now been calculated
manner, the effect of each infinite row of singu- yielding a _I,_ and _ distribution on the central-
larities is found at certain prescrihed points on blade profile. To make this profile a streamline
the central blade. Adding all these contributions in the disturbance flow, a compensating flow W_ is
gives _ and _I,a. now added such that q'_---- --'I'd on the blade profile.
Although the use of isolated singularities dis- It is necessary to compute the potential distribu-
tributed along the mean camber line is clearly an tion _ of which _I,_ is the harmonic conjugate.
approximation, the results obtained in this manner This problem is greatly simplified, since the map-
are usually so accurate that no other technique is ping of the central blade onto a circle is known
|_C
(_ -,+
"-F---.
+1-
i
2.0 i-,,
,...._..
I
t
L.6
i-- I t
I I
l I
o_-
-4-.---
1.2 i
I
-.4
W
I
-4-'
.8
--4
--4
--.-'-I
.4 _---
-.4 ....
--L
t
"-r-
t
-.S m
r
i
t
b.----
l
i
#
-I.2 _--
--__q
I
I
----I
I i
I
I
I
l
-I.6 _ _ T--
I
r l i -
r
-2.o _
-i.6 -I .2 1.6
FIGvRE 75.--Velocity potential and stream function for row of vortices of unit strength spaced at unit distance along
the y-axis with central vortex omitted (ref. 99).
nearer the correct one. The disturbance effects

are then recalculated on the basis of the cbrrected
velocity, and so on. The rapidity of convergence
will depend on the accuracy of the initial approxi-
_V I "_-
mation. It is clear that for high-solidity cascades
the initial approximation will be poor and slower
convergence carl be expected.
In the course of actual application, the authors
of the method developed a technique for the itera-
tion process that results in much faster conver-
gence. As the iteration process is carried out,
/e,P le t SuCtLonsurfoce L/e,s each change in the exterior singularities necessi-
tates a change in the singularities within the cen-
tral airfoil, that is, a change in W_. In turn, this
results in a change in Wr and a change in total
circulation. In this sense, the change in circula-
tion about the central blade can be attributed to
changes made in the location and strength of the
exterior sources and vortices. Then, if Fz is the
total circulation and Fo the circulation about the
FIOVRE 76.--Velocity distribution prescribed as function isolated blade, the following equation is obtained:
of arc length, with velocity taken as positive when
velocity vector is in direction of increasing arc length. rz= ro+ ro_,, + ro_ (62)
from the initial computation of the flow about the where ra_, and r_d0 are the additional circula-
isolated profile. The actual procedure is given in tions about the central blade attributable to the
detail in reference 76 and will not be considered presence of the exterior sources and vortices,
ilerein. respectively. In actual practice, the value of
The flow W=-_+iq,_ thus generated will F_dd_ changes very little from one iteration to the
have, in general, a value of dq%/d_ unequal to next, and F_,0 is nearly proportional to the total
zero at the trailing edge (_ is the central angle in circulation. Therefore, the following equation
the circle plane). In order to satisfy tile Kutta
may be written instead of equation (62):
condition, a vortex is added at the center of the
circle with a strength r_-- ro+ r_,_. + (rdro)r.,_.
F_a_= -- 21r d_Jd_ or
to+ r _,
Fz_ -- (63a)
The corresponding contribution to the potential radd v
function is r---(F,_d/27r)_. 1----

Fo
The complete potential function Sz is now ob-
tained by summing the contributions $o, Sd, (I), Values of Fz calculated from equation (63a) have
and _r obtained in the various stages of the proven to be considerably closer to the final
solution. The final velocity distribution is ob- correct value than those calculated from equation
tained by differentiating Sz with respect to arc (62). Correspondingly, the potential function
length on the blade profile. can be written
The foregoing discussion was advanced on the
assumption that the final velocity distribution was Fz_ (63b)
known initially. In the actual case, the velocity
distribution about the isolated central blade may
be taken as a convenient starting value. Adding where (P.z is now considered as the sum of q,o and
the disturbance velocities calculated from this (Pa_d, where
initial velocity distribution yields a distribution
The second iteration can be similarly adjusted: The velocity distributions at other angles of
incidence can be easily obtained by the method of
conformal mapping. No knowledge of the actual
r_- ro+ r_ (63c)
mapping function is required; therefore, the off-
1 F_v
design conditions can be readily obtained from the
exact solution. The procedure for this computa-
tion is given in appendix A of this chapter and is
where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the first and applicable in any case of plane incompressible
second approximations, respectively. This modi- irrotational flow where a solution at one angle of
fication is highly effective in obtaining rapid con- attack is available. This characteristic of the
vergence. The additional complication of sepa- incompressible-flow solution offers an advantage
rating the effects of the vortices and sources is over the compressible-flow solutions for the same
not great. problem.
When an arrangement of isolated singularities An outline of the general procedure to be used
is used (this is recommended by the author of the in applying the Katzoff, Finn, and Laurence
method almost without reservation), the proper method follows:
number and location are largely a matter of ex- (1) Solve the problem of the isolated geometri-
perience. For solidities near 1.0, five vortices cally similar blade profile, oriented properly with
spaced at 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9 of chord respect to the mean free-stream velocity. The
length will probably give an adequate representa- method of reference 74 or some related method
tion of the velocity distribution effects. The yielding the blade mapping on a circle is used.
vortex strength at a given chord position is (2) Determine tim location and strength of the
determined from the difference in potential on the singularities from considerations of cascade geom-
upper and lower surfaces. For example, the etry and the isolated-blade solution, respectively.
difference in these potentials at 0.2 chord is ap- (3) Determine _, _d,, _, and T_ from the
proximately the vortex strength from the leading chart in figure 75.
edge to the 0.2-chord position. This vorticity is (4) Let __---- -- g% and _I%=--_do on the blade
assumed to be concentrated at the 0.1-chord surface. Then determine _ and _, by the
position. The sum of the isolated vortex strengths method of reference 76.
must equal the total circulation about the blade. (5) Find Fo_, and Fo_ from the trailing-edge
In the example of reference 86, a source was criterion. Find Fz from equation (63a) and _
placed at 0.025 chord and another midway be- from equation (63b).
tween the leading edge and the position of maxi- (6) Compute the final velocity distribution as
mum thickness. Sinks were placed at 0.5, 0.7, the derivative of Oz with respect to arc length.
and 0.9 of the chord length. To determine the (7) Reevaluate the strength of the singularities
source strength, tile average velocity va, is defined in step (2) on the basis of the new velocity and
as 0_',-Fvp)/2, where v, and Vp are the local veloci- potential distribution.
ties on the suction and pressure surfaces, respec- (8) Carry through all steps of the process again.
tively. The internal flow at each axial position If there exists a doubt concerning the accuracy of
is defined to be the product of the blade thickness results obtained by using isolated singularities,
at that position and the corresponding average replace these singularities by a continuous distri-
velocity. The strength of a source or sink is then bution in step (2) and carry out the remainder of
taken as the difference between the internal flow the procedure.
at a station midway between the location of the (9) Continue the iteration until convergence is
source in question and the preceding source and obtained. A second or third trial should be
at a station midway between the location of the sufficient.
THE INVERSE PROBLEM
source in question and the following source. The
total source strength must equal the total sink In the inverse problem for low solidities, _ in
strength. The optimum arrangement of these the direct problem, the methods of conformal
singularities will differ with blade shapes, but mapping and representation by singularities are
a suitable arrangement should be evident. used. Contrary to the direct problem, however,
691-564 0-65-9
114 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF A_:IAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS
the solidity often is not significant in the methods experience is required to obtain a desired velocity
for solving the inverse problem. In particular, distribution on the cascade itself.
the method presented in detail in this section can The method of Mutterperl (ref. 96), mentioned
be used for any solidity. This generality, where in connection with the direct problem, is applicable
it exists, is indicated in the table contained in the also to the inverse problem. As mentioned
SUMMARY. before, some results have indicated that the numer-
Either the direct or the inverse problem can ical answers might not always be reliable. If the
accuracy can be improved, the method may
generally be solved by the method of singularities
find practical application.
applied to thin blades, either isolated or in cascade.
All the inverse cascade methods considered so
Therefore, the techniques developed by Birnbaum,
far have made use of conformal-mapping theory.
Glauert, and Allen, mentioned previously in con-
A method of singularities was developed by
nection with the direct problem for isolated air-
Goldstein and Jerison (ref. 100), but they en-
foils, and the solutions of the cascade problem by
countered some practical difficulty in the applica-
Pistolesi, Lieblein, and Woolard are applicable to
tion of their technique in regions where the
the inverse problem as well.
curvature of the blade surface is large, particu-
The current use of higher cambered blades in
larly in the leading-edge region of a thick blade.
compressors somewhat restricts the value of the
However, the solidity is not an important factor,
approximate methods. Hence, this section is con-
and the method is considered to be quite useful
cerne(t chiefly with the more exact solutions, which
for the design of thin blades.
have achieved a complete and convenient form in
Of the methods discussed, the conforrnal-
recent years.
mapping method of Goldstein has been selected
Isolated airfoils.--In 1935, Betz (ref. 101) pre- for a detailed presentation. A report (ref. 105)
sented an approximate method for modifying the is available on the computational procedure.
shape of an existing isolated airfoil to assure a Solution of low-solidity inverse problem.--The
predetermined change in the velocity distribution. low-solidity inverse problem is twofold: (1) to
Theodorsen also presented a method of modifica- determine the flow about a unit circle that will
tion based on his exact solution of the direct prob- have the desired characteristics when mapped
lem (ref. 102). More general methods have been into the cascade plane, and (2) to determine the
given by Gebelein (ref. 103) and Peebles (ref. 104) mapping function and hence the blade coordinates.
using conformal mapping and by Goldstein and The problem is simpler than the corresponding
Jerison (ref. 100) using singularities. Other solu-
direct problem in that no iteration is required.
tions of the isolated-airfoil (lesign problem exist,
Furthermore, the solution is known to be exact,
but the foregoing illustrate the essential character-
since no convergence is involved. A difficulty
istics of a solution to the problem. is introduced, however, by the fact that an arbi-
Cascades.--An approach to an exact solution of trarily selected velocity distribution may fail
the cascade problem was given by Weinig (ref. to result in a closed profile. In this event, the
80). A complete solution by conformal mapping method to be described indicates the necessary
was developed and presented in a series of unpub- change in the prescribed velocity distribution
lished lectures by Arthur Goldstein. The com- that will yield a closed profile. The suction-
putational procedure was given in considerable surface velocity distribution, usually tile most
detail by Hansen and Yohner (ref. 105), and a critical, can be maintained as originally specified.
theoretical solution was obtained. This method, The following information must be given to
considered to represent an accurate and reasonably obtain a solution: (1) the vector velocities in-
fast solution to the problem, will be outlined later finitely far upstream and downstream of the
in some detail. There is no restriction on soli(tity. cascade, and (2) the velocity distribution as a
A similar approach was given in 1945 by Light- function of arc length on the contour of a blade.
hill (ref. 106), in which the velocities are not Velocities are considered positive in the positively
prescribed directly as a function of airfoil arc oriented arc-length direction (fig. 76). Note
length but rather as a functiol_ of the central angle that tile arc length is increasing (dl>0) as the
of the mapping circle. Hence, a certain amount of blade is traversed in a counterclockwise direction.
The following information is obtained in the cascade to be mapped into the circle. When these
solution: (l) the blade profile, and (2) the blade- quantities have been chosen properly for a given
chord angle .yo and solidity _. cascade, the flow about the circle will map back
In the following discussion the complex plane into the desired flow about the cascade. The
containing the cascade will be referred to as the symbols Vm, fL,, S, and F are ttle mean free-stream
z=x+iy plane (or cascade plane). The complex velocity, mean free-stream velocity angle, spacing,
plane containing the circle (fig. 77) will be referred and circulation of the cascade, respectively; K is a
to as the _'_--_+in plane (or circle plane). measure of the location e K of the singularities in
the flow about the circle. All five of these quan-
tities can be determined from the prescribed con-
i ditions in the inverse problem.
I
i
I From the velocity diagram (fig. 72) it can be

! seen that
I
!
B_=tan-1 (tan _H-tan
2 _2) '
J
$1reGmhne from
lroiIing edge)
and
Vl COS _l
v_= (66)
cos _m
-e K, I, Sle, s i /
imoge of "_,,, Ze ........ /,mage of The circulation is given by
Z: -co z:+co
/ t_Streomhne from
_ A_ _ I'= r_t_,s v(l) dl (67)
ieoding edge G Ire ' p
where v(1) is the signed velocity on the cascade

blade prescribed as a function of arc length (fig. 76).
The blade spacing is given by
FIGURE 77.--Image of cascade in circle plane. F

,_= (6S)
vl sin _1--v2 sin B2
The most convenient mapping for this problem
is one that takes the cascade into a unit circle Determination of the constant K is somewhat
with center ttt the origin. The points at -4-_ on more difficult and depends upon certain considera-
a line normal to the y-axis are transformed into tions of the potential functions. The range of the
points _e K, sytnmetrically located about the velocity potential (the difference between maxi-
origin on the real axis (fig. 77). Such a mapping mum and minimum values of the potential) on a
is discussed in considerable detail in references 80 cascade blade must equal the corresponding poten-
and 91. Under a mapping of this kind, the com- tial range on the circle. On the blade this range
plex potential function in the circle plane can be is computed as
written (see ref. 80)
a,=,I,,(/,,, ,) --_(/,,) (69)
(_'-- eK'_
_Vr(_') =_ s [e'_m log, \_/ where lt,., and 1_, are identified in figure 76. From
the simple relation connecting the potential dis-
+ e- _m log_ \ _e_K] j tribution to the velocity distribution, _, can be
calculated as
+r log, /_'2--e-_\ (64) ,(/)= v(l) dl
4r_" ([ _--_-e-i_ )+constant
te,s
This equation is quite general and holds for an The velocity potential on the circle is given by
arbitrary cascade in the z-phme. The quantities
vm, _, s, F, and K are functions of the particular cI,_= Real [l_r_(e _*)] (70)
where Real designates the real part, and is the dWr dW_ dz dz
central angle of the circle. Then, w_(i-) di" -- dz _=w_(z) _ (77)
(71) If only the unit circle is considered, then _=e'*,

and it can be determined from equation (73) that
where t_,,, and _,,_ are the values of (as yet un- F(e _) is real. As a matter of convenience, all
known) corresponding to the trailing-edge and functions of e _ are written simply as functions of
le_ding-edge stagnation points on the circle (see in the following expressions, f'.omt)ining equa-
fig'. 77). By the process of trial and error outlined tions (72) and (77) gives
in appendix A (described in detail in ref. i05), _ot,.,,
hi (_,) +ih2 (e)
_e, and K can be determined so that A%= A_.
In this manner, the flow in the circle plane is w_(l) \(l_-/r=_,' r F(_)e (78)
determined uniquely for a prescribed set of condi-
tions in the plane of the cascade (step (1) in the where w_(l) indicates that w, has now been ex-
solution of the inverse I)roblem). The function pressed as a function of distance along the blade
that conformally maps the cascade into the circle perimeter.
must yet be determined from the knowledge of Tim value of the potential at. any point on the
velocities about the circle and about the cascade. blade is given by
In appendix B of this chapter the following
form of a general mapping function is developed: %(1)= l
v(l) dl (79)
le, P
h if)
dz=se-K-- F(f)e F(_) (72) The values of (I,r(_) are known to an additive
df 7r
where constant from the real part of equation (64).
The additive constant should now be chosen so
(73) that ep_(lt_.e)-----_(_t_.e). Then, equating the
F ()=
values of potential in the two planes gives a
and
functional relation of 1 with _, say/=/(_).
h(i-) =h,(_, n) + ih:(_ , _) (74)
Now, by means of the function/----/(_), w_(l) can
be written as a function of the central circle angle
The function h(_-) is regular outside the unit circle,
as follows:
and
lira _h(_') =() (75) w_(l)---- w,(/()) = _,() (80)
1"--4
where _v denotes the velocity in the cascade plane

The function z=z(f), defined by equations (72) expressed as a function of the circle-plane coordi-
to (75), will map an arbitrary cascade into the nates. Then the ratio of the velocities in the
unit circle so that. the points far upstream and far two planes can be written
downstream of tim cascade are transformed into
the points _e _ in the circle phme. The function
wd,,) _vd_')e -"_+'/_) (_1)
h(_') will determine the shape of tim cascade. The
problem is to determine h(/'), and hence the blade
shape, from the available information. where v_ and v_ are signed velocities, and # is the
Let g'_ and ll'_ represent the complex potential angle made by a tangent to the blade profile and
functions in the circle phme and cascade plane, the x-axis. Substituting equation (81) into equa-
respectively. Then, if z= z(_-) is the desired map- tion (78) and taking the logarithms of both sides
ping between the two planes, yield:
W_(z)=W_(z(_)) =Wr(_') (76)
Differentiating equation (76) gives a relation L

between the complex velocity conjugates w_ and h, i (S2)
w as follows: T F -g
POTENTIAL FLOW IN T_VO-DIiMENSIONAL CASCADES 117
Since F(_) is real, equating real and imaginary

'"' hd_) &o=G
te, P
parts of equation (82) gives
F _e'_ vd_)7 (S3) ff'"' 1_ 10P)

cos (87)
_,,(_)J te, P
'....
h_(_) sin d_=Ca
(84) te, P
h2() =F(_)(g-- _--2)
Form a function [ (_) such that

Equations (83) and (84) are tile essential relations
of tile inverse solution. If h_ and ha are deter-
f"""/(,p) d,p=- C,
mined, then h is known and the complete mapping J '#t _', P
of the cascade profile into the circle is known.

Equation (83) gives h_ as a function of the circle r,.,...f(,p) cos,pd,p=- C, (88)
,l _'t e, P
central angle . Since h=h_-}-ih:, it follows that
h2 is the harmonic conjugate of h_. Therefore, h2
can be found 1)y one of the methods of harmonic
sin
q] _te, P
synthesis, such as the one given in reference 76.

When h2 has been found as a function of , then From equations (87) and (88), it is seen that
is known as a function of from equation (84), h_*(_)=hl()+ [ () will satisfy the closure con-
and hence as a function of 1. ditions. It should be noted that the conditions
Since dx/dl=cos _ and dy/dl=sin u on the on [ (_,) are not severe and that the designer has
perimeter of the I)lade, considerable freedom in the selection. In particu-
lar, the velocity distribution on the suction surface
can generally be maintained by a proper choice of
X--,gee, p= CO_ U (l/
te.P
f (*).
(85a) The changes caused by a change in h_ (_) require
sin _ dl some consideration. From equation (83) it is
Y-- !h_. =. t,', P seen that a change in h_(_o) causes a change in
_zGo). That is, when considered as a function
or, more conveniently, of the central circle angle, the cascade velocity
has changed from _,(_) to some function _,*(_).
A ,
The function v, (_) is given by equation (83) as
follows:
.r--x., p= f_' v_(,) cos g d_ l (85b)
Y--Y"" =, ,..P _';z(_O) h*(9) =F() log, LsF() z,;(w.

(89)
Equation (85a) or (85b) gives the coordinates of Subtracting equation (89) from equation (83)
the cascade blade and completes the solution, and solving for _:) give
except for the case in which the cascade blades
fail to close. f (90)
Equation (75) leads to the following conditions,
In the case of the blades ttmt failed to close, l(,)
necessary and sufficient for closure of the blades:
is a function of _ such that
h_(_o)d_o= ht(_o) sin _o (Iv v.(1) =vz( l (_o)) = _.() (91)

t_, P t I
Sinfilarly, a new relation l*(_) must be found

=r' .... h_(_)cos_d_=0 (86) such that
d te, t'
v*(l *) =v:(/* ()) = _:() (92)

For an arbitrary velocity distribution this condi-
tion will not, in general, be satisfied. Suppose Combining equations (91) and (92) and substi-
118 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS
tuting from equation (90) yield scribed velocity distribution, the velocity dis-
tribution corrected to ensure closure, and the
_'z(/) _z(r) e/,_.,._ (93) resulting blade shape are shown in figure 78 (from
* ,
v,(l ) _(:r) ref. 105).
COMPRESSIBILITY CONSIDERATIONS
It follows from equation (77) that
Both the direct and inverse problems for low-
dr
(94) solidity cascades have been discussed only for an
vdl)=vr(r)
incompressible fluid. The equations governing an
incompressible two-dimensional flow are simple
Therefore, l*(r) must be a function that satisfies
in form and, as has been shown, can be solved
the relation
by complex-function theory. When the fluid
dr
v:(/*) :--vr(r) _ (95) density is permitted to vary, the ordinary formu-
lations of the flow equations become nonlinear
if the flow in the circle plane is to remain unaltered. and very much more difficult to solve.
Combining equations (94) and (95) and sub- In high-solidity cascades, where a channel
stituting from equation (93) give treatment is possible, the finite-difference tech-
niques can be used. The relaxation method of
Southwell (refs. 107 to 109) has been used to
d/*=_ dd dr=el (_,/v,_) d/dr
v;(l ) dr dr solve ninny difficult differential equations. Since
or the advent of high-speed digital computing
machinery, the direct solution of a large number of
l *--l*,, p= /'|_ ef(_)/'(*' dd dr (96)
simultaneous linear equations in a reasonable
period of time has become feasible. Thus, a
These equations show the changes arising in the complicated differential equation can be repre-
cascade velocity distribution as a result of changing sented over the flow domain by a set of linear
h_(r) to satisfy closure. finite-difference equations, which can be solved
An outline for the general procedure to be used either by the relaxation method (usually done on a
in applying the method follows: desk computing nmchine) or by a direct matrix
(1) Prescribe a velocity distribution as a func- solution on high-speed computing equipment.
tion of arc length about a cascade blade. In high-solidity cascades the physical boundaries
(2) Prescribe vl, t'_, ill, and j3:. of the flow favor a solution of the compressible-
(3) Determine _'m, fl_, s, P, and K from equa- flow equations by finite-difference techniques.
tions (65) to (71) and appendix A. In the low-solidity cascades, however, the guid-
(4) Determine _,(1) from equation (79). ance exerted by the blades is less pronounced, and
(5) Determine _r(r) as the real part of equa- the proper salisfaetion of boundary conditions is
tion (64) plus an additive constant. more diffi('.ult. Hence, for low-solidity cascades
(6) Choose the arbitrary constant in equation the problem of obtaining compressible-flow solu-
(64) such that 'b,(/t,,e)=_(rt,,v), and equate the tions still exists, at least for the direct problem. (A
potential functions yielding a relation/=/(r). solution for compressible flow with a linear pres-
(7) Find v_(r) and, with tT(r), solve equation sure-volunte relation has been obtained for the
(83) for hi(r). Check for closure and make the inverse problem and is discussed later in this
necessary changes. section.) In general engineering practice, two
(8) By the method of reference 76, or some methods of attacking this problem are currently
related method, find h2(r) as the harmonic con- being used, the hodograph method and the small-
jugate of h_(r). perturbation method. These two important theo-
(9) Solve equation (84) for u as a function of _. ries will be discussed in this section, where the
(10) Find the blade coordinates from equa- following notation is used: v is the magnitude of
tion (85b). velocity in an incompressible-flow field, and q is
Appendix A can be used to analyze the resulting the magnitude of velocity m a compressible-flow
blade shape at all angles of incidence. A pre- field.
!
>,1.0 6
u3 I
-g _ L i
g.4 _ !
i5 .2- , - _ -
0-1.2 -.8 -.4 0 .4 .8 1.2 0-1(2>td 1

. -.8 -.4 0 .4 .8 1.2
Dimensionless orc lenglh Modified dimensionless orc length
o !
-- - =_ L
-.I [
I
J
(a) Prescribed velocity distribution. (b) Modified velocity distribution to ensure closure. (e) Resulting blade shape.
Fmr_R_ 78.--Prcseribed velocity distribution used in blade design with velocity distribution modified for closure and
resulting blade shape (obtained in ref. 105).
Itodograph method.--Although the equations difficulty in establishing boundary conditions in

relating the strt, am and potential functions of a the hodograph plane to represent a given problem
two-dimensional compressible flow of an ideal in the physical plane. In spite of this major
fluid are, in general, nonlinear, they can be re- handicap, however, important use has been made
written in terms of a new set of independent of the theory.
variables such that the equations become linear. For incompressible flow, the following relations
This result was discussed extensively by Chaplygin hold:
(ref. ll0) in 1902. For many years thereafter
very little was done in this direction, probably
because of the adequacy of the incompressible- 5x _y (97a)
flow solutions for interpreting low-speed flows. b4) 5_I, }
However, in more recent years it has become
necessary to consider the effects of density varia-
Equations (97a) can be rewritten with v and
tion in many applications. Under this impetus,
replacing x and y as the independent variables (see
the hodograph theory (investigation of flow in the
e.g., ref. 111), where _ is the inclination of the
velocity plane) has been advanced considerably velocity vector to the x-axis:
and is still expanding. The essential advantage
of the hodograpll method is the linearization of
the equations relating the stream and potential _-_=v _ (98a)
functions by a proper choice of independent
variables. An important, disadvantage is the by v b_
For compressit)le flow the relations correspond- and volume is assumed initially, the theory shows
ing to equations (97a) can be written that (p[p)_/1--M _=1 in this case, also. Thus, a
straight line can be taken to represent the pressure-
volume relation instead of the usual curve. Early
bx p _y workers in this field (e.g., ref. 112) allowed the
(970)
approximating line to be tangent to the adiabatic
_b p_ _I, 1 curve at a point corresponding to the stagnation
by p 0x
condition p-p_. This is a poor choice for high-
speed flows. Von K_rm_n and Tsien (refs. 113
As in the incompressible case, equations (97b) can
and 114) took the point of tangency to correspond
be written in terms of tile independent variables
to free-stream conditions, which better approx-
q _md 3, with/tl as the local Math mnnber:
inmted the true curve in the region of greatest,
,% interest. With this approximation, equations
Oq) O_ 0_t' ]
(101) become
(9Sb) OI, b_I, 1
_P- p_ 1-M _ 0_I,
_=_-O _ (102)
OI, 0_'|
Introducing the variables V and Q, defined by j
do}
Comparing equations (102) with equations (100)
shows that a solution of the incompressible-flow
dV=-z7
(99) equations (100) will he a solution of the quasi-
compressible-flow equations (102) when the veloc-
(i Q=_/1-_M2 dq
q ities are related (from eq. (99)) by
dv=_dq (103)
into (98a) and (98b), respectively, yields v q
This relation integrates (with the help of the

03 bV linear pressure-volume relation) to
(100)
OI,
0I)_ 0_ 0 t 4a'_v (104)
q =4ao_ _ va
OV 0_
and The density ratio becomes
P--<=
4a'_+va (105)
O 4a. _-t a
(101)
The pressure coefficient for the incompressible
flow is given by
/ _p--p,, __ v_ (106)
Equations (101) can be simplified by the fol-
lowing considerations' For compressible flow,
l
c P--P_--2a'--2(1---_)
V2pmq,fl q, 2 (107)
P%,"1--_=(1 q-_--2 -I ._12)v-"V I--M 2
The pressure coefficients are related by the
For 3'------- i, (p,/p)_/i--.ll 2= 1. Although 7=-- 1 following equation (called the K_rm_n-Tsien
does not correspond to any actual fluid, this value relation):
causes the adiabatic pressure-volume relation 4',._ (108)
p(1/p)_=eonstant to become linear in p and 1/p. _/1 -- 3,1,. _Jr
When a general linear relation between pressure 41-MJ+1 2
Hence, equations (104), (105), and (108) provide only to approximate the actual flow. For slender
a compressible-flow solution when an incompres- bodies the approximation is generally good and the
sible-flow solution is known. It is evident, theory has proven to be useful.
however, that the two solutions will not satisfy Flows that differ only very little from the mean
the same boundary conditions. Applying equa- free-stream flow will be considered. The relations
tions (104) and (105) will yield a solution for among the various velocity components can be
compressible flow about a cascade of somewhat seen in the following sketch. The assumption
different geometry. Tile correlation of the two
flow fields is only approximately valid.
The relations presented herein as a simple
means of approximating the effects of compres-
sibility on a known incompressible-flow field are
a byproduct of the hodograph theory. The aim
of the theory ill its complete form, to put the
direct and inverse compressible-flow problems on is made that second and higher powers of _/
a substantial theoretical foundation, has been (disturbance velocity) or its components can be
realized to a certain extent. The inverse problem neglected and that derivatives of the disturbance-
for cascades has been solved in its general form velocity components are approximately equal to
with tile assumption of a linear pressure-volume the component over a characteristic length of the
relation by Costello (ref. 115); Costello, Cum- object in the flow field. These conditions are
mings, and Sinnette (ref. 116); Clauser (ref. expressed
117); and Lin (ref. 118). These theories are "_"_"_0 for n>2 (109)
based upon earlier work by von Kf_rmfin (ref.
113), Tsien (ref. 114), and Lin (ref. 119). Refer-
ence 116 offers a detailed computational procedure
for the use of Costello's method. 6x (110)
The direct problem has not reached the same

state of development. Even in the case of an
incompressible fuid flow, an iteration process
is necessary. In the case of a compressible fluid where c* is a characteristic length.
flow, a trial-and-error iteration is possible. How- The actual velocities are related to the disturb-
ever, no systematic process for converging to a ance velocities by
solution in the case of compressible flow about a
body of arbitrary shape has been given.
q_=q.=_l_ (111)
The method of appendix A for finding velocity
distributions at angles of incidence other than the q,=q, J
one of the original solution does not hold in the
Euler's equations of motion for a two-dimen-
compressible-flow case. This fact makes the
sional compressible steady flow with no external
incompressible-flow solution more valuable for
forces can be written
some investigations. For this reason, and because
of the difficulty in presenting the material con-
cisely, the compressible-flow solution for the
q" +q_ 6y p 6x p
inverse problem is not presented in detail in this (112)
chapter. The reader is referred again to refer- 6q___ 6q,,__ 1 6p a2
ences 115 and 116. qx _tq_ b_ p _)y p --
Small-perturbation method. The equations
governing the flow of a compressible fluid about Combining equations (112), with the help of t|m
a body can be linearized in the physical plane continuity equation
instead of the hodograph plane by making
certain assumptions about the nature of the 6(pq=) ff 6(pq,) --0
flow. These assumptions cause the equations
gives similar boundaries, A= 1--_--=--M-_

_ and
1
q:: _A-qxqv gbqx_ Oq_\ : Oqo _,=/i_M, 2 _,, (120)
(113)
It can be shown under the hypotheses of the
By using the relations (111) and the hypotheses small-perturbation theory that the pressure co-
(109) and (110), equation (113) reduces to efficient can be written
_@_-=0 (114/
Reference 120 shows that, within the hypotheses

of this theory, equation (114) can be written as +,,.=-2
(1--M_ 2) bq=4-O(lv=o (115) [[sing equations (120) and (121) gives
bx- _ "
1
or introducing the disturbance velocity potential, _bc=/_._ _._ (122)
Equation (122) is referred to as the Glauert-

(116)
2) Prandtl compressibility correction and corre-
sponds to equation (108) in the hodograph theory.
Now consider the transformation When these equations are applied to cascades of
blades, the corresponding cascades in the two
x_=x, /1
y_=yvl--M,,, ,1Ar 2
_= hq) (117) flow fields will have the same blade shape but
different chord angles and solidities. The relations
Applying transformation (117) to equation (116) between the cascades are given by Woolard in
gives reference 121. Pressures predicted from equa-
tions (108) and (122) are compared with actual
experimental data in reference 122.
bx_ {-_/-2 = 0 (118) The compressibility corrections of either the
Glauert-Prandtl or Kf_rm_n-Tsien methods are
the Laplace equation for the disturbance potential quite simple in application and have yielded
in an incompressible flow. At affinely corre- satisfactory results for cascades by using the local
sponding points (under transformation (117)) in Mach number at points in the blade passage
the two planes, the following expressions relate the instead of tim mean free-stream Mach number
velocity vectors and their angles: (ref. 123). The local Mach number is derived
from a one-dimensional analysis.
HIGH-SOLIDITY CASCADES
bx_ --A _-=Aq_
In general, the mathematical techniques applied
_, O_ by A _ (119) successfully to low-solidity-cascade problems be-
_=_ _1_ A by by, _,/i--M,,--_ [ come increasingly tedious to apply as solidities
J rise above 1.0. Although the methods are not out

of the question for solidities greater than 1.0,
fl+_tan fl_-.q,, vq--Al,? q,, _'1--_14,,, 2 _ difficulties may be expected for the range of
solidity from 1.0 to 1.5, and above 1.5 these
From equations (119) it can be seen that, at difficulties are liable to be excessive. The lines of
affinely corresponding points of the flow fields, demarcation are not clear but vary with individual
the ratio of fl, to fl is constant and equal to methods and prescribed conditions other than
A/v/I--M,, *. Hence, tor flow about geometrically solidity.
As was indicated previously, various mathe- is with a power-series expansion, as illustrated by

nmtical tectmiq_es are available for handling the the work of Wu and Brown (ref. 126). The same
problems of closely spaced cascades. The decisive difficulty exists in solving for the leading- and
factor in the employment of the channel-flow trailing-edge regions as exists in the stream-
techniques is the advance knowledge of the filament method. The results obtained in refer-
approximate streamline patterns, which results ence 126 compare satisfactorily in the region of
from the considerable guidance of the fluid by applicability with results obtained by a more exact
closely spaced blades. This factor is most clearly procedure.
demonstrated in tile stream-filament and power- The application of relaxation and matrix solu-
series-expansion techniques. tion techniques is indicated in this section, based
Much of the work in the field of closely spaced upon considerations from another work by Wu
blades has been done for quasi-three-dimensional and Brown (ref. 127). A more exact solution is
flows. The formulation of the equations in a obtainable by these methods than by the stream-
manner suitat)le for solution is often only slightly filament or series-expansion methods, tIowever,
more difficult for flow on a general surface of more time is required to obtain the more exact
revolution than for plane cascade flow. In addi- answers, the time element varying considerably
tion to this advantage, it is generally possible to with the type of computing equipment available.
consider compressible flows. Accurate time estimates are not readily available,
The literature in the field has grown so quickly since experience in this field is still not great. For
that priorities are not easily established. No at- use of high-speed digital computing machinery,
tempt is made here to cover the many variations the setup time may be prohibitiw_ unless a number
of solutions is desired.
of method in common use for closely spaced
Stream-filament method.--The stream-filament
blades. Only the fundamental approaches of a
few authors have been selected as representative technique is a natural approach to the flow prob-
of the basic techniques involved. lein. Briefly, the procedure is as follows: (1)
Approximate the streamline positions using em-
THE DIRECT PROBLEM
pirical data or intuition; (2) find a method of
Probably the most widely used channel-flow systematically improving the accuracy of the
technique is the stream-filanwnt method (e.g., re['. streamline arrangement. It will be shown that
59 (vol. II, p. 992)). A sinlplifi<:ation by Huppert the velocities in the flow field can be computed,
and MacGregor (ref. 124), based on an assumed based on the assumed streamlines. This informa-
linear variation of streamline curvature, is pre- tion can then be used to improve the streamline
sent.ed in some detail in this section. The method positions.
is simple in theory and application, and solutions For two-dimensional irrotational flow, the rate
are obtained quickly. The major drawback is the of change of velocity in a direction normal to the
failure of the method to provide accurate results streamlines is given by
in the immediate regions of the leading and trailing
edges. In reference 124 results are obtained for a dq= q--= --q_ (123)
solidity as low as 1.42. dn r
e
A rapid approximate solution is given by Stanitz
and Prian in reference 125. The method is based
where dn is an increment in a direction normal to
on the princit)le of zero absolute circulation, with
linear variation of velocity and velocity angle the streamline, r C is tim radius of curvature, and
assumed in the direction of the y-axis. Results are C is the curvature. This equation of nmtion
obtained only on the blade surfaces and not and the continuity equation are the basic relations
throughout tile (.hannel. Although this method used in this stream-filament method.
Ires definite limitations, it has been used success- The curvature is assumed to vary linearly with
fully at the NACA Lewis labon_tory. A counter- respect, to n across the pass_w,e (ref. 124). Then,
part for treating the inverse pr<lblem is discussed
in some detail later in this chapter. _=C.,-_ Cp-C, n=C_+A(_ n (124)
Another approach to an approxinmte solution _'_,p _,p
On the suction surface, n is taken as zero. Differ- Now let

entiating equation (124) and substituting into
2-_ 2--7
equation (123) give
j= G, Fl+x, ] (133)
dq_ ne
_---_ C ,tC (12_) and
X13/2 2--7
(134)
Integrating equation (125) gives
Using (133) and (134) in equation (132) yields

q, --2_ (C2--_'2) (126)
(1--X)_ :_-,_
'- (135)
where the subscript 1 denotes an arbitrary position _g" X 3n
along the potential line. From equation (126) q is
known at each point along the potential line if it Equation (130) becomes
is known at any point l. Noting that
P 1 q2 "yt-I
1
d(Aw)
t--
'n,pp=-V'2cpT,
[ - (136)
_:( -- 2c-_J (127)

Let
the continuity equation can be written
(Aw)e (137)
1 . 1 fo (a_)e d(hw) p, ne42_T_
panp-_/2cpT,
/ q2 _17--I
d(Aw)=pq dn:p=q _1--2c-_ ) dn (128)
Integrating (136) and using (129a), (129b), and

where Aw is the mass flow per unit time. With
(137) yield
the substitution
q2
X= 2_-_pT, (129a) " f"Pf_dn--f
U=jo q, n_ Jo"_" g (q)_ 3dn
n--p (138)
equation (128) becomes Let
i dn
d(Aw)
rt pp a _'12_pT a
-- _/X(1--X) 7=_-
_' P
(130)
:-Ug:ex, , l
(139)
Now let
1 1 --
1 g=fg_, exp [L-_3'_" (e,_c,)]__ej
(1--X)4_-_----(1--X,) _:I (1 X_--X,'_,-' (131)
1 --X, /
Using (126) and (139), equation (138) becomes
where
X q2 _---fJ--gK (140)
_--2c-_-To (129b)
or
Equation (130) is the fundamental equation to
be solved. A convenient technique of solution is /_gK_;_ (141)
-- j --J
afforded by the binomial expansion. Expanding
equation (131) by the binomial series and keeping For C_p the integrals in (139) can be simpli-
only the first two terms give fied by a change of variables. Using
'
(1--X)_Zi=(]--X')_-i-_ _-v[ I+X'vy-I](2--'y'___ X "]
v--lJ 2
]2 __ -- np ( 142 )
2_C
(132)
POTENTIAL FLOW IN TW'O-DEVIENSIONAL CASCADES 125
equations (139) become the binomial expansion previously used is small.

A
In equation (140) the quantities _, J, and K are

known from the mass-flow requirements and
j= exp(--k_:) fk k. exp(k2 ) dk passage geometry, and f and g are functions of X_
2 alone for fixed values of -_. As shown in figure 79,
f can be plotted against _/_ and hence against g.
(143)
In order to satisfy equation (141), f and_ g satisfy
a straight-line relation with slope K/J and an ]
K-- _/exp(--3kt_)np
3A C
2
J_f_kr
f _k. exp(3k_) d_/-3k ] intercept of _/J. This line is shown in figure 79.
The intercept of this straight line with the curve
for f against g yields the proper value of Xz, and
The values of k, and ke are fixed by the channe
hence q_. All other velocities are now obtainable
geometry, and fi exp (x 2) dx is available in standard from equation
An outline
(126).
for the procedure to be used follows:
tables.
(1) Given a cascade as shown in figure 80, with
It is clear at this point that the velocities at
each location on a potential line are known when upstream velocity prescribed, draw in upstream
a reference velocity q, is known (see eq. (126)). and downstream streamlines, continuing the blade
The value of q_ is conveniently taken at the point channel. Draw in an orthogonal net of approxi-
of average streamline curvature so that X--X, in mate streamlines and potential lines.
.5
!
J i
Supersonic
solution
.4
.5
/
-- " -_---_Subsonic
' "q solui'ion
.2----
/
A
i
1 ,
i
Iv
0 .2 .4 .6 0 .2 .5
g
FIGURE 79.--Chart for determining average velocity in blade channel.
.8
D 4 P -_ide _
0 Pressure is,de ,_uc.io
I iiJl
:_ o Calculated
[]Experimenlal
length, l, in.
Fiouam 81.--Blade t ]es at design conditions
t
line attached to the center blade must be con-
FT(_ITRE _0.--High-solidity cascade showing streamlines
gruent to the other stagnation streamlines in the
and potential lines.
final result. This serves as a check on the assumed
(2) Compute velocities at each node of the flow stagnation streamlines outside the blade region.
An alternative check can be made on the validity
net. Since the streamlines hA', B'B, CC', and
of these assumed streamlines by integrating the
D'D are only approximate, good accuracy can l)e
expected only in the region M N PQ of figure 80. velocity about a closed path in the region exterior
to the blades and setting it equal to zero. Either
(3) Obtain the potential distribution along each
streamline as a function of arc length l by inte- of these techniques might require more accuracy
grating the velocity with respect to arc length. than is obtainable by assuming a linear variation
of curvature. If the actual measured curvatures
These values will be used in drawing new potential
lines. are used, the additional work involved may be
(4) New values of stream function are obtained prohibitive.
Relaxation and matrix solutions.--The tech-
by integrating pq along the potential lines. These
values are used in drawing new streamlines. nique presented herein is from reference 127. The
(5) An adjusted grid of potential lines and basic differential equation is developed briefly,
streamlines is drawn and new velocities are com- and the method of solving it is discussed in some
detail.
puted. The iteration is continued until conver-
gence is obtained. The equation of continuity for a two-dimensional
A solution obtained by this method in reference steady compressible flow is written
124 for a turbine cascade is illustrated in figure 81.
The solidity is 1.4 in the computed example. It b(pq,)4_b(pq,)_0
- 5_---_---- (14t)
must be noted, however, that solidity is not the
only consideration for determining the applica-
Equation (144) will be satisfied if a stream function
bility of the method. Blade thickness and stagger
exists such that
angle combine wii:h solidity to determine the effec-
tive channel formed by adjacent blades. To apply _x Pq_
the method successfully, it is necessary that a (145)
significant portion of the blade surface form part
of the effective channel. In compressor designs = pq,:
this is often not the case, and care must be used
in determining the applicability of the method. The equation arising from the condition of
Techniques are available to increase the region irrotational motion is given by
of validity of the stream-filament results. A
solution can be obtained for two adjacent channels iSqx _q_--0 (146)
formed by three blades. The stagnation stream- _y _x
Using equations (145) ill equation (146) gives n th degree polynomial uniquely. The polynomial
P_(x) can be differentiated successively, the mth
(147) derivative being written
P,,'(x)=Aoyo-sA_y,-5... -sAny, (151)

Then, letting
where the coefficients Ao, A,, are seen to be
(148) functions of the order of the derivative, the degree
of the polynomial representing the function, and
the point at which tile derivative is evaluated.
Equations (150) and (151) are considerably
_2_I, _2_I, _ simplified when the derivative is evaluated at one
_xx2-5 _-5L=0 (149) of the points x0, x,, . . . x_. They are further
simplified when the intervals x,--x,__ are equal for
Equation (149) is a nonlinear equation. If B i=1, . . . n. The coefficients A _ are available in
were a known function of x and y, the equation a table in reference 129 for derivatives up to the
would be linear. In the process of solution to be fourth order and for spacings such that the last
described herein, B will be treated as a known interval on either end differs in length from the
function of x and y in the first approximation. other intervals. (The tables for unequal intervals
Then B will be adjusted from tile results of the are very useful for writing the difference equations
first approximate solution and will be hehl fixed at curved boundaries where such unequal spacings
while a second approximate solution is obtained, do occur.) Polynomial representations up to the
and so forth. That is, if a 'P-distribution is fourth degree are included, and an error term is
known, B can be computed at each point in the given.
field from this distribution. Then B will be held If it is assumed that the function ,I, can be
fixed at this set of wfiues while new values of q, represented by a polynomial over a small interval,
are computed from equation (149). Then B will equation (149) can be replaced by a finite-differ-
be recalculated on the basis of the new ,I, values. ence equation. In the nomenclature of reference
Equation (149) is the basic equation of the 129, equation (149) can be written
present analysis. There are two steps to the
solution of this equation: (l) to replace the dif- 2 ./
,Bj_I, +_-_, _B,,I,n
2 t k
+B t
=0 (152/
ferential equation with a finite-difference equation, j =0 k =0
and (2) to solve tile finite-difference equation at a

representative set of points in the flow field. where B is a coefficient of xl, corresponding to the
Suppose a function y=f(x)is known at n+l coefficients A, in equation (151). The presuper-
values of x: x0, x_ .... x_. It is assumed that script 2 of B represents the order of the deriva-
tive; the presubscript n is the degree of the poly-
y =f(x) can be represented closely by a polynomial
nomial representing ,I,. The postsuperscript i
of degree n passing through the known points
denotes the point at which the equation is being
(x0, y0), (x_,y_), . . . (x_,y_). Such a polynomial
P is given by (see ref. 128) applied; the postsubscripts j and k indicate that
the values of ,I, are taken along the x- and y-direc-
tions, respectively. To clarify this notion, a set
P.(z)- (x-x,)(x-x,) ... (x-x.)
(Xo--Xt) (Xo--X:) (xo--x,) Yn of grid points is drawn in figure 82 in the neighbor-
hood of a point P somewhere in the flow field.
__ (X-Xo)(X-x_) ... (x-x_) Suppose, for simplicity, that a second-degree
(x,--Xo)(Xl--x2) (xl--x,) Yl-5. . .
polynomial is adequate to represent _I, in the
__ (x-xo)(x-x,) . .. (x-x._,) neighborhood of the point P. Then n=2 and,
(150)
(x,,-xo)(x_-x_) . . . (x_--X__x)y" following the notation of figure 82, equation (152)
can be written
It is easily verified that this polynomial does pass
through the required points. Furthermore, it is
the only one that does, since n+ 1 points define an + 2n,,,,,-o.a_2
2aJO x 12_2 n,_,*-2 a_ nl--a
x I _ -- (153)
k:3 along this boundary. A network of equidistant

points is placed on the flow field. The mesh size
is taken sufficiently small that values of_I, found at
each point of the net will suffice to give a clear pic-
k:2
o%1_" ture of the entire flow field. With the net size
chosen, equation (153), or more generally equa-
tion (152), is used with the coefficients from refer-
/:-1 j:O /'-k:l /-2 j:3 ence 129 to determine a linear equation in the un-
known values of'I' at each nonboundary point of
p
the net. It is clear that there will be N unknown
values of_ if the net has N inner points (i.e., points
k=0 which are not on the boundary). At each of these
points a linear equation can be written involving
some of the unkno_m values ofq'. Thus, there is a
system of N equations in N unknowns for deter-
mining the values of'I, at each point.
o_? t Unfortunately, conditions along the entire
FIGURE _2.--A portion of grid used for finite-difference boundary ABFGCDHEA in figure 83 are not
solution. known at the outset for a given cascade of blades
and a given upstream vector velocity. The
In this case the form of the coefficients _B} and boundaries AB and CD, parallel to the y-axis, are
_B_ is quite simple over most of the flow region. located far enough upstream and downstream, re-
At any point in the region that is surrounded spectively, that uniform flow across these bound-
by equally spaced points, equation (153) becomes aries can be reasonably expected. If it is dis-
covered subsequently that uniform flow does not
exist at these stations, they must be adjusted to
Only at the boundaries of the region where unequal positions farther removed from the blades. Two
to three chord lengths from the blade edges is usu-
spacing of th', flow net occurs do the coefficients
ally a sufficient distance. The lines hE and BF
of equation (153) take different values.
are drawn parallel to the upstream velocity vector;
Higher-degree polynomial representations could
the lines GC and H D are drawn parallel to the
be used, resulting in mo_'e terms ill equation (153).
downstream velocity vector. Satisfaction of the
For example, a fourth-degree polynomial repre-
sentation would involve additional terms contain- trailing-edge condition (Kutta condition in the
ing ,I,k'-l, _I,_=3, ,_,j=-l, and ,id=3 (fig. 82). In case of a sharp trailing edge) cannot be achieved
at the outset of the problem. Initially, the down-
general, higher-degree polynomials substantially
stream velocity vector is assumed. After a solu-
improve the approximation in regions of rapidly
tion has been obtained, the downstream flow angle
changing conditions. Increased accuracy can also
can be adjusted to satisfy the trailing-edge condi-
be attained by decreasing the net size and hence
tion and a second solution can be obtained.
increasing the number of points in the flow field
at which a solution is found. Near the bound- With the geometry of the boundaries now fixed,
the values of along these boundaries arc consid-
aries where unequally spaced grid points occur
ered. The stream function_I' is constant along the
(e.g., where _t'----_ _=3 in fig. 82), the accuracy of
blade surfaces, since these boundaries are stream-
the approximation often becomes critical, and
lines in tile flow. The value on the suction sur-
higher-degree approximations or closer spacings
face can he taken as zero, and the value on the
are needed to achieve an accuracy comparable
pressure surface can be found from the required
with that in other portions of the flow field.
mass flow
Additional points can be added in the course of
solution if the accuracy of the results appears
questionable. x_p--,_=f_: P _b_ dy=fl:" pq_dy=mass flow
Suppose the entire closed boundary A B FG C D H E h
in figure 83 is fixed and the values of _t, are known Outside the blade channel the boundaries are not
L_/C
8x
04 ,0 2 .... _ ,
7---5
ql
.\
FIGURE 83.--Cascade channel showing grid points and boundary of solution.
streamlines, and the values of _I, oil these bound-

tan B_ _q-l (i_ tan B_ _I,)
_I't--__r _ 2_ -- _28_ 2_
aries are neither constant nor known. However,
since the flow is periodic in the direction of the
y-axis (with period equal to the spacing of the Since _I,q and _I,_ are unknown values of _I, at two
blades), the values of _I, need not be known. For inner points of the field, the finite-difference ex-
example, consider the point at which _I,=xI, a in pression involving them is satisfactory for this
figure 83. Normally the boundary value _b solution. The same type of relation can be used
would enter into the finite-difference expression at the downstream boundary.
about_I'a, but in this case_t,b is not known. Instead, A second method to satisfy these vertical
the finite-difference expression about _I,, is written boundary conditions is presented in reference 127.
in terms of _-'c. Furthermore, XOc=_I,i + (_I%-- _) Although the second method is not as simple and
because of the periodic nature of the flow: In this accurate as the first, it has the advantage of not
way the finite-difference expression about _I'a con- directly involving the inlet angle in the expressions
tains only values of q_ at inner points. Thus, for the boundary conditions. This characteristic
wdues have been determined everywhere except is useful if the problem is being solved by matrices,
on the vertical boundaries. for in that case other angles of inflow can be in-
To write the finite-difference expression about vestigated with much less effort. This method
the point where q,=_q in figure 83, the value of _t will not be discussed further but can be found in
would normally be used. However, this value detail in reference 127.
does not need to be known explicitly, since the Suppose now that there are N inner grid points
following relation results from the linearity of_': in the grid selected for the problem. Applying
691-564 0-65-10
equation (149) to each point yields N simultaneous where

linear equations in N unknowns. (The B' are not
known and must be given an assmned value.) kpa _l]
Now the problem is one of solving this set of simul-
taneous equations, by either a relaxation process
B=I_(P-" \pa _--_) 2
(indirect) or a matrix process (direct). The latter
process is too lengthy for hand computation when
a reasonable number of grid points is used. Both
methods are discussed in detail in references 129 c=2 b_ _ \pa/
and 130 and are indicated briefly in appendixes
The coefficients A, B, and C are field functions
C and D of this chapter, respectively.
(corresponding to B in eq. (149)) containing only
When the values of _I, have been obtained at
first derivatives of _I,. A complication is thus
each interior point by some process, the nonlinear introduced into the coefficients of the finite-dif-
term B in equation (149) must be recalculated on
ference expressions, but convergence is expected
the basis of these _I, values. A second solution
to be nlore rapid.
is then carried out. With the relaxation tech-
The results of an example computed in reference
nique, it may be advantageous to recalculate the
127 by the relaxation process and equation (148)
B _ in the middle of a cycle if the changes in _t,
for a turbine cascade are reproduced in figure 84.
have been large. This is, of course, not possible
The method is easily adapted to a general surface
in a matrix solution. In either case, the initial ,t,
of revolution (see ref. 127).
values estimated for relaxation and the B _ values
estimated for matrices should be as close as pos- TIlE INVERSE PROBLEM
sible to the final answer to obtain rapid conver-

Since the physical boundaries of the flow channel
gence. The question of convergence has not
(i.e., the blade surfaces) are not known for the
been considered mathematically. In most ex-
inverse problem, the relaxation and matrix solu-
amples that have been carried out so far, conver- tions have not been used in the physical plane. A
gence has occurred.
method has been developed, however, by Stanitz
Some difficulty has been encountered at the (ref. 131) and by Stanitz and Sheldrake (ref. 132)
Lewis laboratory in obtaining convergence at high to solve the equations governing the fluid motion
subsonic Mach numbers when equation (147) is when the stream and potential functions replace
used. From equation (148) it is seen that B the Cartesian coordinates as independent varia-
contains first derivatives of p and hence second
derivatives of _I,. More rapid convergence could 2.0
be expected if all second-derivative terms in

equation (149) were to be included in the operative
part of the equation rather than in the field func- I.
tion B. As in reference 120, equation (147) can
be rewritten as
bX2L \pa-_./J _L \pa ax]J

-.o i
(154)
,,,pal axSy bx by =0
where (p_/pa) 2 is a function of q and hence of -.8_- '_j

(b_I,/bx)2+ (b,I,/by) 2. Equation (154) is linearized -I.2 _ ___ , i , w --_-_
-.8 -.4 0 .4 .8 t.2 1.6 2.0 2.4
X
by writing
FIGURE 84.--Variation of magnitude of resultant velocity
across channel for compressible-flow solution. Inlet
A i)2_t'+B i_I' ' _ c)_ = 0 (155)
bx _ _-+c' bxby Mach number, 0.42 (ref. 127).
bles. Relaxation and matrix techniques can be edges of the cascade blade, where the small radii
employed in this @_I,-plane. of curvature of the blade sections inwdidate the
Some simpler approximate techniques are avail- assumptions made in the nlethod. When a pres-
able. Ackeret (ref. 133) replaced the cascade of sure distribution is prescribed on the channel
closely spaced blades by a continuous distribution surfaces as a function of dimensionless distance
of vortices and sources, periodic in the direction along the x-axis, 2 along with the upstream and
of the y-axis. This infinite strip of singularities downstream vector velocities, the solution will
yields an approxinmte velocity distribution and yield the channel shape in the region of validity.
approximate thickness. A blade shape is then Two important assumptions are made underly-
computed. "Fhe method is iterative in nature but ing the use of the method. At a given value of
does not require as much time as the exact solu- _, it is assumed that (1) the mass-weight average
tions. Sawyer employed this nlethod to design flow direction is the same as the direction of the
a cascade (rcf. 134) for testing purposes. The blade-element camber line, and (2) the mass-
time required for the complete theoretical solution weight average velocity is equal to one-half the
was approximately 40 hours. sum of the velocities prescribed on the suction
In reference 135, Alpert developed a method for and pressure surfaces.
designing a channel when the shape of one wall is The solidity _ can be defined as
known and a velocity distribution is prescribed on
1
that wall. Although this appears to overprescribe a----_ (156)
8
the problem, the author necessarily uses only
a finite number of points in actually obtaining
Then the thickness ratio _ is defined as
a solution. A solution progresses from one
streamline to the next, away from the known wall. A
^ b
The method is easily and rapidly carried out with v =_ (157)
8
the aid of tables the author has prepared. An
example is worked by this method, but no com-
The blade-element profile is determined from a
parison with an exact theoretical solution is made.
and from _ and/_ as functions of _. The method
The method of expansion by power series is
of this section is concerned with a determination
presented by Wu and Brown in reference 126 for
of these quantities.
the inverse problem as well as the direct problem.
The same limitations to the method apply as those Consider an elemental strip of axial depth d_.
discussed previously for the direct problem. The tangential force on the strip of fluid can be
A rapid approximate method is presented by equated to the rate of change in momentum in
the tangential direction as follows:
Stanitz in reference 136. The assumptions made
in the method are realized to a sufficient degree _(pp--p,) d_=Aw dqv (158)
in a closely spaced cascade, but the nose and tail
sections cannot be included in the design. A com- where Aw is the rate of mass flow in the channel
parison of the results obtained by the author with formed by the two adjacent blades. Equation
stream-filament solutions showed good agreement. (158) can be written as
It should be pointed out, however, that the method
is essentially limited to angles of incidence such (pp--p,) d_=_ (A___ dq, (159)
that the mean streamlines enter the blade channel
with curvatures close to the mean blade curvature.
where ,_w/_ is the average rate of mass flow per
This approximate design method, which enables
unit area of the cascade chan'nel. Then, from
a practical and rapid solution, is presented in
equations (156) and (159), it follows that
some detail in the following section. The exact
solution by relaxation in the @_I'-plane (refs. 131
and 132) is also presented. a f_ff (pe--p,) dx=:_z
_ Aw (q_2--q_,)
=0 X8
Approximate method.--The design method to
2 All linear quantities arc considered to ho made dimensionh_u by division
be presented (ref. 136) is not applicable in the
by _, whore x is the axial length of the as._umed re_ion of v_li(lity of tht,
immediate regions of the leading and trailing solution,
or Applying the continuity requirement upstream

and downstream of the cascade gives
A__w_w_.
(q_--qvl)
18
(160)
0 -- x--I
AW---plql
pA cos _l=P2q2 cos _ (167)
f; (pp--p,) d_ Z8
-0
This condition must be satisfied by the prescribed

The pressure p is determined from the prescribed
quantities q_, q2, f_,, and B2.
velocity q and from given stagnation conditions
Following is a step-by-step procedure for solving
by the equation
a given problem:
(1) Prescribe the quantities q,, q2, /_t, and B2 so
"y--1 *-_
p=P(l--_a2 q 2) (161) that equation (167) is satisfied.
(2) Prescribe q, and qp as functions of _.
(3) Find hw/x_ from equation (167).
Since qp and qs are prescribed, pe and ps are
(4) Find pp and p, as functions of _ from
calculable from equation (161), and _ is known
equation (161).
from equation (160). With a known, q_ can be
(5) Find a from equation (160).
calculated at any value of _ from
(6) Find q_ from equation (162).
(7) Find q from equation (164).
(8) Find/_ from equation (163).
q_=q_' _wwJ;ffi0 (PP--P_) d_ (162)
(9) Find _ from equation (165).
(10) Compute the equation of the blade mean
The average flow angle _ is given by camber line from
fl=sin-_ ( _ ) --r<O_<
2 = 2 (163) -;:
y= q_
q cos t_
d_= tant_d_
where q is given by (11) Distribute the blade thickness b symmetri-

cally about the mean camber line.
q=q'-_qP (164) (12) Fair in leading- and trailing-edge sections.
The preceding method is given in reference 136
Thus, from equations (160) to (164) the solidity in a form applicable to a general surface of revolu-
and the f_-distribution are obtainable. The tion as well as to a plane cascade. Figure 85
A
value v will now be obtained from continuity shows the prescribed velocity distribution for a
considerations, whereby plane cascade computation (ref. 136) along with
a stream-filament analysis of the final blade shape
obtained.
aw=pq($-_)5 cos
Exact method.--As mentioned previously, the
difficulty in applying the matrix and relaxation
S. lnce _ _ s,A
techniques for solving differential equations to
A w _ A
the design problem arises from the fact that the
=r=oq(l-- _ ) cos physical boundaries are not known. In a report
X8
by Stanitz (ref. 131), the equations governing
and
the motion of the fluid are written in terms of the
_=1 Aw (165) q_,I,-coordinates, for in these coordinates the
--A
oqxs cos _ boundary location is known. The assumptions
made in this solution are that the flow is nonvis-
where the density is given by cous, two-dimensional, and irrotational. The
1 problem of designing an infinite channel will be
{'1 -y--1 - treated first, and this problem will then be adapted
P=Pa _. -- _-_-a 2 q2)_ I (166) to cascade design.
POTENTIAL FLOW IN TW'0-DL'_ENSIONAL CASCADES 133
lines in the flow. Hence, these lines will become

constant values of q, in the transformed 4,%plane
(i.e., the curved channel in the xy-plane will
become an infinite strip in the 4,%plane). Fur-
thermore, the distribution of velocity as a function
of q, along the boundaries is known, since the
velocity
q=q(l) (170)
is prescribed as a function of arc length in the

physical plane; therefore, equation (169) integrates
O ,2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 to give
x (dimensionless)
4,=4,(t) (171)
Stream function,_ From equations (170) and (171),

.5 .5 .7 .9
/ .4 6 ._8 I,O,-- q=/() (172)
Thus, the boundary conditions in the trans-

formed plane are known, and only the equations
_.6
governing the flow in the transformed plane are
-6 4 needed to complete the setup of the problem.
The continuity and irrotationality equations in
.2
the 4,_t'-plane are developed in reference 131 an(l
are, respectively,
0 _-- t---_-t- _ _-,--_
.2 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 ,.0 _.2 ,.4 ,.6
y (dimensionless) 1 (b log P4- b log q_4- b_ 0 ( 173 )
FIC, I_RF_ 85.--Prescribed velocity distribution and resulting
blade shape obtained by method of reference 136.
Pb log q b#= 0 (174)
At. each point in the channel, the velocity has a

nmgnitude q an(l a direction _ with tile positive Differentiating equations (173) and (174) with
x-axis.
respect to 4, and T, respectively, and combining to
From the condition of continuity, a stream eliminate 523/54,b# yield
function _I, can be defined such that
b_Iogp b21ogq blogp(blogp__Slogq'_

dT=oq dn (168) b4,2 t b4,2 54, \_--_/
Similarly, from the condition of irrot'_tionality, a

4_p2 b _),I,lg
q b b,I,lg
p___p_ b 25q
,2lag q--o (175)
potential function 4, can be defined such that
dq,=q dl (169) This equation, together with the relation (166)

between velocity and density, determines the d_s-
where dl is an increment taken along a streamline tribution of log q in the 4,'I'-plane. Equation
and dn is an increment in _ direction normal to (175) can be solved by relaxation methods (appen-
the streamline. It is clear from equations (168) dix C) or matrix methods (appendix D). When
and (169) that _I, is constant along a streamline the distributioll of log q tins been found throughout
and 4, is constant along a line normal to the the channel for a given distribution of q along the
streamlines (potential line). The ehamM t)ound- boundaries, the distribution of 3 can be found
aries in the physical plane @y-plane) are stream- along each streamline (constant 'I') by integrating
134 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OFAXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS
equation (174): where the subscripts A,I, and 0 refer to the channel
boundaries. In the cascade design problem,
equation (180) enables the designer to prescribe
_=f_ p __ log q dq, (176) a velocity distribution that is consistent with the
prescribed turning angle.
The distribution of /3 can be found along each
In figure 86 a cascade is shown with the stagna-
potential line from equation (173) : tion streamline drawn in. The cascade can be
formed by the "islands" between adjacent chan-
1 blogp blogq
nels. Tlle cascade design problem then becomes a
problem in channel design. The channel design
method considered in the preceding paragraphs
At each point in the xy-plane,
does not allow zero velocities on the channel sur-
faces. This results in cusps on the leading and
dx=dl cos/_ "_ (178)
dy----d/sin/_ J trailing edges of the islands, which must be
rounded off to fl)rm a blade.
Using equations (178) with equations (168) and
(169) gives
Stagnation
X_ f. cos___
q dO streamline \ %
/
x= ___" sin____d't'
J* Pq
(179)
y__--j" sin_____
d_
Stagnation
J, q
streamline q,,, _b
y= [" cos/_i d_I, i
3_ pq Blade trailing edge
Equations (179) give the relation between a

point (x, y) in the physical plane and a point
(, z) in the transformed plane. In this fashion, leading edge
the shape of the physical channel that produces
the prescribed velocity distribution is found.
This method is adapted in reference 131 to a
flow governed by a linear pressure-volume rela- I
tion. Solutions of two problems, having the I
same prescribed boundary conditions, are com- I
pared for a compressible flow and a linearized
compressible flow. The resulting channels are
quite similar. Under the assumption of a linear- FIGURE 86.--Related potentials on cascade.
ized compressible flow, the following equiation for
the turning angle is given: In applying the channel design method to a
cascade design, it is necessary to determine the
position of the leading and trailing edges on both
suction and pressure surfaces in the _-plane.
II q )1 From figure 86 it is seen that
q,
_C--_A=_D--_B
from which
(I)
O --(I)c
= (I)
B --(]}h (181)
But conditions are uniform far upstream, so that This section is concerned only with compressible
flow. The incompressible-flow problem, resulting
A_I, tan 51
PS--_A-- _O--_C (182) as it does in a Laplace equation, is the simpler to
Pl
solve directly and to analogile. The basic theory
is developed for several important types of analog
where A_ is the change in _' from one channel
that have been used successfully.
surface to the other. Similarly (see fig. 86),
HYDRAULIC ANALOG
A_I, tan f_2 Consider the irrotational flow of water with a

_:)F -- _:)E -- (:I)H --_Y:)G (183)
P2 free surface over a horizontal plane. Bernoulli's
equation for a stream filament of this flow can be
Equations (182) and (183) determine the rela- written
tive positions on the boundaries in the (I,,I'-plane
that correspond to the leading and trailing edges
of the blade, respectively.
vo'+ gzo (184)
The design procedure for a cascade of blades
can now be formulated. A linear pressure- The subscript 0 refers to conditions at a given
point through which the filament passes, g is the
volume relation is assumed so that equation
(180) can be used: acceleration due to gravity, and z is the coordinate
in the vertical direction. If the flow emanates
(l) Prescribe a cascade turning angle.
(2) Prescribe a velocity distribution. from a tank of sufficiently large volume, the veloc-
(3) Adjust the velocity distribution so that ity in the tank can be considered zero. Then, if
equations (180), (182), and (183) are satisfied. the reference point is taken in the tank, equation
(184) becomes
(4) Solve the resulting channel problem by the
technique described in the preceding paragraphs. P+2 v_+pgz=P+ogz
An impulse cascade with 90 turning is investi-
or
gated in reference 132. The prescribed velocity
distribution on the suction surface and the final v_=2 (P--p) +2g(z0-- z) (185)
P
cascade obtained are presented in figure 87.
A simplifying assumption is now made that the
ANALOG TECHNIQUES
acceleration in the vertical direction at any point
For many years attempts have been made to is negligible when compared with the acceleration
establish relations between the flow of compressi- due to gravity. This assumption (not always
t)le fluids and other physical problems that can sufficiently realized, see ref. 137) leads to the
he solved by nonanalytic techniques. Two physi- relations
cal problems have no mathematical individuality
if the governing equations are the same (i.e., the P=pg(Do--Zo) } (186)
p=pg(D--z)
same except for a possible change in nomencla-
ture). This fact is utilized in the analogs con-
where D is the height of the water surface. Using
sidered in the present section.
equations (186) in equation (185) yields
As a result of the importance of experimental
technique in most analog methods, such methods v2----2ff(D0--D) (187a)
cannot be satisfactorily evaluated on the basis of
theoretical correctness. In fact, the theory is '['he maximum attainable velocity is given by
generally of quite a simple nature, and the real
problems involved are problems of operational v._= V_gDo OSSa)
technique. Because of this and because of the
tremendous extent of the literature in this field, Combining equations (187a) and (188a) yields
no attempt is made herein to evaluate individuM
contributions, some of which are discussed in ( v _2 Do--D
references 137 to 148. V-_/=Vo (189a)
1.6
I t
8 0 I 2
Arc length along suction surface
10 I I I I I I i I I
.5
-.5
-1.0
-I 5
- 2D
-2.5
- 5.0
- 5.5 , _ h I I I I I i ,
-2.0 -I 0 0 iO 2.0 50
X
F1v,_aE 87.--Prescribed suction-surface velocity with resulting blade shape for in[pulse cascade with 90 turning (obtained
by method of ref. 132).
POTENTIAL FLOW IN TWO-DII_ENSIONAL CASCADES 137
The continuity equation for this flow is The maximum local velocity is given by
q,_,=2_pr (188b)
b(Dv_), b(Dv_) 0 (190a)
bx ?----_-- Then,
(__qy=T_-t
The irrotationality condition is utilized as follows: q,,_] T (189b)
From equation (187a), since the flow is essentially
two-dimensional, Therefore, if the velocity ratio of the gas flow is
equated to the velocity ratio of the water flow,
bD 1 b(v 2) 1[ bvx, by,,\'1 equations (189a) and (189b) yield
bx 2g bx -- g _Vx _xtvY-_)
k (191)
Do--DT--t
Do T
or
bD_ 1 b(v _) l(v, b%+v bv,,_|
by 2g by g by _ _/] J D t
Do--T (196)
Equation (190a) is rewritten as
The continuity equation for the gas flow is
/i_vx_ _v_\_ aD bD written
b(oq=)
_x F =0 (190b)
Then, substituting equation (191) into (192) yields
Comparing equations (190a) and (190b) yields the
further condition for the analogy that
bx \ gD,] _y (_l--g-D)--[_ _,Nt_) =0
p D
(193)
_=Do (197)
If the flow is irrotational, 5v_ _v,, 0 and a For adiabatic isentropic flow, the temperature
by bx
and density of the gas are related by
velocity potential _(x,y) exists such that
1
p={'_t'_v-1 (198)
v___ i_ ]
o. \T]
An examination of equations (196) and (197)

indicates that p/p,=t/T in the analogy, so that's= 2.
Pressures are obtained from
Using equations (194) in equation (193) yields

P--/--'_" = (-- "_ = {D'_ _ (199)
P--\oo] \o:] \Do,]
This value of _, is not valid for any real gas.

_-_x2L 1 gD J+_L 1 However, since many relations are not significantly
01,04, affected by using a value of _, slightly different
from the true value, it should be possible to obtain
_2_ b2,I, bx (195a)
bx_l gZ_ y= 0 at least qualitatively correct results.
The potential-flow equation for the gas is

These are the fundamental equations governing
tile flow of water under the conditions specified.
They will now be compared with the fundamental
equations governing the two-dimensional irrota- ax, _ j _ 1 _-j
tional flow of a compressible fluid. The energy
equation for the fluid flow can be written as
--2 b2_ 5x by 0 (195b)
q2=2gcp (T-- t) (187b) bxby a2
Comparison of equations (195a)and (195b) shows properties of a gas to measuring depth in a liquid
that flowing under certain conditions. The chief ad-
gD as vantage of the analogy is that it provides a rela-
(200)
2gDo 2gcpT tively inexpensive way to investigate high-speed
flow of compressible fluids. A photograph of an
Thus, _ compares with the velocity of sound apparatus used successfully in applying the
in the gas flow. It is known from the literature hydraulic analogy (ref. 137) is shown in figure 88.
on hydraulics that v_-D corresponds to the speed MECHANICAL ANALOGS
of propagation of long surface waves. The ratio
For a two-dimensional compressible isentropie
_,./_;'_ in liquid flow is seen to correspond to the
Math number q/a in gas flow. Liquid flows with flow, the following equations are valid:
v/_,_D<l are called "streaming" and with do

v/g_D>l are called shooting,. The difference _=q (201)
in the character of the equations governing sub-
sonic and supersonic compressible flows exists also d_I,
_-_ =pq (202)
in the equations governing "streaming" and
"shooting" incompressible flows. 1
Thus, utilization of the hydraulic analogy P _1 _'--1 (q')21*-I (203)

reduces the problem of finding compressible-flow _=t_ --2- \J./J
FIGURE 88.--Equipment used in water analogy (from ref. 137).

where the derivatives in equations (201) and (202) 6 ' T
are taken in the direction of a streamline and a

%Po
potential line, respectively.
5 - qp O. 4 2.5--
For purposes of mechanical representation, it /
is assumed that the total differentials d and

<_ /
d_V in (201) and (202) can be replaced by finite 4
increments of a size sufficiently small in com-

parison with the cascade. Equations (201) and
5
(202) become, respectively,
(204)
2 \j/
0 I 2 3 4
Then, from equations (203) and (204),
oo : Oozxz
q Acb
An aa pa aa 1
aapa Aq] q p q ! FIGURE 89.--Velocity--mass-flux reciprocal relation for
"1-1(qYT-' "I=1.4.
----_ \_] J
Al 1 These equations may be used in several ways to
(205) determine the flow about a cascade of blades.
A description of the graphical method (flux plot)
\a /J will indicate the general theory and clarify the
mechanical analogies arising from it. The blades
giving the relation between (a,,p_An/ Aql ) and to be investigated are first drawn to a convenient
(aaAl/Acb). scale. Three blades (and hence two passages) are
From equations (204), used to provide a clearer picture of the flow in the
leading-edge region and a check on the accuracy of
An aaPa
the assumed stagnation streamlines. That is, the
aaPa Aqt qp p_
stagnation streamline attached to the central
Al a,, p
airfoil must have the same shape in the final solu-
a, A-_ q
tion as the outside stagnation streamlines. As a
and it is clear that first approximation, the stream and potential lines
are drawn for an incompressible flow, which divides
An A1
the field net into nearly square meshes. (Strict
a.p_ _=a,, _ (206)
accuracy is not necessary, since this is only a first
approximation to the compressible flow.) The
for stagnation conditions. Equation (205) is
meshes are then corrected to a rectangular shape
plotted for "1= 1.4 in figure 89. Thi_ equation is
by the application of equations (204) and (205).
quite general in application and relates An to Al
A word must be said here about the use of these
for the meshes of a streamline-potential-line
equations in a given problem. Generally, the
network in a compressible-flow field. From equa-
upstream conditions ql and _l will be given as well
tion (203) the pressure at any point of the flow
as the cascade geometry. When a drawing of the
field is given by
cascade has been made to a convenient scale, the
spacing s can be measured. The total mass flow
\a_Al] _J (207) through a single passage is given by
Similarly, the local Mach number can be deter- AW=Splql COS fl_ (209)
mined as
[ AlX 2 --7--1 _ "2 and Aq, is chosen as A'_=Aw/N where N is the
) (208) desired number of incremental flow passages per
cascade passage. The value of N should be

chosen to represent the best compromise between
time and accuracy. Then, if A1 is taken equal to
An at stagnation conditions, equation (206) yields
A@=-- (210)
Pa
Thus, from a given set of inlet conditions, a

given cascade drawing, and a desired number of
streamlines per passage, values of A_I, and A_ are
determined. These values are constant over the
flow field, so that equation (205) yields a fixed
relation between An and Al. As a practical
measure, it is often convenient to make a plot of
Al against An for the particular problem being
FIGURE 90,--Flow through adjacent channels by wire-
considered. Such a plot follows at once from mesh plotting (from ref. 140).
figure 89 when values of A_I, and A(P have been
chosen. The stream and potential lines can then
be adjusted (generally by an iteration process) to this second network as well as the first. Use of
satisfy the known relation between An and Al. the second network results in more accurate curvi-
The flux plot has the advantage of requiring no linear squares than could be achieved by measur-
unusual equipment. However, the erasure and ing distances between midpoints of opposite sides.
redrawing of the many lines in the flow net in the To facilitate the network adjustment in the
successive iterations is a time-consuming opera- case of compressible flow, a four-legged caliper
tion. Simple mechanical means of alleviating has been devised by Sells (ref. 138). The spacing
some of the difficulties are discussed in the follow- between one pair of legs is a function of the spacing
ing paragraphs. between the other legs, and the functional relation
The condition of orthogonality can be nearly is devised to m_dntain the width-to-length ratio
satisfied by using a net of wires and pins. The of the small meshes of a compressible-flow net.
stream and potential lines of the flow are repre- This device was used successfully by the authors
sented by thin spring steel wires. The nodes of of reference 138.
the net are steel pins with holes drilled at right Another mechanical method of adjustment (fig.
angles through them (see fig. 90). When the 91) has been devised by Westphal and Dunavant
wires have been threaded through the pins, the (ref. 139). A few basic considerations must be
network, under distortion to satisfy boundary noted relating to its construction. If Al=An at
conditions, will maintain orthogonality to a cer- stagnation conditions, then, as pointed out earlier,
tain degree. The friction present will prevent _ A@=Ax_/p_. In this case,
complete self-alinement of the network. The
diameter of the pins-and tolerance of the holes will
An An (211)
result in some deviation from orthogonality. aaPa _-_aa Adp
The boundary conditions are satisfied by using
pins with sharply pointed ends to secure the
By choosing A_=a_/2, equation (211) yields
bounding streamlines in their proper locations.
Special pins are used for stagnation streamlines.
A_b
For the case of an incompressible fluid, the aaPa _:2An (2] 2)
meshes of the network must be square. A second
and also
orthogonal network, forming diagonals of the
small squares, can be superimposed to satisfy this a. Al=2Al (213)
condition. The pins must be drilled to receive he
Y Figure 91 (from ref. 139) shows a slotted cam

AZ
constructed to reproduce mechanically the func-
tional relation given by equation (214). If the
cams are placed over a network of pins and wires
as shown in figure 92, the distance An will auto-
matically require the distance Al to be such that
the proper relation, as expressed by equation
(214), is preserved. In general procedure the
wire net is fitted to the boundary conditions of a
particular problem. Then the cams are placed
over the pins beginning from a known portion of
the flow field, usually far upstream. The aline-
ment of the pins and wires is complete with the
placement of the cams. Since additional lneas-
urements and corrections are not necessary, the
_ ._Oam ordinates
procedure is fairly rapid.
The value a,/2 was chosen for AcF to yield a
02740 045 18 reasonable cam size. Clearly, a value of A must
2750 .4522 be fixed in order to construct a cam of fairly uni-
5000 4360
3250 4455 versal applicability. The cam reported in ref-
.3500 458O
erence 139 is valid for a range of Mach number
3750 4750
.4000 4905 from 0.3 to 1.0 and for stream-tube widths of
.4250 5085
.4500 5370 0.864 to 1.760 inches.
5000 5683 Tim time required for obtaining a solution for
5500 6t08
.6000 6555 turbine cascades and nozzles by use of the cams
.6500 .7008 is estimated in reference 139 to be about 8 hours.
.7000 .7465
750O 7952 However, some difficulty was encountered in
.8000 84O8 reference 140 in applying the wire-mesh method
8405 8795
to a compressor cascade. This difficulty was
attributed to the more poorly defined passage of
F1arnm 91.--Mechanical device used to determin come-
the compressor cascade investigated as compared
pressible flows (ref. 139).
with the cascade of turbines.
Using equations (212) and (213) in equation (205)

yields
al
An= , (214)
- 7-- 1 "l_-'
_11 2(2&/)'J
which is a universal relation between An and Al for

a fixed value of Aq). To obtain this relation, it was
necessary to give up the free(lore of choosing A'I,,
and hence .:Xq),in each individual problem. In a
given problem, equation (209) is used to determine
.Xw/s, and then s, from zX,I, and N. Then the
cascade must be drawn to correspond to this wdue
of s. Thus, in any given problem the scale of the
drawing is uniquely determined by the inlet con-
ditions, the desired number of streamlines per F[(mt_E 92. Cams and pins used to determine comprcssiblc
passage, and the fixed value of Aq,. flow (rcf. 139).
ELECTRICAL ANALOGS
electrolyte must be shallow, and the bottom of the
The flow of an electric current through a tank must be made of a substance easily deformed
nearly flat plate is governed by the following into a desired shape (see ref. 141). The tank
equations: must be constructed of a nonconducting material,
as must be the object about which the flow is to be
determined. An arrangement must be made to
enable a potential difference to be created between
.... (215) points far upstream and far downstream.
To solve a compressible-flow problem with such
_'f'-i_ I_m, N=Ixm J
an apparatus, the bottom of the tank is left flat
for the first approximation. This corresponds to
where _ is the electric potential, _I, is an electric-
obtaining an incompressible-flow solution. A
current function, fl is the specific resistance of the
potential difference is applied, and the current
plate, I is the current density, and m is tile thick-
lines and electric potential lines are determined.
ness of the plate. The following relations hold
Various apparatus have been developed for this
for the irrotational flow of a nonviscous com-
operation (see refs. 141 and 142). The current
pressible fluid:
lines are then interpreted as streamlines, and a
velocity field is determined. From the velocities
obtained in this first approximation, densities are
O_I, O,t, (216) computed at each point of the flow field, and cor-
responding thicknesses of the electrolyte are deter-
mined from equation (218). This varying thick-
A comparison of equations (215) and (216) ness of the electrolyte is achieved by deformation
indicates that an analogy exists if of the tank bottom. With the shape of the tank
bottom thus adjusted, new current lines are
determined and the entire process is repeated. If
q_=UI_ q_=fiI_ (217) the procedure is a convergent one, the result will be
,=-4 } the desired compressible flow about the object
oqv=Ivm oq,=I_m considered.
Then, from equations (217) it follows that To avoid the problems involved in varying the
shape of the tank bottom, a method is desirable
m
wherein the thickness is held constant and the
p_---- (218)
resistance is varied. A conducting material in
which the resistance varies in the proper manner
If the flow pattern is known in any field of fluid
with the local current density would make this
flow, the velocity, and hence the density, is known
type of analog realizable. Although no such ma-
at each point. Then, if the ratio of plate thickness
terial is known at the present time, a discrete-point
to plate specific resistance at each point is made
type of analog can be used to achieve a properly
equal to the density at the corresponding point of
varying resistance. The details of such a treat-
the flow field, the lines of flow of the electric current
ment using a direct-current board are given in
will correspond to streamlines of the compressible reference 138.
fluid flow. Similarly, the lines of constant electric
Equations (215) are rewritten as
potential will correspond to potential lines of the
flow field.
In the first approach to the use of this analogy,
let _2=constant. That is, choose a conducting 5x-- I_ --=--E_
substance of constant specific resistance. Then m
must be varied to satisfy relation (218). A con- (219)
venient way to construct a conducting sheet of
constant specific resistance and varying thickness
is to use a tank containing an electrolyte. The
POTENTIAL FLOW IN TW0-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES 143
where E_ and E_ are the electric-field components, from equation (220) and incorporated into the
and I_ and I_ are now the electric-current com- network. New readings are then taken and a
ponents per unit thickness. The derivatives in second set of resistances calculated. These re-
equations (219) are now replaced by difference sistances are incorporated into the system, and
quotients of values of _ and _, at the nodes of a so forth. If the method converges, the result will
square lattice net with square mesh size & These be a finite-difference approximation to the flow of
difference equations then become the circuit a compressible fluid.
equations for a network of resistances. The CONCLUDING REMARKS
resistance R of each segment of the net is given by
A survey of the literature on plane potential
--1
R flow about cascades has been presented. The

/_i =[1--7--_ {_Y'I#-Z:-I\E,}
_] (220) theories are classified according to their applica-
tion to high-solidity or low-solidity cascades and
The field strength E is given by according to whether the method solves the direct
or the inverse problem. Several methods have
(221) been presented in considerable detail to illustrate
acceptable solutions for the problems in the
where _, and A_ denote differences in the x- and various classifications. These methods are con-
y-directions, respectively. The network has the sidered to offer practical solutions, since they
same geometrical boundaries as the flow field to be combine a reasonable amount of computing time
investigated. with acceptable accuracy. The authors of these
As a first approximation in the solution of a methods are Katzoff, Finn, and Laurence (ref.
compressil)le-flow problem, the resistances in the 86); Goldstein (unpublished lectures); Huppert
net are all taken equal. The voltages are then and MacGregor (ref. 124);Wu and Brown (ref. 127);
read at all the lattice points, and E is found from Stanitz (ref. 136); and Stanitz and Sheldrake
equation (221). The resistances are determined (ref. 132).
APPENDIX A
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION AT ARBITRARY ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
It is possible to map conformally an infinite

cascade in the z-plane into a circle of radius 1 A_t=__ _ ( cos B,, log, (cos
\cos ct_.,--cosh
_t,.,+cosh K
K
with center at the origin in the f-plane. The
cos _u--cosh K +2 sin B., [ tan_ l/'sin
mapping can be chosen so that the points +_ _,_+cosh K) ksinh ,,_.,_
K ]
in the z-plane map into the real points +e K in
the circle plane (e.g., ref. 90). The complex po- --tan-' (_)]*v_s [tan-'/'tan-'_'_\
tank K]
tential function of the flow about the circle,
which will have the desired singularities when
mapped into the cascade plane, is given by --tan-_ /'\tanh
tan _,,KJ_J
"_-] } (A2)
where
Vm8 f --e K . f --e -x
-_<tan- \_/_._
f--e
+r_ log, +constant (64) _r ,/'sin _o,_'_ .Tr
-_<tan- \_}<_
The constants v,_, Bin, s, r, and K are determined
, (tan _t,.,_ /' tan _,,'_
from the cascade being investigated. Suppose and tan- \tannh_7/and tan -1 \tanh K] are in
now that a solution is known for the cascade at
some angle of incidence. Then Vm, B,_, S, and r the same quadrant as t,., and _t_, respectively.
are known quantities. If K can also be found, The stagnation points are found by differentiat-
equation (64) will give the flow in the circle plane ing (A1) and equating to zero. This results in
that corresponds to the flow in the cascade plane. the following equation for ,,., and _**, which
Then, a conformal mapping is determined between can be interpreted as a quadratic equation in
sin .:
points of the z-plane and points of the _'-plane by
equating values of the respective potential func-
tions. Actually, the value of K can be deter- sin _ cos B_+cos _ sin /_., tanh K+_v_s sinh K-----0
mined by requiring that the two flow fields be
(A3)
related conformally and utilizing the condition
of correspondence of potential values. Note Since the two flow fields are to be related con-
that, on the circle, _'=e_% and equation (64) formally, the potential difference A_, measured
becomes
from the leading-edge stagnation point to the
trailing edge of a cascade blade must equal the
U, ._ v,3 [cos B,_ loge ,,cos
(cos _--cosh corresponding potential difference (as given by
' _='_=_ _+cosh It/+
eq. (A2)) in the circle plane. The procedure for
( sin _ "_+ F ( tan finding K is as follows:
2sin B,, tan-' \_3 vT.._'tan-' \t-_h _t7)]
(1) Assume several values of K.
(A1) (2) For each value of K, compute eta., and _,
from equation (A3).
I.et _(P denote the change in potential from the (3) Compute A_ from equation (A2) for each
leading-edge stagnation point _, to the trailing- value of' K.
edge stagnation point _,._ along the upper (4) Plot AcI,r against K, and select the value of
portion of the circle (see fig. 77): K for which ,ept-- zX_I,,.
144
POTENTIAL FLOW IN TW'O-DI/VIENSIONAL CASCADES 145
With this value of K, the flow function (64) is dWr dWz dz

(A4)
completely determined and velocity distributions d_- dz d_-
at angles of incidence other than the one for the or
original solution can be considered.
If We and I i'_ denote the complex potential
funct.ions in the circle plane and the cascade
where w_ and wr denote the complex velocity
plane, respectively, an([ z--z(_) is the desired
conjugates in the cascade an(t circle planes,
mapping function, the following relations hold:
respectively. If only the blade perimeters an(l
the unit circle are considered, equation (A4)
W_(z) = W_(z (i'))= _t) (_') (76)
becomes
d_z ,,o,,e,_ d'_r ('_ v_[cosf_coshK(sin_--sin_,_._)Tsinfl,_sinhK(cos_--cos_t_)] (AS)

_':-- de _ cosh 2 K--cos z
In order to satisfy the Kutta condition for a the cascade blades at a point corresponding to
new value of 3,_ (corresponding to a new value of _=_t .... Since the mapping function is un-
incidence angle), the flow must continue to leave altered,, the velocity distribution tor an arbitrary
value of 3_ (say 3*) is given by
(A6)
(r_)_,*= (v_)_ ['cos 3* cosh
LC-_-sfl,. cosh K(sin c--sin
_,--sin _,_,,)+sin
,p,_, ,)+sin _*
3,_ sinh K(cos _--cos
c--cos _'"_I]
,p,_,
After K and _t_._ have once been found for a determine velocity distributions at any angles of
given cascade, equation (A6) can be used to incidence.
691-564 0-65--ll
APPENDIX B
CASCADE MAPPING FUNCTION
The development of the cascade mapping (B6) and (Bh), z_(_)has a pole of order 1 at _----e_:.
function as presented herein is taken from un- From relations (B6) and (B4), zl(_') has a zero
published lectures by A. Goldstein. at _--_--e K of order 1. It is clear that the desired
Consider an infinite cascade of blades in the function has the form
z---xiy plane, oriented as in figure 72. If s is
the blade spacing, the cascade can be mapped
zl=_ g(_') (B7)
into a single closed curve by the function
212
where g(_) is regular for If]_l. Furthermore,
z,=e ' (B1) g(_)_0 for t_'[_1, because, if g(p)----0 for some p
such that Ip[)l, then z_----0 would correspond to
By the mapping theorem of Riemann, the ex-
two points, i'------e K and _'----p. But this is not
terior of this closed curve can be mapped con-
possible, since z_ is a regular one-to-one function
formally onto the exterior of a unit circle in the
of _. Hence, equation (B7) can be rewritten
z2-plane in such a way that
lim zl(z_)= co (B2a) _d-er^ f(r_

z2--) zt-=__e---_ (B8)
and
liradZ_=A (B2b) wheref(t) isregular for I_-I_l. Then

z2--,dz,
where A is a real constant. Since the derivative dzl ef (r) [(_2_e2X)f,(f)_2er] (B9)
d_" (f--eK) 2
of the function has no zeros outside the circle, the
mapping function can be written From equations (B3) and (B6),
=eS(_2 _ (B3) dz_ dz_ dz2 --2eI(_)aeKtanh K

Z2
d-_-= dz2 -d_ = (_'-- ea) 2 (B10)
with conditions (B2a) and (B2b) satisfied.
The observation is now made that
Equating (B9) and (B10) yields
When z-->--o_, then zl-->0 and z2--) some point a (B4)

(_'2--e_)/'(_')--2eK------e(I-f'2ae K tanh K
When z-->+ _, then zj--->+ _o and z2-->+ _ (Bh) ------2eKe (r) (Bll)
The unit circle in the z_-plane can be mapped where G is defined by the relation
uniquely by a linear fractional transformation onto
a unit circle in the i'-plane with center at the origin e(r)=a tanh Ke(/-f _
and such that q-o_ and a in the z_-plane map into
eK and --e x, respectively (see ref. 149). This Then,
mapping can be written 1--ea(O
_'(f)=2e r (f_er)(f+er) (B12)
_-j-e K
ze--a=a _ tanh K (B6)
But/(_), and hence/'(t), is regular for Itl_l,
if z_ is considered as a function _, certain con- so 1-e (r) must have zeros at _--e r and i-=--e r.
ditions on z_ (_-) must be fulfilled. From relations It follows that G(_-) has zeros at _----er and _'------e r.
146
Then fron equations (B1), (B9), and (Bll), and the condition on h(_') can be expressed as
lira i'h(g') =0 (75)

dz dz dzl s --2eKeO(_)ef (_) l--) _,
d_" dzl (IF 2rzl (__e K) 2

In a case where the cascade blade has a sharp
_8e K e(7(D
(B13) trailing edge, the function h(_-) will not be regular
_r (_--eK)(_-[-e K)
at the corresponding point on the mapping circle.
As a result, the determination of h.2 from hi (where
with the condition that G(_') is regular for li'[>l,
h=htih2) is unduly complicated in the preceding
and G(eK)=O. Equation (B13) can be put into
form. The singularity can be factored out, how-
a more convenient form. ('onsider the function
ever, and the computations simplified. The
general mapping function (eq. (72)) then takes
the following form:
h(_-)=F(_') G(_')+ /
]og__)] 1-- e-_ 1 (B14)
where dz se -_ ( rt,'_ L_ (1 r"'_-_+_
_2(e2K--e-2K) (73)
F(r) - (e_K_ r_) (r__ e-_'_)
lie _" mg_j (B151
Therefore, h(_') is regular for [_']>1 and has a
zero of order two at _--->_o. Substituting equation where e is the included trailing-edge angle and
(B14) into equation (Bl3) gives _t_ is the point corresponding to the trailing edge.
The function h(_) appearing in equation (B15) is
h(f) regular on and outside the unit circle. For details
d--z=se-KF(f ) e_-_V (72)
(If _" of this computation, see reference 105.
APPENDIX C
RELAXATION CONSIDERATIONS
Consider the set of five grid points 0, 1, 2, 3, and R0 (C3)

Ca=% Ao
4 shown in figure 83. The number 0 denotes the
central point at which the finite-difference equa-
This choice of a new _'o has an influence on
tion, under consideration in this discussion, is
other residuals. In this case, the residuals at
written. The subscripts 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 refer to
points l, 2, 3, and 4 in figure 83 are immediately
the five points 0, l, 2, 3, and 4. The finite- affected. The finite-difference equations written
difference equation is written at 0 as at these four points each contain _ multiplied by
a coefficient that has been deternfined at the out-
set. Thus, it is seen that R_, for example, is a
function of _I'0 and subsequently of _'o. A change
The coefficients A_ are known, and tile nonlinear in _I'o then must cause a corresponding change in
contribution Ko is fixed from a previous approxi- RI.
mate solution or from an assumed solution. A simple way to carry out this process is to list
the initial values of _f and R_ at each point on
Equation (C1) is rewritten
an oversized drawing of the flow field. Then a
change in _.', of _, is recorded under _,_ at the
AoxI, o+ A_ ,Ir, + A2xI,=4- As,Pa+ A4,Iq + Ko=Ro ((72) point in question. Resulting changes ARt are
recorded at the respective points affected.
where Ro is called the residual at 0. When the In this illustration, second-order polynomial
correct values of' qq are inserted in equation (C2), representation (resulting in five wdues appearing
R0 will be zero. If incorrect values of x_ are used, in each difference equation) was used. The
llo will, in general, have a wdue different from principle is the same for higher-order representa-
tions where more points are involved in each
zero.
equation. Unequal spacing of points near the
When equation (C1) is applied to each of N
boundaries does not affect the general procedure.
points in the flow field, N simultaneous equations Residuals are systematically reduced over the
in N unknowns (_) result. When values of entire flow field, usually beginning with the larger
% (i=0, l, . . . N) are assumed, equation (C2) ones. As there is considerable interaction of
yields N residual values R_ (i-:(i, 1, . . . N). The effects, the residual at a given point may undergo
purpose of the relaxation process is to reduce many changes in the course of a solution.
these residuals to small values. From equation There arc many devices for obtaining rapid
(('2) it is seen that R0 can be reduced to zero by convergence that can be used to great adwmtage
a new choice of 'I'o, say 'I"o, su('h that when employing relaxation methods (see ref. 109).
148
APPENDIX D
MATRIX CONSIDERATIONS
Applying equation (149) to each grid point in It is seen from equations (D4) and (D5) that
the flow field results in a collection of N linear L{ can be found first from a knowledge of A{.
equations in N unknowns. In a flow problem
A _
of this nature, so many points are required in the Then u} can be found from (D5), since uj=_._ J
solution that matrices can be used to solve the L1
equations only if high-speed computing equipment Next, the second column of ILl can be found and
is available. Various matrix techniques are avail- then the second row of [u]. In this manner, all
able in the literature. A brief outline of a method elements of both matrices are known.
that has been used successfully in references 129
Now define a colmnn matrix {Q} such that
and 130 is presented herein.
The finite-difference equations are written in [LI{ Q} = {J} (D6)
matrix form as follows:
It can be shown that
[A]{}={J} (D1)
where
i--I
J'--_-_k=l L_Qk (D7)

[A] square matrix of order N
{_I,}, {J} column m_trices having N elements Q_= L_
The square matrix [A] can be written as

Q,=_
[A] = rq [d] [u] (D2)
where
Hence, [Q] can be found by finding Q_, Q_.... in
successive order.
[/] lower triangular matrix with unity on the
From (D3) and (D1),
diagonal
[u] upper triangular matrix with unity on the
diagonal [Ll[u] {'Is } = {J} (DS)
[d] diagonal matrix
From (D6) and (D8),
The matrices [/] and [d] can be combined into a
lower triangular matrix [L], and (D2) is then
written [ul{_I'} = {Q} (D9)
IA] = ILl[u] (D3)
Since [u] is a known upper diagonal matrix and
If i denotes row and j denotes column, the elements
{Q} is a known column matrix, {q,} can be deter-
of ILl and [u] can be written
mined from ,I,,, ,I,_-_, . . . in successive order.
J--1
In general,
L}=A_--'fi2 Liu_ i> j (D4)
k=l
_I,_=Q_- _, u_i, k
L{ =A{ kffin
i--I
A_--_, Liu_ (D5) "--Q" (DIO)

_/J-- k=l
L{ .i>i
In this manner, the g,_ are found and the problem
u{: 1
is solved. Suggestions for a computational lay-
out designed for mininmm time expenditures are
made in reference 130.
149
CHAPTER V
VISCOUS FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES
By WILLIAM H. ROUDEBUSH and SEYMOUR LIEBLEIN
Boundary-layer behavior on two-dimensional com- theory for two reasons. First, it will aid in
pressor blade sections is described, based on a review obtaining a basic understanding of the general
of available theory and experiment. The material nature of viscous-flow effects. Second, it will
is divided into two main sections, one presenting a provide a background for the interpretation and
qualitative discussion of boundary-layer behavior, correlation of experimental and theoretical cascade
and the other treating the quantitative aspects of data. This is essential for the successful applica-
boundary-layer theory as applied to cascade blades. tion of blade-element theory to compressor design
In the qualitative analysis, the general character- (ch. III).
istics of laminar and turbulent boundary layers are In fluid-flow theory, a complete representation
reviewed. Instability and transition and their of the two-dimensional viscous flow is given by the
influence on boundary-layer behavior are discussed. Navier-Stokes equations (ref. 151, pt. I). General
An attempt is then made to construct a qualitative exact solutions of these equations have not as yet
picture of blade losses determined over a wide appeared. The principal advances in viscous-
range of Reynolds number, surface pressure gradi- flow solutions have come as a result of various
ent, and free-stream turbulence. approximations to the basic relations. The vis-
The section on quantitative boundary-layer theory cous-flow literature is covered extensively in
discusses some approximate methods .for computing reference 152, published in 1938. More recent
the growth and separation of laminar and turbulent literature is reviewed in reference 153. Com-
boundary layers. The loss in total pressure and pressible boundary-layer flow is surveyed in
defect in circulation resulting from blade boundary- reference 154.
layer growth are also considered. Concurrently with the development of bound-
ary-layer theory, considerable experimental re-
INTRODUCTION
search on boundary-layer behavior has been
Considerable effort in the past several decades conducted. These experiments not only provide
has been devoted to the determination of the two- empirical data necessary for obtaining approxi-
dimensional potential or inviscid flow about mate solutions to the boundary-layer equations,
airfoil and cascade sections. Comprehensive but also contribute to the estabhshment of a
surveys of the state of potential-flow theory for valuable qualitative picture of the behavior of
two-dimensional cascades are presented in chapter boundary layers.
IV and reference 150. These surveys indicate This chapter reviews the problem of deter-
that the theory available for analysis of ideal mining viscous effects on the two-dimensional
two-dimensional flow, although not simple, is incompressible flow about compressor blade pro-
usable and has provided a firm understanding files in cascade. The material is divided into
of the ideal flow on and around two-dimensional- two major parts, entitled Q U A L I T A T I V E
cascade blade sections. A real fluid, however, is BOUNDARY-LAYER THEORY and Q u A n-

viscous, and it is well-known that the presence of TITATIVE BOUNDARY-LAYER THEORY.
viscosity exerts a considerable influence on the In the first part, some of the more important
behavior of the flow. terminology is presented, and general trends to be
The determination of the viscous flow about anticipated in real fluid flows are indicated.
two-dimensional-cascade sections is considered Laminar and turbulent boundary layers, instabil-
important in the development of compressor flow ity, transition, and separation are discussed.
151
The general effects of Reynolds number on total- /_ air angle, angle between air velocity and
pressure loss for several levels of blade loading are x-axis, deg
evaluated qualitatively. ]n the second part, F turbulent-boundary-layer parameter, (O/Vo)
selected methods are presented for actually cal- (dVdds)
culating laminar- and turbulent-boundary-layer boundary-layer thickness
growth and predicting separation. In addition, _* boundary-hLyer displacement thickness
some consideration is given to the computation of turbulent-boundary-layer parameter, (C,,/
tile defect in circulation and the total-pressure 2)Red
loss caused by the growth of the blade surface 0 turbulent-boundary-layer parameter, 0*Red
boundary layers. The analysis indicates the O* boundary-layer momentum thickness
extent to which current viscous-flow theory can ), Pohlhausen parameter, (_2/v)(dVo/ds)
predict the important phenomena involved in the viscosity
flow of a real fluid about a two-dimensional u kinematic viscosity
cascade. o density
solidity, ratio of chord to spacing
SYMBOLS
r time
The following symbols are used in this chapter: shear stress
CD drag coefficient _ shear stress at wall

C fr local friction coefficient total-pressure-loss coefficient
(' L lift coefficient Subscripts:
c chord length cr critical
H boundary-layer form factor, _*/0" tip. flat plate
_q turbulence intensity m mean of upstream and downstream condi-
i incidence angle, angle between inlet-air tions
direction and tangent to blade mean n n-direction
camber line at leading edge, deg
re[ reference
L scale of turbulence
s s-direction
l* characteristic length
te trailing edge
n coordinate normal to blade surface
tr transition
P total or stagnation pressure
AI5 mass-averaged loss in total pressure 0 outer edge of boundary layer
p static or stream pressure 1 upstream at infinity
q arbitrary constant 2 downstream at infinity
Re Reynolds number, V,l*/_
Re_ Reynolds number based on chord length, QUALITATIVE BOUNDARY-LAYER THEORY
V_c/_ GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Res Reynolds number based on boundary-layer
thickness, Vo_/v For an ideal fluid, the velocity tangent to a
Reo Reynolds number based on boundary-layer fixed surface is generally nonzero at the surface
momentum thickness, I,_O*/v and (for small surface curvature) is nearly equal
._ coordinate along direction of blade surface to the velocity at points near the surface, as shown
s' distance along blade surface from leading in figure .(}3(t_). A viscous fluid, however, adheres
to the surface over which it is flowing, so that the
to trailing edge
u s-component of velocity in boundary layer velocity tangent to the surface is zero at the sur-
face. The velocity near tile surface rapidly in-
V air velocily
V, characteristic velocity creases and attains the value of the free-stream
r n-component of velocity in boundary layer velocity at a short distance from the surface, as
x abscissa in cascade plane (fig. 94) shown in figure 93(b). The region of flow in which
y ordinate in cascade plane (fig. 94) the local velocity is retarded is referred to as the
angle of attack, angle between inlet-air boundary layer. The static pressure across the
direction and blade chord, deg boundary layer is nearly constant.
VISCOUS FLOW IN TWO-DII_IENSIONAL CASCADES 153
from the surface of the blade somewhere in ad-

vance of the trailing edge. In this event, the
entire flow pattern about the cascade is altered
by the displacement of fluid accoml)anying such
separation, and the potential-flow solution about
_\\\\\N",, \\\ "V,',,\\N-N-Nx, the original profile loses its significance almost
completely.
(e) It is evident, therefore, that a knowledge of
general boundary-layer behavior is vital to the
accurate prediction and interpretation of cascade
Ouler edge of
flow characteristics. In the present section, the
boundory Ioyer_,
Free-streom / discussion is presented in the following order:
_ velocily Vs r--_ (1) Preliminary boundary-layer definitions

and concepts
(2) Description of laminar boundary layer in
I _ . //' some detail with particular emphasis on
,_' _ ve}ocity u effects of Reynolds number
(3) Description of turbulent boundary layer
and comparison with laminar layer
(b)
(4) Discussion of instability and transition
(a) Nonviseous flow. with regard to their importance in cascade
(b) Viscous flow.
operation and data interpretation
FmURE 93.--Velocity profiles near a fixed boundary. (5) Combination of considerations (1) to (4)
to form a qualitative picture of the loss
In two-dimensionM-cascade flow, boundary lay- spectrum as influenced by pressure gradient
ers develop oil both the suction and pressure and Reynolds number variation
surfaces of the blade. These surface boundary
BOUNDARY-LAYER CONCEPTS
layers then come together at the blade trailing
edge and form tile blade wake, as shown in figure Types of boundary layers.--The two general
94. As the wake moves downstream, a mixing types of boundary layer occurring on blade surfaces
lakes place between tile wake and free stream and, are designated laminar and turbulent. The bound-
through viscous action, the flow becomes uniform ary layer is initially laminar and usually becomes
at some distance behind the blade trailing edge.
Although, in many practical problems, the blade
7Axil F- ]
surface boundary layer constitutes a small portion Suction- LI velocily [_
of the flow field, it plays a decisive part in the sur foce --7 _ 1
boundory _ / r ;
determination of the actual flow characteristics of
the cascade. The effect of blade boundary-layer
development on cascade losses is obvious, since
the resulting wake formation contains a defect in /,/_ressure- I I-_ i___ "I
./,/ surfoce I [-7 /["-
total pressure. The surface boundary layers can
also exert a strong influence on the surface pres-
sure distribution and outlet-angle characteristics
of the blade. If the boundary layer is very thin,
the pressure distribution obtained from potential-
flow calculations over the original body will be a
good approximation to the actual distribution.
As the boundary layer thickens, however, the [_J _ .......x_
actual pressure distribution will depart from the
potential-flow determination. Under certain con- FIGURE 94.--Boundary layers and blade wake in two-
ditions, the boundary layer actually separates dimez_sional-eascade flow.
1.0 layer by a deceleration of the main stream. A

turbulent boundary layer often receives sufficient
momentum influx to advance some distance
against an adverse pressure gradient before sepa-
ration occurs. The laminar boundary layer, on
the other hand, with very little momentum
influx, is unable to advance far into the face
go
of a rising pressure. Eventually, in either case,
the particles near the wall are slowed down to a
stop and finally actually reverse their direction
La
and begin to flow upstream (fig. 96). This results
in separation of the through-flow from the blade
surface.
In the range of Reynolds number and turbulence
of conventional cascades and compressors, the
boundary layer is laminar over the forward portion
.o and turbulent over the rearward portion of the
Velocity ratio, ul V
O, $
blade. Since the loss characteristics of these two
boundary-layer regions are markedly different,
FIGVRE 95.--Typical velocity profiles for laminar and the location and nature of the transition between
turbulent boundary layers.
the regions are significant in determining the
magnitude of the resulting wake.
turbulent somewhere along the blade surface.
Boundary-layer parameters.--A definition of
The boundary layer is said to be in a laminar state
certain basic terms is prerequisite to any further
if the flow, at any instant, can be represented as
discussion of boundary layers. The more im-
a sequence of layers, each layer tracing a path
portant of these terms are defined in this section.
essentially tangent to the surface of the cascade
Ttlere are several boundary-layer thickness pa
blade. In this case, the velocity varies uniformly
rameters that occur throughout the literature. The
through the boundary layer from a value of zero
actual full physical thickness _ is taken to be th_
at the blade surface to a value ahnost equal to the
distance normal to a fixed surface wherein th,
free-stream velocity at a short distance from the
velocity in the boundary layer attains some fixe,"
surface. The boundary layer in a turbulent state
percentage, say 99 percent, of the free-stream
is characterized by a rapid random fluctuation
velocity. The boundary-layer velocity theoreti-
with time of the velocity at ally point and a large
cally equals the free-stream velocity only at an
interchange of momentum. The velocity is again
infinite distance normal to the surface. However,
zero at the blade surface, and the mean velocity
for practical considerations, the two can usually
averaged with respect to time varies continuously
be considered equal at a short distance 6 from the
through the boundary layer and attains a value
surface (fig. 93(b)).
approaching the free-stream velocity a short
distance from the surface.
,Outer edge of
Typical velocity distributions through the
I boundary layer
boundary layer for the laminar and turbulent Velocity- j_
cases are illustrated in figure 95. The turbulent-
flow velocities remain higher closer to the boundary I_ .I
because of the turbulent infiltration of high-
energy particles into the boundary layer. In the
laminar flow, the interchange of momentum is
due only to the shear stress exerted between two
neighboring layers of fluid. This difference be-
tween the two types is manifest when an advelse FIGURE 96.--Boundary-layer flow reversal in presenCe of
pressure gradient is impressed on the boundary ad verse press ure gradient.
VISCOUS FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES 155
Since the velocity in the boundary layer goes to where V_ is a characteristic velocity of the flow,
zero at the wall, the weight flow in the boundary- l* is a characteristic length, and v is the kinematic
layer region is decreased. This decrease in weight viscosity. In particular, V_ can be taken as the
flow can be expressed in terms of a length _*, called upstream velocity V_ and l* as the blade chord c
the displacement thickness, obtained by dividing to give what is called the body Reynolds number,
the integrated defect in weight flow within the or blade-chord Reynolds number, Re_=Vlc/v. In
boundary layer by the free-stream velocity V0,_ at another formulation, the velocity can be taken to
the outer edge of the layer. For incompressible be tile velocity V0 at the outer edge of the bound-
flow, this gives ary layer and the characteristic length as the
momentum thickness 0" to give the boundary-
layer Reynolds number Ree= VoO*/v, where Res is
a function of the particular location at which V0
and _* are computed. As will be indicated later,
in which tile coordinate _t is taken in a direction
Reynolds number exercises a considerable influence
normal to the surface (similarly, the coordinate s
on the boundary-layer growth, instability, and
represents distance in the direction of the surface,
transition.
fig. 93(a)); u is the local velocity in the s-direction
Loss parameters.--In the flow about airfoil
within the boundary layer; and Vo., is the velocity
sections, friction exerts a tangential force that
in the s-direction at the outer edge of the boundary
opposes the forward motion of the airfoil. The
layer.
retarding component arising fiom the friction
In a similar manner, a momentum thickness 8*
force is called the friction drag. In addition to
is obtained to represent, the corresponding de-
friction, a retarding force component is also ob-
crease in momentum in the boundary layer. The
tained from the normal pressure forces of the real
momentum thickness is obtained by dividing the
flow. This force component is called tile form
integrated defect in momentum by V_., to give
drag. The total drag of the section, which is the
sum of the friction and form drags, is called the
0"= _ 1-- dn profile drag. Ordinarily, the profile drag force is
expressed as a drag coefficient Co, defined as the
The momentum thickness in the wake is directly drag force per unit span divided by a reference
related (as shown in a later section) to the loss in kinetic head and the chord length.
total pressure across a cascade. For the isolated airfoil, at a distance sufficiently
Another parameter frequently encountered is far downstream that static pressure is uniform
the boundary-layer form factor H, defined as the normal to the flow direction, the drag coefficient
ratio of displacement thickness to momentum can be related to the momentum-thickness ratio
thickness:
O*/c by the following equation (ref. 155) :
H=_*
0"
The form factor appears as a parameter in approx-

imate boundary-layer theory in the determination The downstream wake momentum thickness ap-
of the magnitude of the momentum thickness. It pearing in this relation is directly related to the
also gives a rough indication of the state of the momentum thickness of the surface boundary
boundary layer with regard to possible separation. layers at the blade trailing edge. An analogous
One of the most significant parameters charac- approximate equation
terizing boundary-layer behavior is the Reynolds
numbr, a dimensionless parameter proportional
to the ratio of inertial force to viscous force, given (_ =2 (_),. cs 3" [..
cos/_,_ [-1 1 cos 3,,_I
by
exists between the drag coefficient based on dy-
Re =V_l*
p namic pressure in the free stream at the trailing
156 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
edge and on the trailing-edge wake momentum- reflecting qualitatively the total-pressure loss or
thickness ratio of the cascade airfoil. Thus, the the profile drag for an airfoil section.
drag coefficient can be considered as a measure LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER
of the momentuln-thickness ratio of the surfl_ce

A laminar boundary layer is always present on
boundary layers for both isolated and cascade
airfoils. the forward portion of a cascade blade." The
growth of tile laminar layer (expressed as bound-
In compressor design and analysis, it has been
ary-layer thickness _) in the absence of a longi-
found convenient to use a loss i)arameter based
tudinal pressure gradient (flat-plate flow) proceeds
on the defect in total pressure across a blade
essentially according to the proportionality relation
element. A general compressor total-pressure-loss
coefficient _ has been defined (ref. t56) as
AP
1
WL where v is kinematic viscosity, s is distance along
the surface, and V1 is the velocity far upstream.
where AP represents the mass-averaged decrease In the presence of a negative pressure gradient
in relati ve total pressure across the blade element, the boundary-layer thickness is solnewhat less,
1 and for a positive pressure gradient it is somewhat
an(t_pI.'_, r represents the dynamic pressure at.
greater, than for the constant-pressure case of
some reference location. It is desirable, therefore, equation (222).
in the discussion of real cascade flow, to consider To relate equation (222) to a body in the flow
the effects of viscosity on the defect in total field, let Re_ be the Reynolds number based on
pressure. Since _ depends on A__, the value blade chord length (the length of the plate in the
c[langes with distance downstream of the trailing case of a fiat plate). Then, equation (222) can be
edge (because of turbulent mixing) and therefore rewritten as
depends, to some extent, on the location of the
measuring station. The complete loss in total
(223)
pressure is obtained at a station sufficiently far
c _/-ff_
downstream that. the flow has become uniform
This is contrary to the case ()f drag coefficient, where Reo=V_e/v. Therefore, 8/c varies inversely
which is theoretically the same at any axial h)ca- with the square root of the body Reynolds number
tion downstream of the blade trailing edge. for a given value of s/c.
For the two-dimensional cascade with incom- The drag due to friction in the laminar flow
pressible flow, reference 156 shows that, if the depends on the integral of the local surface shear
static pressure is uniform _wross the blade spacing stress _ and therefore on the velocity gradient
at the trailing edge, the t(,tal-pressure-loss coefli-

at the wall (i.e., _r_u_._,}[_u'_.=0)" For flat-
cient for complete mixing ( based on _oV_.,_
1 ) is plate flow, the drag coefficient varies with the body
given approximately by Reynolds number as
=2 (03 o[
c ,,cos_,, 1+ c ,,cost_,.J CDOC--
1
(224)
Thus, tile trailing-edge m,)mentuln thickness For accelerating flow the friction coefficient is
should be an indication t_f the complete h)ss in greater (larger Ou/Sn at wall, see fig. 97), and for
total pressure. decelerating flow the friction coefficient is smaller
In view of the preceding discussion, the bound- (smaller bu/_n), than for the flat plate; but in all
ary-layer nmmentuzn thickness at the blade trail- cases a decreasing tread with body Reynolds
ing edge is considered herein as the basic parameter number is observed.
VISCOUS FLO_ r IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES 157
1.0
surfaces are indicated in the lower part of the figure.
The laminar boundary layer grows along the
dplds
surface until some point after the maximum veloc-
ity is reached. The laminar boundary layer then
separates if a sufficiently severe pressure gradient
occurs. The location of the separation point
behind the point of peak velocity varies with the
magnitude of the positive pressure gradient and is
independent of the body Reynolds number (if the
Reynolds number is low enough that transition
to turbulent flow does not occur). With a separa-
tion of the laminar boundary layer, the free-stream
velocity distribution is altered as indicated by tho
dashed line in figure 98, and an increase in form
drag results. The magnitude of the form drag
C) 10 depends on the thickness of the profile at the point
Verocity ratio, U/Vo,s of separation and the camber of the airfoil. For
Fla_TP_E97.--Laminar-boundary-layer velocity distribu- a cascade airfoil, the variation of the free-stream
tions for different surface pressure gradients. velocity after the separation may be slightly
different from that for the isolated airfoil because
In the l)resenee of a positive pressure gradient,
of the channel effect of adjacent blades.
the t)oundary-layer momentunl is often insuffi-
The pronounced effect, of the surface velocity
cient to overcome the increase in pressure, and
gradient on the calculated location of the point of
separation will occur. Specifically, separation
laminar separation is illustrated in figure 99
occurs when the surface shear stress is zero (i.e.,
(obtained from ref. 151, pt. [) for a Joukowski
when (Ou/c)n,_,=O). According to simplified
profile. As the pressure gradient increases, the
theory, the separation condition depends on the
point of separation moves closer to the point of
value of _ flow parameter of the form
peak velocity. The different velocity gradients
X= a2 d V. (225) in the figure were achieved by varying the angle
_, ds of attack of the airfoil.
as in the Pohlhausen theory (ref. 157), or TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER
-- 0 .2 dVo In the range of turbulence and Reynolds

m, (226)
ds number usually encountered in cascade blade
rows, the laminar boundary layer generally be-
as in the Thwaites theory (to t)e discussed later). comes turbulent somewhere along the blade
According to the Pohlhausen theory, separation surface. It is chiefly because of this transition
occurs when X=--]2. As will be seen later, this that practical compressors are realizable. The
is not entirely reliat)le, since the theory is least. turbulent interchange of momentum between
applicable in regions of rising pressure. Thwaites the free stream and the turbulent boundary layer
gives a value of m=' 0.082 for separation to occur. increases the energy level in the boundary layer
This criterion appears to be more wdid than that so that: it can advance farther, without separating,
of Pohlhausen. In any event, the location of the in the face of a pressure rise than could a laminar
point of lanfinar separation is primarily charac- boundary layer.
terized by a t)oundary-layer thickness and the
The turbulent-1)oundary-layer thickness de-
local gr_ttient of free-stream velocity. The loca-
velops (e.g., ref. 152), in the absence of a pressure
tion is unaffected by chaT:ges in blade-chord
gradient, as
Reynolds number.
Now consider the laminar flow over a blade __
'_/us' 6 _I_ (227)
section at fixed angle of attack (fig. 98). The aoc_/rT- or-o% ._
velocity distributions on the pressure and suction _ vl c _'Re,
Experience shows that many factors such as

Separated
boundary-layer form factor, Reynolds number,
Unseparated
and pressure gradient (ref. 158) influence the
magnitude of the shear stress. To date, many
empirical relations have been established between
local shearing stress and boundary-layer character-
istics. One of the most recent is due to Lud-
wieg and Tillmann (ref. 159):
_ : 0.246e- z.5_Ree-O. _68 (229)

_1pv0
2
where Reynolds number Ro=Voe*/_,, and H

is the form factor. The empirical skin-friction
formulas lead to the general conclusion that the
turbulent skin-friction coefficient is greater than
the laminar skin-friction coefficient for the same
Reynolds number.
The condition that _---0 defines the point of
0 1.0 separation in both laminar- and turbulent-
S / ,,c'
boundary-layer-flows. In the case of the turbu-
FIGURE 98.--Effect of separation on velocity distribution lent-boundary-layer, the point at which _----0 is
about an airfoil.
determined from an empirical equation such as
equation (229). In reference 160 this equation
The turbulent _ is generally larger than the
is used in conjunction with experimentally de-
laminar _ for the same Rec. This increased
termined values of H and Ree to predict separa-
thickness contributes to a slightly larger form
tion. It is clear that _, in equation (229), never
drag for the turbulent boundary layer than for
actually becomes zero. However, the decreasing
an equivalent unseparated laminar layer (at the
trend is sufficiently pronounced as the separation
same Reynolds number).
point is approached that extrapolation to _-,,=0
In a laminar boundary layer the local shear
stress is given throughout by _ =#(bu/bn). This
2.0
simple equation does not hold for the turbulent ] Suction surface
boundary layer because of the turbulent shear Pressure surface
o Separation point
stresses present. The wall shear stress is given by
1.5
_:#(_u/bn),=0 in both cases, since a very thin
laminar boundary layer, called a laminar sublayer,
is always present between the turbulent layer
I/0 1,0
and the wall. However, not enough is known of
Vi
the velocity distribution in the laminar sublayer
to enable the utilization of this expression to
compute wall shear stress for the turbulent layer. .5
As a result, the problem must be approached

empirically.
From velocity profiles observed in pipe flow, 0 25 50 75 I00
the drag coefficient for a flat plate is found to Percent chord
vary inversely with the fifth root of Re,: FIGURE 99.--Potential-theoretical velocity distribution
showing calculated point of laminar separation for Jou-
1
kowski profile J 015 for lift coefficients of 0, 0.5, and 1.0
C_oc 5 (228)
_/Re_ (ref. 151, pt. I).
VISCOUS
FLOWIN TWO-DIMENSIONAL
CASCADES 159
is possible. Figure 100 shows the results of such T : ,_ngl'e o'f ' 'SeParation poin( _ '
a calculation from reference 160. altack s/c
. o deg' Observed Theorelical
For conventional two-dimensional compressor o I0 I 055 to 058
sections, several gross parameters have been 0 60
[] 81 60 62
developed to indicate whether separation is likely
in certain
These
areas of blade design
parameters, based on the
(refs. 9 and 38).
diffusion in
oo , o i
velocity on the blade suction surface, involve
lit
I % ,
consideration of only the peak and outlet suction-
surface velocities or approximations to these
'I
velocities in terms of over-all (inlet and outlet) I I i i',Y', _ J

velocities and flow angles, hnplicit in the work 0 .I .2 .5 .4 .,.5 .6 .7
s/c
is the consideration that tile boundary-layer
history at the start of the diffusion and the velocity FIGURE 100.--Comparison of experimentally observed sep-
distributions ahmg the surface are generally the aration points with those obtained by extrapolating
values of CI, obtained from Ludwieg-Tillmann formula
same for c(mvcntional blade sections. Location
using experimental data of reference 174 for NACA air-
of the point of separation, however, cannot be foil section 65(216)-222 (approx.) (ref. 160).
determined from these parameters.
TRANSITION Experiment shows (ref. 161) that transition
occurs because of infinitesimal disturbance in-
For conventional airfoil shapes, the initial
stability when the free-streain turbulence inten-
laminar boundary layer, if it remains laminar,
sity is less than about 0.2 percent and when no
will separate at some point downstream of the
other external disturbances are present. For
pressure Ininin,um. Depending on certain flow'
free-stream turbulence greater than about 0.2
characteristics to be considered in this section, a
percent, which is generally the situation in cascade
transition to turbulent flow may occur at, a point
and compressor flow, the characteristics of the
prior to the laminar separation point. In this
free-stream turbulence (scale and intensity) play
event, the turbulent flow will remain attached
a decisive role in effecting the transit.ion. In any
for some distance farther along the blade surface.
event, the transition phenomena can generally be
Such a transition will normally occur under
ordinary cascade flow conditions. The region in related in terms of the Reynolds number and
which the transition to turbulent flow takes place another parameter or parameters describing the
is small and is conveniently thought of as a point, characteristics of the disturbance (i.e., free-
called the transition point. stream turbulence, surface roughness, etc.).
The exact location and conditions under which Infinitesimal-disturbance theory.--The first
the transition from a laminar to a turbulent significant theoretical work on transition was
boundary layer will occur are not currently pre- concerned with the instability of the laminar
dictable, and the question of transition constitutes boundary layer with respect to infinitesimal
a major problem in present-day boundary-layer oscillations within the layer (e.g., ref. 151, pt. II).
research. Transition can result either from dis- In a stable laminar boundary layer the disturb-
t urbances of finite magnitude such as free-stream ances are damped, while in an unstable boundary
turbulence, or fl'oln an instability of the laminar layer the disturbances are amplified. The point
steady flow in which infinitesimal disturbances, of division, called the neutral or instability point,
under proper conditions, grow exponentially with depends on the origin of the disturbance. The
respect to tiine. The length of travel or time existence of instability in a laminar boundary
before transition occurs depends on the rate of layer indicates that transition is possible but not,
amplification of the disturbances and therefore necessarily present after the neutral point. The
on the particular flow conditions in and about the actual transition to a fully developed turbulent
boundary layer. motion will occur some distance downstream of
160 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OFAXIAL-FLOW
COMPRESSORS
the instability point, since a finite time is required r

for the oscillations to build to full strength and
--o-- Laminar separa-
permeate the boundary-layer region. tion points
According to this theory, an instability of the Instability
laminar boundary layer (i.e., an amplification of
points
oscillations) results from (1) the presence of , CL _
viscosity and (2) an inflection in the boundary-
layer velocity profile normal to the surface. The
theory further indicates that the instability point
is a function of the boundary-layer Reynolds s ,
number; that is, below some value of Reynolds
number infinitesimal oscillations are damped, !
Suction
while above this value oscillations are amplified. surface
%
The instability value of the boundary-layer Pressure
! I surface
Reynolds number depends largely on the form of ! i
the velocity profile of the basic boundary-layer
flow. This profile is determined primarily by the
longitudinal pressure gradient of the flow. The
greater the positive pressure gradient, the lower 5 i
the boundary-layer Reynolds number at instabil-
ity. In translating these results into terms of the
blade-chord Reynolds number, the boundary-
layer Reynolds number Re5 can be expressed as
FIGURE 101.--Theoretical velocity distributions for J 025
airfoil at various values of lift coefficient (obtained by
Re,= V_
; Vl
V, _--Rec V
_ (!) (230)
varying angle of attack) with instability and separation
points calculated for various values of blade-chord Rey-
Thus, in general, the closer the point in question nolds number (ref. 162).
to the blade leading edge (the smaller the value of
_/c), the larger the blade-chord Reynolds number layer depends on the characteristics of the im-
necessary for the attainlnent of the instability posed disturbance. The principal source of ex-
value of the boundary-layer Reynolds number at ternal disturbance is a function of the intensity
and scale of free-stream turbulence according to
that point. That is, the higher the blade-chord
Reynolds number, the sooner will the instability the parameter _ (l*/L) 1/5, where _q is the intensity
condition occur. These considerations are illus- of the turbulence, L is the scale of the turbulence,
trated graphically in figure 101, which shows the and l* is some characteristic dimension of the body
results of the calculation of the instability point such as chord length or diameter. The greater
thef tee-stream turbulence parameter, the lower
for various blade-chord Reynohts numbers on the
suction surface of a Joukowski airfoil at several the magnitude of the critical Reynolds number.
angles of attack (from ref. 162). The effect of Intensity of turbulence is defined as the ratio of
the increased surface pressure gradient and the root mean square of the disturbance velocity
to the mean flow velocity. Scale of turbulence is
Reynolds number on the location of the instability
a measure of the effective size of the turbulent
point as angle of attack is increased is clearly
indicated. eddies and has an inverse effect on the turbulence
Finite-disturbance theory.--In a second general parameter. Experimental confirmation of this

theory of transition (ref. 163), disturbances of theory has been obtained by several investigators
finite magnitude are considered to be imposed on (refs. 164 and 165) in the study of the drag charac-
the laminar boundary layer from outside sources. teristics of spheres.
In this case, the transition of the laminar boundary Flow about spheres.--In the development of
the boundary layer on cascade blade sections, a

primary consideration is whether the transition
occurs before or after the point of laminar separa-
tion. Tile effect of transition location on the loss \\
characteristics of submerged bodies is graphically

illustrated by the well-known flow around a
sphere at a fixed turbulence level as represented in
figures 102 and 103. At low Reynolds numbers,
when no transition occurs, the laminar boundary
layer separates and high profile drag results.
When transition occurs before the point of laminar
separation at tligh Reynolds numbers, the result-
ing turbulent boundary layer can tolerate a Subcrilicol
greater pressure gradient; separation of the
Supercritical
turbulent b_yer is delayed, and a lower profile drag
is observed. The Reynolds number at which the FIGURE 103.--Suberitical and supercritical flow around
rather sudden change of drag charactel'istic occurs, sphere (schematic, after ref. 151, pt. It).
called tim critical Reynolds number of tile sphere,

cation of this effect (ref. 164) is represented by
corresponds to the point where the transition and
figure 104, which illustrates the earlier transition
separation coincide.
associated with increasing free-stream turbulence.
The drag characteristics of spheres have pro-
The turbulence correlation of figure 104 provides a
vided a means for evaluating the effects of free- means for identifying the free-stream turbulence
stream turbulence on transition. As previously level from the measured drag characteristics of
discussed, theory indicates that the critical spheres. The turbulence in a cascade tunnel is
Reynolds number will be a function of the turbul- frequently expressed in terms of a turbulence
ence parameter ,_q(l*/L) _/5. Experimental verifi- factor, defined as the ratio of the critical Reynolds
number at zero turbulence to the measured
critical Reynolds number of the sphere (ref. 165).
The effective Reynolds number for a blade
section, defined as blade-chord Reynolds number
& times turbulence factor of the tunnel, has been

used to represent a transition parameter that
-I
Vetocity far upstream, VI
Sphere 4
.08_ diam. ,__---J-_
in. _
_, .06 5.0
_,-CLA- o 8.5_
E
8 .02
g
0 2__o
.04 - -
o8 .2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 56 4.0xO 5
Crificol Reynolds number, Rec
FIOURE 104.--Experimental variation.of critical Reynolds

Reynolds number, 1_1Z*
number of spheres with turbulence factor; extrapolated
to zero turbulence (data of ref. 164). Value of Re_, for
FtC, URE 102.--Drag and drag coefficient of sphere in region zero turbulence indicated to be between 3.85X 105 (ref.
of critical Reynolds number. 182) and 4.11X 105 (ref. 165).
691-564 0-65--12
I.E
includes the effects of free-stream turbulence.
Blade sections at the same effective Reynolds J.--"_T"- I seoarahon _ Turbulent
number, although of different blade-chord Rey- E

0)
nolds numbers and turbulence levels, are expected 1.4
to exhibit approximately the same transition (and 8

therefore the same drag) characteristics. The 09
subject of turbulence-level measurements is treated n I.C

O9
more fully in references 164 and 165. [2_
Boundary-layer reattachment.--Under certain

conditions it is possible for a laminar boundary
_ i _i._ J I ] I I J
20 40 60 80 I00
layer that has separated to reattach to the blade Percen! chord
surface. In most instances the reattached layer

is turbulent, transition having occurred in the
separated region. In these turbulent reattach- .oo,o[
....
ments the location of the transition point is the
principal determinant.
Generally speaking,
ior is fairly well understood
the boundary-layer behav-
as long as the transi-
_ .0008 -
o _L;
tion occurs either before the separation point or
.0006
at a large distance downstream of the separation.
In the former case a thickening of the boundary q
layer occurs in the region of transition as the flow

_ .OOO4
passes to the turbulent state. In the latter case, E
0
the laminar boundary layer remains separated,
and the flow breakaway and high form drag are
observed. When transition occurs close behind
Percenl chord
the point of laminar separation, however, under
certain conditions, the separated laminar bound- (a) Pressure distribution.
ary layer may reattach to the surface as a turbu- (b) Momentum thickness and form factor.
lent layer, forming a sort of bubble of locally FIOURE 105.--Pressure distribution on NACA 66r018 air-
separated flow. The reattached turbulent bound- foil at zero angle of attack and blade-chord Reynolds
ary layer is considerably thicker than if transition number of 2.4X 106, and variation of momentum-thick-
ness ratio and form factor in region of reattachment of
had occurred at that point without a previous
locally separated flow (ref. 166).
laminar separation. The turbulent reattachment
has been observed for both isolated and cascade
airfoil sections. Detailed discussions of the nature 106(a). The most detrimental effect of the
of the separation bubble and the various factors laminar separation bubble is the rather sharp
influencing its characteristics are presented in increase in momentum thickness associated with
references 39, 166, and 167 (pt. ]]). Various the turbulent reattachment. The effect of a
experimental methods of determining the extent suction-surface laminar separation bubble on the
and location of the laminar separation are dis- loss characteristics of a blade section is illustrated
cussed in references 166, 167 (pt. II), and 168. in figure 106(b), which presents the variation of
Experimental variations of the boundary-layer
drag coefficient C_ with angle of attack a for a
momentum thickness, boundary-layer form factor,
typical cascade blade section (from ref. 39).
and pressure distribution observed in the region
The solid line represents the measured drag
of the laminar bubble for an isolated-airfoil section
coefficient, and the dashed line is a hypothetical
(ref. 166) are illustrated in figure 105. A similar
variation for the case of no laminar separation.
illustration of the pressure distribution on the
suction surface of a cascade section with laminar A noticeable increase in the drag coefficient occurs
separation bubble (ref. 39) is shown in figure in the low-ldss range of operation.
1.6 at the blade trailing edge depends on the extent

of each flow regime. The momentum thickness
at the blade trailing edge is a principal factor in
1.2
the determination of the loss in total pressure
of the cascade system. The prediction of the
oJ
loss characteristics of a given cascade geometry
_ .e
thus involves an analysis of the composite effects
of the boundary-layer regimes.
.4 From the previous discussions, it is known that
the principal factors affecting the boundary
layer are the local surface pressure distribution,
the blade-chord Reynolds number, and the free-
0 20 40 60 80 I O0
stream turbulence level. It is desirable to con-
Percent chord
struct a qualitative picture of the anticipated
.O6 variation of boundary-layer momentum thickness
i [ I [ I [ I
on a blade surface over a wide range of Reynolds
o Data of ref 59 _L
'_ .... Probable variation in /I number, pressure distribution, and turbulence
.04--- absence of local t t level. Such a composite plot will not only con-
._ i laminar separation /
stitute an effective summary of the preceding
theory as applied to blade sections, but may also
o .02 - , , . t be of interest in identifying desirable or unde-
C3 _ I i
sirable areas of cascade operation.
The comparative variation of trailing-edge
0 8 16 24 52 boundary-layer momentum thickness (actually
Angle of attack, a, deg the ratio 0"/c) with blade-chord Reynolds number
(a) Pressure distribution at 16.1 angle of attack. is presented qualitatively for several levels of
(b) Variation of drag coefficient with angle of attack. pressure gradient in figure 107. Pressure dis-
FIGURE ] 06.--Illustration of effect of local laminar separa- tributions are considered ranging from zero
tion on pressure distribution and drag characteristics for pressure rise (no blade loading) to a severe
NACA 65-(12)10 airfoil in cascade. Inlet-air angle, pressure gradient (very high loading) resulting
45 ; solidity, 1.5.
in a separation of the turbulent layer. The
analysis is made for the flow along the convex
Obviously, the occurrence of laminar separation
(suction) surface of conventional compressor
bubbles will make the correlation of cascade data
difficult. The effects of turbulence level and blade sections. The pressure distributions con-
sidered, therefore, contain a decreasing pressure
Reynolds number further increase the problem.
over the forward portion of the blade and a rising
Although the theory governing these effects is
pressure over the rearward portion.
not complete, some qualitative ideas can be
The variation of trailing-edge momentum-
drawn from the foregoing descriptive material.
thickness ratio is presented in figure 107 for a
COMPOSITE LOSS VARIATIONS
fixed low turbulence level (as normally encoun-
The preceding sections have presented a quali- tered in low-turbulence cascade tunnels). It
tative picture of the characteristics of the three must be emphasized that the trends established
general regimes of boundary-layer development-- are only qualitative and that no sufficient substan-
the laminar region, the fully turbulent region, tiating data are available. The values of Rey-
and the transition region. On the basis of avail- nolds number at which tim transition phenomena
able theory and experimental evidence, the manner are indicated in figure 107 are not to be interpreted
in which each type of flow influences the resulting as accurate definitions of these regions. These
thickness of the boundary layer was indicated. values are largely unpredictable at this time.
On conventional cascade blade surfaces, all three Zero loading.--The limiting case of no })lade
boundary-layer regimes are known to exist. surface pressure gradient can be represented by
The momentunl thickness of the boundary layer the boundary-layer flow along a flat plate. For
[
J i i i
] !li
I
\D l
\ C1x \
% \ \
.05_ -"
l\
o
y ! ,\
o .04
U3
_n Flow \
_ -- Lominor , \,
u
Turbulent
J_
------ Combined \]
_.03
E \ v\
I
0 .....
1
i \
\
\
o .O?__----
J
>. \
8 b
GO
.01
I
!a, t
i 1 [ i _
- 44 -- --
0
05 I
.I .2 .5 .5 I 2 5 5 I0 2o _0
5o I00 xlO 5
Blode-chord Reynolds number Rec
Fia,JaE 107.--Qualitative variation of trailing-edge momentum-thickness ratio with blade-chord Reynolds number for
several levels of blade loading on conventional airfoils in cascade. (Not to be considered quantitatively correct.)
flat-plate flow, no separation occurs, and the two characteristics of the fully turbulent flow [Strict-
re_mes of huninar and turbulent ttow are de- ly speaking, since the boundary-layer transition
scribed by the drag variations of equations (224) point actually arrives at the leading edge only
and (228), respectively. Curve a-a in figure 107 at an infinite Reynolds number (in the absence
represents the momentum-thickness wtriation for of outside disturbance), the dashed transition
laminar flow, and curve a'-a' represents the curve will asymptotically approach the turbulent
variation for turbulent flow for the. flat plate. curve as l_'e_approaches infinity.]
At low values of Re the t)()undary layer is Increased turbulence will cause the boundary-
entirely laminar, and O*/c decreases with increas- layer transition phenomena to occur at lower
ing Re_ as shown by curve a-a. At some value wdues of Reynolds number and will lheref,)re
of Re_, indicated by A in the figure, Re, beconms have the effecl <)f shifting point A farther to +he
sufficiently large that transitiion frt)m a laminar left on curve a-a. F()r zero 1)ressure gradicnt,
to a turbulent layer occurs at the trailing edge. therefore, incre_tsed turbulence may increase the
This Reynolds number al)pears t() yield the mini- minimunl boundary-layer nlomentunl thickness.
Inttln t)(nmdary-layer thi('kness. With a further Low lo_ding.-The curve b-b in figure 107
increase in Re+, the transiti(m m()vt,s f.rward ft'()nl represents the case of a very lightly loaded blade
the trailing edge, and the t)()undary-hwer thick- whose surface pressure gTadient is such that
ness falls s_,newhcrc I)ctwccn the htmimtr and, laminar set)aration will not occur. In this case,
turl)u]ent curves (dashed p,wti()n). Finally, as the picture is much the same as for the flat plate,
the transitit)n point appr<mchcs the leading edge except that the boundary-layer thicknesses will
the boundary layer will essentially assume the generally be somewhat greater. It is also quite
possible that both the presence of a pressure

gradient and the location of the minimum pres-
sure will have some influence on the location of
point A. However, it is not believed that these
effects will be marked for the lightly loaded
surface.
Moderate loading.--The boundary-layer thick-
ness variations for a moderately loaded blade
surface are illustrated by curve c-c in figure 107.
The moderately loaded blade probably represents
the major portion of current design experience.
The blade loading in this case can be achieved by
a blade with moderate camber operated at its
best (minimum-loss) angle of attack, or by a
section of smaller camber operated at a relatively
high angle of attack.
At low Reynolds number, the adverse pressure
gradient is sufficient to cause a separation of 3xIO5
the laminar bondary layer somewhere down-
stream of the point of minimum pressure. A
FIGURE 108.--Variation of total-pressure-loss coefficient
marked rise in the momentum loss compared with blade-chord Reynolds number for parabolic-arc
with the low-loading case will therefore be ob- blade 10C4/40 P40. Inlet-air angle, 28 to 40; solidity,
tained in the low Reynolds number range. The 1.333 (ref. 183).
precise magnitude of the separated boundary-
layer thickness depends on the shape and angle region from C to D as the extent of the separation
of attack of tile blade. A separation point close bubble decreases. Finally, the transition occurs
to the leading edge would tend to produce a right at the point of separation indicated by
relatively large separated wake (form drag). point D. Thereafter, the curve of O*/c tends to
Since the point of laminar separation is inde- approach the variation of the fully turbulent
pendent of Reynolds number, the htminar layer flow (curve c'-c'). The rate at which the fully
remains separated, and the high values of O*/c turbulent curve is approached will probably
continue as Reynolds number is increased to depend to a large extent on the chordwise location
point h. A slight decrease in 0*/c in this high- of the point of minimum pressure. (Since the
loss region is to be expected, however, because of blade is moderately loaded, the separation point
the thinning of the boundary layer upstream of is probably not far beyond the minimum-pressure
the point of separation. point, and any further movement of the transi-
At a Reynolds number corresponding to the tion point will be slow.) An experimental illus-
point A, the transition to turbulent flow would tration of the type of loss against Reynolds
take place at the trailing edge if the laminar number curve represented by curve c-c in figure
layer were still attached. Since the laminar layer 107 is shown in figure 108 for a conventional
has separated, there is no transition and the cascade blade section at several angles of incidence.
thickness continues high from A to C. With I n view of the many factors influencing the for-
increasing Re_, the transition point moves closer oration and extent of the separation bubble, it
to the point of laminar breakaway. When the would _Lppear possible to obtain a wide range of
two points are sufficiently close together, the possible transition paths between laminar bre_k-
separated laminar layer may be infused with away (below point C, fig. 107) and turbulent
sufficient turbulence to reattach itself a short attachment (beyond point D). Also, if for some
distance beyond the point of separation, resulting reason a separation bubble does not occur and
in a separation bubble. After reattachment a ttachnmnt does not take place until the tran-
starts at point C, the O*/c curve drops rather sition point and the laminar separation point
sharply with Reynolds number increase in the essentially coincide (as in the case of the flow about
a sphere or cylinder), then the laminar breakaway

region will extend farther out along the line A-C
and a very sharp drop in boundary-layer thickness
will be observed to D (as in the case of the sphere).
Furthermore, the chordwise location of the mini-
mum-pressure point will probably affect the
location of the transition region. For example,
if the minimum-pressure point occurs far back
o Normal tunnel
on the blade, the reattachment of the laminar [] Turbulence
layer will probably begin very shortly after the increased

.
transition point first occurs on the blade. This

would tend to reduce the fiat portion of the curve
between h and C, and probably also give a steeper
drop in O*/c. (The magnitude of the loss of the
separated laminar boundary layer would not,
however, be as large as in the case of a forward
pressure minimum.)
The preceding picture will be further compli-
cated by considerations of varying turbulence
levels. In general, however, it is probable that.
J
increased free-stream turbulence will cause an
earlier boundary-layer transition and therefore 0 2 5 4 5xl05
tend to move the transition region of the curve Blade-chord Reynolds number, Rec
to lower values of Reynolds number (c-D'-c).
(a) NACA 65-(12) 10 blade. Inlet-air angle, 45; solidity,
An experimental illustration of such an effect is 1.5 (ref. 39).
presented in figure 109 in terms of the loss para- (b) Lighthill blade_ 50-percent laminar flow. Inlet-air
meter _0--. A further extension of the turbulent angle, 45.5; solidity, 1.0 (ref. 167, pt. I).
layer into the lower range of Reynolds number FI(_VRE 109.--Effect of blade-chord Reynolds number and
(extension along curve c'-c) may also be obtained free-stream turbulence on minimum-loss coefficient of
by employing artificial means for tripping the cascade blade section in two-dimensional tunnel.
boundary layer at the leading edge. Such meas-
ures, however, although extending the range of The surface pressure distribution is such, how-
low loss to lower Reynolds numbers, probably ever, that the established turbulent layer will now
result in an increase in the magnitude of the loss separate at some point downstream of the transi-
at higher Reynolds numbers. tion. The resulting momentum-thickness ratio
when the local laminar separation has disappeared
High loading.--Curve d-d in figure 107 repre-
sents a highly loaded blade. As in the previous (transition moves forward of the laminar separa-
tion) will then be greater, as indicated by point
case, the laminar boundary layer separates at
low values of Reynolds number. As Rec increases, D, than for the corresponding condition in the
the transition point moves forward (starting at moderately loaded blade. Then, as Reynolds
number is increased and the boundary-layer
h) until it approaches the separation point. The
laminar layer may then reattach (point C) and characteristics upstream of the separation are
proceed as a turbulent layer. The momentum- improved, the turbulent boundary layer will be
thickness ratio then decreases as the extent of able to proceed farther into the adverse pressure
the laminar separation is reduced, as indicated by gradient. Thus, with a resulting downstream
tile dashed curve after point C. (The establish- movement of the turbulent separation, the trailing-
ment of turbulent flow in the high-loading case edge boundary-layer thickness will decrease with
may require actual coincidence of the transition increasing Reynolds number from point D on.
and separation points, in which case the drop in Tile actual magnitude of the loss in the presence
O*/c after point. C will be much steeper.) of turbulent separation depends to a large extent
on the chordwise location of the point of turbulent equations of Navier-Stokes and the continuity
separation. For separation close to the blade equation. For two-dimensional incompressible
trailing edge, as represented by curve d-d, the flow, neglecting body forces, these equations are
increase of boundary-layer thickness will not be written as follows (ref. 151, pt. I):
very great (level of curve D-d). If the separation
occurs forward on the blade close behind the
b_ +-u +v ....
ba p +r \_Ys 2 _]
transition, as represented by curve e-e, the in-
crease in thickness will be much greater (level of
curve D-e). r _v, bv 1 bp 102v _2v\ (231)
Summary.--The previous considerations indi-
cate that a considerable range of trailing-edge bu+bv 0
boundary-layer momentum thickness can be ob- _- _=
tained from blade sections, depending on the
surface pressure distribution, Reynolds number, The last equation represents the condition of
and turbulence level. In two-dimensional-cascade continuity. The Euler equations for nonviscous
research, therefore, it appears highly desirable to fluids can be obtained by setting the kinematic
identify the range of operation of the blade sections viscosity v equal to zero. As long as the viscosity
in the general loss against Reynolds number term is retained, however, no matter how small
spectrum. Actually, some effective Reynolds is taken to be, equations (231) remain of the
number should be considered so that turbulence second-order and are fundamentally different
level can also be included. Such identification from the first-order equations governing the
can aid in determining the best regions of cascade ideal fluid. This difference is reflected in the
operation and also be of use in correlating data boundary conditions allowable in the two prob-
from different tunnels. Furthermore, in view of lems. For viscous flow, the resultant velocity
the possible pronounced effect of the laminar is required to be zero at solid boundaries in the
breakaway at low Reynolds number, the question flow field. For nonviscous flow, only the com-
of Reynolds number effects might be a significant ponent normal to the boundary is required to
consideration in compressor design. Reduced be zero.
Reynolds number in compressor design may arise The solution of equations (231) has not been
for small-scale units and for operation at high found in any but the simple cases of laminar flow.
altitude. A solution for the flow through an arbitrary
It must be repeated that the curves presented cascade is not feasible at the present time. How-
in figure 107 are only qualitative. The magnitude ever, when the predominant viscous effects are
of loss and the values of Reynolds number indi- confined to the boundary region, a simplifying
cated for the ranges of different loss characteristics approximation is possible. By considering the
are not to be interpreted as quantitatively correct. relative magnitudes (within the boundary layer)
The precise wake momentum-thickness variations of the terms appearing in equations (231), that
of a specific cascade geometry can currently be system of equations can be reduced (ref. 151, pt. I)
determined only by experiment. to the following:
QUANTITATIVE BOUNDARY-LAYER THEORY bu, bu, bu 1 bp, _2ul

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Unfortunately, current ability to determine

cascade boundary-layer behavior quantitatively
falls below the ability to establish a qualitative
picture. The principal difficulty in this respect where s is the coordinate along the blade surface,
lies in obtaining satisfactory solutions of the and _ is the coordinate normal to the surface.
viscous-flow equations. The boundary layer is assumed sufficiently thin
The complete viscous flow about cascade sections and the curvature of the surface sufficiently
is generally considered to be described by the small that the pressure gradient normal to the
16_ AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS
surface is negligible within the boundary layer; layer), the original blade .potential flow may need
6p/_)s can then be determined from the potential to be adjusted for the effects of the boundary-layer
flow outside the boundary layer. Equations (232) development.
represent a significant simplification of equations The subject of potential-flow calculation is
(231) and have proved reliable in many flow covered in chapter IV. The present analysis is
problems. Unfortunately, these equations, also, concerned with the computation of the boundary-
are very difficult, to solve in most cases of practical layer characteristics. In the succeeding sections,
interest. two simple approximate methods, one for the
A decisive simplification m approach was made computation of laminar boundary layers and the
by yon KgrmSn (ref. 169), who integrated the other for turbuleut layers, are presented. The
first of equations (232) with respect, to n and thus resulting defects in total pressure and circulation
replaced the boundary-layer equation _dth an are also considered.
integral condition that can be written in the follow- LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER
ing form:
The approximate methods of solution available
_w d0* 6* dVo (233) for laminar-boundary-layer flows are generally
pV2o- ds }-Vo (2+/-/) ds
satisfactory for engineering use. The more recent
methods (e.g., refs. 170 and 171) are so simple and
where I'o is the velocity at the outer edge of the _ccurate that little further work is being done on
boundary layer and _-wis the surface shear stress.
the problem. The technique presented here in
In this manner, the boundary-layer equations are
some detail is due to Thwaites (ref. 171). It
required to be satisfied only in the mean instead
was developed from a comprehensive analysis of
of at each point, along a normal to the surface in
previously obtained solutions of lanfinar-boundary-
the boundary-layer region. Equation (233) has
layer flows. From the method, the distributions
provided the basic equation for most of the general of 0" and H can be accurately obtained and the
boundary-layer investigations.
point of laminar separation located.
Many theories have been developed from equa-
The methods of Thwaites (ref. 171) and Loitsi-
tion (233) for approximately solving the boundary-
anskii (ref. 170) are both b_sed initially on the
layer problem with pressure gradient, for both
simplified syst.em of equations given by equation
laminar and turbulent flows. These theories,
(232). For steady incompressible flow, since the
although not completely successful, provide some
static pressure is constant through tile boundary
orderly means of attacking the problem for either
layer, the first of equations (232) can be put in the
the laminar or the turbulent boundary layer. form
The question of transition, however, remains
relatively unanswered and constitutes a serious (234)
U "JrY _-- VoVo-_-V _)n2
defect in current quantitative theory.
The present approach to the viscous-flow where VO-=dVo/ds denotes ttle derivative with
cascade problem requires that the potential flow respect to s of the velocity V0 at the outer edge of
about the cascade be determined first. The the boundary layer. With the help of the conti-
surface pressure distributions thus obtained are nuity equation (second of eqs. (232)), equation
used to determine the boundary-layer character- (234) can be written
istics from equation (233). The defect in total
pressure resulting from the formation of the bound-
--_
_)s [u(V0-u)]+_ [v(Vo-u)]+V'o(Vo-u)
ary layer can then be established. Potential-
flow pressure distributions can serve as an initial
_2(V--u) =0 (235)
basis for the boundary-layer calculation, since, as
indicated previously, the viscous effects are
generally restricted to the boundary layer and The developments in the two methods then differ
exert, a negligible influence on the potential in the subsequent handling of equation (235).
flow outside the layer. Under certain conditions, Thwaites' method.---In the method of reference
however (as in the case of a very thick boundary 171, equation (235) is integrated through the
boundary layer from the wall (n----0) to the outer

edge (n----a) to give ultimately
v _u
(236)
_- - _Po..hlhausen r i -_ _
Equation (236) is the same as (233) with _----
o Vo:V, slc V__o_O "_t61_.q,
#(bu/bn),=o. Equation (236) is used by Thwaites 0 Schubouer's ellipse (Hortree) "_
in conjunction with the equation obtained from .... /"'+i/2f/'i:O f'[O):O f'_):i_
.... Vo=_/,(s/c)_ I
(234) by setting n equal to zero, namely L [ I I 1 .l
2-_4 -_2 -_0 -o8 -.oe -.o4 -o2
0=VoV;+P'% (237) m Pohlhousen

k_n2],.o J I o Thwoites (by o previous method)
3_ J -- VO= Xl-BS (Howorth)
/ ! -- Schubouer's ellipse {Hortree)
The quantities (i)uf_)'n),=o, (_ul_)n_),.o, and H | -- /'"+1/2 ff"=O f'(O)=O f'(o4=t
appearing in equations (236) and (237) charac- 2 _%3Bh._._---- VO: VI (sIc)l< I
terize the velocity distribution in the boundary
layer. The first two terms indicate the behavior
of the velocity in the significant region of the I
boundary layer at the wall, and H=a*/0* indi-

cates the over-all form of the distribution. The
0 .02 .04 .06 .08 .10 .12
term (b_u/bn2),=o is given explicitly by equation /7?
(237) as equal to --VoV'o/J, and hence as a known
function of s. If the relation between (bu/Sn),:o (a) m<O.
(b) m __0.
and (b2u/bni),,=o for a given flow is known, then
FW, URE ll0.--Variation of l(m) with m for theoretical
(bu/i)n),=0 is also known as a function of s through
-- I ?"oVolv.
! velocity distributions (ref. 171).
If, furthermore, the relation between
H and (52u/ba2),.o is known for the given flow, H
The solutions used are identified in figures 110
is also known as a function of s. Then, the mo-
and 111, where the derived functional relations
mentum equation (236) can be integrated to ob-
lain the distribution of 8*. Such relations among are plotted. The wflues of l, H, and m are com-
(_u/_),=o, (b2_t/br_ _)_=o, and H arc obtained now puted from the actual velocity distributions
obtained in these solutions. The figures are
by examining velocity distributions from known
solutions. divided into positive and negative values of m,
corresponding respectively to decelerating and
The quantities l and m are defined as follows:
accelerating flow (m= -- VD0*2/v from eqs. (237)
and (238)). Figures 110(a) and 111(a) reveal a
remarkable similarity for m<0 (accelerating flow)
Vo \_n},.o (238) in the l(ra) and H(ra) curves for the variety of
8*5 i'5_u\ [ velocity distributions appearing in the wide range
m=< kav),:0j of solutions used.
On the other hand, figures 110(b) and 111(b)
The definitions are constructed in this way to show that the agreement for m>0 (decelerating
eliminate the effect of 8" and Vo on the partial flow) is not nearly as good. The curve corre-
derivatives. This allows l and m to depend only sponding to the solution of the problem
on the form of the velocity distribution. Ac-
.f,,,+l .[f"=O is dismissed on the grounds that
cording to this preliminary analysis, the terms 1
and H are regarded as functions of m and are the problem it defines in this region is of no
plotted as such (or all theoretical laminar-t)ound- interest (i.e., blowing out through the boundary
ary-layer velocity distributions awfilable to layer). The three exact solutions, Schubauer's
Thwaites at the time of his work. ellipse (Hartree), Vo=A--Bs (Howarth), and
TABLE I.--FUNCTIONS FOR THWAITES SOLU-

TION OF LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER (REF.
171)
m l (m) H (m) (m)
0.082 0 3.70 0.938

.0818 .011 3.69 .953
.0816 .018 3.66 .956
.0812 .024 3.63 .062
.0808 .030 3.61 .967
.0804 .035 3.59 .969

.080 .039 3.58 .971
.079 .049 3.52 .970
.078 .055 3.47 .963
.076 .057 3.38 .952
.074 .076 3.30 .936

.072 .083 3.23 .919
.070 .089 3.17 .902
.068 .094 3.13 .886
.064 .104 3.05 .854
,o \ ' - l .060
056
. 113
.122
2.99
2.94
.826
.797
.052 .130 2.90 .770
.048 .138 2.87 .744
3.5 \ .040 .153 2.81 .691
.032 .168 2,75 .640
30
024 .182 2.71 .590
.016 .195 2.67 .539
.008 .208 2.64 .400
0 .220 2.61 _440
[ ....
J I(bl --
--
.016
.032
.244
.268
2.55
2.49
,342
.2,19
2"50 .02 .04 .06 .08 .'0 .'2 -- .048 .291 2.44 .1_
-- .064 .313 2.39 .064
/71 -- .080 .333 2.34 -- .028
-- .10 .359 2.28 -- .138

(a) m_0. -- .12 .382 2.23 -- .251
-- .14 .404 2.18 -- .362
(b) m __0.
-- .20 .463 2.07 -- .702
-- .25 .500 2.00 --1.000
Fmuas lll.--Variation
of'H(m) with m for theoretical
velocity
distributions
(ref.
171).
"117 TT'_L vVom
(240)
Vo=Vl(s/c) k, are in reasonable agreement.
Pohlhausen's approximate method gives values Substituting (240) into (239) gives
of l(m), and, hence, values of skin friction, that
are far too large. This explains the failure of 1 V0 dO .2
2 ds m[H(m)-F2]+l(m) (241)
the Pohlhausen method in regions of rising
pressure.
As previously pointed out, the momentum Then, defining _ (m) to be
equation can be integrated if the relations l(m)
_(m)---2{m[H(m)+2]+l(m)} (242)
and H(m) are known for the problem at hand.
The present method uses figures ll0 and lll to and substituting equation (242) into equation
obtain universal curves that best fit the whole (241) give
family of particular solutions. The curves thus Vo dO .2
obtained are tabulated in table I. Note that v ds _(m) (243)
separation is taken to occur at m=0.082. This
value is chosen arbitrarily to agree with the value The function ff (m) is tabulated in table I.
for the ellipse, since the flow about an ellipse is The solution proceeds now by a direct integra-
similar to the flow about conventional airfoils. tion of equation (243) to obtain the distribution
With these functions tabulated, the analysis of 0". Thereafter, the other properties of the
can proceed as follows. Substituting equations boundary layer are obtained by using l(m) and
(238) into (236) and (237) gives H(m).
A very simple solution can also be obtained in
dO* YoO* 4 vl(m) (239) a slightly different manner. The function _(' (m)
_-=--(H+2) V0" V00* is plotted against m in figure 112. It is found
! ] I I r calculations are given in figure 113. The param-

eters of principal interest, _*, 8", and (bu/br_),.o,
.... Vo=V i(s/c)k are presented in a nondimensional form. The
.... Schubouer's elhpse (Hartree) agreement between the approximate and exact
- _ Iglisch ' "
solutions is satisfactory for all parameters. A
-- Vo=,4-Bs (Howarth)
similar comparison is made in reference 171 for
the problem of Schubauer's ellipse. Both com-
.8 parisons are discussed extensively in that reference.
I__ Phlhusen
" t ii l/' __/ / Comparisons between experimental and calcu-
lated predictions of the point of laminar separation
based on Thwaites' method are demonstrated for
.6
the isolated airfoil and cascade airfoil, respectively,
in references 172 and 173. The fact that close
agreement was obtained in the references between
.4 - calculated and experimentally observed locations
of the separation point indicates that the method
i may be satisfactory for prediction of the other
i boundary-layer characteristics.
Loitsianskii's method.--In reference 170 Loitsi-
anskii presents a final equation similar to equation
I
(245) but developed from a quite different ap-
proach. Equation (235) is multiplied by n* and
integrated through the boundary layer. The
second and third integrals (i.e., k=l and k=2)
are also used. The three equations are solved
.04 .os .os simultaneously for three parameters characterizing
/77
the boundary-layer velocity distribution. In
FtO_TRE ll2.--Variation of ._(m) with m for theoretical order to do this, a simple assumed velocity form
velocity distributions (ref. 171).
in the boundary layer is used to evaluate certain
of the integrals involved in the three equations.
that _f'(m) can be approximated by a linear
The final equations are (in the terminology of
function of the form
Thwaites)
,_ 0.44v /"_ ,.6
(m)----0.45q-6m (244)
Equation (244) is then substituted into equation l(m) =0.22-- i.85m --7.55m _
(243), which is integrated to give
H(m) =2.59+7.55m
8._ 0.45_ '_
I' d8 (245) These equations show that the method in applica-
tion differs very little from that of Thwaites.
Therefore, with the potential-flow velocity dis- Analytical expressions for l(m) and H(m) are
tribution known, 8 *2 can be obtained directly from used instead of the tabulated values used by
equation (245). The distribution of m, and hence Thwaites. In general, the values of Thwaites
of l(m) and H(m), follows from 8 .2. in this way, correspond more nearly to the values of l(m) and
all the significant boundary-layer parameters are H(m) obtained from exact solutions. The dif-
obtained with very little effort. ferences, however, [nay not be significant.
To demonstrate the accuracy of the simple
TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER
solution, Thwaites solved by the approximate
method the flow given by Vo=A--Bs and com- The turbulent boundary layer is more difficult
pared the results with the exact solution as given to treat theoretically than the laminar layer.
by ttowarth. The results of these comparative The use of characteristic velocity forms, as in
1.0- 4.0
I
I
r
I
I
!
.8
%
.6
.4
0I
0 .04 .08 .12
8s/_
FIounE 113.--Comparison of solutions obtained by approximate method of Thwaites with exact solutions (ref. 171).
many approximate methods for the laminar layer, tion in H, for obtaining values of H accurately.
has not proved satisfactory in the turbulent case. This approach is simpler than the well-known
Furthermore, the shear stress is not given as a method of yon Doenhoff and Tetervin (ref. 174),
simple function g(bu/bn) of the velocity distribu- in which an empirical differential equation in H
tion, except in the laminar sublayer. An ad- is constructed and solved simultaneously with
ditional difficulty is the determination of the equation (246). The results obtained for 0* and
proper value of H or _* at the point of transition. H in the two methods are comparable. The
As a result of these difficulties, the best methods method of Maskell recommends itself not. only
available for calculating ttle characteristics of a because of its simplicity but also because of its
turbulent boundary layer are more tedious and ability to predict separation with acceptable
less accurate than the method given for the lami- accuracy.
nar problem. Momentum thickness.--The first part of the
Since the turbulent: boundary layer is preceded, boundary-layer problem is to determine the
on a blade, by a laminar layer, it is necessary first momentum thickness. To do so, equation (246)
to determine the values of O* and H immediately is first written in the following form:
after transition. These values, as well as the
location of the transition point, are determined " 2+q'_ F" ]
d---O=(lds+q) L_'--_HA-I_-_ _] (248)
with the help of the computation of the preceding
lanlinar boundary layer. Once these values are where
known, certain differential equations for 0* and H
can be solved to obtain the entire distribution.
r = __OdV0
In the technique of ]k.laskell (ref. 160) presented V0 ds (249)
here, the nmlnentum thickness can be obtained
O=O*Red )
simply and with acceptable accuracy. The deter-
ruination of the distribution of the form factor H _=_- Red
is more difficult. When O* and H have been
obtained, the point of turbulent separation can be and q is an arbitrary constant that will be deter-
obtained accurately by the use of a skin-friction mined later. The friction coefficient C,, is given
formula for turbulent flow given by Ludwieg and by the formula
Tillmann (ref. 159).
C,,= 0.246e-t'_eln R eCo. _es (250)
Approach.--From the conservation of momen-
tum in the boundary layer, the momentum equa- which is developed in reference 159. This formula,
tion can be developed for the turbulent case as which Maskell adopts for his method, is probably
superior to previously used formulas for Ca,.
dO* C, _* dV0 (246) Equation (248) can be integrated directly if the
d-_-= 2 (H+2) V0 ds
right side can be approximated in the linear form
where
A
A+Br. For flat-plate flow, dVo/ds (and hence
F) equals zero, and equation (248) becomes
c ,=pv (247)
and _ is the friction stress for a turbulent bound- (-_),. ,. -----(1-[- q) _'----A (251)
ary layer. It has always been observed that the
distribution of 0* calculated from equation (246) Therefore, an approximation of equation (248)
is not greatly affected by the way H varies with s. in the form A+Br requires that (l+q)_" be
In fact, H can be taken as constant and reasonably constant if the approximation is to agree in the
accurate values of 8" obtained in some cases. simple case of flat-plate flow. The value of q
For this reason, Maskell proposes a simplification required to make the _" term constant in equation
of equation (246) (based on the insensitivity to H) (251) is determined as indicated in the following
that enables that equation to be directly integrated paragraph.
for 0". Then, he uses the derived wdues of 0", The experimental variation of H with log Ree
in conjunction with an empirical differential equa- for a flat plate is illustrated in figure 114, along
I r I T r 1 T l _ The solution of (255) is then given by

o Ludwieg-Tillmann experimenls
H = t.754 - 0.149 toglo Re8 +
(eV$.*),-- (OVa*-'),, ----0.01173 Vo*-_ ds (256)
5 -- I T 1
0.01015 (Io91 o ReS)2 Ir
I. ..... H= 1.630 - 0.0775 IogloR88

where so, is the starting point of the turbulent
boundary layer. Equation (256) thus requires a
- t
simple integration for the calculation of the
momentum thickness once the initial value of
0* is known.
E,,3 ....
o
Form factor.--With the momentum thickness
known, it becomes necessary to determine H
L_.0 2.5 3.0 5.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 accurately in order to ascertain _* and CI,. In
lOglo/Vee order to determine H, Maskell develops an

empirical differential equation. A considerable
FIGURE ll4.--Profile parameter H for flat-plate flow
amount of data is used in the development,
(ref. 160).
including zero and negative pressure-gradient
data. The resulting equation must be divided
with two simple analytic approximations to the
into three parts to fit the available data accu-
experimental data. The simplest approximation,
rately. The division is made in terms of the
H=1.630-0.0775 log,0 Ree (252)

f
I Re a, deg
is used in this part of the analysis. Substitution (3
NACA 65(216)-222 { 264XLO6
IO I
of equations (252) and (250) in the definition of 2.67
8 I
I (approx.) _ 0.92
8. I
_" (eq. (249)) gives o NACA 66,2-216, 2.6 I0 1 t
1
0.6 meanline
f__0.00965Ree_-o. _,56 (253) 0 Nose-opening 4.18 91
aerofoil shapel5
_, Elliptic cylinder 0118 (based on
Therefore, taking q----0.2155 in equation (253) 33.8% thick minor axis
n Rectangular channel
gives a constant value of i" as desired. With this (Gruschwitz)
value of q, equation (248) becomes Rectangular channel I
(Nikurodse) -i
-- 1.2155 [_]-(/-/+1.825)F] :0.01173-4.2OOF'
ddsO= 1.2155 [t-- (H+1.823) ] (254) .50 where:
_=O.125e-L561H /e_O.0525
.25 (tS)C=0 =0.00965

The right side of equation (254) is now evalu-
ated from experimental data and plotted against .20
to see whether an approximation of the form
/
,J
(39
A+B will be satisfactory. These results, shown .I

in figure
mation should
115, indicate
be adequate.
that such
The
a linear
best
approxi-
approxi- /
/
.10
mation to the data is given by A=0.01173, B= I_O
tO
4.200; and equation (254) becomes .05

/
dd-_=0.01173--4.200F
-.o.56; 0 -.01 -.02 -.0: -.04 -.05 -.06 -.07

which can be written as (from eq. (249))
F
FIGURE ll5.--Experimental values of function 1.2155

d?+4.200 19 d Vs0 _0.01173
Vo (255) [r-- (H+ 1.823)r1
r range by r=o and r=F_, where r, is itself a .012I _ T T ] I cp ] _ W

function of H. The following relation is obtained L .... t0-0678//(00'599H-00t485) / I
in reference 160: | ---0.054/-/+0,0796 / //
.0081 - .... Foired voriotion _/z + 1
H= 1.754--0.149 log10 Ree
+0.01015(log,0 Ree)' for F_0
dH
ds
1
0.Re0O.26s [_--F(0.30H--0.32)]
t11, .......
(257)
for 0>r>r,
01.2 I 3 .4 1.5 .6 .
dH 1 Form foctor, H
ds --O*Ree '268 [--0.15(H--1.2) FIGURE 116.--Definition of _ as function of H (ref. 160).
--r(o.30H--o.15)] for r,>r

the initial value of H. Maskell does recognize
where
some systematic trend and presents an analysis
--0.15(H--1.2)--_
(258) leading to highly qualified relations for predicting
0.17 the value of H at transition. For details of his
development, see reference 160.
and is given in figure 116. The portion of the
As an indication of the sensitivity of the cal-
curve for H_I.4 is given by _:--10 -'8_sH
culation to the initial value of H, Maskell tried
(0.01399H--0.01485); for H_l.6, by = --0.054H
two widely different initial values and obtained
+0.0796; and for 1.4_H_l.6 the curve is faired.
the results shown in figure 117. In spite of the
Assuming the distribution of 0* is now known,
large difference in initial value, the computed
and also the value of H at transition, equations
curves of H are in fair agreement. The computed
(257) and (258) can be solved step-by-step for
values of Cf, are in even better agreement. These
the complete distribution of H. With H and
results, although not susceptible to the general
0* known, CI, can be found from equation (250).
interpretation that the calculations are insensitive
The point of turbulent separation is determined
to the value of H at transition, are encouraging.
in the method from the variation of the friction
Evaluation.--The accuracy of the method, given
coefficient (C1,=0 at separation). It is clear from
the location of the transition point, is demon-
its form that equation (250) cannot lead directly
strated in several examples in reference 160.
to a value of Ct,=0. However, the calculated
Figure 118, taken from reference 160, illustrates
CI, curve falls off toward zero in such a way that
the computed boundary-layer characteristics for
an extrapolation to zero is easily made. Ex-
an NACA airfoil and compares the results with
amples of the separation-point extrapolation are
actual experimental data and with the results of
shown in figure 100.
the method of von Doenhoff and Tetervin.
Initial conditions.--The problem yet remaining
The agreement is generally satisfactory for the
is the proper determination of H and 0* at the
entire range of 0*, H, and GI_. The agreement
onset of turbulent flow. The velocity profile
of the calculated separation point with the ex-
undergoes an abrupt change from laminar type
perimentally obtained separation point is also
to turbulent type. The initial value of 0* is taken
quite good.
from the value occurring in the laminar computa-
TRANSITION
tion at the point of transition. This is equivalent
to assuming that the momentum thickness is A major difficulty yet remaining in the compu-
continuous through the point of transition. Re- tation of blade boundary layers is the successful
quiring continuity of the momentum thickness prediction of the location of the transition point.
results in a discontinuity (i.e., rapid change) in This problem is in a very difficult realm of vis-
displacement thickness and hence in H (ref. 175). cous-flow theory because of the close relation
The experimental data now available do not of the transition point to the Reynolds number
point clearly to a suitable means of determining and free-stream turbulence of the flow. The
.005[ _ [- _ T
i - Calculated present method 9
/ --a--
ref. 160)
Calculated (van Ooenhoff and !
J
_ .004_- Tetervin ref. 174) -_--2'_
: o Experiment (van Doenhoff and
._o" Tetervin, ref. 174) J /"
//
/ /
__iT
.002"-- T _ _ _ --
/_/ --
..........
! ............
1.............
!........
+ .... o, i J '
i
, J
<_ .0030..."-.. ! 1 r r
.005
_ .002 -_
_1.76 _ ' Based
oo_o,A,o,ed
_?_-o
- .004 ! of 8* and H _ \
'\ b "
001_ experimental
of e* and 'H
values J_N,, h-
\_ i
Ol3served- seParation point, X _:2
% / 15o\L_ , S/C: 0.70 . \
0
/ \, o o[ I J _ l \;
.003
,5
2._F T ' T T I I
B .002 i -- Calculated (present method I
Y_ ref. 160) ' j
.d
2.4_ --u-- Calculated (van Doenhoff and i
Tetervin, ref. t74) i
o Experiment (van Doenhoff and
Tetervin, ref. 174)
":2'" .4 .e .8 ,o 2,2 t i ]_
s/c
o
, II,
FI_:URE ll7.--Effect of initial value of H on calculated 2.0- - -
values of form factor and skin-friction coefficient in
E
turbulent boundary layer on upper surface of airfoil
b
section RAE 101. Blade-chord Reynolds number,
1.7 X 10e; lift coefficient, 0.4 (ref. 160).
problem has been discussed qualitatively in a pre-

vious section. An indication of the errors that
may result from mislocation of the transition J
I 2 3 4 5 6 .7
point in the calculation of the drag coefficient of
5/c
an isolated airfoil is given in figure 119. The
figure presents a plot of the variation of calculated
FIGURE 118.--Comparison of experimental and calculated
profile drag coefficient against distance of the distributions of boundary-layer parameters for NACA
transition point from the leading edge. airfoil section 66,2-216. Blade-chord Reynolds num-
Although reliable criteria for transition-point ber, 2.64X 106; angle of attack, 10.1 (ref. 160).
location for general airfoil flow are not currently

.012 1.8
@
c Theoretical
o9
o Experimental
1.6
o
u
.008
_
FI T`
1.4 T -- -
a
O
.004(_ .2 .5 .4
s/c
I-2 --
FIGURE ll9.--Variation of profile drag with location of

d
t
transition point for 14-percent-thick wing at blade-chord

1.0 ..... _
Reynolds number of l07 (ref. 155).
available,
lines. A
some
low-turbulence
work has been
investigation
done along
of
these
an
+/ !
NACA 65 (215)-114 airfoil in reference 176, for

example, revealed that, for blade-chord Reynolds
numbers ranging from 26X10 + to 49X106, a .6 / --
criterion for transition based on boundary-layer
Reynolds number can be satisfactorily established
.4--
as Re+=8000. (Re+_-- Vo6/_, where _ is the normal !
distance from the airfoil surface to a point within
the boundary layer where the velocity is equal to
0.707 of the velocity at the outer edge of the
boundary layer.) These results were obtained
for values of Reynolds number that are con-
J I I I
siderably higher than those encountered in con- 0 20 40 60 8O IO0
ventional low-speed-cascade practice. Percent chord
Much more work will have to be done on this
problem before reliable criteria are determined FIGURE 120.--Comparison of experimental and theoretical
for very general conditions of Reynolds number, velocity distribution on airfoil in cascade. Airfoil,
NACA 65-(12)10; inlet-air angle, 60; angle of attack,
turbulence, and pressure distribution. Until such
14.1; angle ot attack of mean vector velocity, 6.5;
criteria are available, theoretical boundary-layer turning angle, 18.6; solidity, 1.0 (ref. 98).
calculations will probably have to concern them-
selves with a range of possible transition-point cade calculation. The theoretical potential-flow
locations. circulation is always greater than the actual
CIRCULATION DEFECT circulation.
References 98 and 177 found that, if the actual
Potential-flow calculations provide a tool for
(real-flow) circulation of a given blade section
determining the surface velocity distribution and
could be predicted, the use of this actual value of
hence the circulation and air outlet angle of cascade
circulation in the potential-flow calculation for the
blades. For a viscous fluid, the potential flow section would yield theoretical velocity distribu-
is altered because of the development of the bound- tions that agreed much better with the measured
ary layer. For many practical blade shapes, the values. Two mechanisms of incorporating the
error in the velocity distribution obtained from actual circulation in the velocity-distribution cal-
potential-/]ow c+dculations about the original culation are discussed in reference 177. The first
blade may be large. Figure 120, taken from method neglects the Kutta condition and directly
reference 98, indicates the error in a typical cas- reduces the theoretical circulation to the actual
691-564 0-65-13
value obtained from measurements. By neglect-

ing the Kutta condition an exact potential flow
about the original airfoil is obtained, wherein the
rear stagnation point occurs on the upper surface.
1.61
8_- _'l ....
The second method is to distort the airfoil by
curving up the trailing edge until the theoretical
lift, with the stagnation point at the trailing edge,
equals the experimental lift.
The investigation also found that a small reduc- I
tion in the angle of attack of the section in the
2I_
I_ __
theoretical calculation improved the agreement
between calculated and observed velocities. An
illustration of the effectiveness of the reduced
___ _X x --4
circulation, with and without change in angle of
attack, in providing a close comparison between
theoretical and measured cascade velocity distri-
butions is shown in figure 121. These results are
interesting in that a simple procedure is estab-
Theo,. colculotion,
lished for satisfactorily incorporating the circula- lheor, lifl coef-
ficient = 1.51
tion decrement into the potential-flow velocity-
-- -- - Theor. colculohon,
distribution calculation, once that decrement is exp. lift coef-
known. ficient = 0.96
-- - -- Theor. colculolion, -
The principal problem now is the determination exp. lift coef- [
of the actual circulation in the presence of bound- .2 ficient end .....1
ary-layer growth. To date, no analytical or em- O Exp. dalo

reduced
pirical data have appeared to permit the general I I I I I 1 La E [
estimation of actual circulation (or lift) for con- 0 20 40 60 8O 100

Percent chord
ventional cascade sections. An investigation of an
analytical determination of the actual lift of iso- FIGURS 121.--Comparison of experimental velocity distri-
bution with theoretical velocity distribution corrected
lated airfoil sections is presented in reference 178.
for circulation and angle of attack on airfoil in cascade.
A brief discussion of the method is included herein,
Airfoil, NACA 65-(12)10; inlet-air angle, 60; angle of
since the concepts and procedures involved should attack, 14.1; angle of attack of mean vector velocity,
be significant also for the cascade airfoil. 6.5; turning angle, 18.6; solidity, 1.0 (ref. 98).
The analysis of reference 178 postulates that the

121) obtained when a slight reduction in angle
presence of surface boundary layers will affect
of attack is included in the theoretical calculation.
the potential flow about the airfoil in two principal
The second effect on circulation is the destruc-
ways. First, since the boundary layers tend to
tion of the Kutta condition at the trailing edge.
displace the main flow away from the surfaces of
Reference 178 replaces the Kutta condition with
the airfoil, the effective shape of the airfoil will be
altered according to the variation of the displace- the theorem that, for steady motion, the rates
of discharge of positive and negative vorticity
ment thicknesses of the surface boundary layers.
into the wake at the trailing edge are equal.
In general, with the boundary layer thicker on the
Methods of computing the reduction in circulation
upper than on the lower surface, an effective reduc-
resulting from the change in profile shape and
tion in blade camber will result. Ill addition, a
trailing-edge condition are presented in the
reduced angle of attack will result from altering the reference. Results of calculations for two airfoil
effective camber line. shapes show that a considerable portion of the
The altering of the effective angle of attack difference between theoretical and actual lift
possibly accounts for the general improvement can be predicted on the basis of these considera-
in velocity-distribution comparisons (as in fig. tions. The results further show that the effective
altering of the profile shape contributed most, attributable to the cascade can only be measured
to the lift defect. at an axial position sufficiently far downstream to
The theoretical calculation of the lift, defect assure that uniformity has been achieved. Since
resulting from an effective profile change will the rate of dissipation of the wake depends on
generally be more difficult for a cascade airfoil many factors, experimental loss data obtained
than for the isolated airfoil. Accordingly, the at a fixed location for various cascade configura-
consideration of an empirical correlation between tions will not be completely comparable unless
actual lift ratio and some significant boundary- properly interpreted in relation to the complete
layer thickness parameter may offer more imme- loss involved.
diate promise for cascade sections. A notable achievement was made in the cal-
In view of the preceding discussion, it appears culation of the complete loss for isolated airfoils
that an iteration process inay prove necessary by Squire and Young (ref. 155), who succeeded
for some boundary-layer computation on airfoils in relating the total drag to the boundary-layer
in cascade. The procedure would be as follows: state at the airfoil trailing edge. The cascade
(1) Compute potential velocity distribution. case was treated by Loitsianskii in references
(2) CoInpute boundary-layer development from 179 and 180. With the assumption that con-
(1). ditions are nearly uniform in the plane of coales-
(3) Compute circulation defect from boundary- cence of the wakes from neighboring blades,
layer characteristics (2). the conditions far downstream are related to
(4) Recompute potential velocity distribution conditions at the plane of coalescence. Then,
on the basis of corrected circulation (3). the conditions at the plane of coalescence, and
(5) Continue iteration until process converges.. consequently at the far-downstream position,
are related to the trailing-edge boundary-layer
CALCULATION OF TOTAL-PRESSURE LOSS
characteristics.
In compressor design and performance analysis, More recently, simplified analyses have been
it is desirable to determine the loss in total presented in references 156 and 181. In these
pressure incurred across a blade row. In the theories, losses far downstream again are related
present section, a method is discussed for relating to the trailing-edge boundary-layer character-
the total-pressure loss of a cascade section to the istics. This relation is easily and directly es-
boundary-layer characteristics at. the blade trailing tablished by assuining free-stream conditions to
edge. This makes possible, within the limits of be uniform tangentially in the plane of the trail-
the assumptions involved, the complete theoretical ing edge. Although this restriction is severe,
calculation of the cascade loss once the blade it is likely that the theory can provide a simple
boundary-layer conditions have been established. guide to better understanding and estimating
The loss so determined represents the basic cascade loss data.
two-dimensional profile loss of the section. The assumptions and results of reference 156
If separation has not occurred, the flow field are now presented briefly. Only the incompres-
in the plane of the blade trailing edge will appear sible-flow case is considered. For purposes of
essentially as a core of potential (or free-stream) this analysis, the velocity distributions in the
flow bounded by viscous layers adjoining the tangential direction at various axial locations are
blade surfaces. A considerable portion of the assumed to occur as shown in figure 122. Far
complete loss in total pressure across a cascade downstream of the blade row, the wake is ulti-
is already realized in the viscous layers at the blade mately dissipated and the flow is completely uni-
trailing edge. However, owing to the lack of form in the tangential direction. The mass-
uniformity of the velocity distribution in the averaged loss in total pressure is then (since
wake (and also in the free stream), a turbulent free-stream total pressure in the plane of the
mixing of the fluid takes place resulting in an trailing edge is taken equal to the inlet total
additional loss in total pressure downstream of pressure)
the blade trailing edge. The complete loss _P=P1--P2---Po. ,_--P2 (259)
180 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS
a CONCLUDING REMARKS
It is apparent from the preceding analysis that

t
-Station /e t I t the boundary-layer theory currently available is
incapable of completely predicting the viscous
flow about a two-dimensional cascade. However,
the qualitative information provided by the theory
can serve as a useful guide in obtaining and
/ / Station2 interpreting cascade data. Furthermore, some
/
/ quantitative results can be obtained from the
/ ...
a/ / theory in its present state for a limited range of

/
flow conditions and assumptions.
Y x The principal
tative evaluation
conclusion
of cascade
reached from the quali-
boundary-layer be-
b/
havior is the large sensitivity of the losses to
blade-chord Reynolds number and free-stream
FIGURE 122.--Cascade flow indicating velocity distribution
at trailing edge and after complete nfixing has occurred turbulence. Apparently, a wide range of bound-
(a-a and b-b are streamlines for a full blade spacing). ary-layer loss can be obtained for a conventional
cascade geometry, depending upon Reynolds
where subscripts 1 and 2 denote positions far number and turbulence. The importance of the
identification and evaluation of Reynolds number
upstream and far downstream of the blade row
(fig. 122), and P0. t_ is the total pressure in the effects in cascade operation and data analysis is
potential-flow region at the trailing-edge position. thereby indicated.
From consideration of the Bernoulli equation, The primary shortcoming of quantitative evalua-
conservation of mass flow and of axial and tangen- tions is the inability of theory to predict the
tial momentum over the control surface bounded location and characteristics of the transition from
by the dashed streamlines in figure 122, and the laminar to turbulent flow. The computation for
conventional definitions of displacement and mo- a completely laminar or completely turbulent
mentum thickness, the loss coefficient is given by boundary layer is acceptably simple and accurate.
Widespread use of the quantitative calculations
will follow the ability to locate the transition point
_ AP =2 c ,,co---_u 1+ c ucosB,, successfully. This problem is so difficult theoreti-
cally that an attempt should be made to determine
an empirical correlation valid for the limited
variety of blade shapes currently in use.
H_z,---sin20,, Hr. 1__(0,_ all,.
( [ 1 T_/ (260) The question of possible serious Reynolds num-
\ cost ,d J /
ber effects in compressor operation is raised in
view of the large increases in loss that may be
where, if desired, V0. ,, can be related to the inlet
obtained at reduced Reynolds number because of
velocity V, through the expression
laminar separation in the cascade flow. Reduced
VI CosB,.V1 (0") aH,.-] Reynolds numbers are encountered in compressors

Vo.. cos L -\c/,e for small-size units and high-altitude operations.
However, it is recognized that the viscous-flow
In this manner, the loss involved in the flow
phenomena in the compressor configuration are
from an upstream position to a position of complete
far more complex than in the cascade. First, the
dissipation of the wake is related to the boundary-
development of the boundary layers along the
layer characteristics at the trailing edge of the
blade elements is complicated by the various
blade and to the cascade geometry. For a more
detailed presentation of the development and some spanwise boundary-layer motions and three-dimen-
calculated results, see reference 156. sional effects e_sting in compressor blade rows.
VISCOUS
CASCADES 181
Secondly, the turbulence picture differs because result from the various compressor viscous phe-
of blade wakes and inlet flow distortions. Finally, nomena. Therefore, the extent to which cascade
there are other sources of Reynolds number effects viscous-flow characteristics will be reflected in the
in the development of the casing boundary layers compressor is questionable. The answers to these
and of the other three-dimensional effects. The questions must be supplied by continued com-
observed loss characteristics in the colnpressor parative research.
CHAPTER
EXPERIMENTAL FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES
By SEYMOUR LIEBLI_IN
Available experimental two-dimensional-cascade the correlation of isolated data was very difficult.
data .for conventional compressor blade sections are Some efforts were made, however, to correlate
correlated. The two-dimensional cascade and some limited experimental data for use in compressor
of the principal aerodynamic factors involved in its design (e.g., ref. 187). The British, in particular,
operation are first briefly described. Then the data through the efforts primarily of Carter and Howell,
are analyzed by examining the variation of cascade appear to have made effective use of their early
performance at a reference incidence angle in the cascade investigations (refs. 31 (pt. I) and 188
region of minimum loss. Variations of reference to 190).
incidence angle, total-pressure loss, and deviation In recent years, the introduction of effective
angle with cascade geometry, inlet .l.lach number, tunnel-wall boundary-layer removal for the estab-
and Reynolds number are investigated. lishment of true two-dhnensional flow gave a
From the analysis and the correlations of the substantial impetus to cascade analysis. In
available data., rules and relations are evolved for the partic,flar, the porous-wall technique of boundary-
prediction of the magnitude of the reference total- layer removal developed by the NACA (ref. 191)
pressure loss and the reference deviation and inci- was a notable contribution. Tile use of effective
dence angles for conventional blade profiles. These tunnel boundary-layer control has resulted in more
relations are developed in simplified forms readily consistent systematic test data (refs. 39, 54, 123,
applicable to compressor design procedures. and 192 (pt. II)) and in more significant two-
dimensional comparisons between theoretical and
INTRODUCTION
experimental performance (refs. 98, 167 (pt. I),
Because of the complexity and three-dimensional and 193). With the availability of a considerable
character of the flow in multistage axial-flow amount of consistent data, it has become feasible
compressors, various simplified approaches have to investigate the existence of general relations
been adopted in the quest for accurate blade- among the various cascade flow parameters.
Such relations curtail the amount of future
design data. The prevailing approach has been
to treat the flow across individual compressor experhnental data needed and also result in more
blade sections as a two-dimensional flow. The effective use of the data currently available.
use of two-dimensionally derived flow characteris- Since the primary function of cascade informa-
tics in compressor design has generally been satis- tion is to aid in the design of compressors, the
factory for conservative units (ch. III). present chapter expresses the existing cascade data
In view of the limitations involved in the in terms of parameters applicable to compressor
theoretical calculation of the flow about two- design. Such expression not only facilitates the
dimensional blade sections (chs. IV and V), design of moderate compressors but also makes
experimental investigations of two-dimensional possible a rapid comparison of cascade data with
cascades of blade sections were adopted as the data obtained from advanced 'high-speed com-
principal source of blade-design data. Early pressor configurations. Since the bulk of the
available cascade data has been obtained at low
experimental cascade results (e.g., refs. 184 to
186), however, were marked by a sensitivity to speed (Mach numbers of the order of 0.1), the
individual tunnel design and operation. This was question of applicability to such high-speed units
largely a result of the failure to obtain true two- is very significant. It is necessary to determine
dimensional flow. Under these circumstances, which flow parameters can or cannot be applied,
183
to what extent the low-speed data are directly Kc compressibility correction factor in loss
usable, and whether corrections can be developed equation
in those areas where the low-speed data cannot be K_ correction factor in incidence-angle rela-
used directly. tion
In this chapter, the available cascade data K_ correction factor in deviation-angle rela-
obtained from a large number of tunnels are tion
reworked in terms of what are believed to be AI Mach number
significant parameters and are correlated in m,mc factors in deviation-angle relation
generalized forms wherever possible. The per- n slope factor in incidence-angle relation
formance parameters considered in the correlation P total or stagnation pressure
are the outlet-air deviation angle and the cascade p static or stream pressure
losses expressed in terms of blade-wake momentum Re_ Reynolds number based on chord length
thickness. The correlations are based on the s blade spacing
variations of the performance parameters with t blade maximum thickness
cascade geometry (blade profile shape, solidity, V air velocity
chord angle_ and inlet flow conditions. In view of y coordinate normal to axis
the difficulties involved in establishing correla- z coordinate along axis
tions over the complete range of operation of the a angle of attack, angle between inlet-air
cascade at various Mach number levels, the direction and blade chord, deg
analysis is restricted to an examination of cascade air angle, angle between air velocity and
performance at a reference incidence-angle loca- axial direction, deg
tion in the region of minimum loss. Af_ air-turning angle,/_--f12, deg
The chapter is divided into four main sections: _ blade-chord angle, angle between blade
(1) a brief description of the two-dimensional chord and axial direction, deg
cascade and of the parameters, concepts, and data wake full thickness
involved in the analysis; (2) an analysis of the _. wake displacement thickness
variation of the reference incidence angle with _o deviation angle, angle between outlet-air
cascade geometry and flow conditions; (3) an direction and tangent to blade mean
analysis of the variation of total-pressure loss at camber line at trailing edge, deg
the reference incidence angle; and (4) an analysis _ deviation angle of uncambered blade
of the variation of deviation angle at the refer-
section, deg
ence incidence angle. O* wake momentum-defect thickness
SYMBOLS blade angle, angle between tangent to
The following symbols are used in this chapter: blade mean camber line and axial
direction, deg
A flow area
density
b exponent in deviation-angle relation P
c chord length a
D diffusion factor (based on over-all veloc- blade camber angle, difference between
ities) blade angles at leading and trailing
Dzo_ local diffusion factor (based on local edges, _l--_, deg
velocities) total-pressure-loss coefficient
d exponent in wake velocity-distribution Subscripts:
relations
average
/ function av
H wake form factor, _*/0" i.e. incompressible equation
i incidence angle, angle between inlet-air inc incompressible

lower surface
direction and tangent to blade mean 1
camber line at leading edge, deg max maximum
i. incidence angle of uncambered blade rain minimum
section, deg re] reference
EXPERIMENTAL
CASCADES 185
Screen Settling Contraction , Cescode

Single-stage fan
length;, section ,,
,-Diffuser J
Drive _
lj ' i -- Ss_;ion '", Cosclde
/'
I I I ] _ ,_ !
.-_-F" Screens *+_.
I- i i _on /' L inevfrse ]'

'
FIGURE 123.---Layout of conventional low-speed cascade tunnel (ref. 168).
sh blade shape
t blade maximum thickness
u upper surface
z axial direction --- .Z
0 tangential direction
0 free stream
1 station at cascade inlet
2 station at cascade exit. (measuring station)
l0 l0 percent thick
PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
DESCRIPTION OF CASCADE
A schematic diagram of a low-speed two-

dimensional-cascade tunnel is shown in figure 123
to illustrate the general tunnel layout. The
principal components of the conventional tunnel
are a blower, a diffuser section, a large settling
chamber with honeycomb and screens to remove
any swirl and to ensure a uniform velocity dis-
tribution, a contracting section to accelerate the /
flow, the cascade test section, and some form of __Z_KI / _1 Axial direclion z
outlet-air guidance. The test section contains
a row or cascade of blades set in a mounting device FIGURE 124.--Nomenclature for cascade blade.
that can be altered to obtain a range of air inlet
angles (angle _1 in figs. 123 and 124). Variations of suction through slots or porous-wall surfaces.
in blade angle of attack are obtained either by Examples of different tunnel designs or detailed
rotating the blades on their individual mounting information concerning design, construction, and
axes (i.e., by varying the blade-chord angle_ ,) operation of the two-dimenslonal-cascade tunnel
while maintaining a fixed air angle or by keeping can be obtained from references 39, 122, 168, 191,
and 194.
the blade-chord angle fixed and varying the air
inlet angle by rotating the entire cascade. Outlet Nomenclature and symbols designating cascade
flow measurements are obtained from a traverse blade characteristics are given in figure 124. As
in isolated-airfoil practice, cascade blade shapes
1 and 1
along the cascade usually between _ 15 are normally evolved by adding a basic thickness
chord lengths behind the blade trailing edge at distribution to a mean camber line. The mean
the blade midspan. In the analysis, blade outlet camber line (as indicated in fig. 124) represents
refers to the cascade measuring station. the basic curvature of the profile. Some frequent-
In most cases, some form of wall boundary- ly used curvatures are the NACA (A10) and
layer control in the cascade is provided by means related mean lines (refs. 39 and 123), the circular-
arc mean line (ref. 31, pt. I), and the parabolic-arc dicated in figure 124, these angles are based on
mean line (ref. 192, pt. II). Two popular basic the tangents to the blade mean camber line at the
thickness distributions are the NACA 65-series leading and trailing edges. The use of the devia-
thickness distribution (ref. 39) and the British tion angle, rather than the turning angle, as a
C.4 thickness distribution (ref. 31, pt. I). A measure of the air outlet direction has the advan-
high-speed profile has also been obtained from the tage, for correlation purposes, of a generally small
construction of a circular-arc upper and lower variation with incidence angle. Air-turning angle
surface (ref. 40); this profile is referred to as the is related to the camber, incidence, and deviation
double-circular-arc blade. angles by
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS ,_f_=_+i-_ (57)
The performance of cascade blade sections has Incidence angle is considered positive when it
generally been presented as plots of the variation tends to increase the air-turning angle, and devia-
of air-turning angle, lift coefficient, and flow losses tion angle is considered positive when it tends to
against blade angle of attack (or incidence angle) decrease the air-turning angle (fig. 124).
for a given cascade solidity and blade orientation. The use of incidence and deviation angles re-
Blade orientation is expressed in terms of either quires a unique and reasonable definition of the
fixed air inlet angle or fixed t)lade-chord angle. blade mean-line angle at the leading and trailing
Flow losses have been expressed in terms of co- edges, which may not be possible for some blade
efficients of the drag force and the defects in shapes. The principal difficulty in this respect is
outlet total pressure or momentum. A recent in- in the 65-(A_0)-series blades (ref. 39), whose mean-
vestigation (ref. 156) demonstrates t he significance line slope is theoretically infinite at the leading
of presenting cascade losses in terms of the thick- and trailing edges. However, it is still possible to
ness and form characteristics of the blade wakes. render these sections usable in the analysis by
In this analysis, the c_tscade loss parameters arbitrarily establishing an equivalent circular-arc
considered are the wake momentum-thickness mean camber line. As shown in figure 125, the
ratio O*/c (ref. 156) and the total-pressure-loss equivalent circular-arc mean line is obtained by
coefficient 5_, defined as the ratio of the average drawing a circular arc through the leading- and
loss in total pressure across the blade to the inlet trailing-edge points and the point of maximum
dynamic head. Cascade losses are considered in camber at the midchord position. Equivalent
terms of _t, since this parameter can be conven- incidence, deviation, and camber angles can then
iently used for the determination of compressor be established from the equivalent circular-arc
blade-row efficiency and entropy gradients. The mean line as indicated in the figure. The rela-
parameter O*/c represents the basic wake develop- tion between equivalent camber angle and isolated-
ment of the blade profile and as such constitutes airfoil lift coefficient of the NACA 65-(At0)-series
a significant parameter for correlation purposes. mean line is shown in figure 126.
Values of O*/c were computed from the cascade A typical plot of the cascade performance pa-
loss data according to methods similar to those rameters used in the analysis is shown in figure
presented in reference 156. The diffusion factor 127 for a conventional blade section at fixed
D of reference 9 was used as a measure of the
solidity and air inlet angle.
blade loading in the region of minimum loss.
DATA SELECTION
In the present analysis, it was necessary to use
a uniform nomenclature and consistent correlation In selecting data sources for use in the cascade
tectmique for the various blade shapes considered. performance correlations, it is necessary to con-
It was believed that this could best be accom- sider the degree of two-dimensionality obtained
plished by considering the approach characteris- in the tunnel and the magnitude of the test
tics of the blade in terms of air incidence angle i, Reynolds number and turbulence level.
the camber characteristics in terms of the camber Two-dimensionality.--As indicated previously,
angle , and the air-turning characteristics in test results for a given cascade geometry obtained
terms of the deviation angle _o (fig. 124). As in- from different tunnels may vary because of a fail-
EXPERIMENTAL FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES 187
Po nl of fixed incidence angle are presented in figure 128.

, mopmum
comber Similar pronounced effects are observed on the
6.5- (AlO) - ser_es
mean line , Equivalent deviation angle. As discussed in chapter V, tile
,,,, ,,' orC loss variation with Reynolds number is associated
cular primarily with a local or complete separation of
.'_ Chord c _"- \ -_ the laminar boundary layer on the blade surfaces.
The data used in the correlation are restricted to
]v ", Eau,valent
values of blade-chord Reynolds number from about
.- /4_ Equ_va enl aewaTJon
mc_aence angle, 8 2.0X105 to 2.5X10 _ in order to minimize the
angle , effects of different Reynolds numbers. Free-
stream turbulence level was not generally deter-
" _" Eou_volenf mined in the various cascade tunnels.
comoer In some cases (refs. 39 and 195, e.g.), in tunnels
%' angle, _p
with low turbulence levels, marked local laminar-
FIGURE 125.--Equivalent circular-arc mean line for separation effects were observed in the range of
NACA 65-(A10)-series blades. Reynolds number selected for the correlation.
Illustrative plots of the variation of total-pressure-
ure to achieve true two-dimensional flow across loss coefficient with angle of attack for a cascade
the cascade. Distortions of the true two-dimen- with local laminar separation are shown in figure
sional flow are caused by the tunnel-wall bound- 129. In such instances, it was necessary to esti-
ary-layer growth and by nonuniform inlet and mate the probable variation of loss (and deviation
outlet flow distributions (refs. 191 and 168). In angle) in the absence of the local separation
modern cascade practice, good flow two-dinlen- (as indicated in the figure) and use values
sionality is obtained by the use of wall-boundary- obtained from the faired curves for the correla-
layer control or large tunnel size in conjunction tions.
with a large number of blades, or both. Ex- "]'he specific sources of data used in the analysis
amples of cascade tunnels with good two-dimen- are indicated by the references listed for the vari-
sionality are given by references 39 and 194. ous performance correlations. Details of the tun-
The lack of good two-dimensionality in cascade nel construction and operation and other pertinent
testing affects primarily the air-turning angles and information are given in the individual references.
blade surface pressure distributions. Therefore, APPROACH
deviation-angle data were reiected when the two-

In a correlation of two-dimensional-cascade data
dimensionality of the tunnel appeared questionable
that is intended ultimately for use in compressor
(usually the older and smaller tunnels). Practi-
blade-element design, the variations of perform-
cally all the cascade loss data were usable, however,
ance parameters should be established over a wide
since variations in the measured loss obtained from
range of incidence angles. Experience shows (fig.
a given cascade geometry in different tunnels will
130) that the variation of loss with incidence angle
generally be consistent with the measured diffusion
for a given blade section changes markedly as the
levels (unless the blade span is less than about 1
inlet Mach number is increased. Consequently,
or 2 inches and there is no extensive boundary-
correlated low-speed blade performance at high
layer removal).
and low incidence ang]es is not applicable at high
Reynolds number and turbulence.--For the
Mach numbers. Tim low-speed-cascade perform-
same conditions of two-dimensionality and test-
ance is therefore considered at some reference
section Mach number, test results obtained from
point on the general loss-against-incidence-angle
cascades of the same geometry may vary because
curve that exhibits the least variation in location
of large differences in the magnitude of the
and in magnitude of performance parameters as
bladechord Reynolds number and the
Mach number is increased.
free-stream turbulence. Examples of the effect
of Reynolds number and turbulence on tim The reference location herein is selected as the
losses obtained from a given blade section at point of minimum loss on the curve of total-
32 6O
28 56
24 52
48
"o
44
i_
E
o
(.J
40 t_
56
il
ii
;i
ii
52
; 28
0 4 8 12 _6 20 24
Design (isoloted-airfoil) lift coefficient
FmUaE 126.--Equivalent camber angles for NACA 65-(CroAks) mean camber line as equivalent circular arc (fig. 125).
EXPERIMENTAL
FLOWIN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES 189
.t |
t:,-Reference
minimum-loss / -- ------
I i'iEstimated variation
in absence of laminar
.08 -- separation (as used
in data analysis)
-4. 0 4 8 12 16 .o6 - _ 1
Incidence angle,/,deg
Fmuns 127.--Illustration of basic performance parameters

for cascade analysis. Data obtained from conventional .o4 -- i
blade geometry in low-speed two-dimensional tunnel.
.0
30 40
4- I Angle of attack, ct, deg
(a) N_CA 65-810 blade. Inlet-air angle, 30%

.02 - - -
(b) NACA 65-(12)10 blade. Inlet-air angle, 45 .
FIGUnE 129.--Loss characteristics of cascade blade with

local laminar separation. Solidity, 1.5; blade-chord
Reynolds number, 2.45X 165 (ref. 39).
I"\
C,
pressure loss against incidence angle For con-
T "' o
[]
Normal
Turbulence
funnel
increased-
ventional
of low-loss
low-speed-cascade
operation
difficult to establish
sections,
is generally
precisely
the region
fiat, and it is
the value of incidence
_ .o6 [ angle that corresponds to the minimum loss. For
i
practical purposes, therefore, since the curves of

_ .04 loss coefficient against incidence angle are gener-
ally symmetrical, the reference minimum-loss loca-
tion was established at the middle of the low-loss
02 range of operation. Specifically, as shown in figure
131, the reference location is selected as the inci-
dence angle at the midpoint of the range, where
I 2 5 4 5xlO range is defined as the change in incidence angle
Blade-chord Reynolds number, Re c
corresponding to a rise in loss coefficient equal to
(a) NACA 65-(12) 10 blade. Inlet-air angle, 45; solidity, the minimum value. Thus, for conventional cas-
1.5 (ref.39) : cade sections, the midrange reference location is
(b) Lighthill blade, 50 percent laminar flow. Inlet-air considered coincident with the point of minimum
angle, 45.5 ; solidity, 1.0 (ref. 167, pt. I).
loss. In addition to meeting the abovementioned
FIGURE 128.--Effect of blade-chord Reynolds number and
requirement of small variation with inlet Mach
free-stream turbulence on minimum-loss coefficient of
cascade blade section in two-dimensional tunnel. number, the reference minimum-loss incidence
0 5 I0 15
(a) C.4 Circular-arc blade. Camber angle, 25 ; maximum- (c) I)ouble-circular-arc blade. Camber angle, 25 ; maxi-
thickness ratio, 0.10 ; solidity, 1.333 ; blade-chord angle, mum-thickness ratio, 0.105 ; solidity, 1.333 ; blade-chord
42.5 (ref. 40). (b) C.4 Parabolic-ard blade. Camber angle, 42.5 (ref. 40). (d) Sharp-nose blade. Camber
angle, 25 ; maximum-thickness ratio, 0.10; solidity, angle, 27.5 ; maximum-thickness ratio, 0.08; solidity,
1.333; blade-chord angle, 37.6 (ref. 40). 1.15; blade-chord angle, 30 (ref. 205).
FIGVRB 130.--Effect of inlet Mach number on loss characteristics of cascade blade sections.
angle (as compared with the optimum or nominal

incidence settings of ref. 196 or the design incidence
setting of ref. 39) requires the use of only the loss
variation and also permits tim use of the diffusion
factor (applicable in region of mininnlm loss) as
a measure of the blade loading. ! ,;f47fe;en&1
_mln i
At this point, it should be kept in mind that
the reference mininmm-loss incidence angle is 0 4 8 12
not necessarily to be considered as a recommended Incidence angle, / ,deg
design point for compressor application. The

FIGURE 131.--])efinition of reference minimum-loss inei-
selection of the best incidence angle for a par-
(tence angle.
ticular blade element in a multistage-compressor
design is a function of many considerations, such reference location is established primarily for
as the location of the blade row, the design Mach purposes of _malysis.
number, and the type and application of the design. Of the many blade shapes currently in use
In general, there is no one universal definition in compressor design practice (i.e., NACA 65-
of design or best incidence angle. The cascade series, C-series circular arc, parabolic arc, double
EXPERIMENTAL FLOW IN TW0-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES 191
circular arc), data sufficient to permit a reasonably in the use of reference-incidence-angle data from
complete and significant correlation have been these two methods.
published only for the 65-(A_0)-series blades of With the definition of reference incidence angle,
reference 39. Therefore, a basic correlation of performance parameters, and analytical approach
the 65-(A10)-series data had to be established established, the procedure is first to determine
first and the results used as a guide or foundation how the wdue of the reference minimum-loss
for determining the corresponding performance incidence angle varies with cascade geometry and
trends for the other blade shapes for which only flow conditions for the available blade profiles.
limited data exist. Then the wtriation of the performance parameters
Since the ultimate objective of cascade tests is determined at the reference location (as indicated
is to provide information for designing com- in fig. 127) as geometry and flow are changed.
pressors, it is desirable, of course, that the structure Thus, the various factors involved can be ap-
of the data correlations represent the compressor praised, and correlation curves and charts can
situation as closely as possible. Actually, a be established for the available data. The
blade element in a compressor represents a blade analysis and correlation of cascade reference-poin{
section of fixed geometry (i.e., fixed profile form, characteristics _lr,_ presented in the following
solidity, and chord angle) with varying inlet-air sections.
angle. In two-dimensional-cascade practice, how- INCIDENCE-ANGLE ANALYSIS
ever, variations in incidence angle have been
PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS
obtained by varying either the inlet-air angle or
the blade-chord angle. The available systematic In an effort to obtain a general empirical rule
data for the NACA 65-(A10)-series blades (ref. 39) for tile location of the reference minimum-h)ss
have been obtained under conditions of fixed incidence angle, it is first necessary to examine the
principal influencing factors.
inlet-air angle and varying blade-chord angle.
Since these data form the foundation of the It is generally recognized that the low-loss
region of incidence angle is identified with the
analysis, it was necessary to establish the cascade
absence of large velocity peaks (and subsequent
performance correlations on the basis of fixed
decelerations) on either blade surface. For infi-
inlet-air angle. Examination of limited unpub- nitely thin sections, steep velocity gradients are
lished h)w-speed data indicate that, as illustrated avoided when the front stagnation point is located
in figure 132, the loss curve for constant air inlet at the leading edge. This eonditi(m has fre-
angle _nerally falls sonmwhat to the right of quently been referred to as the condition of
the constant-chord-angle curve for fixed values "impact-free entry." Weinig (ref. 80) used the
of #1 and _,o in the low-loss region of the curve. criterion of stagnation-point location to establish
Values of ndninmm-loss incidence angle for fixed the variation of impact-free-entry incidence angle
#t operation are indicated to be of the order of l for infinitely thin circular-arc sections from
potential-flow theory. Results deduced from ref-
or 2 greater than for fixed _' operation. An
erence 80 are presented in figure 133(a). The
approximate allowance for this difference is made
mininmnl-loss incidence angle is negative for
infinitely thin blades and decreases linearly with
camber for fixed solidity and blade-chord angle.
_o - I ! - Constant J_l . i
',,I\i ------Conston,V"/ i i While there is no definite corresponding i-inc

! I , I i dence-angle theory for thick-nose blades with
(D (9
I \_ I I I _'/ i rounded leading edges, some equivalent results
O O / [ !I-{rReference minimum-loss / have been obtained based on the criterion that the
location of the stagnation point in the leading-
o
Incidence ongl% J (:leg edge region of a thick blade is the controlling
factor in the determination of the surface velocity
FIGURE 132.--Qualitative comparison of cascade range
distributions. Carter, in reference 190, showed
characteristics at constant blade-chord angle and con-
stant inlet-air angle (for same value of f_ in region of semitheorctically on this basis that optimum
minimum loss). incidence angle (angle at maximum lift-drag ratio)
Solidity,
or
2.0
1.0
(o) b)
-' %
Comber ongle, {, deg
(a) "Impact-free-entry" incidence angle for infinitely thin C-series profiles according to semitheoreticat develop-
blades according to potential theory of Weinig (ref. 80). mcnts of Carter et al. (refs. 190 and 196). Outlet-air
(b) "Optimum" incidence angle for 10-percent-thick angle, 20 .
FmvaE 133.--Variation of reference incidence angle for circular-air-mean-line blades obtained from theoretical or semi-
theoretical investigations.
for a conventional 10-percent-thick circular-arc A preliminary examination of experimental

blade decreases with increasing camber angle. cascade data showed that the minimum-loss
The results of reference 190 were followed by incidence angles of uncambered sections (_b=0)
generalized plots of optimunl incidence angle in of conventional thicknesses were not zero, as
reference 196, which showed, as in figure 133(a), indicated by theory for infinitely thin blades (fig.
that optimum incidence angle for a 10-percent- 133(a)), but always positive in value. The
thick C-series blade varies with camber angle, appearance of positive values of incidence angle
solidity, and blade orientation. (In these ref- for thick blades is attributed to the existence of
erences, blade orientation was expressed in terms velocity distributions at zero incidence angle that
of air outlet angle rather than blade-chord angle.) are not symmetrical on the two surfaces. Typical
The plot for an outlet-air angle of 20 is shown in plots illustrating the high velocities generally
figure 133(b). Apparently, the greater the blade observed in the inlet region of the lower (pressure)
circulation, the lower in magnitude the minimum- surface of thick uncambered blades at zero inci-
loss incidence angle must be. It is reasonable to dence angle are shown in figure 134. Apparently,
expect, therefore, that the trends ()f variation of an increase in incidence angle from the zero value
minimum-loss incidence angle for conventional is necessary in order to reduce the lower-surface
blade sections will be similar t. those established velocity to a more equitable distribution that
by thin-airfoil theory. results in a minimum of the over-all loss. This

zero-camber thickness effect will appear only for

,4 ] blade-chord angles between 0 and 90 , since, as
indicated by the highly simplified one-dimensional
model of the blade passage flow in figure 135, the
velocity distributions at these limit angles are
symmetrical.
The effect of blade thickness blockage on
impact-free-entry incidence angle for straight
(uncambered) blades of constant chordwise thick-
_o-
ness in incompressible two-dimensional flow is
investigated in reference 34. The results of
1.4 Surface
reference 34 are plotted in terms of the parameters
o Upper used in this analysis in figure 136. It is reasonable
[] Lower
to expect that similar trends of variations of
zero-camber reference minimum-loss incidence
angle will be obtained for compressor blade
profiles.
On the basis of the preceding analysis, therefore,
L it is expected that, for low-speed-cascade flow,
SoL i / 8O
Ib100 reference minimum-loss incidence angle will gen-
Percen) chord erally be positive at zero camber and decrease with
increasing camber, depending on solidity and
(a) Inlet-air angle, 60; solidity, 1.5. blade-chord angle. The available theory also
(b) Inlet-air angle, 30; solidity, 1.0. indicates that the variation of reference incidence
FIGURE 134.--Illustration of velocity distribution for
angle with camber at fixed solidity and chord
uncambered blade of conventional thickness at zero
angle might be essentially linear. If so, the
incidence angle. Data for (15-(0) 10 blade of reference
39. variations could be expressed in terms of slope
x
vz=v _
J
_-----------'_I
vz
zlr x/v'z > _
/a) (b) (c)
(a) T=o . (b) T=90 . (c) 0<T<90 .

FiGuRs 135.--Effect of blade thickness of surface velocity at zero incidence angle for uncambered airfoil section according
to simplified one-dimensional model.
691-564 0-65-14
2O blades of reference 39 are to be used as the basis

z:
_/'%/ i f cos y
!",_c/ for a generalized correlation of all conventional
6/
blade shapes, it is proposed that the zero-camber
reference incidence angle be expressed in the
/Y
n_
form
I !
: L to= (K,)_(K,),(io)_0 (262)
_olo - where (io)_o represents the variation of zero-

camber incidence angle for the 10-percent-thick
65-series thickness distribution, (KJe represents
any correction necessary for maximum blade
thicknesses other than 10 percent, and (K_)_h
represents any correction necessary for a blade
shape with a thickness distribution different from
o 2O 4O 6O 80 lOO that of the 65-series blades. (For a 10-percent-
Inlet-air angle, Bj, de9
thick 65-series blade, (K,) t= 1 and (K_),h= 1.)
The prot)lem, therefore, is reduced to finding the
FZGURE 136.--Theoretical variation of "impact-free-entry"
incidence angle for constant-thickness uncambered values of n an(] io (through eq. (262)) as functions
sections according to developments of reference 34. of the pertinent variables involved for the various
blade profiles considered.
and intercept values, where the intercept value NACA 65-(A_0)-series blades,--From the exten-
represents the magnitude of tile incidence angle sive low-speed-cascade data for the 65-(A_0)-series
for the uncambered section (function of blade
blades (ref. 39), when expressed in ternis of
thickness, solidity, and blade-chord angle). Ref-
equivalent incidence and camber angles
erence minimum-loss incidence angle may also
(figs. 125 and 126), plots of io and n can t)e
vary with inlet Mach number and possibly with deduced that adequately represent the minimum-
Reynolds number. loss-incidence-angle variations of the data. The
DATA CORRELATIONS deduced values of io and n as functions of solidity
Form of correlation.--Althougi_ preliminary and inlet-air angle are given for these blades in
theory indicates that blade-chord angle is the figures 137 and 13S. The subscript 10 in figure
137 indicates lhat the io values are for 10-percent
significant blade orientation parameter, it. was
maximum-thickness ratio. Values of intercept io
necessary to establish the data correlations in
terms of inlet-air angle, as mentioned previously. and slope n were obtained by fitting a straight line
The observed cascade data were found to be to each data plot of reference incidence angle
represented satisfactorily by a linear variation against, camber angle for a fixed solidity and air
of reference incidence angle with camber angle inlet angle. The straight lines were selected so
that both a satisfactory representation of the
for fixed solidity and inlet-air angle. The varia-
tion of reference minimum-loss incidence angle variation of the data points and a consistent
can then be described in equation form as variation of the resulting n and i, values were
obtained.
i=io-Fn_ (261) The deduced rule values and the observed
data t)oints compared in figure 139 indicate the
where io is the incidence angle for zero camber,
effectiveness of the deduced representation. In
and n is the slope of the incidence-angle variation several configurations, particularly for low cam-
with camber (i--io)/_.
bers, the range of equivalent incidence angle
Since the existence of a finite blade thickness
covered in the tests was insufficient to permit
is apparently the cause of the positive values of
an accurate determination of a minimum-loss
to, it is reasonable to assume that both the
value. Some of the scatter of the data may be
magnitude of the maximum thickness and the
thickness distribution contribute to the effect. due to the effects of local laminar separation in
Therefore, since the 10-percent-thick 65-series altering the range characteristics of the sections.
12
0 I0 20 30 40 50 60 70
Inlet-o_r angle ,81 , deg
FIGURE 137.--Reference minimum-loss incidence angle for zero camber deduced from low-speed-cascade data of 10-per-
cent-thick NACA 65-(A_0)-series blades (ref. 39).
Although the cascade data in reference 39 and turbine nozzles), a wide low-loss range of
include values of inlet-air angle from 30 to 70 operation is usually obtained. The solidity
and values of solidity from 0.5 to 1.5, the deduced extrapolations were attempted because of the
variations in figures 137 and 138 arc extrapolated uniform variations of the data with solidity.
to cover wider ranges of t31 and a. The extrapo- However, caution should be exercised in any
lation of io to zero at f3t=0 is obvious. Accord- further extrapolation of the deduced variations.
ing to theory (fig. 133), the wdue of the slope C-Series circular-arc blades.--The various
term does not wtnisb at B_=0. In figure 138, thickness distributions used in combination with
therefore, an arbitrary fairing of the curves down the circular-arc mean line lmve been designated
to nonzero values of r_ was adopted as indicated. C.1, C.2, C.3, and so forth (refs. 196 to 198). In
Actually, it is tioi particularly critical to deter- general, the various C-series thickness distribu-
mi,ie the exact value of the slope term at /3_--0 tions are fairly similar, having their maxinmm
necessary to locate the reference inciden('e angle thickness located at between 30 and 40 percent
precisely, silwe, for such eases (inlet guide vanes of the chord length. The 65-series and two of
+_ _-_ +-_
++-_ +++_
+._ +++-_
++-_ ++++_
+_-
-++4-
_
+++-
_
!
_Lt_
_- _-_
*'_
N_ = N
N N .......
60 70
F[(]uR_ 138.--Reference minimum-loss-incidence-angle slope factor deduced from low-speed-cascade data for NACA
65-(A10)-series blades as equivalent circular arcs.
the more popular C-series thickness distributions series mean line and a true circular arc (fig. 125),
(C.1 and C.4) are compared on an exaggerated the applicability of the slope values in figure 138
scale in figure 140. (The 65-series profile shown to the circular-arc mean line was investigated.
is usually thickened near the trailing edge in For the recent cascade data obtained from tunnels
actual blade construction.) having good boundary-layer control (refs. 167,

In view of the somewhat greater thickness (pt. ]) and 199), a check calculation for the 10-
blockage in the forward portions of the C-series percent-thick C.4 circular-arc blades using figures
blades (fig. 140), it may be that the minimum-loss 137 and 138 with (K_),a=-l.1 revealed good
incidence angles for zero camber for the C-series results. For the three configurations in reference
blades are somewhat greater than those for the 65- 199 tested at constant /_(e----30), the agreement
series profiles; thatis, (K,),_l. [n the absence of between observed and predicted minimum-loss
any definitive cascade data, the value of (K_),h for incidence angles was within 1 . For the one
the C-series profiles was arbitrarily taken to be configuration in reference 167 (pt. ]) tested at.
1.1. Observed minimum-loss incidence angles constant "_(e:31), the predicted value of
for an uncambered 10-percent-thick C.4 profile minimum-loss incidence angle was 1.7 greater
(obtained from ref. 192, pt. l) arc compared in than the observed value. However, in view of the
figure 141 with values predicted from the deduced general 1 to 2 difference between fixed _ and
(io)_o values for the 65-series blade (fig. 137 and fixed "r operation (fig. 132), such a discrepancy
eq. (262)) with an assumed value of (K_),a--l.1. is to be expected. On the basis of these limited
(For 10-percent thickness, (K_),-- 1.) data, it appears that the low-speed minimum-loss
In view of the similarity between the 65-(A]0)- incidence angles for the C-series circular-arc
-_1-. 'n'et4r<_<?%* ---- --+--
8 7 _ "T ....... I_ -- I I
7o
12Y
UA
0
\\
/i >
f _'x
-4
-8
\ "__ _.oc
i
i
-\_ +'<'-7; -

t b< _
' 7,:0i
-12
-16 0
7::i:i; :il -....... 0 tO 2O
I0 20 30 40 50 60
Equivalent camber angle, _, deg
F_GURZ 139.--Comparison of data values and deduced rule values of reference minimum-loss incidence angle for 65 (Al0) 10
blades as equivalent circular arc (ref. 39).
blade can be obtained from the i, and n values of cidence angles for the double-circular-arc blade
the 65-series blade with (K_)_= 1.1. should be somewhat different from those of the
Double-circular-arc blades.--The double-circu- 65-series section, with perhaps (K,)_<I. It
lar-arc blade is composed of circular-arc upper can also be assumed, as before, that the slope-
and lower surfaces. The arc for each surface term values of figure 138 are valid for the double-
is drawn between the point of maximum thick- circular-arc blade. From an examination of the
ness at midchord and the tangent to the circles available cascade data for the double-circular-arc
of the leading- and trailing-edge radii. The blade (=25 , a=1.333, ref. 40; and _=40 , a--
chordwise thickness distribution for the double- 1.064, ref. 197), it appears that the use of figures
circular-arc profile with 1-percent leading- and 137 and 138 with a value of (K_)_=0.7 in equa-
trailing-edge radius is shown in figure 140. Lack tions (261) and (262) results in a satisfactory
of cascade data again prevents an accurate comparison between predicted and observed values
determination of a reference-incidence-angle rule of reference incidence angle.
for the double circular arc. Since the double- Other blades.--Similar procedures can be ap-
circular-arc blade is thinner than the 65-series plied to establish reference-incidence-angle cor-
blade in the inlet region, the zero-camber in- relations for other blade shapes. Cascade data
l l i ]i
Blade ! : I
--
------
-----
65- Series
C.4
C.t
! 1
i
.... Double circuJor OrC ' i
]
I i
1 -J
0 10 20 50 40 50 60 70 80 90 I00
Percent chord
FmuaE 140.--Comparison of basic thickness distributions for conventional compressor blade sections.
_6 [_-1 r speed data obtained from blades of variable

Predicted from 65- series (/o)lo thickness ratio (refs. 202 and 203) are not com-
data (fig. 137) and (K/)sh = 1.1
pletely definitive, it was possible to establish a
,
_4
preliminary thickness-correction factor for ref-
E
(3 erence zero-camber incidence angle as indicated
_2 .I in figure 142 for use in conjunction with equation
j/ I o Test data (262).
Effect of inlet Maeh number.--The previous
J
correlations of reference minimum-loss incidence
0 I0 20 30 40 50 60
Inlet-air angle , /31, deg angle have all been based on low-speed-cascade
data. It appears from limited high-speed data,
Fmvrw, 141.--Zero-camber minimum-loss incidence angle however, that minimum-loss incidence angle will
angle for 10-percent-thick C.4 profile. Solidity, 1.0 vary with increasing inlet Mach number for
(ref. 192, pt. I).
certain blade shapes.
are also available for tile C-series parabolic-arc The variations of minimum-loss incidence angle
blades (refs. 40, 192, 200, and 201) and the with inlet M ach number are plotted for several
NACA 65-(Al)-series blade (ref. 123); but, in blade shapes in figures 143 and 144. The extension
view of the limited use of these forms in current, of the test data points to lower values of inlet Mach
practice, no attempt was made at this time to number could not generally be made because of
deduce corresponding incidence-angle rules for reduced Reynolds numbers or insufficient points
these blades. to establish the reference location at the lower
Effect of blade maximum thickness.--As indi- Mach numbers. In some instances, however, it
cated previously, some correction (expressed was possible to obtain low-speed values of inci-
here in terms of (K_),, eq. (262)) of the base dence angle from other sources.
values of (io)1o obtained from the 10-percent- The blades of figure 143 show essentially no
thick 65-series blades in figure 137 should exist variation of minimum-loss incidence angle with
for other values of blade maxinmm-thickness inlet Mach number, at least up to a Mach number
ratio. According to the theory of the zero- of about 0.8. The blades of figure 144, however,
camber effect, (Kt)t should be zero for zero evidence a marked increase in incidence angle with
thickness and increase as maximum blade thick- Math number. The difference in the variation of
ness is increased, with a value of 1.0 for a thickness minimum-loss incidence angle with Mach number
ratio of 0.10. Although the very limited low- in figures 143 and 144 is associated with the
0 .02 04 ,06 .08 I0 ._2

McJxlmum- thic kness ratio t/d"
FIGURE 142.--Deduced blade maximum-thickness correction for zero-camber reference minimum-loss incidence angle
(eq. (262)),
different way the general pattern of the loss varia- 130 {c) and (d), the increase in loss occurs primarily
tion changes witil increasing Mach number for the on the low-incidence-angle side; and a positive
two types of blades. For the thick-nose blades, shifting of the minimum-loss incidence angle
as illustrated in figures 130 (a) and (b), the loss
results. Data for other thick-nose sections in
coefficient increases with Mach number at botll
reference 201 show the rise in loss to occur at both
the high and low incidence angles, thus tending to
maintain tile same point of minimum loss. For ends of the curve, but plots of reference incidence
tile sharp-nose blade, as illustrated by figures angle against Mach number could not validly be
4 _,7 LOW-speed rule 4

I,"' (eqs.(261) end (262)1 J. i 9 ] J _._-Low-spee
c_ I,' (eqs. (261) ond (262)) I
'
I ....... __
g 81-[ F [ _- I
-4! _i_ 2::I:::_5H -

.5 .6 .7 .8
_ x- !4
Inlet Mach number, MI
i 2 5 4 5 6 7 8
Inlet MQch number Mi
(a) I)ouble-circular-arc blade. Camber angle, 25_; max>
mum-thickness ratio, 0.105; solidity, 1.333; blade-chord
(a) C.4 Circular-arc blade. Camber angle, 25; solidity
1.333; blade-chord angle, 42.5 (ref. 40). angle, 42.5 (ref. 40).
(b) Blade section of reference 205. Camber angle, 27.5;
(b) C.4 Parabolic-arc blade. Camber angle, 25o; solidity,
maximum-thickness ratio, 0.08; solidity, 1.15; blade-
1.333; blade-chord angle, 37.5; maximum camber at
chord angle, 30; maximum thickness and camber at
40-percent chord (ref. 40).
(c) C.7 Parabolic-arc blade. Camber angle, 40; solidity, 50-percent chord.
1.0; blade-chord angle, 24.6; maximum camber at
FmURE 144.--Variation of reference minimum-loss inci-
45-percent chord (ref. 216).
dence angle with inlet Mach number for sharp-nose
FIGURE 143.--Variation of reference minimum-loss inci- sections.
dence angle with inlet Mach number for thick-nose
sections. Maximum-thickness ratio, 0.10.
slope value n as given by equation (261). De-
duced values of io and n were obtained as a function
made for these blades because of evidence of strong
of f_ and a from the data for the 10-percent-thick
local laminar-separation effects.
Since the most obvious difference between the 65-(A10)-series blades of reference 39 as equivalenl
circular-arc sections (figs. 137 and 138). It was
blades in figures 143 and 144 is the construction
then shown that, as a first approach, the deduced
of the leading-edge region, the data suggest that
values of (io)_ and n in figures 137 and 138 could
blades with thick-nose inlet regions tend to show,
also be used to predict, the reference incidence
for the range of inlet Mach number covered,
angles of lhe C-series and double-circular-arc
essentially no Maeh number effect on minimum-
blades by means of a correction (K_),,a to the (i,),o
loss incidence angle, while blades with sharp lead-
values of figure 137 (eq. (262)).
ing edges will have a significant Mach number
The procedure involved in estimating the low-
effect. The available data, however, are too
limited to confirm this observation conclusively at speed reference minimum-loss incidence angle of
a blade section is as follows: From known values
this time. Furthermore, for the blades that do
of jS_ and _, (i,)1o and n are selected from tigures
show a Mach number effect, the magnitude of
137 and 138. The value of (K_), for the blade
the variation of reference incidence angle with
maximum-thickness ratio is obtained from figure
Mach number is not currently predictable.
142, and the appropriate wtlue of (K_),h is selected
SUMMARY
for the type of thickness distribution. For NACA
The analysis of blade-section reference mini- 65-series blades, (K_),h=l.0; and it is proposed
mum-loss incidence angle shows that the variation that (K_),h be taken as 1.1 for the C-series circular-
of the reference incidence angle with cascade arc blade and as 0.7 for the double-circular-arc,
geometry at low speed can be established satis- blade. The value of i, is then computed from
factorily in terms of an intercept value io and a equation (262); and finally i is determined from
the blade camber angle according to equation (261 ). Velocity variation k"2 .J
It should be noted that the values of (K_)sh across blade spacing-x\
given for the circular-arc blades are rather tenuous
values obtained from very limited data. The use
of tile proposed values is not critical for good
accuracy; tile values were included primarily for
completeness as a reflection of the anticipated
differences in the blade thickness blockage effects.
Further experimental data will be necessary to
establish the significance of such a correction.
Also, a marked increase in reference minimum-loss
incidence angle with Mach number is to be ex-
pected for sharp-nose blade sections. The magni-
tude of the Mach number correction for these
blades is currently unpredictable.
Woke
LOSS ANALYSIS
With the location of the low-speed reference

minimum-loss incidence angle established for ,5,xts
Z
several conventional blade sections the magnitude

of the losses occurring at this reference position
(fig. 127) will now be investigated. Accordingly, FIGURE 145.--Schematic representation of development of
the nature of the loss phenomena and the various surface boundary layers and wake in flow about cascade
factors influencing the inagnitude of the loss over blade sections.
a range of blade configurations and flow conditions

are first analyzed. The available experimental For incompressible flow, Po-po is equal to the
loss data are then examined to establish funda- conventionM free-stream dynamic pressure poV_/2.
mental loss correlations in terms indicated by The total-pressure-loss coefficient is usually deter-
the analysis. mined from consideration of the total-pressure
variation across a blade spacing s (fig. 145).
PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS
A theoretical analysis of incompressible two-
Two-dimensional-cascade losses arise primarily dimensional-cascade losses in reference 156 shows
from the growth of boundary layer on the suction that the total-pressure-loss coefficient at the cas-
and pressure surfaces of the blades. These sur- cade-outlet measuring station (where the static
face boundary layers come together at the blade pressure is essentially uniform across the blade
trailing edge, where they combine to form the spacing) is given by
blade wake, as shown in figure 145. As a result,
of the formation of the surface boundary layers, l 1
a local defect in total pressure is created, and a ,V J 3H-----r--
1 L
_,=2 c") _coso" f cos
certain mass-averaged loss in total pressure is ;" H' -rr
determined in the wake of the section. The loss I.L \c/_cosfl2JJ
in total pressure is measured in terms of the total- (264)
pressure-loss coefficient _, defined generally as the
ratio of the mass-averaged loss in total pressure where g_ is tim loss coefficient based on inlet
AP across the blade row from inlet to outlet sta- dynamic head, O*/c is the ratio of wake nmmentum
tions to soine reference free-stream dynamic pres- thickness to blade-chord length, c, is cascade
sure (Po--Po),_1, or solidity, f12 is the air outlet angle, and 112 is the
wake form factor (displacement thickness divided
3p by momentum thickness). The wake character-
_,_z-- (263)
( Po--Po),_r istics in equation (264) are expressed in terms of
conventional thickness in a plane normal to the Cascade-inlet Mach number also influences the
wake (i.e., normal to the outlet flow) at the meas- magnitude of the subsonic diffusion for a fixed
uring station. Definitions of wake characteristics cascade. This Mach number effect is the con-
and variations in velocity and pressure assumed ventional effect of compressibility on the blade
by the analysis are given ill reference 156. The velocity distributions in subsonic flow. Com-
analysis further indicates that the collection of pressibility causes the maximum local velocity on
terms within the braces is essentially secondary the blade surface to increase at a faster rate than
(since//2 is generally < about 1.2 at: the measuring the ilflet and outlet velocities. Accordingly, the
station), with a magnitude of nearly l for conven- magnitude of the surface diffusion from maximum
tional unstalled configurations. The principal velocity to outlet velocity becomes greater as
determinants of the loss in total pressure at the inlet Mach number is increased. A further
cascade measuring station are, therefore, the cas- secondary influence of Mach number on losses is
cade geometry factors of solidity, air outlet and obtained because of an increase in losses associated
air inlet angles, and the aerodynamic factor of with the eventual mixing of the wake with the
wake momentum-thickness ratio. surrounding free-stream flow (ref. 37).
Since the wake is formed from a coalescing of On the basis of the foregoing considerations,
the pressure- and suction-surface boundary layers, therefore, it is expected that the principal factors
the wake momentum thickness naturally depends upon which to base empirical cascade-wake-
on the development of the blade surface boundary thickness correlations should be velocity diffusion,
layers and also on the magnitude of the blade inlet Mach number, blade-chord Reynolds number,
trailing-edge thickness. The results of references and, if possible, turbulence level.
156, 202, and 204 indicate, however, that the
DATA CORRELATIONS
contribution of conventional blade trailing-edge
thickness to the total loss is not generally large Velocity diffusion based on local velocities.-
for compressor sections; the preliminary factor Recent]y, several investigations have been re-
in the wake development is the blade surface ported on the establishment of simplified diffu-
boundary-layer growth. In general, it is known sion parameters and the correlation of cascade
(ch. V, e.g.) that the boundary-layer growth on losses in terms of these parameters (refs. 9, 38, and
the surfaces of the blade is a function primarily 156). The general hypothesis of these diffusion
of the following factors: (1) the surface velocity correlations states that the wake thickness, and
gradients (in both subsonic and supersonic flow), consequently the magnitude of the loss in total
(2) the blade-chord Reynolds number, and (3) pressure, is proportional to the diffusion in
the free-stream turbulence level. velocity on the suction surface of the blade in
Experience has shown that blade surface velocity the region of the minimum loss. This hypothesis
distributions that result in large amounts of diffu- is based on the consideration that the boundary
sion in velocity tend to produce relatively thick layer on the suction surface of conventional
blade boundry layers. The magnitude of the compressor blade sections contributes the major
velocity diffusion in low-speed flow generally de- share of tim wake in these regions, and therefore
pends on the geometry of the blade section and the suction-surface velocity distribution becomes
its incidence angle. As Mach number is increased, the governing factor in the determination of the
however, compressibility exerts a further influence loss. It was further established in these correla-
on the velocity diffusion of a given cascade tions that, for conventional velocity distributions,
geometry and orientation. If local supersonic the diffusion in velocity can be expressed signifi-
velocities develop at high inlet Mach numbers, cantly as a 1)arameter involving the difference
the velocity diffusion is altered by the formation between some function of the measured maximum
of shock waves and the interaction of these shock suction-surfa(,e velocity I'_ and the outlet
waves with the blade surface boundary layers. velocity V2.
The losses associated with local supersonic flow Reference 3g presents an analysis of blade-
in a cascade are generally greater than for subsonic h)ading limits for the 65-(A_0)10 blade section in
flow in the same cascade. The increases in loss terms of drag coeffi(_ient and a diffusion parameter
2 _2 72
are frequently referred to as shock losses. given for in(,ompressible flow by (Vm_,--_ 2)/I ....
EXPERIMENTAL
FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES 203
Results of an unpublished analysis of cascade the basic friction loss (surface shear stress) of tim
losses in terms of the momentum thickness of the tlow and also, to a smaller extent, the effect, of
blade wake (as suggested in ref. 156) indicate the finite trMling-edge ttfickness. The correla-
that a local diffusion paraluet.er in the forln given tion of figure 146 further indicates that wake
previously or in the form (Vm_--V2)/Vm_ can momentum-thickness ratio at reference incidence
satisfi_ctorily correlate experilnental cascade loss angle can I)e estilnated froln the computed local
data. 2 The term "local diffusion parameter" is diffusion factor for a wide range of solid[ties,
used to indicate that a knowledge of the maxinlulU calnbers, and inlet-air angles. The loss relations
local surface velocity is require<t. The correla- of equation (264) and reference 156 can then be
tion ot)taine(t between calculated wake nmmen- used to COnlt)ute tlle resulting loss in the total
turn-thickness ratio O*/c and local diffusion pressure.
factor given by Velocity diffusion based on over-all velocities.
In order 1o include the cases of blade shapes for
V,,,,_--V_ (265) which velocity-distribution data are not available,
Dzo_-- V_o_
a diffusion parameter has been established in
obtained for the NACA 65-(A10)-serics ('ascade reference 9 that does not require it spe('ific knowl-
sections of reference 39 at reference incidence edge of the peak local suction-surface velocity.
angle is shown in fgure 146. Values of wake Although originally derived for use in contpressor
momentum-thickness rlttio for these data were design and analysis, the diffusion factor of refer-
computed from the reported wake coefilcient encc 9 can also be applied in the anldysis of cascade
losses. The diffusion factor of reference 9 at-
values according to methods similar to those
discussed in reference 156. Unfortunately, blade tempts, through several simplifying approxinla-
surface velocity-distribution data are not available 6ons, to express the local diffusion on the blade
for the determination of the diffusion factor for suction surface in tei'nls of over-all (inlet or outlet)
other conventional blade shapes. velocities or angles, quantities that are readily
determined. The basis for the development of
the over-all diffusion factor is presented in detail
i i in reference 9 and is indicated briefly in figure 147.
II
i i ' 7 The diffusion factor is given by
0 .I
Locol
.2
diffusion
.3
foctor,
.+o .4
qoc
.5
(
.6
J
D= ,, - G)*
which, for incompressible
flow, becomes
V_\, AVo
two-dimensional-cascade
(54)
/ cos fl, \ cos fl,

&) (266)
D=_,l--_)q---2_- (tan _,--t.an
FIGURE 146.--Variation of computed wake momentum-
thickness ratio with local diffusion factor at reference
As in the case of the local diffusion factor, the
incidence angle for low-speed-cascade data of NACA
65-(Az0) 10 [)lades (ref. 39). diffusion factor of equation (266) is restricted to
the region of minilnum loss.
The correlation of figure 146 indicates tilt, Cascade total-pressure losses at reference mini-
general validity of the basic diffusion hypothesis. mUnl-tOSS incidence angle are presented in refer-
ence 9 as a function of diffusion factor for the
At, high values of diffusion (greater than about
0.5), a separation of the suction-surface boundary blades of reference 39. In a further unpublishe(1
layer is suggested by the rapid rise in the momen- analysis, a composite plot of llle variation of
t:urn thickness. The indicated nonzero value of computed wake nlOmelltum-lhickness ratio with
momentum thickness at. zero diffusion represents D lit reference minimum-loss incidence angle was
obtaille(I from the awdlable systematic cascade
A later analysis of cascade total-l)ressure losses is given in Analysis of data (refs. 39 and 192) as shown in figure 148. 2
Experimental Low-Speed Lo_ am1 Stall Characteristics of Two-Dimensional
Compressor Blade Cascades by Seymour Liel)ein, NACA RM E57A28. 1957. Blade maximunl lhiekness was 10 percent in all
-6/ // / l
, _ Reference B,ades _ _ _._ _
_._ _L o 39 _ACAeS-(A_)_O-ser_s _L2L_LJ
Suction _c_::,E._-'_- [-A,c] 102,
Qo, _l_pt]].
,.TIBrtsh O4parobollc '" arc _-']
c 2 02 - 1 _ -+ -
1"/I ,/
0 .I .2 .3 4 .5 .6 .7 .8
Diffusion factor, D
Fiou_ 148.--Variation of computed wake momentum-

o
thickness ratio with overall diffusion factor at reference
>
incidence angle for low-speed systematic cascade data
of references 39 and 192. Blade maximum-thickness
Pressure ratio, 0.10; Reynolds number, _2.5X 106.
surface
by the increased rise in the wake monmntum
thickness for values of diffusion factor greater
than about 0.6.
For situations in which the determination of
I a wake momentmn-thickness ratio cannot be made,
5O IO0
Percent chord a significant loss analysis may be obtained if a
simplified total-pressure-loss parameter is used
that closely approximates the wake thickness.
Since the terms within the braces of equation
(264) are generally secondary factors, a loss pa-
cos _2 ('cos _2"_ _ should con-

rameter of the form _l _ \cos _1]
stitute a more fundamental expression of tim basic
loss across a blade element than the loss coefficient.
alone. The effectiveness of this substitute loss
parameter in correlating two-dimensional-cascade
losses is illustrated in figure 149(a) for all the data
for the NACA 65-(A10)-series blades of reference
39. (TotM-pressure-loss coefficients were com-
puted for the data from relations given in ref. 9.)
A generalized correlation can also be obtained in
terms of _ cos B2
--2a--' as shown in figure 149(b), but
its effecliveness as a separation indicator does not

appear to 1)e as good. Such generalized loss
parameters are most effective if the wake form
does not vary appreciably among the various
data considered.
i
zxb Effect of blade maximum thiekness.--Since an
increase in blade nmximum-thickness ratio in-
FIGURE 147.--Basis of development of diffusion factor creases the lnagnitude of the surface velocities
for cascade flow from reference 9. D _ V_,az-- V2 (and therefore the diffusion), higher values of
Wav wake nlon_entum-thickness ratio would be expected
._. V,,,ax-- V2; V,na, _ Vl+f (_)_ thus, equations (54) for thicker blades. From an analysis of limited
Vl
and (266). available data on varying blade nntximum-
thickness ralio (refs. 202 and 203), it appears that
cases. A separation of the suction-surface the effect of blade thickness on wake momentum-
boundary layer at high blade loading is indicated ttfickness ratio is not large for conventional
cascade configurations. For example, for an in- _-_-_-.06

O
crease in blade maximum-thickness ratio from _
0.05 to 0.10, an increase in O*/c of about 0.003 at _._[_ O
9-
D of about 0.55 and an increase of about 0.002 at c_ .04 __
D of about 0.35 arc indicated. The greater in-
crease in wake O*/c at the higher diffusion level is _' _ .o2
understandable, since the rate of change of O*/c '_- _o I (oi
with D,o_ increases with increasing diffusion (see 0
fig. 146).
If blade surface velocity distributions can be
determined, then the thickness effect will auto-
matically be included in the evaluation of the Diffusion foctor, D
resulting local diffusion factor. When an over- - /cos &V

all diffusion factor such as equation (54) is used, (a) Based on _, _].
variations in blade thickness are not reflected in (b) Based on _1.
the corresponding loss prediction. However, in FmVRE 149.--Variation of loss parameter with diffusion
view of the small observed effect and the scatter factor at reference minimum-loss incidence angle
of the original O*/c against D correlation of figure computed from low-speed-cascade data of NACA
65-(A_0) 10 cascade blades (ref. 39).
148, it is believed that a thickness correction is
unwarranted for conventional thickness ranges.
150. Loss variations with Reynolds number
However, the analysis does indicate that, for high
over a range of incidence angles for a given blade
diffusion and high solidity levels, it may be ad-
shape are shown in figure 151. A composite plot
visable to maintain blade thickness as small as
of the variation of total-pressure-loss coefficient
practicable in order to obtain tim lowest loss at
the reference condition. .15 i f , , ,
Blode- chord Reynolds

Thus, the plots of figures 146, 148, and 149 ___
number, /?8 c
show that, when diffusion factor and wake
0
momentum-thickness ratio (or total-pressure-loss .Io -- - 2.45x,05 i ,
[] 4.45x105
parameter) are used as the basic blade-loading
and loss parameters, respectively, a generalized I_-
correlation of two-dimensional-cascade loss data _ .o5
is obtained. Although several assumptions and _:
(o)
restrictions are involved in the use and calculation _o 0 8 16 24 .52 40
of these parameters, the basic diffusion approach o_ Angle of elleck, a,deg
constitutes a useful tool in cascade loss analysis. -:
.30 ..... 1 1 r- -
In particular, the diffusion analysis should be 0.78x105

investigated
angle
over the complete
in an effort
design loss information.
Effect of Reynolds
to determine
number
range of incidence
generalized
and turbulence.-
off-
_
% 20
_'_
o 3.20x 105
/:
The effect of blade-chord Reynolds number and . I0_
turbulence level on the measured losses of cascade
sections is discussed in the section on Data Selec- (b)
tion, in chapter V, and in references 39, 167 o_ -5 O 5 I0 15 20
(pt. I), and 183. In all cases, the data reveal an Incidence ongle,/,de 9
increasing trend of loss coefficient with decreasing

(a) 65-Series blade 65-(12)10. Solidity, 1.5; inlet-a|r
Reynolds number and turbulence. Examples ot angle, 45 (ref. 39).
the variation of the total-pressure-loss coefficient. (b) Circular-arc blade 10C4/25C50. Solidity, 1.333; blade-
with incidence angle for conventional com- chord angle, 42.5 (ref. 40).
pressor blade sections at two different values FIGURE 150.--Etfeet of Reynolds number on variation of
of Reynolds number are illustrated in figure loss with incidence angle.
.5 .......... value is in effective agreement with the value of

,4 -- limiting Reynolds number deduced herein.
.5-- _ _ - The desirability of conducting cascade investi-
gations in the essentially flat range of the curve of
loss coefficient against Reynolds number in order
g to enhance the correlation of data from various
tunnels, as well as from the various configurations
' i ....
L __
3
of a given tunnel, is indicated. Cascade operation
.08 in the fiat range of Reynolds number may also
0
-T yield a more significant comparison between
.06
.05 --
Incidence observed and theoretically computed loss. Reyn-
,, .04 angle, olds number and turbulence level should always
/, deg
-
0
.05 -- be defined in cascade investigations. Furthermore,
o -9.0
u -6.5 the development of some effective Reynolds
.02 -- o -4.0
-I.O
-- t tH-F number (ch. V) that attempts to combine the
-- v -5.5 effects of both blade-chord Reynolds number and
turbulence should be considered for use as the
.ol _1111_ lJ_l 1[[ L
.2 .3 .4 .6 .8 2 3xlO 5 independent variable.
Blade-chord Reynolds number, Re c Effect of inlet Mach number.--In the previous
correlations, attention was centered on the various
FI(_URn 151.--_Variation of total-pressure-loss coefficient
factors affe('ting tile loss of cascade blades for
with blade-chord Reynolds number for parabolic-arc
blade 10C4/40 P40. Inlet-air angle, 28 to 40 ;
solidity, 1.333 (ref. 183).
_ Blade _ Relfer -
ence
at minimum loss with blade-chord Reynolds
o" C.4 Circular arc
.t6 o 0.4 Circular arc I 167,
number for a largo number of blade shapes is (turbulence added) pt. I
shown in figure 152. Identification data for the
65-(12AIo)10 59
various blades included in the figure are given in .14 65-(12At0)10 I
(lurbulence added)
the references. For the blades whose loss data are C.4 Circular arc i
C.4 Parabolic arc 40
reported in terms of drag coefficient, conversion to Double circular arc
c .12
total-pressure-loss coefficient was accomplished 65-(12A218b)lO I
.9 65-(12A218b)lO I 123 _!
according to the cascade relations presented in
(turbulence added))
reference 9. The effect of change in tunnel .10 r, C.4 Parabolic arc
-----RAF 27
turbulence level through the introduction of
O
screens is indicated for some of the blades.
$
It is apparent from the curves in figure 152 that .08
it is currently impossible to establish any one value
&
of lindting Reynolds number that will hold for all I
.o6
blade shapes. (The term limiting Reynolds 2
number refers to the value of Reynolds number at
.04
which a large rise in loss is obtained.) On the
basis of the available cascade data presented in
figure 152, however, it appears that serious trouble .02
in the minimum-loss region may be encountered
at Reynolds ntanbers below about 2.5X105. i
Carter in reference 190 places the limiting blade- 0 6xlO 5
chord Reynolds number based on outlet velocity

at 1.5 to 2.0X105. Considering that outlet
F[GURS 152. _ Composite plot of loss coefficient against
Reynolds number is less than inlet Reynolds blade-chord I{eynolds number in region of minimum loss
number for decelerating cascades, this quoted for two-dimensional-cascade blade sections at low speed.
EXPERIMENTAL
CASCADES 207
essentially incompressible or low Mach number

flow. Tests of cascade sections at higher Mach
number levels have been relatively few, primarily
because of the large power requirements and
,_ __ _ ]
operational difficulties of high-velocity tunnels.
As a consequence, it has not been possible to
establish any empirical correlations that will permit
the estimation of Mach number effects for con- ....... t
ventional blade sections. The limited available (a) i
data indicate, however, that a marked rise in loss 0 2 4 6 8 1.0
is eventually obtained as Mach number is in- inlet Mach number, M I
creased.
.6
, , , _:,/o
A typical example of the variation of total- - _/ t 1_]
Inlet Mach
pressure-loss coefficient with inlet Mach number
for a conventional cascade section at fixed inci-
o 021 /fu
dence angle in the region of minimum loss is [] .77 J_
.4
presented in figure 153(a). The inlet Mach v number,
85 MI _ - _ ...... _i j ,/]
number at which the sharp rise in loss occurs is

referred to as the limiting Mach number. The <].2 Pressure [_'[ IXI _,,o_
variation of the wake profile downstream of the
blade as Mach number is increased is shown in
figure 153 (b) to illustrate the general deterioration 2o 40 60 80 i oo
of the suction-surface flow. Tile flow deteriora- Percent btade spacing, s
tion is the result of a separation of the suction-

(a) Total-pressure-loss coefficient.
surface boundary layer induced by shock-wave
(b) Blade wake.
and boundary-layer interactions.
FIGURE 153.--Variation of cascade blade loss with inlet
In view of the complex nature of the shock-
Mach number for NACA 65-(12A10) 10 blade in region of
wave development and its interaction effects, the
minimum loss (ref. 122).
estimation of the variation of minimum total-
pressure loss with inlet Mach number for a given camber distribution on high Mach number per-
blade is currently impossible. At the moment, formance are discussed extensively in the lit, era-
this pursuit must be primarily an experimental ture (refs. 123, 200, and 201). Results indicate
one. Schlieren photographs showing the forma- that, for the range of blade shapes and Math
tion of shocks in a cascade are presented in ref- numbers normally covered, camber distribution
erences 41, 205, and 206, and detailed discussions does not have a large effect on maximum Mach
of shock formations and high-speed performance number performance as obtained in the two-
of two-dimensional-cascade sections are treated dimensional cascade.
in references 41, 205, and 207 to 209. Cascade
SUMMARY
experience (refs. 40 and 205) and theory (refs. 41,
88, and 209) indicate that a location of the point From the foregoing correlations and considera-
of maximum thickness at about the 50-percent- tions, the low-speed loss in total pressure of con-
chord position and a thinning of the blade leading ventional two-dimensional-cascade sections can
and trailing edges are favorable for good high readily be estimated. If blade surface velocity
Mach number performance. The avoidance of a distributions are available, the suction-surface
throat area within the blade passage is also local diffusion factor D,o_ is determined according
indicated in order to minimize the effects of flow to equation (265) and a value of O*/c is then
choking. Discussions of the choking problem selected from figure 146. In the absence of blade
are presented in references 203 and 208, and blade surface velocity data, the diffusion factor D is
throat areas are given for several blade shapes in computed from over-all conditions by means of
references 123 and 210 to 212. The effects of equation (54) and O*/c is selected from figure 148.
With e*/c determined, the total-pressure-loss constant, then variations of H and 8" and of the
coefficient is computed according to equation (264) relation between O*/c and _ with outlet free-stream
from the cascade geometry and a pertinent value Mach number can be established analytically to
of wake form factor H. illustrate the nature of the compressibility effects.
According to reference 156, for cascade meas- Curves of the variation of the ratios of com-
uring stations located more than about _ chord pressible to incompressible form factor H/H_,_
length downstream of the blade trailing edge, the and momentum thickness e*/e*, with outlet
value of H will generally be less than about 1.2. Mach number for various d values obtained from
For practical purposes, it was indicated that a numerical integration of the wake parameters
constant value of H of about 1.1 can be used over involved are shown in figures 154 and 155. Re-
a wide range of cascade configurations and in- cently, tim increasing trend of H with M2 was
cidence angles for measuring stations located be- substantiated experimentally at the NACA Lewis
tween _ and 1Y2chord lengths behind the trailing laboratory in an investigation of the wake char-
edge. Loss coefficients based on inlet dynamic acteristic of a turbine nozzle (unpublished data).
head can then be determined, if desired, from Curves of the ratio of the integrated value of
equation (266). The estimation of losses based on obtained from a given value of e*/c in a com-
the diffusion factor D can, for example, produce a pressible flow to the value of _ computed from the
value of solidity that results in the least computed same value of O*/c according to the incompressible
loss coefficient for a given velocity diagram. relation of equation (264) are shown in figure 156.
The accuracy of the results obtained from the It should be noted that for compressible flow the
prediction procedure outlined is subject to the denominator in the loss-coefficient definition
limitations and approximations involved in the (eq. (263)) is now given by P--p.
diffusion analysis and wake monmntum-thickness In summary, therefore, an accurate prediction
correlations. Strictly speaking, tim procedure of the variation of reference total-pressure loss
_ves essentially a band of probable loss values at with inlet Math number for a given cascade
the cascade measuring station about _ to 1_
i ! t r _ 1 | 1
chord lengths downstream of the blade trailing
edge for the reference-incidence-angle setting and 1.6 _,
Exponent
d
Incompressible
form factor, J 1
Reynolds [lumbers of about 2.5X105

at low speed (up to about 0.3 inlet Mach number).
and greater
14-
__
7
g
_
0.1
I/7
1,2--
I. 29(ref.217)_/J
_-\i /
i
_q_._ #
It should also be noted at this point that the loss i , .2 I .4 _, _J,,_ /
values obtained in this manner represent the low- i .5 2.o

/ I I
speed profile loss of the cascade section. Such
loss values are not generally representative of the
losses of the section in a compressor blade row or in
a high-speed cascade. 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 .2
A corresponding loss-estimation technique for Oullel Mach number, M2
high Mach number flow is currently unavailable

FIGURE 154.--Ratio of compressible to incompressible
because of the unknown magnitude of the com- form factor for constant value of exponent in power
pressibility effect on the wake momentum-thick- velocity distribution.
ness ratio of a given cascade geometry. Further-
l.o_ -_l-- ' _ I ]H. ' ]
more, both the wake form factor H and the relation | "'II_C
between O*/c and _0 (given for incompressible flow

by eq. (264)) vary with Mach number. For ,
example, if the velocity variation in each leg of the
wake is assumed to vary according to the power
relation "_0 .2 .4 .6 .8 .0 1.2
Outlet Moch number, M2
V _{yy
_oo--k,a] (267) FIGURE 155.--Ratio of compressible to incompressible
momentum thickness for constant full thickness and
where a is the thickness of the wake and d is some exponent for power velocity distribution.
EXPERIMENTAL
CASCADES 209
infinitesimally thin blades at zero incidence.

Furthermore, with deviation angle equal to zero
at zero camber angle in this theory, it is possible
to express the deviation angle as a ratio of the
camber angle. Values of the ratio of deviation
angle to camber angle for an infinitely thin cir-
cular-arc blade of small camber deduced from the
theory of reference 80 are presented in figm'e 157
for a range of solidit, ies and chord angles. The
values in figure 157 are for the incidence angle for
"impact-free entry" previously mentioned, which
corresponds essentially to the condition of mini-
mum loss.
The results of figure 157 show that, for a blade
of zero thickness, the inininmm-loss deviation
angle is zero at zero canlber angle. However,
analysis indicates that this is not the case for
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
blades of conventional thicknesses. A recent
0utlei Moch number, M2
theoretical demonstration of the existence of a
FI(_UR_ 156.--Correction factor Kc for calculation of
positive value of zero-camber deviation angle ac-
total-pressure-loss coefficient for compressible flow on
cording to potential-flow calculations is given by
basis of incompressible equation (264) as determined
from model wake form with power velocity profile. Schlichting in reference 193. The computed WL.l'-
iation of zero-camber deviation angle for a con-
blade is currently impossible. At tile moment, ventional 10-percent-thick profile at zero incidence
this pursuit isprimarily an experimental one. Fam- angle as obtained in the reference is shown in
ilies of curves of wake momentum thickness and figure 158.
form factor against diffusion factor are required It will be recalled from the discussion of the
(with appropriate definitions for subsonic or zero-camber minilnum-loss incidence angle that,
supersonic flow) as in figure 146 or 148 for a wide for the conventional staggered cascade (0_T
range of inlet Mach number. Analytically, a _90 ) with finite blade thickness set at zero in-
simple compressible relation is needed between cidence angle, a greater nlagnitude of vehwity
0"/c and _ as a function of Mach number.
.5 ' ' ! ! ! [ i
DEVIATION-ANGLE ANALYSIS
Blode-chord _ _
PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS _ angle 7 , _ I ! i
9-
The correct determination of the outlet flow .4
direction of a cascade blade element presents a E

"5 , ! i . , i
problem, because the air is not discharged at the
- 50 , _ - J
angle of the blade inean line at the trailing edge,
but at some angle a to it. (fig. 124). Since the o
40
flow deviation is an expression of the guidance g
capacity of the passage formed by adjacent blades,
> .2
it is expected that the cascade geonletry (camber, oJ
db
lhickness, solidity, and chord angle) will be l he

principal influencing factor involved. , tA_i_l i t '
From cascade potential-flow theory (ref. 80, "0 .4 .8 1,2 L6 2.0
Solidily, o-
e.g.), it is found that the deviation angle increases
with blade camber and chord angle and decreases
FIGURE 157.--Theoretical varmtion of deviation-angle
with solidity. Weinig in reference 80 shows that ratio for infinitely thin circular-arc sections at "impact-
the deviation angle varies linearly with camber for free-entry" incidence angle according to potential
a given value of solidity and chord angle for theory of reference 80.
691-164 O-65-15
4 ...... .... inlet angle. The variation of reference deviation

angle can then be expressed in equation form as
a----llo-l-m_ (268)
where a: is the reference deviation angle for zero

0 I0 20 30 40 50 60 camber, m is the slope of the deviation-angle
Blode-chord ongle, y,deg variation with camber
O o
(_--_o)/_, and _ is the
camber angle. As in the case of the analogous
FIGURE 158.--Theoretical variation of deviation angle for
conventional uncambered 10-percent-thick blade section terms in the reference-incidence-angle relation
at zero incidence angle as presented in reference 193. (eq. (261)), _ and m are functions of inlet-air
angle and solidity.
occurs on the blade lower (concave) surface than The influence of solidity on the magnitude of
on the upper (convex) surface (fig. 134). Such the slope term ra could also be directly included
velocity distributions result in a negative blade as a functional relation in equation (268), so that
circulation and consequently (as indicated by the equation (268) could be expressed as
solid vectors in fig. 159) in a positive deviation
o o
angle. Furthermore, since the deviation angle _i --_i o_ _'n._ i
(269)
increases slightly with increasing incidence angle 0 "b
(da/di is positive in potential cascade flow),

positive values of deviation angle will likewise be where m,=_ represents the value of m (i.e., (a -
obtained at the condition of mininmm-loss inci- a_)/_) at a solidity of 1, b is the solidity exponent
dence angle (as illustrated by the dashed vectors (variable with air inlet angle), and the other terms
in fig. 159). Since the zero-camber deviation are as before. It will be noted that equation
angle arises from essentially a thickness blockage (269) is similar in form to the frequently used
effect, the characteristics of the variation of deviation-angle rule for circular-arc blades origi-
minimum-loss zero-camber deviation angle with nally established by Constant in reference 186
cascade geometry would be expected roughly to and later modified by Carter in reference 88.
parallel the variation of the minimum-loss zero- Carter's rule for the condition of nominal inci-
camber incidence angle in figure 137. The low- dence angle is given by
speed reference-deviation-angle correlations may,
therefore, involve intercept values as in the case _--= m-_ (270)
of the reference-incidence-angle correlations.
In addition to the cascade-geometry factors in which m_ is a function of blade-chord angle.
mentioned, the low-speed deviation angles can Values of m_ determined from theoretical con-
also be affected by Reynolds number, turbulence, siderations for circular-arc and parabolic-arc mean
and Mach number. The thickened surface bound-
lines (ref. 88) are shown in figure 160. In the
ary layers resulting from low levels of Reynolds
number and turbulence tend to increase the devia-
tion angle. Variations in inlet Mach number can /J
affect the deviation angle of a fixed two-dimen-

sional-cascade geometry because of the associated /o
....... Zero
changes in blade circulation, boundary-layer de- ------ Minimum-loss
velopment, and outlet to inlet axial velocity ratio
(compressibility effect on pV,). VII /
DATA CORRELATIONS
Form of correlation.--Examination of deviation- /4. f

angle data at reference incidence angle reveals J /
Axis
that the observed data can be satisfactorily rep-
resented by a linear variation of reference deviation FIGURE 159. Outlet flow direction for cascade of staggered
angle with camber angle for fixed solidity and air uncambered blades.
EXPERIMENTAL FLOW IN TWO-DI.MENSIONAL CASCADES 211
thickness ratio. Values of the intercept term _

and the slope term m were obtained by fitting a
straight line to each data plot of reference equiva-
lent deviation angle against equivalent camber
angle for a fixed solidity and air inlet angle. The
straight, lines were selected so that both a satis-
factory representation of the variation of the data
points and a consistent variation for the resulting
_ and m values were obtained. The extrap-
I0 20 30 40 50 60
Blade -chord angle, yo deg olation of the values of m to fl_----0 was guided
by the data for the 65-(12A_o)10 blade at, solidities
FIGURL 160.---Variation of factor mc in Carter's deviation-
of 1 and 1.5 reported in the cascade guide-vane
angle rule (ref. 88).
investigation of reference 213 (for an aspect ratio
of 1, as in ref. 39).
ensuing correlations, both forms of the deviation-
For the deviation-angle rule as given by equa-
angle relation (eqs. (268) and (269)) are used,
tion (269), deduced values of m,=_ and exponent
since each has a particular advantage. Equation
b as functions of inlet-air angle are presented in
(268), with m plotted as a function of fll and a,
figures 163 and 164. The deduced rule values
is easier to use for prediction, especially if the
(eq. (268) or (269)) and the observed data points
calculation of a required camber angle is involved.
are compared in figure 165 to indicate the effective-
Equation (269) may be better for extrapolation
ness of the deduced representations. The flagged
and for comparison with Carter's rule.
symbols in the high-camber range in the figure
As ill the case for the zero-camber reference
represent blade configurations for which boundary-
nfinimunl-loss incidence angle, the zero-camber
layer separation is indicated (D greater than about
deviation angle can be represented as a function
0.62). In view of the higher loss levels for this
of blade thickness as
condition, an increase in the magnitude of the
= (271) deviation angle is to be expected compared with
the values extrapolated from the smaller cambers
where (5_)_0 represents the basic variation for the for which a lower loss level existed.
10-percent-thick 65-series lhickness distribution, C-Series circular-arc blades.--In view of the
(Kt),h represents any correction necessary for a absence of systematic cascade data for the C-
blade shape with a thickness distribution different series circular-arc blade, an accurate determination
from that of the 65-series blade, and (Ka)t repre- of the rule constants cannot, be made for this blade
sents any correction necessary for maximum blade shape. However, a preliminary relation can be
thicknesses other than l0 percent. (For a 10- deduced on the basis of limited data. It appears
percent-thick 65-series blade, (Ks)_ and (Ka)_^ are that, for the uncambered C.4 section (ref. 192), if
equal to 1.) The problem, therefore, is reduced a value of (K_),h equal to 1.1 (as for the determi-
to finding the values of m, b, and $_ (through eq. nation of /0) is used, a satisfactory comparison
(271)) as functions of the pertinent variables in- between predicted and observed $_ values is
volved for the various blade shapes considered. obtained.
NACA 65-(h_o)-series blades.--From an exam- The characteristic number m,=_ in the devia-
ination of the plots of equivalent deviation angle tion-angle design rule of equation (269) for a
against equivalent camber angle at reference given blade mean line corresponds to the value of
minimum-loss incidence angle obtained from the (_0--_)/_ at a solidity of unity. Cascade data
cascade data, values of zero-camber deviation for a C.4 circular-arc profile obtained from tunnels
angle can be determined by extrapolation. The with good boundary-layer control are presented
deduced plots of zero-camber deviation angle in references 167 (pt. I) and 199 for a solidity of
(_)10 and slope term m as functions of solidity 1.0 for fl_=30 , 42.5 , 45 , and 60 . Values of
and air-inlet angle are presented in figures 161 and (_0--_)/_ were computed for these blades accord-
162 for these blades. The subscript 10 indicates ing to the _o variations of figure 161. A value of
that the _ values are for 10-percent maximum- m,=L for B_----0 was obtained from the per-
0 I0 20 :50 40 50 60 70
Inlet-air angle, /31, deg
FIGURE 161.--Zero-camber deviation angle at reference minimum-loss incidence angle deduced from low-speed-cascade
data for 10-percent-thick NACA 65--(A10)-series blades (ref. 39).
formance data of a free-stream circular-arc inlet variation based on values of b and m,=, obtained
guide vane presented in reference 214. These from figures 164 and 166, respectively, is shown
values of m are plotted in figure 166 against inlet- in the figure by the solid line. A satisfactory
air angle, and the proposed variation of m,=, agreement with these circular-arc data is thus
for the circular-arc mean line is sho_ by the demonstrated for the value of b obtained from the
solid line. 65-series data. On the basis of these results,
In the absence of data covering a range of deduced curves of m against fll for a range of
solidities, it is assumed that the solidity exponent solidities (for use in conjunction with eq. (268))
b in the deviation-angle rule of equation (269) is were computed for the C-series circular-arc blade
independent of the profile shape and will therefore as indicated in figure 168.
also be applicable for the circular-_rc mean line. Double-circular-arc blades.--Although limited
This assumption agrees with limited experimental data arc available for the double-circular-arc blade
data. The variation of ratio of deviation angle to (refs. 40 and 197), it was felt that these data could
camber angle obtained from constant-thickness not I)c reliably utilized in the coustruction of a
circular-arc guide-vane sections of reference 215 deviation-angle rule because of the questionable
($0----0 for guide vanes) over a wide range of two-dimensionality of the respective test tunnels.
solidities is shown in figure 167. A computed However, since the C-series and the double-
Fmuaz 162.--Deduced variation of slope factor m in deviation-angle rule for NACA 65-(AM-series blades as equivalent
circular arc.
circular-arc blades differ only in thickness distribu- predicting the deviation _tngle of circular-arc-
tion, it is reasonable to expect that, as in the case mean-line blades, some results obtained from tt_e
of the reference-incidence-angle correlations, only use of Carter's rule were compared with the de-
the zero-camber deviation angles will be materially duced rule of equation (269) with figures 161, 164,
affected. Therefore, the slope-term value m and 166. Tim principal difference between the
deduced for the C-series circular-arc blade (fig. two rules occurs in the blade orientation parameter
168) might also be used for the double-circular-arc used for the m variation and in the _ and b varia-
blade, but the _ values may be different. An tions. The value of the solidity exponent of _ in
arbitrarily selected value of 0.7 for (K_),, in equation (270) was originally obtained from lim-
equation (271) (as for the reference-incidence- ited data. Carter, in a later work (ref. 190), pro-
angle determination) is suggested for the double- poses a variable solidity exponent and indicates
circular-arc blade. values close to 1 for _tccelerating cascades and close
Comparison of rules.--In view of the widespread to _ for decelerating cascades. The variation of
use of Carter's rule (eq. (270) with fig. 160) for b obtained from the NACA 65-(A_0)-series blades
.4 1111III
!!!!!!!
[]iiiii
IJlllll
Ill
I,,I,II
[ii[i_[
!!!!!!!
ii[iiii
;illllk
.3
_44444
ii_iiii
iiiii"
![!!E_
illli'N _
Jllllll
iiiiiii
.2
iiiiiii
i!!!!!!
i''[ll
,llll:l
!!!!
iilllll
1111111
:+4-+
iii11
.I iiiiill
0 I0 20 3O 4O 5O 7O
Inlet-a_r angle, ,81 , deg
FIGURE 163.--Value of m,-_ in deviation-angle rule for 65-(A10)-series blades as equivalent circular arc (deduced from
data of ref. 39).
_o +
.8
o
w
5
0 IO 20 30 40 50
Inletlalr angle, '_I , deg
FIGURE 164.--Value of solidity exponent b in deviation-angle rule (eq. (269)) (deduced from data for 65-(A_0)-series blades
in ref. 39).
_ /31, dog -_
- u 45 -- _./ /45
_ oo 6o
30 _ ....
/ g_Bi '560 ._- d"
J 1_ t_(
-- ' 70
Rule ___'_ f_ - -
7 _. Irl_
4_ it!
qgl_
_- '/_#" -30 I .......

......
Flogs D > 0.62 / _oo_ _:_
I i , /b
--+ + ....
/I !n 45!
_k'f $30 _
40 48 56
Equivolenl comber ongle, _, dog
(a) Solidity, 0.5 and 0.75. (b) Solidity, 1.0.

(c) Solidity, 1.25. (d) Solidity, 1.5.
FIGURE 165.--Comparison between data values and deduced rule values of reference minimum-loss deviation angle for
NACA 65-(A10)10-series blades as equivalent circular arc (data from ref. 39).
as equivalent circular arcs in figure 164 essentially Blade-chord angle for Carter's rule was computed
confirms this trend. Actually, the deviation-angle from the equation
rule in the form of equation (269) constitutes a
modification of Carter's rule. ,,to=#,_ i ,,o (272)
2
In addition to the basic differences between the
rules in the magnitudes of the m, b, and a_ values, Reference incidence angle was determined from
it is noted that Carter's rule was originally devel- equations (261) and (262) and figures 137 and 138.
oped for the condition of nominal incidence angle, The plots of figure 169 show that, in practically
whereas the modified rule pertains to the reference all cases, the deviation angles given by the modi-
minimum-loss incidence angle. However, since fied rule are somewhat greater in magnitude than
Carter's rule has frequently been used over a wide those predicted by Carter's rule for the 10-percent-
range of reference angle in its application, both thick blade. This is particularly true for the high
rules were evaluated, for simplicity, for the refer- inlet-air angles. Thus, greater camber angles are
ence minimum-loss incidence angle. required for a given turning angle according to
An illustrative comparison of predicted reference the modified rule. Differences are even less for
deviation angle as obtained from Carter!s rule and the double-circular, arc blade, as indicated in figure
the modified rule for a 10-percent-thick, thick- 170, since the a values are smaller for these blades.
nosed circular-arc blade is shown by the calculated However, it should be kept in mind that the
results in figure 169 for ranges of camber angle, magnitude of the factors in the modified rule are
solidity, and inlet-air angle. Deviation angles in proposed values based on limited data. Further
figure 169 were restricted to cascade configurations research is required to establish the modified rule
producing values of diffusion factor less than 0.6. on a firmer foundation.
.4 I[I[lt',',I',I',I',',]II',',[',',I-+H-H-HH+H4+H +_.Hlll[l',[':[l',lll[',',[[l',[1',l',[',:, ' [1][i[l]',[ll1',l]t-Hilli]i',',',',',',[ ii ![llilllli[]]

_H+H+_+H+_
[]]_[:[iil[[Jlll
.....................
Dala f_om
:_:H ........................
................................................................
t_tU4tt_, ........... _..... II
i_ffl_
} [ i ] i i i i i i i i ] i i i i [ I [ J I [ I I I I[I [ [ I J I I I i I i i _ j i _ ' , [ i iN _ ] [ ] i i ] i i i i i _ .
,. ............... F refe ence _ _T-._.T_.._]T:.__

........ ....... _HHft#_fIf':_HiCH+I+H+H-_H+H-_-4 IJ[l,, _,_,., ,._
Illl/llil]l] I _ _L _ I: , , i
I-FH-H-H-FFIJH+"+_ [] 167pt: r .,_',,'1-_t ]HH'ElddJd+H+H+H+H-H" t,I

.... : ..... :,,, _', 214 _- _: .... ' ...............................
+H+PH+t+ICHd ............. ,,H ;.................................
+I_HtHt,t_.jbtH+PFH-I+H_+H_ ,. , H4"HHtHd.
I[ IJ._i":a i
- _ ....................................................
_b ,:F_,,__I; :[]:l::]l:i::lli_ _ P_L_HtHI]:.''I'[:'.:[:::H+I:::,I: '*|L:]_]LJ_LI-ITH_
,.........................................................................
,_"
',]l|l',lll _4- _L'_'_llIh_l"l::":[[:l:l":"["il_i
___t_-H-H.-H-H+H-t-HH-H-HI il
t I I IJ:Lt:t_}l_- 74:
I][', ',I', I ', I111] [II I11 [ ii
I_l![!!!i!!tthli{!{- -_ l I', ................... ....
,.............. I1111iiiiiiiJi[iib_H!_[!!:_.ililil[!!]!!:
'. , [ : I_ , I [
f_r._-,_+ *t
Ik ]'1[]!!]!I[ [ it _f _'l'l [I _ [', [ llllll] [ll_-Fl ', ill ll 'l l, ] _l,[i] [l[Fll_'] [ I[l J,I, II]|IHJ_'Ii_H[ I ',llllIN[, [_',llll I[l I, 4 _- _[ l_ _Jfl I [ !/
_: iP,z_Zl_l',',l:_',m-Ht-t-kfffft:l_ :l_l_[!i i }_ 2'. q
l
0 l0 ?G 30 '_( f)rl 6(
!nlet-air angle, _1 ' d_:,-j
FIGURE 166.--Deduced values of m,-_ for circular-arc mean line.
Effect of blade maximum thickness.--Available

]-T :---;----[
[
.4 -
data on the variation of reference deviation angle

with blade maximum-thickness ratio obtained [ o Data, ,p:40
_o l --Calculated from
from cascade investigations of the 65-(12A_0) .3 ---
o _ ! ( ,_ i 1 so_0.250
blade of reference 202 are shown in figure 171.
g
The
deviation
solid symbols representing
angle at zero thickness
the values
were determined
of oToT : T [ .....
by subtracting the values of (_)_0 obtained from _.2
figure 161 from the measured value of deviation ?
g
angle at 10-percent maximum thickness obtained
S.I
from the data in figure 171. A very reasonable o -'---_ _._._...
variation
faired
with thickness
curves, is thus obtained
ratio, as indicated
for all three
by the
con-
r--, !
! I
1
figurations. The increasing slope of the deviation- o .8 1.6 2.4 5.2 4.0
angle variation with increasing thickness ratio is Solidity, _r
believed due to some extent to the accompanying
FIGUa_] 167.--Comparison of experimental deviation-
increase in wake losses.
angle ratio and rule values using solidity exponent given
Preliminary values of a ('orrection factor for by figure 164. Data for circular-arc inlet guide vanes
nmximuln-thickness ratio (K,)_ deduced from the in annular cascade (ref. 215).
data of figure 171 are shown in figure 172. In the
absence of further data, it is proposed that this the variation of the loss. Therefore, factors
correction curve is also applicable to other con- involved in the deviation-angle variation are the
ventional blade shapes same as those for the loss behavior. Correspond-
Effect of Reynolds number.--ln view of the ingly, no Reynolds number correction factors that
large rise in loss as blade-chord Reynolds number will be applicable for all blade configurations }]ave
is reduced (fig. 152), a corresponding rise in devia- been established. The deduced deviation-angle
tion angle (or decrease in turning angle) is to be rule developed herein is applicable at Reynolds
expected. Experimental eonfirmat, ion of the numbers of about 2.5X l0 _ and greater.
marked effect of Re)molds number on blade deviation Effect of inlet Math number.--Experimental
angle at fixed incidence angle is illustrated in variations of mininmm-loss deviation angle with
figure 173 for several compressor hlade shapes. inlet. Mach number are presented in figure 175 for
The variation of deviation angle with Reynolds two circular-arc blades. Further cascade data in
number over a range of incidence angle is demon- terms of air-turning angle at. fixed angle of attack
strated in figure 174. In all cases tlhe variation _re shown in figure 176 for two other compressor
of the deviation or turning angle closely parallels blade shapes. (Since the data in fig. 176 were
.7
.6
.5
9
O
.4
Y_
Lf_
.3
.2
.I
0 I0 20 30 40 50 60 70
Inlel air angle, /_1 ,deg
FIGURE 168.--Deduced variation of slope factor m in deviation-angle rule (eq. (268)) for circular-arc-mean-line blades.
obtained at constant, angle of attaek, the wu'ia- angle in the data is always associated with the
tion of turning angle is an inverse reflection of sharp rise in loss.)
the variation of deviation angle.) The data of Variation with incidence angle, Thus far, of
figures 175 and 176 indicate that deviation angle necessity, the analysis has been conducted for
varies little with inlet. Mach number up to the flow conditions at only one reference position on
limiting value. As indicated in the Preliminary the general curve of loss against incidence angle.
Analysis section, the resultant Maeh number Ultimately, of course, it is desired to predict flow
effect for a given blade configuration will depend variations over the entire range of incidence
on tile relative magnitude of the various factors angle. The variation of deviation angle with
involved. Apparently, tile net effect is small up incidence angle for a fixed geometry in the two-
to the limiting wdue of inlet Mach number. dimensional cascade is primarily a function of the
Large increases in deviation angle can be expected, change in the guidance capacity of the cascade
however, when the loss rises rapidly at the limit- arising from the change in orientation of the ap-
ing Mach numt)er because of the adverse effects proaching flow (_t potential-flow effect:) and of the
of the sh()ek f<_rmation. (The rise in deviation w_riation in the wake loss. Since no information
12
16 T T [ _ T _I _
--Deduced rule i ! [ Moxlmum- thickness
_- T ratio, tic "
--_---Carter's rule i 4 _
i i o,o,.
8 i _ t__
-, 63",
1
J
" i _'_'_ Thick nose
"o
T _'_Double circular arc
0
I J I == J [<o
o)"
% 2
.... Deduced
Carter's rule
rule i i j_
o
g , l o. ,o_/
7"o . !
Z
C)
12 i ./',: 6o_ I
.f.."
- i
8
4 _-<"-LOouble circulor arc 1
0 8 16 24 32 40
O 8 t6 24 52
Iibii 40
Comber ongle, p,deg
(a) Solidity, 1.5; inlet-air angle, 40 .

Comber ongle, #, deg
(b) Solidity, 1.0; inlet-air angle, 60 .
FmURF 170. Comparison of calculated reference devia-

(a) Solidity, 1.5.
(b) Solidity, 1.0. tion angles according to Carter's rule and deduced
modified rule for circular-arc blades of different thickness.
FIGURE 169.--Comparison ol calculat(,d reference devia-
tion angles according to Carter's rule and deduced
modified rule for 10-percent-thick, thick-nose circular-arc
blades.
---- _ 7
!
12 o 45 1.5 - j--
is currently available on the effect of losses, at- 60 1.0
L_ 4
_ -0 60 1.5
tention is centered on deviation-angle variations
in the region of low loss, where the trend of _o I0 Solid Predicted _h
-- Foired curvee_-
variation approaches that of the potential flow. ..... T N
Examination of.potential-flow theory (Weinig, 0 + + 1 ff
c " "_ t"_
ref. 80, e.g.) shows that a positive slope of devia-
tion angle against incidence angle exists (i.e.,
_ d .....
deviation angle increases with incidence angle).
Calculations based on the theory of Weinig reveal
that the magnitude of the slope varies with % _ .o_ _.o_ '.o6 .08 .10 i(2 .1'4 .16
solidity and blade-chord angle. The deviation- Moximum-thickness rolio, f/
angle slope approaches zero for infinite solidity
FIGURE 171.--Variation of deviation angle with blade
(deviation angle is essentially constant at high
maximum-thickness ratio for NACA 65-(12A_0) blade
solidity) and increases as solidity is reduced. At in region of minimum toss (data irom ref. 202).
EXPERIMENTAL
CASCADES 219
0 .02 .04 .06 .08 .10 .12

Moimum-lhickness rotio, t/c
FIG U RE 172.--Deduced maximum-thickness correction for zero-camber reference minimum-loss deviation angle (eq. (271) ).
8
o..
8 i [ [ [ [ < = " Blade" " --1
1 i ] | | o C-series 10C4/25C50]
[ t ] [ -_- [] Double circular arc I
4(a__ _u6 / i / / / . 105 2A/25C50
q.)

o
(X3
_
_12 .....
\ ......
Inlet Mach number, Mf
8 .9
F FIGURE 175.--Variation of reference deviation angle with

inlet Mach number for circular-arc blades. Solidity,
g _ 1.333; blade-chord angle, 42.5 (ref. 40).
o (b) L
....... o
,-91, deg
30
_, deg
24.6
t .
........ 1 -
[] 34.1 25.0 |
44 0 54.1 26.5 _ ......
8JO(_) Turbulence added ----! ' -->---F:,-q

,-=
4 1 2 " _ " 4 5_,o5
@42 i P " o ,
e2
Blade-chord Reynolds number, Re c <l
ffa[i
d 40
(a) 10C4/25C50 blade. Solidity, 1.33; blade-chord angle, _24_ I I
42.5 (ref. 40).
(b) 10.5 2A/25C50 blade. Solidity, 1.33; blade-chord I
angle, 42.5 (ref. 40).
c22__
(c) NACA 65-(12)10 blade. Solidity, 1.5; inlet-air angle,
45 (ref. 39).
:_20 _ _ ,
FzGca_ 173.--Illustrative variations of reference deviation
angle with Reynolds number.
, s;(bll .51 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
12
Inlet Mach number, MI
IO (a) TI(18A_I,b)08 blade. Solidity, 1.5 (ref. 207).

F (b) 65-(12A_0) 10 blade. Solidity, 1.0; inlet-air angle, 45;
angle of attack, 16.5 (ref. 122).
8
F_ouas 176.--Variation of air-turning angle with inlet
Mach number in region of minimum loss.
/3_, aeg ,,aeg
6
g 0 27.9 -9.0
5 - _, 30.4 -6.5 (high solidity and low blade angle), the less
v 32.9 -4.0
,_ 4 o 37.9 1.0 sensitive the deviation angle is to changes in
a 40.4 5.5
incidence angle.
J , [ For analysis purposes, since the region of low
.2 .5 .4 .6 .8 2 3xlO 5
1.ss is genendly small, the variation of deviation
Blade-chord Reynolds number, Re c
angle with incidence erngie for a given cascade
FIGURE 174.--Variation of deviation angle with Reynolds geometry in lhe regi(m of minimum loss can be
number for 10C4/40 P40 blade. Solidity, 1.33 (ref.
183). represenled as
'd_ _
constant solidity, the slope of deviation angle ao=a,_,+(i--i,_,)
o (_ , l_f
(273)
against incidence angle increases as the chord
angle is increased. These trends indicate physi- where ((la/(ti),_z represents the slope of tim
cally that the greater the initial guidance effect deviation-angle variation at the reference incidence
"o .............. " ............ " :, + i + , 4 {. i_,. _. i. q.i:d:iil::
2:' 2 --
0<, _: , , i!_!::.i!t_
m_r
=, ', i ;iTrr7 , %ttffittHi7 " iHftt ttt!:iit!! iti!itTilr, iili
_* fk: .._'"_
=t:f iff:::Ht :_;[ " J411t_IH!7!XiHtffiIIHt ti_ _f_t:):lJHHi,q _'r_ :l[_" lir _:i"' .....................
r 4_] IIil I:'
0 2 4 @ 8 IO I 2 14 I Co 18
Solid_ty,_-
FmUR_ 177.--Deviation-angle slope d_/di at reference incidence angle deduced from low-speed data for NACA 65-(A,0) 10
blades (ref. 39).
angle. An empirical determination of the nntgni- angle with cascade geometry at low speed can
tude of the slope of the variation of deviation be satisfactorily established in terms of an inter-
angle with incidence angle was obtained from cept value _o and a slope value m as given by
an analysis of the low-speed experimental data equation (268). The experimental data could
for the 65-(A_0)10 blades of reference 39. From also be expressed in terms of a rule similar in form
the plot. of deviation angle against incidence to Carter's rule, as indicated by equation (269).
angle for each configuration (as in fig. 127, e.g.), Deduced values of _o and m were obtained as a
the slope of the curve at the minimum-loss inci- function of B_ and a from the data for the 10-
dence angle was evaluated graphically. The percent-thick 65-(A_0)-series blades of reference
deduced variation of reference slope magnitude 39 as equivalent circular arc (figs. 161 and 162).
d_/di obtained from fairings of these values is Rules for predicting the reference deviation angle
presented in figure 177 as a function of solidity of the C-series and double-circular-arc blades
and inlet-air angle. Qualitative agreement with were also deduced based on the correlations for
theory is strongly indicated by the data. Since the 65-(Ai0)-series blades and on limited data for
the phenomenon is essentially a guidance or the circular-arc blade (figs. 161 and 168).
channel effect, it is anticipated that the slope The procedure involved in estimating the
values of figure 177 will also be applicable for low-speed reference deviation angle of a blade
other conventional blade shapes. Thus, it is section is as follows: From known values of Bi
possible to predict the deviation angle at incidence and _, (_o)10 is selected from figure 161, and m is
angles other than the reference location within selected from figure 162 for the 65-(A_0)-series
the low-loss range of operation from the use of blades or from figure 168 for circular-arc-mean-line
equation (273) and figure 177.
blades. The value of (Ka), for the blade
SUMMARY niaximum-thickness ratio is obtained from figure
The analysis of blade-section deviation angle 172, and the approxinmte value of (K_),_ is
shows that the variation of reference deviation selected for the type of thickness distribution.
For the 65-series blades, (K_)_h-----1.0, and it is B_ and tic in figure 180. The use of the chart
proposed that (K_),h be taken as 1.1 for the C- values of K, in equation (276) gives results within
series blades and as 0.7 for the double-circular-arc about 0.1 of the exact values given by equation
blade. The value of $o is then computed from (275). Required camber angle can thus be de-
equation (271), and finally _ is determined from termined readily by equation (276) in conjunction
the blade camber angle according to equation with figures 178 to 180.
(268). As in the case of reference io values, the
CONCLUDING REMARKS
use of the proposed values of (K_)_h is not critical
for good accuracy in the final determination of The foregoing analysis has presented a correla-
_. Reference deviation angle can also be com- tion of available two-dimensional experimental
puted according to the rule in the fi)rm of equation cascade data in terms of parameters significant in
(269) in conjunction with figures 163,164, and 166. compressor design. The work essentially presents
The camber angle required to produce a given a summary of the state of experimental cascade
turning angle at the reference condition at low research with regard to cascade performance at
speed can readily be calculated by means of the the reference incidence angle. Rules and pro-
preceding incidence-angle and deviation-angle cedures were evolved for the prediction of the
correlations when the inlet-air angle and blade magnitude of the reference total-pressure loss
solidity are known. From equations (57), (261), and the reference incidence and deviation angles in
and (268), the camber angle as a function of tile satisfactory agreement with existing cascade data.
turning, deviation, and incidence angle is The rules may also be of help in reducing the
necessary experimental effort in the accumulation
AB-- (i o-- _o) (274) of further cascade data.
_o 1 --m+n However, the present analysis is incomplete.
Many areas, such as the deviation-angle rule for
or, in terms of the thickness corrections (eqs. the double-circular-arc blade, require further data
(262) and (271)), to substantiate the correlations. Furthermore,
additional information concerning the influence of
A/_--[(K,)_h(K,), (io),o-- (K_)_h(K_),(_)1o] (275) high Mach number and off-design incidence angles
_o= 1--m +n,
of cascade performance is needed.
Finally, it is recognized that the performance of
For simplicity, since (K_),^=(K_)_h=K,_, equa-
a given blade geometry in the compressor con-
tion (275) can be expressed in the form
figuration will differ from the performance es-
n tablished in the two-dimensional cascade. These
A[3--K, hK,[ (io)1o-- (_o)_o] (276) differences result from the effects of the various
1--m+n
three-dimensional phenomena that occur in com-
where K, represents some correction factor for pressor blade rows. It is believed, however, that
a firm foundation in two-dimensional-cascade flow
blade thickness, such that
constitutes an important step toward the complete
D
K,[(io),o-- (_),o]_ (K,),(io)10-- (K,)t(_)10 (277) understanding of the compressor flow. The extent
to which cascade-flow performance can be suc-
Curves of the values of (io);o-- (_)_o as a function of cessfully utilized in compressor design can only be
$_ and a are given in figure 178; curves of the values established from further comparative evaluations.
of 1--m+n as a function of _ and _ are given in Such comparisons between observed compressor
figure 179(a) for the 65-(A10)-series mean line and performance and predicted two-dimensional-cas-
in figure 179(b) for the circular-arc mean line; cade perfornmnce on the basis of the rules derived
and values of K, are plotte(1 as a function of herein are presented in chapter VII.
I O
2
3
10 20 50 40 50 60 ?0
Inlet-air angle, f_l ,deg
FIousE 178.--Variation of (io)iO-(8_)lo with inlet-air angle and solidity (eq. (276)).
224 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLO_ _ COMPRESSORS
2O 50 4O 50 50
briber-air angle, ,_1 , deg
(a) NACA 65 (Al0)-scries blades as equivalent circular arc (eq. (276))
FIGURE 179.--Variation of 1-- _ _-_,_.

EXPERIMENTAL
CASCADES 225
20 30 40 50 60 7O
Inlet-air angle, f_l ,deg
(b) Circular-are-mean-line blades (eq. (276))
FIGVnE 179.--Concluded. Variation of l-m-Fn.
691-564 0--65-16
I.t
'81 ' deg
.02 .05 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09 .10 .I I . 12

Maximum-thickness ratio, t/c
FIGURE 180.--Variation of thickness-correction factor K't for camber calculation (eq. (276)).
CHAPTER VII
BLADE-ELEMENT FLOW IN ANNULAR CASCADES
By WILLIAM H. ROBBINS, ROBERT J. JAOKSON, and SEYMOUR LIEBLEIN
A blade-element analysis is made of annular- compressor design procedure is given in chapter

cascade data obtained primarily from single-stage- VIII. Secondly, proper blade sections are selected
compressor test installations. The parameters that at each radial position and stacked in proper
describe blade-element flow (total-pressure loss, relation to each other to establish the design
incidence angle, and deviation angle) are discussed velocity diagrams at each radius. In order to
with reference to the many variables affecting these satisfy the design requirements successfully, accu-
parameters. The blade-element data are correlated rate blade-row design data are needed. Success-
over a fairly wide range of inlet ._[ach number and ful analysis of a compressor (the analysis problem)
cascade geometry. Two blade shapes are considered also depends upon accurate blade-row data, not
in detail, the 65-(Alo)-series profile and the double- only at the design point but also over a wide
circular-arc air/oil. Compressor data at three range of flow conditions (ch. X).
radial positions near the tip, mean, and hub are In general, compressor designers have relied
correlated at minimum-loss incidence angle. Curves primarily on three sources of blading information:
of loss, incidence angle, and deviation angle are (1) theoretical (potential-flow) solutions of the
presented for rotor and stator blade elements. These flow past airfoil cascades, (2) low-speed two-
correlation curves are presented in such a manner dimensional-cascade data, and (3) three-dhnen-
that they are directly related to the low-speed two- sional annular-cascade data. Potential-flow solu-
dimensional-cascade results. As far as possible, tions have been used to a limited extent. In
physical explanations of the flow phenomena are order to handle the complex mathematics in-
presented. In addition, a calculation procedure volved in the theoretical solutions, it is necessary
is given to illustrate how the correlation curves could to make simplifying assumptions concerning the
be utilized in compressor design. flow field. Among the nlost important of these
is the assumption of a two-dimensional flow
INTRODUCTION field with no losses. Unfortunately, in some cases
Axial-flow-compressor research has generally been these assumptions lead to invalid results unless
directed toward the solution of either compressor experimenta! correction factors are applied to
design or compressor analysis problems. In the the computed results. These solutions are re-
design problem, the compressor-inlet and -outlet viewed in chapter IV.
conditions are given, and the compressor geometry A considerable amount of blade design data
must be determined to satisfy these conditions. has been obtained from low Mach nmnber
In contrast, for the analysis problem the inlet experimental two-dhnensionalcascades. A rather
conditions and compressor are specified, and the complete study of the cascade work that has
outlet conditions are desired. (The analysis been done to date is presented in chapter VI,
which correlates cascade data at minimum-loss
problem is sometimes referred to as the "direct
compressor problem.") incidence angle for a wide range of inlet conditions
There are two phases of the axial-flow-com- and blade loadings. Low-speed two-dimensional-
pressor design problem. In the first phase it is cascade data have been applied successfully in
necessary to prescribe desirable velocity distri- many compressor designs. However, with the
butions at each radius of the compressor that will design trends toward higher Mach nmnbers
ultimately fulfill the design requirements. A and higher blade loadings, these cascade results
discussion of the velocity-diagram phase of the have not always been completely adequate for
227
228 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN- OF AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS
describing the compressor flow conditions, par- K_ correction factor in deviation-angle relation,
ticularly in regions of the compressor where function of blade maximum-thickness
three-dimensional-flow effects predominate. ratio and thickness distribution
Because of such effects, it becomes essential M Mach number
that blade-element data be obtained in a three- m factor in deviation-angle relation at a_--1
dimensional-compressor environment. These (eq. (280)), function of inlet-air angle
three-dimensional-cascade data (obtained pri- mc factor in deviation-angle relation (eq. (282)),
marily from single-stage compressors) may then function of blade-chord angle.
be used to supplement and correct the theoretical slope factor in incidence-angle relation (eq.
solutions and the two-dimensional-cascade in- 279)), function of inlet-air angle and solidity
formation. Some success has been obtained in P total or stagnation pressure, lb/sq ft
correlating annular-cascade data with the theory P static or stream pressure, lb/sq ft
and the two-dimensional-cascade results (refs. r radius
32, 214, and 218 to 220); however, the range 8 blade spacing, in.
of variables covered in these investigations is T total or stagnation temperature
not nearly complete. t blade maximum thickness, in.
The purpose of this chapter is to correlate and V air velocity, ft/sec
summarize the available compressor data on a air angle, angle between air velocity and
blade-element basis for comparison with the axial direction, deg
two-dimensional-cascade data of chapter VI. An zx_ air-turning angle,/_-_2, deg
attempt is made to indicate the regions of a ratio of specific heats
compressor where low-speed two-dimensional- _o blade-chord angle, angle between blade
cascade data can be applied to compressors and chord and axial direction, deg
also to indicate the regions where cascade results _o deviation angle, angle between outlet-air
must be modified for successful application to direction and tangent to blade mean
compressor design. Two blade sections are con- camber line at trailing edge, deg
sidered in detail, the NACA 65-(A10)-series blade efficiency
and the doubLe-circular-arc airfoil section. Par- blade angle, angle between tangent to blade
ticular emphasis is placed on obtaining incidence- mean camber line and axial direction, deg
angle, deviation-angle, and loss correlations at ff solidity, ratio of chord to spacing
minimum loss for blade elements near the hub, blade camber angle, difference between
mean, and tip radii of both rotor and stator blades. blade angles at leading and trailing edges,
Empirical correction factors that can be applied _-_2, deg
to the two-dimensional-cascade design rules are angular velocity of rotor, radians/sec
given, and application of the design rules and total-pressure-loss coefficient
correction factors to compressor design is illustrated.
Subscripts:
SYMBOLS
ad adiabatic
C compressor
aa speed of sound based on stagnation condi- GV inlet guide vanes
tions, ft/sec h hub
b exponent in deviation-angle relation (eq. id ideal
(280)), function of inlet-air angle m mean
c chord length, in. rain minimum
D diffusion factor o zero camber
i incidence angle, angle between inlet-air R rotor
direction and tangent to blade mean S stator
camber line at leading edge, deg ST stage
K_ correction factor in incidence-angle relation, t tip
function of blade maximum-thickness z axial direction
ratio and thickness distribution tangential direction
BLADE-ELEMENT FLOW IN ANNULAR CASCADES 229
1 station at inlet to blade row or stage design velocity diagram of the blade row. The
2 station at exit of blade row or stage basic parameters defining the flow about a blade
2-D low-speed two-dimensional cascade element are indicated in figure 182. Stated
10 blade maximum-thickness-to-chord ratio of simply, blade-element flow is described by the
10 percent variations of the loss in total pressure across the
blade row and of the air-turning angle with the
Superscript: incidence angle (or angle of attack).
relative to rotor
FACTORS AFFECTING BLADE-ELEMENT PERFORMANCE
PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
The flow about, a given blade element in a
BLADE-ELEMENT CONCEPT
conlpressor configuration is different from that
in a two-dimensional cascade because of three-
In current design practice, the flow distribution
at the outlet of compressor blade rows is deter- dimensional effects in compressor blade rows.
mined from the flow characteristics of tile individ- These three-dimensional effects influence the
ual blade sections or elements. The blade- magnitude of the design incidence angle, the loss
element approach to compressor design is discussed in total pressure, and the deviation angle.
in detail in chapter IIl and in reference 221. To Incidence angle,--in the low-speed two-dimen-
review briefly, axial-flow-compressor blades are sional cascade, the minimum-loss incidence angle
evolved from a process of radial stacking of depends on the blade geometry (camber, solidity,
individual airfoil shapes called blade elements. and blade thickness), the inlet-air angle, and inlet
The blade elements are assumed to be along sur- Mach number (oh. VI). In compressor opera-
faces of revolution generated by rotating a stream- t io_b several additional factors can alter the
line about the compressor axis; this stream surface nfinimum-loss incidence angle for a given element
of revolution may be approximated by _m equiv- geometry--for example, differences in testing
alent cone (fig. 181). Each element along the procedure. In compressor operation, incidence
height of the blade is designed to direct the tlow angle, inlet-air angle, and inlet Mach immber
of air in a certain direction as required 1)y the vary simultaneously; in contrast, cascades are
Compressor
blade elements _
///
Compressor axis-\
\
\
\
\ _, ..._i
\
\
\ , i
i:_
FIGURE 181.--Compressor blade elements shown along conical surface of revolution about, compressor axis.
cJS motions and disturbances generated by the casing

wall boundary layers, from blade tip clearance,
from radial gradients of total energy, and from
interactions of adjacent blade rows. The com-
pressor loss picture is further complicated by the
tendency of boundary-layer iluid on the com-
pressor blade surfaces and in the blade wake to be
displaced radially. As a consequence of this
phenomenon, the loss measured downstream of a
given blade element may not necessarily reflect
the actual loss generated at that element, but
K2
something more or less, depending on the radial
location (if tile element.
Meon c_= It is expected, therefore, that the factors

influencing tile magnitude of the blade-element
loss in the compressor will include the factors
affecting the profile loss (blade surface velocity
distribution, inlet Mach nmnber, blade-chord
Reynolds number, free-stream turbulence, and
I'
blade surface finish) and the factors affecting the
----- Axis "_
three-dimensional losses. ]nvestigations of com-
pressor blade-element losses based on surface
FmURE 182.--R.otor blade-element properties. velocity distribution, as expressed in terms of
diffusion factors, are presented in references 9
often operated with fixed inlet-air angle and inlet and 35. The essentially secondary effects of
Mach number. Some net difference may be ob- blade surface finish and trailing-edge thickness
tained in the range characteristics and therefore on compressor loss are investigated in references
in the location of the point of nfinimum loss be- 223 and 224. Results of tests of blade-element
tween cascade operation at constant inlet-air performance (ref. 225 and ch. V) and over-all
angle and compressor test operation (with varying performance (refs. 226 and 227) at varying
inlet-air angle). Reynolds numbers indicate that there is no
In addition to these blade-element considera- significant variation in loss for Reynolds nmnbers
tions, of course, there are sources of difference above approximately 2.5X105. (Since most of
arising from compressor three-dimensional effects. the compressor data used in this analysis are
For example, radial variations of minimum-loss for Reynolds numbers greater than 2.5X105, no
incidence angle that are not consistent with the Reynolds number effects are believed to exist
trends predicted from cascade blade-element for the data.) Some variations of compressor
considerations have been observed in compressor loss with inlet Mach ntunber have been estab-
rotors (refs. 56 and 222). Apparently, radial lished in references 52, 56, and 228. These
position may also be a factor in determining results, however, are not complete indications
compressor minimum-loss incidence angle. of Much number effects (stlock losses), since
Total-pressure loss.-In the two-dimensional the corresponding w_riations of blade diffusion
cascade, the magnitude of the loss in total pres- with Mach ntunber arc not identified. An
sure across the blade element is determined from attempt to separate the variation of diffusion
the growth of the blade surface boundary layers and shock losses with Mach number by means
(profile loss). In the actual compressor, the loss of an analysis based on the diffusion factor of
in total pressure is determined not only by the reference !} is presented in references 222 and 229.
profile loss, but also by the losses induced by the Although some aspects of the compressor
three-dimensional nature of the flow. These three-dimensional-flow phenomena are known
three-dimensional losses result from secondary (chs. XIV and XV), the specific factors or
parameter affecting compressor three-dimensional and Reynolds number are small for the range of
losses have not been established for analysis data considered in this survey.
purposes. At present, tile three-dimensional loss CORRELATION APPROACH
can be treated only on a gross basis as a difference

In this chapter, annular-cascade data are com-
between the total measured loss and tile predicted
pared with the two-dimensional-cascade correla-
profile loss.
tions of minimum-loss incidence angle, total-pres-
Deviation angle.---In the two-dimensional cas-
sure loss, and deviation angle of chapter V[. In
cade the minimum-loss deviation angle varies
this way, compressor investigations serve as both
primarily with the blade geometry and the inlet- a verification and an extension of the two-dimen-
air angle. Experience with compressor operation sional-cascade data. Two-dimensional-cascade
indicates that blade-element minimum-loss devia-
data correlations and rules, in conjunction with
tion angle is also sensitive to three-dimensional correction factors deduced from the three-dimen-
effects. The two principal compressor effects
sional data, can then be used for compressor design
are secondary flows and changes in a:dal velocity
and analysis.
across tile blade element. Secondary flows are
With this approach in mind, all available single-
treated in chapter XV and in reference 43.
stage data were collected, computed, and plotted
Corrections are established in reference 43 for in a form considered convenient for correlation.
the effect of secondary flows on the outlet angles
The blade and performance parameters used in
of compressor inlet guide vanes. At present,
the analysis are similar to those used in tile two-
however, rotor and stator secondary-flow effects
dimensional-cascade correlations of chapter VI.
can be treated only on a gross basis.
Caroller angle, incidence angle, and deviation angle
The effects of changes in axial velocity ratio on (fig. 182) are used to define the [)lade camber, air
the turning angles of a fixed blade-element geom- approach, and air leaving directions, respectively.
etry are conclusively demonstrated in the rotor These angles are based on tangents to blade mean
investigations of reference 218. There e,re several camber line at the leading and trailing edges. As
origins of varying axial velocity ratio across a in chapter VI, tile NA(_A 65-(A_0)-series blades
compressor blade element: (1) contraction of the are considered in terms of the equiwdcnt circular-
annulus area across the blade row, (2) compres- arc camber line (figs. 125 and 126, oh. VI).
sibility, which varies axial velocity ratio for a l_oss in total pressure across the blade element
fixed annulus area, and (3) differences in the is expressed in terms of tile loss parameter _' cos
radial gradient of axial velocity at blade-row inlet B_/2tr, where the relative total-pressure-loss coeffi-
and outlet, which can arise from the effects of cient _' is defined as tile mass-averaged defect in
radial-pressure equilibrium (cA. VIII). Although relative total pressure divided by the pressure
several attempts have been made to establish equivalent of the inlet velocity head:
corrections for the effect of change in axial veloc-
t t
ity ratio on deviation angle (refs. 218 and 191), -, (P_),d-P_

,_ -- , (5_ )
these proposed correction techniques have not P_ --pl
been universally successful. The principal diffi-
culty involved in the axial velocity corrections is For stationary blade rows, or no change in stream-
the inability to' determine the corresponding line radius across the rotor, the numerator of
changes ill blade circulation (i.e., tangential ve- equation (58) becomes the decrease in relative
total pressure across the blade row from inlet to
locity). Values of axial velocity ratio were identified
()utlet. The relative total-pressure-h)ss coefficient
for the deviation-angle data presented, although no
was computed from stationary measurements of
attempt was made to apply any corrections.
total pressure and total temperature and fr(un the
Some of the secondary factors influencing de- computed relative inlet Mach number according
viation angle, such as inlet Math number and to reference 9. The total-pressure-loss parameter
Reynolds number, are investigated in references _' cos 3_/2_, as indi('ated in chapter V], can be
52, 56, and 218. These results indicate that the used as a significant parameter for correlating
variations of deviation angle with Much number blade losses.
: ] i
10 .......... _ 1.2j , 1
..... _ --V y ....
4
o _
6 I.O -o-_ _
i Reference point
JB 1 _ .8
[
i
.8_ I.Oi
I
.6 .9
.4 .8
.2L .7
........ill.
16----
I-3
12
i /(
IP"
[
8
0-4 0 4 8 12 4 0 4 8 12
Incidence ongle /, deg
FIOVRE 183.--Example of typical variation of blade-element performance parameters with incidence angle. Transonic
rotor with double-circular-arc blade sections at tip speed of 800 feet per second; data for blade row 17 (table II) at
tip position (ref. 55).
The diffusion factor, which is used as a blade- 183. The data represent the variations of the
loading parameter, is defined in reference 9 for no flow at fixed rotational speed. Plots for stator
blade rows show similar trends of variation. As
change in radius as follows:
in chapter VI, a reference point was established
as the incidence angle for minimum loss (fig.
(278)
i/-_gv; 184(a)), and the blade-element flow was analyzed
at this reference point. In cases where minimum-
A typical example of the plotted performance loss incidence was not clearly defined, the refer-
parameters for a rotor blade row is shown in figure ence point was taken as the mean incidence of the
incidence-angle range for which values of _ at the

end points are twice the mininmln value (fig.
184(b)). In some instances, near the compressor
tip the loss-against-incidence-angle curve increased
continuously from a minimum value of loss param-
eter at the open-throttle point. In presenting data
for these cases several points near the nlinimum-
loss value are plotted.
One of the primary objectives of this analysis
13
is to determine differences in blade-element per-
formance with compressor radial position. There-
fore, three radial positions along the blade span
(near the hub, mean radius, and tip) of each blade
row are considered. The radial positions at the
hub and tip are approximately 10 to 15 percent 0
of the passage height away from the inner and I
outer walls, respectively, which are outside the

wall boundary-layer region in all cases. The anal-
Q_
ysis is directed toward correlating tim h)ss and i
deviation-angle data at reference incidence angle 0
and determining the variation of reference inci-

dence angle with blade geometry and Mach num-
ber at the three radial positions.
EXPERIMENTAL DATA SOURCES
There are three sources of three-dimensional-

cascade blade-element data: stationary annular- ..... _--
_m'n i _ "'_ eenC: ..... l/
cascade tunnel investigations, multistage-compres- Incidence angle / deg

sor investigations, and single-stage or single-blade-
row compressor investigations. A relatively small (a) Minimum loss.
amount of data has been accumulated from blade- (b) Mid-range.
row investigations conducted in stationary annu- FIGURE 184.--Definitions of reference incidence angle.
lar-cascade tunnels. Tunnels of this type have
been used primarily for inlet-guide-vane investi- the outlet system to vary the compressor back
gations. Typical examples of annular-cascade pressure. In this manner, the compressor mass-
tunnel investigations are reported in references flow rate can be controlled. In an installation
215 and 225. Numerous multistage-compressor such as this, compressor performance over a range
investigations have been conducted both in this of speeds and mass flows can be obtained simply.
country and abroad. Unfortunately, the data In many cases, test rigs similar to figure 185 have
obtained from these investigations are too limited been operated with only guide vanes and rotors
to permit the construction of individual blade- or with rotors alone.
row-element performance curves similar to those Many phases of compressor research have been
illustrated in figure 183. conducted in single-stage-compressor test rigs; and,
The data used in this investigation were obtained in reporting these phases, complete blade-element
primarily from investigations of single rotor rows results are not usually presented. Therefore, it
or of single-stage compressors. A typical single- was necessary to collect available original data
stage-compressor test installation is shown in and rework them in terms of the parameters of
figure 185. This particular compressor consists the analysis. Since only NACA original data
of a row of inlet guide vanes, a rotor blade row were available in blade-element form, the data
driven by a variable-speed motor, and a stator analysis is based inainly on single-stage-compressor
blade row. A discharge throttle is installed in investigations conducted at the Lewis laboratory.
Inlet throttle Orifice tank--x

FI
Thin- plate
/
o;?ce-_-
High-speed
Collector dynamometer
Jide LI X-Stator _Outlet

vanes- blades \\throttle
Filter, screens, and honeycomb-"
_\ /--Roto r
Depression lank --x blades
FIOURE 185.--Scbematic diagram of single-stage-compressor test installation.
INCIDENCE-ANGLE ANALYSIS
The measurements taken and the instrumentation
used vary somewhat from compressor to compres- METHOD OF CORRELATION
sor; in most cases, however, it is possible from the In correlating blade-element reference-incidence-
available data to reconstruct complete experi- angle data, measured values of incidence angle are
mental velocity diagrams and to determine the compared with values of reference incidence angle
blade-element performance. Radial survey meas-
predicted for the geometry of the blade element
urements were made after each blade row.
according to the low-speed two-dimensional-
Normally, total pressure, static pressure, total cascade correlations of chapter VI. In chapter
temperature, and air direction were measured.
VI, the low-speed two-dimensional reference in-
The pressure- and temperature-measuring devices
cidence angle is expressed in terms of the blade
were calibrated for the effect of Mach number.
geometry as
Most of the compressor investigations that were
adaptable to this analysis were conducted on i2- D= K,(io)_o + n_ (279)
NACA-65(A10)-series airfoil shapes and double-
circular-arc airfoils. Therefore, the analysis is where K, is a function of blade thickness distri-
concerned solelywith these airfoils. The 65-(At0)- bution and maximum-thickness ratio, (i)_o is the
series airfoil has been used extensively in subsonic zero-camber incidence angle for the 10-percent-
compressors; and the double-circular-arc airfoil, thick airfoil section (function of air-inlet angle BI
which is a relatively simple airfoil shape, has and solidity _), and n is eqilal to [(i--io)/]2__
been used effectively in transonic compressors. (also a function of B_ and a). Values of K,, (io)_o,
Details of the characteristics of the various blade and n for the circular-arc and 65-(A]0)-series blade
rows used in this analysis are summarized in table are repeated in figures 186 to 188 for convenience.
II, and details of the instrumentation, calculation The comparisons between measured blade-
procedure, and accuracy of measurement are element reference incidence angle ic and predicted
given in the listed references. two-dimensional incidence angle i__D are expressed
TABLE II.--DETAILS OF SINGLE-STAGE ROTORS AND STATORS
Blade
Camber Chord, Solidity, Blade-chord maximum
Outer Hub- Inlet Macb angle, c, in. a angle, 7 , thickness-
Refer-
Blade Descrip- diameter, tip Rotor tip speed, number, , deg deg chord ratio,
row tion in. ratio ft/sec M_ t/c ence
Hub Tip ! Hub Tip

Hub Tip Hub Tip Hub Tip
65-Series blade section
15.31 1.31 t.31 1. 010 0. 590 30.8 I 56.4

1 Rotor 14 0.5 552, 828, 994, 1104, 0. 30-0. 75 10.0 10 I 10 230
1214 I
Stator 14 55 552, 1104 .26- . 73 30. 1 30.1 ] 1.31 1.31 .996 620 19.5 45.9 10 10 231
2
3 Rotor 30 .80 504, 672, 840 .36- .70 30. 1 30.1 2.90 2.90 1.08 .906 28.8 45. 9 10 : 10 44
Rotor 14 .5{) 1104, 1214 .60- .80 30. 1 30. l 1.31 1.31 1. OlO .590 21.1 56. 0 10 10 231
4
5 Rotor 14 .50 557, 743 .39- . 72 30. l 30.1 1.31 1.31 962 608 15.2 32.0 10 10 231
6 Stator 14 .52 371,557, 743 ,22-. 66 30. l 30.1 1.31 1.31 .993 .631 16.2 32.2 10 i 10 231
7 Rotor 14 .50 546 .35- .56 40.0 23.9 1.31 1.31 955 .600 21.0 58.0 10 10 230
8 Rotor 14 50 552, 828, 1104 .30- .86 40,0 23.9 1.31 1.31 l .955 .6001 21.0 58.0 10 10 230
9 Rotor 14 50 552, 828, 1104, 1214 .30- .76 40.0 23.9 I. 31 1.31 .955 .600 21.0 58.0 10 10 230
I0 Stator 14 53 412, 617, 823 .25- .74 30,1 30. 1 1.31 1.31 .870 .587 15.1 39.6 10 10 231
11 Rotor 14 80 669, 753, 836 .52- . 75 45.2 34.1 1.35 1.35 .823 .692 ' 21.4 35.4 6 6 232
.49-.75 I 45.2 34.1 1.35 1.35 1.12 .943 ! 21.4 , 35.4 6 6 232
12 ! Rotor 14 80 669, 753,836
13 Rotor 14 80 669, 753, 836 34.1 1.35 1.35 1.69 1.35 _ 21.4 35. 4 6 6 232
.49- .75 45.2
14 Rotor 14 .80 6O0, 736, 874 .56- .92 30.3 1.46 1.82 1.20 1.20 : 42. 5 48. 8 10 [ 8 224
!19.4
Circular-arc blade section
12.1 46. 7 8 5 233

Rotor
Rotor
14
18
0.4
.5
600, 8C0,
600, 700,
1000, 1050
800, 900,
O. 33-1.06
.38-1.07
40. 3
28. 3 11.4 1.778
1.63
0.963
1.03 23. 6 46. 3 10 6 234
1000 7 11.5
.37-1.17 29.4
Rotor 14 .5 600, 800, 900, lO00 13.7 2.69 2.32 1.28 1.04 23.0 44.1 8 5 55
Rotor 14 ,5 800, 900 13.7 2.09 2.32 .85 .66 23. 0 44.1 8 5 55
Rotor 14 5 800, 900, 1000, 1120 .55-1.121
50-1.22 23.1 4.3 1.50 [ 1.50 1.40 .825 17.4 51.3 lO 5 229
Rotor 14 .5 800, 900, 1000, 1120 .4 - .82 23.1 4.3 1.50 1.50 1.40 .825 17.4 51.3 lO 5 229
Stator 600, 800, 900 52.0 3.25 3. 25 1.64 1.07 10. 0 10.0 7 7 235
Stator 17.36
17. 36 .62 800, 1000 41-.63 20.0
2. 66
13.23 1.45 1.08 34.0 28.0 8 6 222
in terms of the difference (ic--i2-D). Thus, a curacy generally contributes heavily to the data
value of zero of the difference parameter corre- scatter, especially at hub and tip.) Nevertheless,
sponds to an equivalence of the two incidence the results of the comparison are indicative of the
angles. In view of the established tendency of trends involved, and it is possible to make some
the reference incidence angle to increase somewhat general observations.
with inlet Mach number (ch. VI), it was thought For the rotor mean-radius region, where three-
desirable to plot the variation of the difference dimensional disturbances are most likely a mini-
parameter (ie--i__D) against relative inlet Mach mum, the rotor minimmn-loss incidence angles
number for the three radial positions at hub, mean, are, on the average, about 1 smaller than the
and tip. corresponding cascade-predicted values This dif-
NACA 65-(A10)-seriesblades.--The results of ference may be a reflection of some of the conlpres-
the comparison between compressor and two- sor influences discussed previously. The dater
dimensional-cascade reference incidence angles for also indicate that no essential variation of refer-
the 65-(A10)-series blades are presented in figure ence incidence angle with relative inlet Math
189 for hub-, mean-, and tip-radius regions. Both number exists up to values of ,]I( of about 0.8.
rotor and stator data are presented; the stator The 65-(A10)-series blade, having a thick-nose
data being represented by the solid points. Dif- profile, apparently exhibits the sanle approxin/ate
ferent values of incidence angle for a given symbol constancy of lnininlmn-loss incidence angle with
represent different compressor tip speeds. As Mach number as indicated for the British thick-
might be expected in a correlation of this type nose (;-series profile in the cascade comparisons
involving data from different test installations and of chapter VI.
instrumentations, the data are somewhat scattered, At the rotor tip, the compressor reference inci-
particularly in the hub and tip regions. It has dence angles are from 0 to 4 less than the pre-
not been possible in these instances to evaluate dicted cascade values. As in the case of the
the significance or origin of the scatter. (In rotor nlean radius, no essential variation with
compressor investigations, instrumentation inac- inlet Math number is observed in the range of
AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS
1.0
.8
u
o
g .6
,4
.2
02 .04 ,06 .08 ,_0 .12

81ode moximum-thJckness rot_o //c
FiGuam 186.--Thickness correction for zero-camber reference incidence angle (ch. VI).
data covered. The lower values of rotor reference confused by the wide range of data. A tendency
incidence angle were generally the result of a of the compressor incidence angles to be some-
change in the form of the variations of loss against what larger than the corresponding cascade
incidence angle in the rotor, as illustrated in values, with an average difference of about l or
figure 190. The change in form may be explained 2, is indicated.
on the basis of a probable increase in rotor tip For the stator mean-radius and hub regions,
three-dimensional losses (centrifuging of blade close agreement between compressor and cascade
boundary layer, tip-clearance disturbances, etc.) incidence angles is indicated for the range of
with increasing incidence angle. Mach numbers covered (to about 0.7). Con-
At the rotor hub, the situation is somewhat siderable scatter exists in the stator data at the
/!o, iidl
4 :t1
0
-4 L
4
ol
.5 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 [.0
Relative inlet Mach number, M I'
FIaURE 189.--Variation of compressor reference incidence

angle minus two-dimensional-cascade-rule incidence
angle with relative inlet Mach number for NACA
65-(A_0)-series blade section.
It is immediately apparent that rotor reference

incidence angle at all radial positions increases with
_u increasing Mach number. The data indicate that
60 7O the magnitude of the increase in reference incidence
angle with Mach number is larger at the hub than
at. the tip. The hub data points in figure 191 were
FI(_URE 188. Reference-incidence-angle slope factor for obtained from blade elements of relatively high
NACA 65--(A_0)-series blades as equivalent circular arc camber. Both potential-flow and low-speed-
and for true circular-arc blades (see fig. 138, ch. VI,
cascade results indicate that this type of con-
for larger print).
figuration is associated with a negative value of
compressor tip; lhcrcforc, no definite con(.lusions reference incidence angle. As inlet Mach number
can be made con('erning the wtriations of incidence is increased, the increase in incidence angle in the
angle. positive direction must be fairly large in order to
Double-circular-are blade.--The results of the avoid high losses associated with blade-row
double-circular-are airfoil correlation are pre- choking. In contrast, at the compressor tip,
sented in figure 191, where compressor reference since the blade cambers are generally lower (see
im'idem'e angle minus low-speed-cascade-rule table II), the low-speed incidence angle is higher
incidence angle (eq. (279)) is plotted against and the required rate of change of incidence angle
relative inlet Math number for the hut), mean, with increasing Mach number is not as large.
and tip radial positions for both rotors and stators. Unfortunately, low Mach number data were not
The dashed curve represents the variation ob- available to permit extrapolation of the rotor
tained with a 25-camber doul)le-(,ircular-arc bla(Ic incidence-angle x-ariations to zero Mach number
in high-speed two-dimensional cascade (oh. VI). (level of cascade correlation). However, it is
numbers considered. In contrast, the double-

circular-arc blade sections exhibit a pronounced
variation of reference incidence angle over the
range of Mach number investigated. Significant
g
differences between the two-dimensional-cascade
data and the rotor data were observed at the com-
/ Roto
dimensiona
/ los_ pressor tip. In contrast, at the mean radius and
!
hub, the differences in two-dimensional-cascade
data and rotor data were relatively small, even
though the flow field was three dimensional.
.... 1 Additional data are required to deterndne the
Incidence angle, /_ deg
variation of stator reference incidence angle,
FIGURE 190.--Typical variation of loss with incidence particularly for the double-circular-arc airfoil
angle for rotor blade element near tip and in two- sections. Also, no information has been presented
dimensional cascade for same blade geometry and inlet
.'_Iach number. concerning the allowable incidence-angle range for
efficient (low-loss) operation and the variation of
this range with inlet Mach number. Investi-
believed that there will be very little change in the
rotor incidence angle for values of Mach number gations of these phases of compressor research are
below about 0.4 to 0.5. Extrapolated values of very essential to fill gaps in the compressor design
rotor reference incidence angle at zero Mach and analysis procedures.
number appear to be of the order of 0.5 at the
hub, 1.5 at the mean radius, and 2.5 at the tip q- ' BiacJe 'row
HT [ ! (,oble[[1
below cascade-rule values.
The double-circular-arc blade element in the 12 , o 16
compressor rotor exhibits the same general inci- " - r - o 17
dence-angle characteristic with Mach number that 8 i 'J m 18
"_ 19
was observed for sharp-nosed blade sections in tile ...... '_........ >--_- _--- _' 20
4--
high-speed two-dinmnsional cascade (ch. VI). ........,, _ oc _._.'" 21
w, 22
As indicated in chaper VI, the increase in refer- o ._.2"_--v';:'_".'_, -- High-speed
ence incidence angle with Mach number is asso- u cascade
_ (ch. VI)
ciated with the tendency of the range of the blade -4 F
to be reduced only on the low-incidence side of the 8
loss curve as the Mach number is increased.

4 n _ ._'_- ___
The rotor data for the double-circular-arc
section, like those for the 65-(A,0)-series blades, 0
are comparable with the cascade variations at the
mean radius, somewhat higher at the hub at the
-4
higher Mach numbers, and noticeably lower at the I
tip. Apparently, the same type of three-dimen- 4 Gp:
sional phenomenon occurs at the tip for both
blade shapes. r*--'-W w
I
The available double-circular-arc stator data

-4 _--_
are too meager for any
SUMMARY
conclusions.
REMARKS
.4 .5 .6
F.7 .8 .9 1.0 I.I 1.2
The variation of reference incidence angle for Relative inlet Mach number, M I'
65-(A_o)-series and double-circular-arc blade sec-

FmUR_ 191.--Variation of compressor reference incidence
t.ions has been presented. No Mach number
angle minus lwo-dimensional-cascade-rule incidence
effect on reference incidence angle was observed for angle with relative inlet Mach number for double-
the 65-(A_0)-series blades for the range of Mach circular-arc blade section.
BLADE-ELEMENT
FLOWIN ANNULAR
CASCADES 239
TOTAL-PRESSURE-LOSS ANALYSIS are influencing the tip loss. The specific ttn'ee-
CORRELATION OF DATA dimensional factors or origins involved in tile loss
rise at the tip are not currently known. The
For two-dimensional-cascade data obtained at
principal conclusion reached from the plot is that
low Mach numbers, the values of total-pressure-
the likelihood of a rising loss trend on the rotor
loss parameter _ cos _2/2a plotted against diffusion
tip exists for values of diffusion factor greater than
factor (eq. (278)) form essentially a single curve about 0.35.
for all cascade configurations. The diffusion-
The stator losses at all radial positions in
factor correlation of loss parameter was applied to
figure 192 appear to be somewhat higher than
data obtained over a range of Math numbers from
those of the two-dimensional cascade, particularly
single-stage axial-flow compressors of various
at the higher values of diffusion factor.
geometries and design Math numt)ers. Values of
total-pressure-loss parameter calculated from SUMMARY REMARKS
single-stage-compressor data are plotted against Rotor and stator blade-element loss data were
diffusion factor for the hub, mean, and tip meas-
correlated by means of the diffusion factor. The
uring stations in figure 192. Each symbol repre- losses for stator and rotor blade elements at. hub
sents the value of diihlsion factor and loss param- and mean radii were somewhat higher than those
eter at reference incidence angle at. a given tip for the two-dimensiomd cascade over the range
speed. Also plotted as a dashed curve is the cor- of diffusion factor investigated. At the rotor tip,
responding correlation presented in chapter V[ the losses were considerably higher at vMues of
for the low-speed two-dimensional-cascade data. diffusion factor above approximately 0.35.
The data of figure 192, which were ot)tained from
The foregoing blade-element loss analysis is
the rotor and stator configurations summarized in
clearly incomplete. The need for additional
tat)le l I, represent both 65-(A_o)-series and circular-
work is indicated for such purposes as evaluating
arc blade sections. The plots of figure 192
the origin and magnitude of the tip-region losses.
essentially represent an elaboration of the loss-
The loading limits for rotors at other than tile tip
diffusion correlations of reference 9.
region and for stators at all blade elements have
'['he most important impression obtained from
not been determined, because, for the available
the rotor data plots is the wide scatter and increas-
data, the diffusion factors at reference incidence
ing loss trend with diffusion factor at the rotor tip,
do not extend to sufficiently high values. Single-
while no discernible trend of variation is obtained
stage investigations are needed over the criticM
aL the rotor hub and mean radii. For the rotor
range of Reynolds number to determine the effect.
hub and mean radii, it can be assumed that the
of Reynolds number on the blade-element loss.
rotor blade-element loss parameter follows the
It is desirable to isolate the effects of velocity
cascade variation but at a higher average magni-
diffusion and shock waves on the loss at high Mach
tude. Unfortunately, the range of diffusion factor
number operation. The loss correlations pre-
that could be covered in the compressor tests was
sented should also be extended so that the data are
not sufficient to determine whether a marked rise
applicable over a range of incidence angle. This
in loss is obtained for wtlues of diffusion factor
would be of extreme value in the compressor
greater than about 0.6 (its in the cascade).
analysis problem.
It. is apparent from the loss trend and data
scatter at the rotor tip that a different loss phe- DEVIATION-ANGLE ANALYSIS
nomenon is occurring in the tip region. It is
In addition to design information concerning
recognized that a part of the scatter is due to the
blade-element losses and incidence angle, it is
general instrumentation inaccuracy in the highly
desirable to have a rather complete picture of the
turbulent tip regions. In view of the usually large
air deviation-angle characteristics of axial-flow-
radial gradients of loss existing in the blade tip
region, small variations in positioning radial compressor blade elements. Therefore, the two-
dimensional-cascade correlation results are re-
survey probes can cause noticeable differences in
the computed results. Nevertheless, it is obvious viewed and supplemented with annular-cascade
that factors other than the blade-element diffusion data in this section.
tar hub D c_ L3 : ' Blade row

(table iI)
' - _d _ ,1 '_ Go
I
0 -_-< 2
o 3
zx 4
.I0 o 5
6
0 7
___i,o,
mean T ' I 9
.05 II
v 14
..__4./-"i
L L
G 18 !
_' 20 4
T 2t
22
-- -- --Two- dimensional
cascade (ch. _J22)
i
I
i I
I
,, i
'' !I
'
i
i
[ " T
e-7
FmuRs 192.--Variation of total-pressure-loss parameter with diffusion factor at, reference incidence angle for NACA
65-(Al_)-series and double-circular-arc blade sections.
BLADE-ELEMENT
FLOWIN ANNULAR
CASCADES 241
1.6 4441 444-
+_
T_-,,, ,F
t-- _+
+_
_7
Ii
r
+ _ _
H _,
1.2
-Series eirfoil
t_Y
tt
_4g
!;
*b
_t _-Lr rLr
* ,+-
C
c Li
q)
fiii
+_
u T7
,Z_ .8 ++
O)
O ;T
L) 4-'4 I
4_M *4-F
44. Double-clrculor-orc
22
c]ir foil bfVl
.4
!!
,+H
!t
e2
Iz !!!
0 .08 JO .12
Blode maximum-lhickness rotio, l/c
FIG lYRE 193.--Thickness correction for zero-camber deviation angle (ch. VI).
METHOD OF CORRELATION
As was shown previously, the reference incidence
As in the _malysis of reference incidence angle, angle of the compressor blade element may differ
the correlation of blade-element deviation angle somewhat from the corresponding two-dimensional
at reference incidence is presented in terms of a reference incidence angle. Since deviation angle
conlparison between measured blade-element devi- will w_ry with changing reference incidence angle
ntion angle and deviation angle predicted for the for a given blade geometry (depending on solidity),
element according to the low-speed two-dinmn- the two-dimensional deviation angles were corrected to
sional-cascnde correlations of chapter V[. In the reference incidence angles of the compressor blade
chapter VI, the low-speed two-dimensional-cascade elements. The corrected deviation angle, as
deviation angle at reference incidence angle is suggested in chapter VI, is given by
expressed in terms of blade geometry as
o o m . . i
a__,= K_ (ao),o-}-_ _+ (*c--_-D) ( _-)_ (281)
(2s0)
where (da/di)___) is the slope of the two-dimen-
where K_ is a function of maximunl-thickness-to- sionnl variation of deviation angle with incidence
chord ratio and thickness distribution, (6_)_0 is the angle at reference incidence. Values of K_, (a)_o,
zero-camt)er deviation angle for the 10-percent- m, b, and (da/di)_-o for the circular-arc and 65-
tlhiek airfoil section (function of B[ and a), m is a (A_0)-series })lade are repeated in figures 193 to 197
function of fll for the different basic camber distri- for convenience.
butions, and b is an exponent that is a]so a function Deviation-angle comparisons for the double-
of _'_. circular-arc blade were also made on the basis of
691-564 0-65--17
applied directly to the compressor reference inci-

dence angles.
The comparisons between measured blade-
element reference deviation angle :_, and predicted
two-dimensional deviation angle :]-D are expressed
? in terms of the difference parameter _ c--_-_,
((_o _o
b against relative inlet Mach number for the three

radial positions at hub, tip, and mean radius.
N'ACA 65-(A,o)-series blades.--Curves of com-
pressor deviation angle minus cascade-rule devia-
tion angle (eq. (281)) for the 65-(Am)-series air-
foil for both rotors and stators are plotted against
relative inlet Maci: number for the hub, mean,
and tip radial positions in figure 199(a). All
values of deviation angle correspond to those at
FIGURE 194.--Zero-camber deviation angle for NACA
compressor reference incidence angle. As in the
65--(A,0)-series and true circular-arc blades of 10-per-
case of the incidence-angle and loss correlations,
cent maximum-thickness ratio (see fig. ]61, eh. VI, for
larger print). there is considerable scatter of data, particularly
in the hub and tip regions. Some of the scatter
is believed due to the effects of three-dimensional
Carter's rule for cascade blades (ref. 88):
flows and changes in axial velocity ratio across
o mc the element, but perhaps the most important
<_=_
D= a--_.
+ ,p (282) factors are instrumentation differences and errors.
It is generally recognized that it is difficult to
where m+ is a factor that is a function of blade- measure compressor air angles with an accuracy
chord angle (fig. 198). better than about 1 to 1.5% The correlations
Carter's rule, which has been used extensively must therefore be evaluated on an average or
in the design of circular-arc blades, was used as trend basis.
the basis for the more elaborate rule of equation The correlation of rotor data in the mean-radius
(280). In the calculations, (:arter's rule was region is fairly good; axial velocity ratio varied
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[
0 _0 20 50 40 50 60 70
Inlet air angle, /31'` deg
FIGURE 195.--Factor m in deviation-angle rule (see figs. 163 and 166).

ity ratio at essentially constant circulation for the

,0 _...+..+ ....
!_1:1 _ stator tends to decrease deviation angle.) As in
the case of the rotor, no essential variation of
b,:lw deviation angle with Much number is detected
f-..!
.... for the stator within the range of Much numbers
"c !-! .... investigated.
o
o_ "+t-- !!_-[iiiii-ii! Double-circular-arc blade.--Blade-element and
>c .7 _ !
L_ two-dimensional-cascade deviation angles (eq.
i
,i!. ,i (281)) obtained for the double-circular-arc blade
_.,f....
6 '
__+.._ are compared in figure 199(b). The scatter of
i d;_ ,4 i
data is generally less than for the 65-(A_0)-series

blades, partly because of the generally more ac-
I0 5O 70 curate measurements taken in these investigations
deg
(all are more recent than the data of fig. 199(a)).
FIGURE 196.--Solidity exponent b in deviation-angle rule On the average, at the lower Maeh numbers
(see fig. 164, ch. VI, for larger print). the blade-element deviation angles were about
1.5 less than the two-dimensional values at the
from about 0.9 to 1.10. On the average, the tip, 1.0 greater at the hub, and equal to the
rotor mean-radius deviation angles are about 0.5 two-dimensional values at, the mean region.
less than the cascade values. These results agree Ranges of axial velocity ratio covered for the
with previous experience (refs. 218 and 219), data were 0.85 to 1.05 at the tip, 0.95 to 1.5 at
which indicated rotor turning angles approxi- the hub, and 0.90 to 1.15 at the mean radius. A
mately 1 greater (i.e., deviation angles 1 less) slightly increasing trend of variation with inlet
than the two-dimensional-cascade results. ]f data Much number may be indicated at the mean
points for the rotor tip having axial velocity ratios radius and possibly also at the hub.
less than 0.8 are neglected, the average deviation The double-circular-arc stator data available
angle is about 0.5 less than the cascade value. (solid symbols) are too limited to permit any re-
Axial velocity ratio for the tip-region unflagged liable conclusions to be drawn. It appears,
data varied between 0.8 and 1.05. For the hub, however, that at the stator mean radius, the
on the average, the blade-element deviation angles blade-element deviation angles may be about 0.5
were about 1.0 greater than the corresponding less than the two-dimensional-cascade values.
two-dimensional values. Hub axial velocity ratios This is essentially the same trend observed for the
varied between 1.0 and 1.3. As in the two- 65-(A_0)-series stators at mean radius in figure
dimensional cascade (ch. VI), no Much nmnber 199(a). Blade-element deviation angles appear
effect on deviation angle is indicated over the to be greater at the tip and smaller at the hub
range of Math number investigated for all three
1.0
regions.
09
For the stator mean-radius (V,._/V_._=I.0 to U
E .8
1.1) and hub-radius ([,_._/I_._=0.85 to 1.05)
regions, the average deviation angles are both
about 1.0 lower than the corresponding two-
dimensional values At" the stator tip. the
average blade-element value is indicated to be
about 4 less than the two-dimensional value. O .2
Ub
However, these data all have high axial velocity
ratios (from 1.1 to 1.5). It is expected that, on 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 L4
Solidity, or
the basis of constant axial velocity, the probable
average blade-element deviation angles at the FIq_RE 197.--Deviation-angle slope (d$/di)_-D at refer-
stator tip might be several degrees closer to the ence incidence angle (see fig. 177, ch. VI, for larger
two-dimensional values. (Increasing axial veloc- print).
244 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW CO1V[PRESSORS
.40
36
.32
O
.28
.24
.20
0 IO 20 30 40 50 GO 70
BLade chord angle /o deg
FmURE 198.--Variation of mo for circular-arc compre._or c:_cades (rcf. 88).
SUMMARY REMARKS
than the two-dimensional values. Ranges of
axial velocity ratio were 1.0 to ].25 at the tip, From the comparisons of measured and pre-
0.95 to 1.27 at the mean radius, and 0.9 to 1.30 dicted reference deviation angles for the NACA
at the hub. 65-(A10)-series and double-circular-arc blades, it
Blade-element deviation angles and two-di- was found that the rules derived from two-
mensional values predicted by Carter's rule (eq. dimensional-cascade data can satisfactorily pre-
282)) are compared in figure 200. Since Carter's dict the compressor reference blade-element
rule results in values of two-dimensional deviation deviation angle in the rotor and stator mean-
angle between 0.5 and 1.0 smaller than those radius regions for the })lade configurations pre-
obtained from the modified rule of equation (281) sented. Larger differences between rule and
for the range of blade-element geometries included measured values were observed in the tmb and
in the data, the agreement with the blade-clement tip regions. These differences can be attributed
data remains quite good. to the effects of three-dimensional flow, differences
BLADE-ELEMENT FLO%V IN ANNULAR CASCADES 245
in axial velocity ratio, and measurement inaccu- covered in the analysis. This is accomplished by
racy. As in the cascade, essentially constant establishing deduced curves of compressor blade-
deviation angle with Mach number was indicated element incidence-angle and deviation-angle cor-
for the Mach number range covered. Additional rections for the low-speed two-dimensional-cascade
stator blade-element data, particularly for the rules of chapter VI. Reference incidence and
deviation angles for the compressor blade element
double-circular-arc blade, are required to establish
are then given by
the stator correlations more firmly.
ic=i2-D+ (ic--i_-D) (283)
APPLICATION TO DESIGN
and
DESIGN PROCEDURE _
C _- _t
2--DI\ qi C--U2--D)_ _ (284)
The foregoing correlations provide a means of

where i_-D and _-D are given by equations (279)
establishing the reference incidence angle and and by (281) or (282), respectively. Curves of
estimating the corresponding deviation angle and incidence-angle and deviation-angle corrections
total-pressure loss for rotor and stator blade deduced from the rotor blade-element data of
elements of compressor designs similar to those figures 189, 191, 199, and 200 are shown as func-
LFIogs 10 r[cJhf >1.2 Blade rolw5 (laNe II) 1

> 16
c_ 17
18
19
20
s " , _ 8 21
9 22
IO
/Z,2/_,t > 1.2
4
J
i i ' -
...... L t
i _2 "4
1
L [
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 I.I 1.2
Relative inlet Moch number, M I
(a) 65-(A_0)-series blade section. (b) Circular-arc blade section.
FIGURE 199.--Variation of compressor deviation angle minus two-dimensional-cascade deviation angle at compressor
reference incidence angle with relative inlet Mach number.
curves at reference incidence angle is a difficult

task because of the scatter of the experimental
data, especially in the rotor tip region. Never-
_t (tGble ]])
-4 i ,8 theless, for completeness, in order to illustrate the
prediction procedures, curves of average total-
_, 20
pressure-loss parameter as a function of diffusion
factor obtained from the data of figure 192 are
shown in figure 203 for rotor and stator. The
shaded part of the curve indicates the possible
band of values obtainable at the rotor tip.
The procedure involved in determining blade-
element camber angle and efficiency at reference
incidence angle for a compressor design based
on the blade-row velocity diagram and the fore-
going correlation curves is now indicated. The
desired blade-element turning angle h_' and rela-
tive inlet Mach number i_l_ are obtained from the
Relative inlet Mach number, /'_fl design velocity diagram. Camber and turning
angles are related by the equation
F]avaE 200.--Variation of compressor deviation angle
minus deviation angle predicted by Carter's rule at e=fl',--fl_-F_--i (285)
reference incidence angle with relative inlet Mach
number for double-circular-arc bladc section. Compressor blade-element incidence angles (eqs.
(279) and (283)) and deviation angles (eqs. (281)
tions of relative inlet Mach number for several and (284)) are given by
radial positions along the blade height in figures
201 and 202. The curves in figures 201 and 202 ic=K_(io)lo+nq,+(ic--i2-D) (286)
are faired average values of the data spread and,
strictly speaking, represent bands of values, in
c=K_( o)_0+_.s _+(ic--i2-D) \ di ]2-_)
view of the very limited data available, com-
pressor correction curves could not reliably be -iF\ t_
C-- _i
2-D) _ (287)
established for the stator deviation and incidence
angles. Substituting equations (286) and (287) into equa-
Establishing single deduced blade-element loss tion (285) and rearranging terms yield
,o o
Aft +(_c-- __D)--(ic--i2-D) [
1.0-- _ ] .
2-z, --K_O,o)_o+Ka(_o)_o o (288)
All terms on the right side of equation (288) rotor and complete stage can be computed by
can be determined from the velocity-diagram means of the techniques and equations presented
properties, the specified blade shape and thickness, in the appendix to this chapter. If the change in
and the specified solidity. After the camber radius across the blade row can be assumed small,
angle is determined, the incidence and deviation blade-element efficiency can be determined through
angles can be calculated from equations (286) the use of figures 204 to 206 from the selected
and (287). Rotor blade-element loss parameter values of _' and the values of M_ and absolute
is estimated from the velocity-diagram diffusion total-pressure ratio or total-temperature ratio
factor and the curves of figure 203. The total- obtained from the velocity diagram.
pressure-loss coefficient _' is then readily obtained The foregoing procedure can best be illustrated
from the blade-element solidity and relative air by a numerical example. Suppose the following
outlet angle. Blade-element efficiencies for the specified rotor design values represent typical
:t_ +iI_
+!!
HI :HI+
+at+I_
....
Hit
+++4
++_+
++I
.ilq,
ti_++t
++I+ +:+
++
+_+++++ii
++++II
+I+;:t
++++++I+
Wt: l+lJio/_
f+N
ca
++; +i!
8 _ _+ + + .4 _ _-
H:J +++
+,, q-++.t
+++t+,+t
+++++:+!!
mI_+ :4+I
44 ' ' tmctm+ffl_t r+m__ttttti_ttiitl+,,
am++ _tt,o++i
+41h_kL+
III!_+ d_iit
++m++++l+
....... H_m_ml
HI'IHI
+_t++_t++jji+ij +. , [!_i;l
II4:L_H ++++H444H44444 fH4 +H I fH4_4_H't-" i{iJ ++'+dH
t#::::::::: +!!t +fir
(b
ttmm+_14_ '_i__ __,mImtm+m4mm m,t_ I',H: _tt+ ........
W_+4m_
_4 if frill,, ,I,]l:_,.,.:,.,.,.,.:,,, ,[. ' .............................................. __ __._,fl_444 fi i H44H4 _4 U,',',',_ ',',',;
.25 +35 i45 .55 .65 .75 .85 .95 1.05 115
Relative inter Mach number, M I
(a) NACA 65-(At0)-series blades.

(b) Double-circulax-arc blades.
FIGURE 201.--Deduced variation of average rotor reference incidcmce angle minus low-speed two-dimensional-casca_le-
rule reference incidence angle with relative inlet Mach number.
2 m + " + + +d _i + +!!!::!!!t _:Percen of bade he gh i_b,

+ )+ ,P++++_++++:I++@;+MII+dl
I ] IIIt+++l_+_+ll+++
I+::+I: d=_ :
( ,; ' :; +iS ' ++4 +;.+, from compressor t_p
ii++
_+_++_+_+;++1;+ I i_i[+tfl_til!ft+it_+lftP_+t+ti++++++
l,_tt_+++]
im+_;+_t+_+t t_JtH!!I+I_+
__t__+i_i_iiii_i_i!!_!_i+_i_i_iii_i_i_i_ii_t_i_ii_ii_iiFJ ii!i _:_ I li!t!+lit_!+_
_ :s_]-::i+`+iiii++
_i_i_fii;i_iii_iii_i_iii_iiii_i_Liii_+ii_Lii_iii_i_iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii_iiiiiiiiiiiii
___t+tttF, qi_i_tb'tttt_ti_ti_-i_tttttt!tffttlttit_it!!l!ttlll ,'ili++dd rmrl!!tW!i
o+
T3
!+Iiff!ii
!i!!!+I
ii_ ,o
1,2
(a) NACA 65-(Am)-series blades.
(b) Double-circular-arc blades.
Fmuam 202.--Deduced variation of average rotor deviation angle minus low-speed two-dimensional-cascade-rule devia-
tion angle at compressor reference incidence angle with relative inlet Mach number.
.15,
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0 I .2 5 4 5 .6 .7
Diffusion fnclor D
(a) Rotor.
(b) Stator.
Fmua_ 203.--Deduced variation of total-pressure-loss p_rameter with diffusion factor at reference incidence angle for
NACA 65-(A_0)-series and doublc-circular-arc blades.
values at 10 percent of the passage height from (1) From the value of M_ and figures 201(b)
the compressor tip: and 202(b),
/_'_=56.9 /c--/2__=4.0 _--___------ 1.5
A_' = 10.9 (2) From the values of fl'_, a, and t/c and figures
M;=1.1 186 to 188 and 193 to 197,
obtained from velocity-diagram
calculations (ch. VIII)
D=0.35 K_----0.54 (/o)_0=4.4 n=--0.22 K_=0.37
T, --1.091
(_o)_o=
o 1.6 o m==0.305 b=0.714 \_,/(d_'_
T_ D_0.095
a=l.O "_ (3) When the values of steps (1) and (2) are
t/c=O.O6J assumed values substituted in equation (288), the value of blade
camber _=8A .
The problem is to find the camber, incidence, (4) From equations (286) and (287), /c=4.5
O
and deviation angles and the total-pressure-loss and _c=2.0.

coefficient for a double-circular-arc airfoil section (5) For calculation of the total-pressure-loss
that will establish the velocity-diagram values. coefficient, the diffusion factor (0.35) and figure
1.00
.99 ......
iiiiii
illili
lit
iii
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!!!!!!
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iiiill
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ilill
illl
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iiii!
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Ill
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iiiii
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.84 _
830"_ii;[ .04 .08 .12 .16 .20 .24
Tolal-pressure-loss c0efficient, g'
FZGURE 20-1.--Variation of rotor relative tot.al-pressure ratio with total-pressure-loss eoeflSeient and inlet 1V[aeh number.
(t
,82
FiouRs 205.--Variation of relative tot:tl-prcssure ratio with absolute total-temperature ratio and efficiency for rotor
P; T_ _- T_
,o_=
{[_,()]_-'_,
-1
}/(-_--_ )
,.00L:i: ...... i.,

;; '.t: t;:: :::: ;i ii:_iti+:_
L_
k
T.... _ [T[ .
lizr:::it :;i_ T: :I_ ;+'11

::_!
.98 7_
:i:!,!!i! :'
_t!:i:[i :i:: _ _!, ,1_'+ f" ;:LT

:
.96 ili.... ,
fill1 _!_ i_ .-_ iI
,t_l :l-r :r1!
L:TT !::_ -:[1 _; :Tt!:]

T'
:: :
:_r:/ii:l!i
P :: :
-_r, i!,- #:. ii :--_ti. ,"_ :[
.94 "
t;::
,b
:-
.... i+
U
>:
E
, fi_!+ ::7
r_
v9
i::: itii !i ii :_
G
._ :!! .... ,T"
q)
7[
Jet t ' "
!i_ if:: !__i!!: $: ...... t_i+ J :!
O
i: i:21 ....
.r;-; _f. :i
i: '/::_ '!'"tt!_:! :: "_: :i
O
"ttiT ;X ;i :r_'l _: ::
#,_ i:.i : i'id,; !" .... L//I ;r:i '_:::
i, i;t; '_
.90 ;
'ii ::i
c
aJ
G :!! " ' .4_
(U
_:r; 1:!_ :U!
:t_ !tt ';+
!'T! ilL,+.
i!:_ii/!!
O
2: !_ i,._l!Ii .
,, _,.
"TI +Tt
"S .88
o :1
;_v !i7 .....
;1 .It" t "_t ,,_ !"
_5 !!:i _ i
02
.86 t"rri! . "!
! ,! .
;[::t:_'_i}tli# -T.f+ : : .
!i:*-.... _il!, r
T_ :,1, IL ;i:.iii
.84
- :,:: fT:l t':: .... "'-' F''f tT
7_T:t,.::
::': :::,r. -
!::i:i! _i7:7 ii,:t: i /i
::
.82:
I.O 1.2 1.4 1.6
Rotor total-pressure ratio, {_/_b
FZG_T_ 206.--Variation of ratio of stage to rotor efficiency with rotor absolute total-pressure ratio as function of stator
recovery factor.
203(a) yield a value of 0.025 for the loss param- At any rate, the establishment of flow angles
eter (_' cos B'2)/2z, and and blade geometry at the reference incidence
angle can serve as an anchor point for the deter-
f_= B_-- A/3' = 56.9-- 10.9 =46.0 ruination of conditions at other incidence-angle
settings. For deviation-angle and loss variations
cos 13'z=0.6947
over the complete range of incidence angles,
Therefore, reference can be made to available cascade data.
_
ta) t=
2a
Such low-speed
65-(A_0)-series
cascade
blades
data exist for the NACA
(ref. 54).
\ ] cos f_ 0.6947
It is recognized that many qualifications and
(6) For a negligible change in ra<lius across the limitations exist in the use of the foregoing design
blade element, the following values can be found procedure and correlation data. For best results,
from figures 204 and 205: the application of the deduced variations should
be restricted to the range of blade geometries
1) '_ t'., (camber, solidity, etc.) and flow conditions (inlet,
Fl1=0.962 _/_a=0.87 1)1--1.31 Mach number, Reynolds number, axial velocity
ratio, etc.) considered in the analysis. In some
The preceding example has been carried out for cases for compressor designs with very low turning
a typical transonic rotor blade section. A similar angle, the calculated camber angle may be nega-
procedure can be used for stator blade sections when tive. For these cases it is recommended that a
adequate blade-element data become available. zero-camber blade section be chosen and the in-
SUMMARY REMARKS cidence angle selected to satisfy the turning-angle
requirements. The data used in the analysis were
The foregoing procedures and data apply only
obtained for the most part from typical experimen-
to the reference point (i.e., the point of minimum
tal inlet stages with essentially uniform inlet flow.
loss) on the general loss-against-incidence-angle
Nevertheless, such data have been used success-
variation for a given blade element. The ref-
fully in the design of the latter stages of multi-
erence nfinimum-loss incidence angle, which was
stage compressors. It should also be remembered
established primarily for purposes of analysis, is
that the single curves appearing in the deduced
not necessarily to be considered as a recommended
variations represent essentially average or repre-
design point for compressor application. The
sentative wdues of the experimental data spread.
selection of the best incidence angle for a particular
Also, in some cases, particularly for the stator, the
blade element in a multistage-compressor design available data are too limited to establish reliable
is a function of many considerations, such as the
correlations. Considerable work must yet be
location of the blade row, the design Mach number, done to place the design curves on a firmer and
and the type and application of the design. How- wider basis. The design procedures established
ever, at transonic inlet Mach numher levels, the and trends of wlriation determined from the data,
point of minimum loss may very well constitute a however, should prove useful in compressor blade-
desired design setting. element design.
APPENDIX
EQUATIONS FOR BLADE-ELEMENT EFFICIENCY
By definition, for a complete stage consisting For the rotor alone, the blade-element efficiency
of inlet guide vanes, rotor, and stator, the adia- is given by
batic temperature-rise efficiency of the flow along "--1
a stream surface is given by f ,l'

?--I 3,--I
If \ -f,,] I-1
R-- T2
(A5)
'aa'sv--( T2"_ --1 {T2"_ --1 ll_, (_)--1
\ T,/_ \ T,/R
(A1)
From equation (B3) of reference 9, the loss
From the developments of reference 7 (eq. (BS) in coefficient of the rotating blade row (based on
the reference), the absolute total-pressure ratio inlet dynamic pressure) is given by
across a blade row P2/P1 can be related to the
relative total-pressure ratio across the blade row
P_/P_ according to the relation
-, ['P_\
, 1 (P_"-_I)
(P1),a
]
, (58)
P'-- (-_)_
Pi \T1] (A2)
where (P_/P_)_e is the ideal (no loss) relative total-

pressure ratio. The relative total-pressure ratio is
also referred to as the blade-row recovery factor. For any blade element, then, from equation (58),
For stationary blade rows (i.e., inlet guide vanes
and stators), _/P'/P'_2j
lJ_eis equal to 1.0. For rotors,
the ideal relative total-pressure ratio (eq. (B4) of
ref. 9) is given by 2 [ 2\ -,/l_I 1 (A6)
T
[, The relations presented in equations (A4),

(A5), and (A6) indicate that four quantities are
in which Mr is equal to the ratio of the outlet required for the determination of the blade-
element wheel speed to the inlet relative stagnation element efficiency across the rotor or stage: the
velocity of sound (_orUa'_._), and rl/r2 is the ratio rotor absolute total-temperature ratio, the relative
of inlet, to outlet radius of the streamline across total-pressure-loss coefficient (based on inlet
the blade element. (For a flow at constant dynamic pressure), the relative inlet Mach
radius (cylindrical flow), (P;/P_)_e is equal to 1.0.) nmnber, and the ideal relative total-pressure
Thus, from equations (A1) and (A2), ratio. Thus, the blade-element efficiencies for a
[ J-
given stage velocity diagram can be calculated if
(P6"_ \P;/n {T2"_-i:-i P'2 " the loss coefficients of the blade elements in the
various blade rows can be estimated.
For simplicity in the efficiency-estimation pro-

cedure, effects of changes in radius across the
blade row can be asstuned small (i.e., rl=r2), so
(A4) that the ideal relative pressure ratio is equal to
253
unity. Then, equations (A4), (A5), and (A6) total-pressure ratio as

_,--1
become, respectively,
"f-I (P,/ l"
r, P2 t
r
[P:'_
t
(T.,'_,-'
-- )i
_ad, R
(AIO)
L\P1)c.v\P,J_\T, JR \P,Js]
PIJR - 1
\T, JR
The charts are used as follows: For known or
(A7)
estimated values of rotor totM-pressure-loss co-
efficient _' and relative inlet Mach number
,_/_ of the element, the corresponding value of
\t';)R\T1)_ I -- 1
(As) relative recovery factor P_/P_ is determined
T_
from figure 204. From the value of rotor-
element absolute total-temperature ratio T2/T_
and (obtained from calculations of the design velocity
{E 1t
diagram) and the value of (P'JP_) obtained from
figure 204, the rotor-element efficiency is deter-
_:1--_' l-- (A9) mined from figure 205. Rotor absolute total-
Pl 1+7_ (2ill) 2 pressure ratio can also be determined from the
dashed lines in figure 205.
If inlet guide vanes and stators are present,
For purposes of rapid calculation and pre-
liminary estinlates, the efficiency relations are the respective recovery factors of each blade
row are first, obtained from figure 204. The
expressed in chart form in figures 204 to 206.
product of the two recovery factors is then cal-
The relation among relative recover)" factor,
blade-element loss coefficient, and inlet Mach culated and used in conjunction with the rotor
number (eq. (A9)) is presented in figure 24. absolute total-pressure ratio in figure 206 to
A chart for determining rotor blade-element determine the ratio of stage efficiency to rotor
efficiency. A simple multiplication then yields
efficiency from relative recover)" factor and ab-
the magnitude of the stage efficiency along the
solute total-temperature ratio (eq. (AS)) is given
element stream surface.
in figure 205. Lines of constant rotor absolute
The charts can also be used to determine gross
total-pressure ratio are also included in the
or mass-averaged efficiencies through the use of
figure. Figure 206 presents the ratio of stage
over-all loss terms. Furthermore, the charts can
efficiency to rotor efficiency for various stator be used for the rapid determination of relative
or guide-vane recovery factors. The ratio of total-pressure-loss coefficient from known values
stage efficiency to rotor efficiency is obtained of efficiency, pressure ratio, and inlet Mach
from equation (A1) in terms of rotor absolute number on an element or gross basis.
CHAPTER VIII
DESIGN VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN MERIDIONAL PLANE
By CHARLES C. GIAMATI, JR., and HAROLD B. FINGER
A discussion is presented oJ the general flow angle, deviation angle, and stagnation-pressure loss
equations and methods to be used in determining the as functions of cascade geometry, inlet Mach
radial distributiol_s o/flow in the meridional (hub- number, and (for three-dimensional cascades)
to-tip) plaice o.f an axial-flow compressor when the radial position in the blade row.
required performance is specified. The problem of The present chapter discusses the general
determining the radial distributions oJ flow i.s flow equations and presents nlethods to be used
simplified by co_c_'idering conditior_s at axial stations in determining the radial distributions of flow
between blade rows where nanviscou_, axisymmetric in the meridional plane. The problem of deter-
flow equation _ are applied. The analysis presumes mining the radial distributions of flow is simplified
the availability oJ blade-element data on detdation by considering conditions only at axial stations
angle and on stagnation-pressure loss for all design between blade rows. In these regions, equations
techniques. Itlethods .for con,_idering the effectz oj for nonviscous axisymmetric flow are applied to
wall boundary layers on required a_nulus area and determine the design flow distributions when the
mass-averaged stage performance are presented. A required performance (weight flow and turning
sample stage design calculation is given. or energy addition) of the blade row is specified.
Since the calculation involves the determination
INTRODUCTION
of the velocities from the inner wall to the outer
The design of a multistage axial-flow compressor wall of the annular flow area, it is apparent that
consists in the successive design of several indi- some consideration must be given to the boundary-
vidual rotor and stator blade rows which are then layer accumulation on these walls. The most
compounded to form the multistage compressor. accurate and complete procedure requires a
As pointed out in the general compressor design knowledge of the distribution of entropy from
discussion of chapter III, the problem of blad e-row wall to wall as well as a knowledge of the rotor
design has been simplified by considering the energy input across the entire annulus area
flow in each of two planes, the hub-to-tip or including the boundary-layer region. Since com-
meridional plane and the blade-to-blade or circum- plete data for this type of calculation are not
ferential plane. The meridional-plane solution currently available, simpler design techniques are
determines the radial distribution of flow con- required. Essentially, these simpler techniques
ditions assuming that axial-symmetry conditions involve computing the flow variables as if no wall
apply, and the circumferential-plane solution boundary layer existed. Boundary-layer correc-
determines the air-turning characteristics through tion factors are then applied to determine the
the blade element. A quasi-three-dimensional required geometric annulus area and mass-averaged
description of the actual flow is then obtained by stage performance (efficiency, temperature rise,
juxtaposition of these two solutions. and pressure ratio).
The results of experimental blade-to-blade Since the determination of the flow conditions
investigations are described in chapters VI and and annulus area configuration after each blade
VII. These chapters present circumferentially row in the compressor requires solution of the
average_t blade-element performance character- fundamental flow equations, the first part of this
istics as determined from two- and three-dimen- chapter is concerned with the development of
sional cascades, respectively. The blade-element the general flow equations. The assumptions and
performance is presented in terms of incidence simplifications that are made to permit solution
255
of the equations are then discussed. The equa- _* boundary-layer displacement thickness, ft
tions are applied to determine the design velocity angle between tangent to streumline pro-
distribution in the meridional plane after a blade jected on meridional plane and axial
row. The necessary boundary-layer correction direction, deg
factors are indicated. In addition, the selection n efficiency
of design variables is discussed. A numerical 0 ratio of total temperature to NASA stand-
example is then carried out with the equations ard sea-level temperature of 518.7 R
and methods presented. v kinematic viscosity, sq ft/sec
p density, lb-sec2/ft 4
SYMBOLS
The following symbols are used in this chapter: r time
viscous dissipation of energy, Btu/(cu ft)
AF frontal area, sq ft
(sec)
a speed of sound, ft/s_
9 work-done factor
C curvature of meridional streamline, ft.-'
co angular velocity of rotor, radians/sec
C_ specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/
(lb)(R) total-pressure-loss coefficient
D diffusion factor Subscripts:
5r blade force acting on gas, lb/lb
a stagnation conditions
g acceleration due to gravity, 32.17 ft/sec 2
ad adiabatic
H total or stagnation enthalpy, Btu/lb
J mechanical equivalent of heat, 778.2 av average
ft-lb/Btu d design value neglecting wall boundary
gbk weight-flow blockage factor layer
K_ energy-addition-correction factor h hub
Kp pressure-correction factor i reference position, radial station where
K,1 efficiency-correction factor variables are known
M Mach number id ideal
polytropic compression exponent m meridional
P total or stagnation pressure, lb/sq ft m.a. mass-averaged value
P static or stream pressure, lb/sq ft
p polytropic
Q external heat added to gas, Btu/(lb)(sec)
R rotor
R gas constant, 53.35 ft-lb/(lb)(R)
r radial direction
r radius, ft
radius of curvature of streamline in S stator
re
meridional plane, ft ST stage

S entropy, Btu/(lb) (R) t tip
T total or stagnation tenlperature, R z axial direction
t static or stream temperature, R a,/_, % radial design stations at 10, 30, 50, 70,
U rotor speed, ft/sec _, _ and 90 percent of blade height from
U internal energy, Btu/lb tip, respectively
V air velocity, ft/sec 0 tangential direction
W weight flow, lb/sec 0 station ahead of guide vanes
Z coordinate along axis, ft 1 station at rotor inlet
air angle, angle between air velocity and 2 station at stator inlet
axial direction, deg
3 station at stator exit
ratio of specific heats
ratio of total pressure to NASA standard Superscript:
sea-level pressure of 2116 lb/sq ft relative to rotor
DESIGN
VELOCITY
DISTRIBUTION
IN MERIDIONAL
PLANE 257
STATEMENT OF DESIGN PROBLEM When the flow conditions have been calculated
SPECIFICATION OF COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE AND
CONFIGURATION REQUIREMENTS after a given blade row, the blade sections may be
selected to give the desired air turning or the
The design of tile axial-flow compressor begins desired blade work. The incidence- and deviation-
with the deternfination of the over-all performance
angle data correlated in chapter VII may be used
specifications obtained from the over-all engine to assist in this selection. Some consideration of
and airplane requirements. In general, the engine
off-design performance may be required in the
inlet-air conditions (pressure, temperature, and
selection of blading. In addition, the loss corre-
density), engine thrust, engine air-flow, turbine-
lations that are presented in chapter VII enable
inlet temperature, and compressor pressure ratio
the designer to reestimate the originally assumed
are fixed by cycle and flight-plan analyses such as
blade-element losses for the particular blade con-
are discussed in chapter II. The compressor-
figuration selected. These reestimated loss data
inlet hub-tip diameter ratio, the component tip are then used to recalculate the flow distribution
diameters, the compressor rotational speed, the
after the blade row by the methods of the present
compressor-inlet axial velocity, and the com-
chapter.
pressor-discharge velocity are then determined
considering the compressor efficiency, turbine GENERAL EQUATIONS
stresses, compressor stresses, performance of the The basic equations that apply to the general
various components, engine weight, and engine case of the flow of a real compressible fluid
space limitations in the airplane. The interrela- through a turbomachine can be formulated from
tion of some of these factors (compressor air-flow the conservation laws of matter, nmmentum, and
per unit frontal area, compressor pressure ratio, energy, along with the thermodynamic equation
rotational speed, turbine size, and turbine stresses) of state. As pointed out in reference 236, these
is discussed in reference 17. It should be enlpha- general basic equations of the flow can be stated
sized that a large number of compressor configu- as follows :
rations are possible for given over-all performance The equation of state for a perfect gas:
requirements. The choice of a given configuration
p-=-pgRt (34)
is based on a compromise among the various
performance and geometric parameters. This The energy equation:
compromise depends in turn on the intended use Du
_- DP-_ "_+_ (289)
of the engine. Dr P-D-_-r =g
FLOW AND GEOMETRY CONDITIONS TO BE DETERMINED
The continuity equation
The design procedure involves an iterative solu-
tion of the flow" equations after each blade row. bP-Fv (p_) =0 (290)
TimE, the flow conditions and hub and tip diameter _r
after the first blade row must be calculated from
the known inlet and the specified design condi- The Navier-Stokes equation:
tions. The blade-element loadings and Mach
numbers selected must be consistent with the
attainment of low" loss as indicated by the loss
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
data presented in chapters VI and VII. The
resulting flow must also be acceptable to the The simplifying assumptions usually made in
following blade row. After a satisfactory solu- the treatment of the problem of flow through
tion for these conditions has been found, the axial-flow compressors are as follows:
resulting flow distribution after the blade row (1) The general flow equations are applied only
becomes the inlet condition for the following row. to compute flow distributions between blade rows
The flow" conditions and geometry of the second where blade forces are nonexistent.
blade row are then determined. The same pro- (2) The flow is assumed to be steady and
cedure is repeated all through the machine until axially sylmnetric. The theoretical significance
the desired over-all pressure ratio and disctmrge of this assumption is discussed in chapter XIV.
velocity are obtained. However, when blade-element data including
691-564 0-65-18
SOLUTIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS

some of the effects of unsteady asymmetric flow
conditions are used in calculating the velocity The equations presented in the preceding section
distributions, the errors introduced by this may be solved in several ways within the assump-
assulnption are expected to be small. tions stated. Most of these solutions differ only
(3) The local shearing effects of viscosity (be- in the simplifications made in the equilibrium
tween blade rows) are neglected by dropping the equation (eq. (294)).
viscosity terms in the flow equations. However, Since the design methods presented here are
the accumulated effects of upstream viscous ac- concerned with finding the radial variation of
tion in increasing entropy are considered by use flow at a specified axial station, the radial com-
of experimentally determined blade-element per- ponent of equation (294) is applicable. For the
formance. Empirical corrections are also made assumed axially symmetric flow between blade
when required for wall boundary-layer effects on rows, this component equation is
required flow area and mass-averaged energy
addition and efficiency. bT j t bS bVe V_ 5V, . 5V,
Jgcp _: g _+Vo _-}-r+V_ _--V, i_z
(4) Heat transfer is neglected.
(296)
SIMPLIFIED FLOW EQUATIONS
As a result of the preceding assumptions and As in the method of reference 237, it has gener-
the use of the definition of entropy, the general ally been assumed in design applications that the
flow equations may be combined and restated as ineridional velocity I_=_/V_+V_ is given by the
follows: axial velocity V_ and that 5Vdi_z-=O. Such a
condition (generally referred to as the "simplified-
Jg(H2--H1) =_[ (rVo)2-- (rVo)t] radial-equilibrium" condition) has been success-
=(UVe)2--(UVo)t=Jgcp(T2--T_) (292) fully used in low-aspect-ratio and lightly loaded
blade-row designs. However, a less restricted
m
V(pV) =0 (293) design solution may be necessary for high Mach

number, highly loaded designs. Several analyses
m
(refs. 34, 49, 236, 238, and 239) have been made
JgVH=JgtVS+ VX (VXV) (294)
to determine the factors influencing the meridional
Equation (292) relates the change in stagnation velocity distribution. The analysis of reference
236 considers the effect of the radial motion
enthalpy along a streamline at axial stations
ahead of and behind a rotor blade row to the resulting from velocity-distribution changes
change in angular momentum and the angular through a blade row and evaluates the magnitude
of this effect for several cases by assuming that
velocity of the wheel. Of course, the stagnation
enthalpy is constant along a streamline passing the air flows through the compressor along
sinusoidal strea_nlines. The analyses of refer-
through a stator blade row if it is assumed that
the heat transfer from streamline to stremnline is ences 238 and 239 for incompressible flow also
consider the effects of radial motion due to
negligible.
Equation (293) states the law of conservation velocity-distribution changes through the com-
of matter, which, for application to compressor pressor. These analyses consider the effects of
design, may be expressed as the velocity induced by the gradients in circulation
or vorticity along the blade on the velocity distri-
bution ahead of and behind the blade row. The
wl=2rg _r,._ PlV_. lrl drl=wz (295)
Jrh, I procedure permits evaluation of the mutual inter-
ference effects of blade rows in the multistage
This equation will be discussed in detail in a later coInpressor. These analyses neglect the radial
section with reference to boundary-layer blockage motion due to the blade blockage resulting from
corrections and with reference to application of blade thickness variations. Reference 34 presents
the flow equations in the design procedure. a simplified analysis of the effect of the radial
Equation (294) is referred to as the equilibrimn variation of blade thickness on inlet velocity and
equation for the fluid between the blade rows. incidence-angle distributions. This analysis also
DESIGN VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN MERIDIONAL PLANE 259
assumes axial symmetry but makes a correction in Equation (297) may be integrated between any
the flow continuity relation for blade thickness. two radial positions in the free-stream region of
In general, the higher the inlet Math number, the the annular flow area at an axial station between
greater the variation in the axial velocity from blade rows. For purposes of a design procedure,
hub to tip. it is most convenient to integrate between some
All these investigations neglect the effects of reference radius, at which the dependent varlables
gradients of entropy on radial distributions of are known or assulned, and the other radial posi-
velocity and therefore arc not directly applicable tions. The resulting integrated form of the isre
in regions of high loss. Reference 49 applies equation is
experimental data to determine the relative magni-
tudes of the effects on velocity distributions of the _ _ _ f' 2V_
V_--Vz._=2gJcp(T--T_)--(Vo--Vo.,)-- -- dr
Jr r
entropy-gradient term for a wide variety of axial-
flow-compressor blade rows. Although vast dif- (29s)
ferences generally exist in the shapes of the velocity
distributions in the inlet and the outlet stages of The radial variation of axial velocity or V_-- V_.
the multistage compressor, essentially the same at the blade-row outlet is obtained by prescribing
techniques (assuming a knowledge of the entropy the distribution of either the stagnation tempera-
distril)ution across the anmdus) can be used to ture or the tangential velocity after the blade row.
calculate the velocities. ('onsideration of the These two parameters (stagnation temperature
entropy gradients was particularly necessary in and tangential velocity) are related by equation
the rear stages, where the a(,cumulated effects of (292) for the known flow conditions at the inlet
viscosity noticeably affected the velocity distribu- of the blade row. As will be shown later, the value
tion. On the other hand, the complete radial of the reference axial velocity V_._ is assigned and
acceleration term appeared to be significant for the mass continuity condition is applied to deter-
the highly loaded inlet stages investigated, where mine the required annulus area. For those cases
the wall curvatures were large. in which the annulus area is specified, the refer-
The following discussion presents the various ence velocity is deterlnined by application of the
forms of the radial-equilibrium equation that may continuity relation.
be used in the compressor design procedure. A series of charts is presented in chapter IX to
SIMPLE-RADIA1.-EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION NEGLECTING permit rapid solution of equation (298).
ENTROPY GRADIENTS
SIMPLE-RADIAL-EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION CONSIDERING

The simplest solution of the radial-equilibrium RADIAL GRADIENTS OF ENTROPY
equation (eq. (296)), usually referred to as the
"simple-radial-equilibrium solution," has been The major effect of upstream viscous action is
widely used in compressor design. It is arrived manifested by an increase in the entropy of the
at by assuining (l) that the derivative of V_ with flow. The major effects of viscosity on the axial
respect to z is zero, and (2) that the derivative of velocity distribution are therefore accounted for
S with respect to r is zero. These assumptions in the radial-equilibrium equation through the use
are made, of course, only at the fixed value of z. of the term involving the radial gradients of
The resulting equation is entropy. Thus, the equation presented here is
obtained from equation (296) by assuming only
OT i_Vo V_ _V_ that the derivative of the radial velocity V, with
Jgep -_:Vo _--t-r-t-V_ br (297)
respect to the axial distance z is zero. Equation
(296) then becomes
which is referred to herein as the "isentropic-
simple-radial-equilibrium" or "isre" equation. In bT bS i)V0 V_
Jgc, _/=Jgt _+Vo _r+r+V, _ (299)
this case, "isentropic" refers simply to the condi-
tion of radially constant circumferentially aver-
aged entropy within the space between blade rows Equation (299), hereinafter referred to as
outside the boundary layers. Thus, the entropy the "nonisentropic-simple-radial-equilibrium" or
of the flow inay still change through the blade row. "nisre" equation, may be integrated between two
radial positions at an axial station between blade This equation holds for both rotor and stator
rows to give when the appropriate indices are used.
The ideal relative pressure ratio (P'a/P_)[_ can
V_--V=,. ,=2gJc,,(T-- T,) --(V'_--VI. _) be taken equal to 1.0 for those cases in which the
variation in the streamline radius across the
rotor is negligible, a condition obtained in high
--2' V-J dr--2JgR t----dr (300) hub-tip ratio or lightly loaded blade rows.
t r _
For convenience in the design procedure, any
The nisre equation can be solved in the same upstream station at which the entropy is essen-
manner as the isre equation, except that the tially constant radially--for example, the com-
entropy term must 1)e evaluated. By the defini- pressor-inlet station 0--is used as the reference
tion of stagnation conditions, stagnation entropy station. Therefore, the radial variation of entropy
is identically equal to static entropy at. any given is, from equation (301),
point. Therefore, the change in the entropy along
a streamline from the inlet, to the mltlet of a blade T_
row may be expressed as 5 R2 5
J i)r_ -- br2 In
s S
T2 ,y-1
,j
The static temperature appearing in the second
integral of equation (300) can be expressed in
In the design procedure, the temperature ratio is terms of the velocity components and stagnation
assumed or is determined from a specified vari- temperature as follows:
ation in tangential velocity by use of equation
(292). The stagnation-pressure ratio may be Jgc_t=JgcpT V_ V_ V 2, (305)
2 2 2
related to the stagnation-temperature ratio in
terms of either a polytropic blade-element efficiency
For the simplified-radial-equilibrimn solutions,
_p or a stagnation-pressure-loss coefficient _.
the radial velocity term is neglected in equation
When the polytropic efficiency or polytropic
(305). In general, this V_ component can be
compression exponent is used, the stagnation-
neglected in the stages with high hub-tip ratio
pressure ratio is given by
without introducing significant errors in static
temperature. In the stages with low hub-tip
P2 (T2"_'-' [T_"-' ratio (where wall slopes may be large), however,
_=\_/ =\_] (302)
V_ may have to be considered in this equation by
estimating a streamline slope in the meridional
The blade-element data of chapters Vi and VII
plane and expressing 17, as a function of V, and
present the blade-element loss in terms of "_.
this slope.
When these data are used, it. is more convenient
to express the stagnation-pressure ratio across RADIAL-EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION CONSIDERING RADIAL
ACCELERATIONS
the blade element in t.erms of _', stagnation-
temperature ratio, and inlet-air Mach number As pointed out in the previous discussions on
relative to the blade element. The expression the simple-radial-equilibriunl equations, high hub-
for pressure ratio is restated from chapter VII as tip radius ratio and lightly loaded blade rows have
been successfully designed by assuming that the
p, 2 /p,,, 2 --!
7=5 meridiomd velocity V,, is equal to the axial
P1 (_P,),d 1-- (M;) (303) velocity l_; and that the gradient of radial velocity
V, along the axial direction is zero. In this case,
where the radial gradient of static pressure is
(')_2, = [1-_7--1 2 "rgRT;

(wry) 2 (1 ,a'_'] _-1
_/..] (59) d_=p V$
7
However, for high-aspect-ratio, highly loaded A similar technique for evaluating the effect of
stages, the effects of streamline curvature become radial accelerations is applied in reference 240.
significant. In this case, the contribution of the The analysis of reference 236 further assumes that
radial acceleration of the meridional velocity to the product of the radial velocity at a given axial
the pressure gradient, in the radial direction must station between blade rows and the axial gradient
be considered. The radial gradient of static of axial velocity is negligible and that the slope
pressure for this general case of curved streamline of the streanllines at this axial station is zero.
flow may be stated as Therefore, for the assumptions of reference 236,
the last term (the radial-flow term) of equation
(296) may be expressed as
dp p(___ V,2, COSrc_)
bVr
where e is the angle of the streamline with respect v_ -ST= Gv_
to the axial direction, and rc is the radius of
curvature of the streamline. Results obtained with this procedure are shown in
An accurate determination of the radius of reference 241 to agree with results obtained from
curvature of the streamline and the slope of the the general three-dimensional-flow solution de-
streamline (which determines the angle e) requires scribed in reference 242 for a single-stage non-
a knowledge of the shape of the streamline through tapered-passage compressor.
the blade row. The streamline configuration is a In addition to the preceding analyses, which
function of the annular-passage area variation, the attempt to consider the effects of the blades on
camber and thickness distribution of the blades in the streamline configuration through the blade
the radial and axial directions, the blade forces row, several analyses, such as the work of refer-
existing within the blade row, and the flow angles ences 243 to 245, present methods of estimating
at inlet and discharge of the blade row. Because the effects of radial velocity and curvature terms
the effects of radial acceleration have been small from simplified calculations of the flow only
in conventional subsonic-compressor designs, very between blade rows. In these solutions, a set of
little information is available concerning the rela- smooth streamlines is estimated through the
tive importance of each of these variables in compressor stage on the basis of the velocities
determining the effects of radial accelerations in calculated between blade rows. It is apparent
the highly loaded designs being studied. There- that these methods do not consider the effects of
fore, the usefulness of several methods that have the blade thickness and camber distributions and
been proposed for evaluating these radial accelera- the effects of the blade forces on the streamline
tions h_s not yet been established. curvature.
Several analyses, such as the work of references In view of the present meager knowledge of the
58 and 62, have been applied to determine velocity effects of the various design paranleters on the
distributions throughout the flow field in high- radial acceleration terms in the general flow
solidity mixed-ilow compressors and axial-flow equations, it seems reasonable to use the simpler
turbines. These procedures require estinlation methods of accounting for these effects as stop-gap
of a streamline-orthogonal flow system through design measures. In addition, it may be desirable
the blade row. Tile distribution of velocity along at the present time to try to alleviate tim con-
the orthogonal is then determined from the known ditions leading to large radial accelerations. In
inlet conditions, a mean air-turning variation along the case of highly loaded designs having high
each streamline, and a blade thickness variation aspect ratios, one technique for reducing the
along each streanfline. Since this method requires effects of radial accelerations is to taper the tip of
estimation of the streamlines as well as a knowl- the compressor inward so that the hub curvature
edge of the blade configuration, it: is apparent that is reduced. Definitive experfinental and analyt-
it beconles an iterative solution. ical work is still required to evaluate the various
An approximate evaluation of the radial accel- techniques that have been suggested for computing
eration term is also made in reference 236 by velocity distributions including the effects of
assuming the streamline shape to be sinusoidal. radial accelerations.
CONSIDERATION OF WALL BOUNDARY-LAYER that (as indicated in ref. 49) some cases have been
EFFECTS
encountered where the variation of entropy is
The equilibrium equations that must be solved large even in the main stream. In any case, the
in determining the meridional distribution of "nonisentropic" equations can be applied to
flow conditions between blade rows in the axial- determine the velocity distribution even into the
flow machine were discussed in the preced- boundary layers if means of predicting the
ing section. When the simple-radial-equilibrimn entropy distribution are available. This pro-
equations are suitable, a procedure sinlilar to tile cedure would be a direct process near the tip,
following is required to execute a blade-row design since the tip radius is specified. Near the hub,
if the inlet conditions are given: however, the entropy and other flow properties
(1) The tip radius at the blade-row discharge is could not be determined until after the hub
specified. radius is known. Therefore, iteration procedures
(2) Tile axial and tangential velocities at the must be used near tlle hub for this complete solu-
tip radius after the blade row are assumed. tion. The distribution of flow properties and the
These values nmst be consistent with the con- annulus area determined from these procedures
siderations for low losses and compatible with the then permit cah, ulation of the mass-averaged
requirements of the following 1)lade row. energy addition, pressure ratio, and efficiency for
(3) The radial distribution of tangential velocity the stage.
after the blade row is specified. Of course, it is apparent that the determination
(4) The radial distribution of energy addition of the entropy distribution from wall to wall for all
in the blade row is determined from the known the possible design velocity diagrams, blade-row
inlet conditions and the specified distribution of geometries, and locations in the multistage com-
tangential velocity by use of equation (292). pressor would require very extensive tests of many
(5) The radial distribution of loss and there- different compressors. Such detailed information
fore entropy is assumed hased on blade-element requires the analysis of much more multistage-
data taken in a similar flow environment. compressor data than are currently available.
(6) The radial distribution of axial velocity is Substitute teclmiques for the determination of the
calculated. annulus area after the blade row and the mass-
(7) The radial distributions of all other flow
properties are calculated. [ I
(8) The continuity condition is used to calcu- I
late the hub radius from the known tip radius and t I
mass flow and the calculated distributions of I
axial velocity and density.
When the radial acceleration terms associated
with streamline'curvature become significant, this
procedure may be considered as an initial step in
the design system. It then becomes necessary to
recalculate the radial distributions of axial veloc- I
ity and other flow properties (items (6) and (7))
and to determine a new hub radius (item (8)).
This technique is referred to as method I. The
critical information in this solution is the radial
distribution of loss or entropy from wall to wall. I
Figure 207 illustrates a form of the entropy dis- I
tribution that might be encountered after a blade
row in a compressor. The large rise in entropy at 21
the end walls results fronl the losses in the wall I
boundary layers. Across the major portion of the Radius, r
flow passage, the entropy variation is illustrated FIOURE 207.--Typical entropy distribution after com-
as being relatively small. It mnst be emphasized pressor blade row.
averaged efficiency, energy addition, and pressure Design

ratio have therefore been used. Actual
Average actual
One such technique (referred to herein as
method II) involves dividing the flow passage into /
three parts, the tip boundary layer, the main- " \

stream region, and the hub boundary layer. In (fl \t
co '1
the process of solution of the equations, the wall
boundary-layer regions are actually treated as
(a)
one region. The velocities across the annulus are
computed by the previously itemized procedure
assuming that no wall boundary layer exists. The
entropy distribution used in the determination of t-..
the velocities is obtained from the blade-element <3
loss data presented in chapter VII. If, as is

illustrated in figure 207, the entropy gradient is
small in the main stream, then the velocity dis- '\\
tribution may be computed using the isre equa- s-
\
tion (eq. (297) or (298)). If the blade-element loss

data indicate a large variation of entropy in the
F-- (b)
main stream, then tile nisre equation (eq. (299) or
(300)) must be used to determine the velocity
distributions.
The effects of the wall boundary layers on the
required annulus area and on the mass-averaged
o') \
energy addition, pressure ratio, and efficiency are "%
\
determined in method II from the velocity dis-
\
tributions calculated assuming appropriate "gross"
_-O_
correction factors and the absence of wall bound- o_
ary layers. Although the evaluation of these

Q.
gross correction factors will also require extensive O9
(c)_ C
compressor testing and analysis, it is anticipated 1 I
that the general correlations with velocity-diagram Radius, r
parameters and environment may be more readily
attainable than those for the detailed entropy (a) Constant mass flow.
distributions in tile boundary layers. In addition, (b) Constant energy addition.
indications of the magnitudes of these gross cor- (c) Constant stagnation-pressure ratio.
rect.ion factors may be obtained from comparisons FIQVR_ 208.--General effects of wall boundary layer.
of design and measured velocities in the main-

stream region. neglected. For such a design, the conditions that
The general effects of wall boundary layers on might be measured in the flow annulus when the
rotor perforlnance are indicated in figure 208. mainstream flow conditions are the same as the
This figure is an example of a design that has been design conditions are indicated by the dashed
worked out for constant mass flow (fig. 208(a)) curves. It is apparent that the integrated weight
and energy addition (fig. 208(b)) along the radius flow is less than the design weight flow, and the
without considering the effect of the end-wall mass-averaged energy addition or temperature
boundary layers. The isre solution was used to rise and the mass-averaged pressure ratio may
determine the velocities across the annulus from differ from the design value. The average values
the specified energy addition (fig. 208(b)), as- of mass flow, temperature rise, and pressure ratio
suming that the stagnation-pressure loss was con- are indicated on the figure as the dot-dash lines.
stant ahmg the radius (fig. 208(c)) and that the Timrefore, three correction factors are required in
effects of the wall boundary layers could be method II to account for t}le presence of the wall
boundary layers. An annulus-area correction method II for the calculation of the annulus
must be applied to account for the blockage effect geometry and the mass-averaged temperature rise
of the wall boundary layer so as to ensure the and pressure ratio. Although only very limited
attainment of the design weight flow; a tempera- amounts of blade-element data and boundary-
ture-rise factor nlust be applied to calculate the layer correction data are available, it is felt that
mass-averaged energy addition for the blade row this method offers the basis for an accurate design
at this design weight flow; and a pressure-ratio system.
factor must be applied to permit calculation of the CORRECTION FOR WEIGHT-FLOW BLOCKAGE FACTOR
mass-averaged pressure ratio.

The correction for weight-flow blockage factor
Another system of correction that has been used
is intended to ensure the attainment of the design
extensively involves specifying the annulus area
weight flow with the design velocity distribution
and adjusting the axial velocity level across the
over the major portion of the annulus area.
mainstream region by the continuity equation to Because of the lack of extensive data on the
ensure the attainment of the design weight flow.
boundary-layer characteristics in the compressor,
This method of design and correction involves an empirically obtained correction factor that is
principally a rearrangement of the previously
applied as a gross boundary-layer blockage
enumerated design steps. Other correction factors
factor has usually been applied. Although this
are still necessary to permit calculation of the empirical correction factor leaves much to be
mass-averaged energy addition and pressure ratio.
desired, it has been used successfully in design.
It nmst be emphasized that, in all the techniques
This gross blockage factor is designated by Kbk
described, the velocities across the mainstream
and is defined by the following continuity
region of the annulus area and the annulus area equation :
geometry are calculated with blade-element loss
or efficiency data obtained from stages operating
in environmental conditions similar to those of w=_g._ I' pV_d(r2)_--Kokrg f_:' [pV, d(r2) ]d
the stage being designed. Such blade-element [',,-,:

data, principally for inlet stages, are presented in --_gJ,h+6; [pV_ d(r2)]d (306)
chapter VII.
For those cases where blade-element loss data The subscript d refers to design values calculated
are not available or where a general design review across the annulus as if no wall boundary layer
of a large number of nmltistage compressors is were present. In essence, this gross blockage
required, a blade-row and stage mass-averaged factor involves the determination of the ideal
efficiency may be assumed to determine the total (no boundary layer) velocity distribution required
pressure at each blade element from the specified to pass a flow greater than the design flow. For
energy addition_ It is assumed in this approach a given value of tip radius, the hub radius is thus
that the blade-element efficiency is equal to the decreased as Kb_ is decreased (or boundary-layer
blade-row mass-averaged efficiency. Altilough allowance is increased).
this is admittedly not an exact approach, it has Very little useful data regarding the best values
been found to give reasonable design accuracy and of blockage factor are currently available from
serves as an extremely useful tool, especially as a multistage-compressor investigations. Reference
first roughing-out step in the design procedure. 243 suggests values of 0.98 for inlet stages and
This method is referred to in the present report as 0.96 for all others. Some single-stage data
method III. It is described in detail and applied indicate blockage factors of 0.96 after both rotor
through the use of charts in chapter IX. The and stator. These blockage factors are not
method usually assumes that the correction for expected to be the same for compressors differing
determining mass-averaged energy addition is in size, axial velocity diffusion, chord length, and
negligible. A correction is required for wall so forth.
boundary-layer blockage in determining the an- CORRECTION FACTOR FOR STAGNATION-TEMPERATURE
nulus area. RISE
The following discussion is concerned with the Besides occupying space and thereby affecting
boundary-layer correction factors required in the weight flow, the wall boundary layer causes
DESIGN
VELOCITY
DISTRIBUTION
IN MERIDIONAL
PLANE 265
the mass-averaged energy addition or stagnation- mass-averaged energy addition once the design
temperature rise to differ from the design value velocity distributions and the annulus area
when the main stream velocities are equal to the geometry have been determined in the design
design values. Application of the blockage-factor process. It does not influence the design velocity
correction does not eliminate the need for the diagram or the hub radius.
temperature-rise or energy-addition factor in In most cases, the temperature-rise correction
computing the mass-averaged temperature rise factor is assumed equal to 1.0. However, analysis
for the stage from the design velocities. This of limited data taken on the single-stage rotor
of reference 57 indicates that a value of 1.03 for
temperature-rise or energy-addition factor K, can
be defined by the following equation: the temperature-rise correction factor may be
more reasonable. More extensive and precise
data are still required.
fr r',2 (T2_l_ [pV_d(r2)]2
1.0--' h._ \T, ] CORRECTION FACTOR FOR STAGNATION PRESSURE
',.2 [pV_d(r2)] 2 In the design procedure, the value of the

h,2
stagnation-pressure loss _ at any blade element
in the mainstream region can be estimated from
= g, L\T, ] pV_ d(r_)ld the velocity diagram by using the correlation of
diffusion factor with _ presented in chapter VII.
Kb_; n'2 [pV_ d(r2)]_,a This method tends to give a higher mass-averaged
h.2
value of stagnation pressure at a blade-row outlet

and higher mass-averaged efficiency than are
/ actually achieved, since consideration of the wall
boundary layer is not completely included in the
fr h,2
r'': [pV_ d(r2)]2._ blade-element data. Hence, a correction for the
(307) wall boundary layer must be applied in deter-
mining the mass-averaged pressure ratio. This
It should be emphasized that the temperature- pressurh-ratio correction factor Kp can be defined
correction factor is used only in calculating the by the following equation:
t'2
=
.... K { KeKbkJ
/'rt, z
,_, 2
[(pp__21).Y__l
b_j,^. 2 [pV, d(r2)kd

--4-__1 ]
[oV, d(r2)]2, d
+,o t 7--1
.1
=
{ Kp
r,. 2
a2

P2 -7-
fi_ --1
,,.2 [pV_ d(r2)]z_

h, 2
[pV_ d(r2)]2._ [-1.0
} (308)
Lin6ted data on the rotor with 0.4 hub-tip inlet-stage rotor where wall boundary layers were
diameter ratio described in reference 57 indicate small. Detailed data after stators are not yet
that the value of Kp may be approximately 1.0 available.
after a rotor. These data were taken from an A knowledge of the mass-averaged temperature
rise and the mass-averaged pressure ratio permits

calculation of the mass-averaged efficiency by the
following equation:
I I
I I
_,--1
,V-1 I
/
/ I_ --'\ b
\
I
t
P1/ .... (309) I / \I
_,,.a. -- T2
....-, I/ \_
I I
It is apparent that an efficiency correction similar i I
to the temperature-rise and pressure-ratio correc-
tion factors may also be applied to determine the
mass-averaged efficiency of a stage if the average I i
efficiency based on the mainstream velocities and Rudiusf'r
blade-element losses is known. Thus, the average
FI(]URE 209.--Effect of wall boundary layer on axial
rotor efficiency is obtained by multiplying the
velocity.
efficiency calculated from the mainstream flow
conditions by the efficiency-correction factor. As
calculated assuming that wall boundary layers
a result of the correction factors determined from
do not exist.
the data of reference 57 for the temperature rise
Although it was developed for designs with
and the pressure ratio, the efficiency correction
free-vortex velocity diagrams, the work-done
K, for the rotor was found to be approximately
factor has since been applied to other types of
equal to 0.97.
diagrams. It is necessary in this system to set
WORK-DONE-FACTOR SYSTEM
the blades (on the basis of the design velocities)

A boundary-layer correction procedure that at an incidence angle higher than the optimum
has been widely used by British designers (refs. value. The higher velocities actually obtained
2, 31 (pt. II), and 246) includes the "work-done" across the main stream will then produce in-
factor, which is used to estimate stage tempera- cidence angles close to the optimum values.
ture-rise from design values of axial velocity and Thus, the design velocity and blade-angle
air angles. In this case, the hub and tip radii of the distributions are set so as to ensure that ap-
blade row are prescribed. For a given weight flow plication of the work-done factor will result in
through the blade row, the effect of the wall bound- the desired energy addition. It is then usually
ary layers is to increase the axial velocities above assumed that the major part of the correction for
the design values across the mainstream portion boundary-layer blockage has been considered
of the annulus and to decrease the axial velocity by application of the work-done factor.
near the end walls as shown in figure 209. Because
SELECTION OF DESIGN VARIABLES
of the high values of velocity over the major portion
of the annulus, the mass-averaged energy addi- The design calculation of the multistage-
tion at the design flow is lower than the design compressor [)Jade rows requires first the specifi-
value (i.e., the low mass flow at the end walls does cation of certain aerodynamic and geometric
not weight the temperature rise in this region characteristics. Among these are the inlet w_lues
enough to compensate for the central-portion of hub-tip radius ratio, weight flow, and wheel
deficit in work), resulting in less "work done." speed; the variation through the compressor of
Thus, the actual stage temperature rise is lower blade loading, axial velocity, and tip diameters;
than that predicted on the basis of the design and an additional parameter specifying the
values of velocity and air angles. The work-done radial distribution of work or velocity in each
factor fl is defined in reference 31 (pt. II) by the stage. Since the emphasis in aircraft compressors
following relation: is for high mass flow per unit frontal area and
cpJgAT---- 9(U2V_. 2 tan _--U1V,, l tan BI)_ high pressure ratio per stage, the discussion of
the selection of design variables is slanted toward
where the flow parameters are the ideal values achieving these goals.
DESIGN VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN MERIDION'AL PLANE 267
The selection of design variables and the entire limitations of compressors became better known,
design procedure involve an iterative process in more freedom was taken in the type of velocity
which compromises are necessary at each step. diagram. With the advent of the transonic
Tile process can be shortened by using a quick compressor and the removal of the subsonic
approximate method for the initial parts of the Mach number limit, the free-vortex design re-
design and, after a rough outline of the compressor turned to prominence for inlet stages. The
is determined, using the more accurate methods absence of large gradients in outlet axial velocity
to fix tile details of the compressor blading. with this type design facilitates the maintenance
Thus, a trial hub and tip contour for the entire of recently established loading limits and the
compressor carl be obtained from the method achievement of high pressure ratio.
that uses the isre equation along with an assumed Experimental tests of axial-flow compressors
efficiency for the blade rows. Most of tile show that satisfactory performance can be obtained
necessary compromises can be made in this for a wide range of velocity-diagram types if the
step, so that the required performance is reason- blade-loading and Math number limits are not
ably assured without exceeding specified limita- exceeded. Therefore, present design philosophy
tions on divers flow variables. emphasizes the limitations as determined by Math
VELOCITY DIAGRAMS
number and diffusion factor rather than the
specific veloeity diagram used. In general, an
A general velocity diagram for a fixed radius
iterative procedure of specifying radial distribu-
is shown in figure 210. In the past, many
tion of work (2xH or AT) and checking all radial
compressors have been designed to achieve a
sections for extremes in diffusion factor or Math
specific type of velocity diagram at a given
number is satisfactory. A specification of a
radius or given radii. A discussion of the com-
velocity diagranl may in some eases be desirable
inonly used velocity diagratns and their application
to systematize the procedure or to utilize past
in the design procedure is given in references
experience.
35 and 236. The free-vortex diagram has been
widely used because of its simplicity and because COMPRESSOR-INLET CONDITIONS
of the accuracy with which flow distributions

Inlet hub-tip radius ratio and axial velocity
can be calculated for this type flow. Two-
dimensional blade-element considerations (which must be specified to satisfy the design weight-flow
requirement, which is fixed by an engine amdysis.
are now known to be insufficient) showed that
Figure 211 presents curves of conlpressor weight
the symnletrical velocity diagram gave maximum
flow per unit frontal area against axial Maeh
blade-element-profile efficiency as well as high
number for constant values of hub-tip radius
flow and stage pressure ratio for a subsonic Mach
ratio. It is apparent from this figure that weight
number limit. Therefore, this type of diagram
flow per unit frontal area increases with decreas-
also has been used extensively. As the various
ing hub-tip radius ratio arid with increasing axial
velocity (or Mach number). Reduction in hub-
tip ratio below approximately 0.4 may be expected
to result in aggravated aerodynamic as well as
mechanical problems, thus giving diminishing
returns. For instance, the blade-element-flow
choking problem (M=I.0 at throat) at the
compressor hub becomes more acute because of
large fillets and blade thicknesses, while blade
fastening may become difficult and blade stresses
may become high.
Figure 211 also illustrates that the value of
weight flow per unit frontal area depends on the
value of inlet axial Maeh number. However, de-
- u,
sign values of axial Math number are fixed (for
FIGURE 210.--General velocity diagram. any desired blade speed and air prerotation) by
Hub-! ratio should not be overlooked when blade speed

50 ....... rod_us roho is otherwise limited.
f
rh/r_
VARIATION OF DESIGN PARAMETERS THROUGH
COMPRESSOR
f
40--
z- Axial velocity.--In any compressor, values of
axial velocity are fixed at two axial stations:
at the compressor inlet by the weight flow and
30 hub-tip ratio, and at tire compressor exit by
compressor-discharge diffuser and combustor-inlet

20 ....
# requirements. With the trend toward higher
/ compressor-inlet velocities, fixed combustor re-
/ i quirements will necessitate appreciable decreases
L; J in axial velocity through the unit. Care must
_ IO--- @ ....
also be taken that blade heights in the latter
0
/ Z
2 4 6
J
J
i E I
8 I0
stages
boundary
a large
do not
layers
percentage
become so small
and blade tip clearances
of the passage
that end-wall
occupy
and thus de-
A_ol Moch number, Mz teriorate performance. The exact scheduling of
axial velocity through the compressor will de-
FIGVRE 211.--Weight-flow-- Mach number characteristics
for various values of hub-tip radius ratio. pend largely on the individual blade-row require-
ments. Large axial velocity reductions across
any blade element are to be avoided if high effici-
the limiting relative inlet Mach number of the
ency is desired.
blade sections used in the inlet row. Thus, the Diffusion faetor.--The diffusion factor, a blade-
relative inlet Mach number becomes the impor- loading criterion discussed in reference 9, is
tant variable and will be considered here.
given by
The limiting relative Mach number for con-
17' AI-7'
ventional subsonic blade shapes and designs is I-)--1--" 2-1-,.L, #
"'--* V;--2aV', (310)
usually set at 0.7 to 0.8; whereas good efficiencies
have been obtained at Mach numbers up to 1.1
The analysis of single-stage-compressor data in
(ref. 41) and even higher for transonic blade shapes
reference 9 indicates the following diffusion-factor
(thin blades with thin leading edges and solidity
limits for inlet stages: for the rotor tip, D less than
of the order of 1.0). These linlits are determined
0.4; for the rotor hub, D less than 0.6; for the
from loss and efficiency considerations, which in
stator, D less than 0.6. The variation of limiting
turn may be affected by blade-row choking con-
diffusion factor through the compressor is not yet
siderations, particularly at the compressor hub.
known. Although this blade-loading parameter
An analysis of the choking problem is presented
(eq. (310)) is a good stop-gap, a more complete
for two-dimensional cascades in reference 31 (pt.
and general loading criterion and a better correla-
I). If a cascade analysis is applied to a compressor
tion of loss with loading are still required.
rotor and does not indicate choking, there will
Efficiency.--The stage or blade-row efficiency,
probably be a built-in safety factor because of the
rather than the blade-element loss, may be used
advantage of the energy rise through the rotor.
as a design parameter in certain design procedures
In the past, inlet corotation has been used to
reduce the relative Mach numt)er at the rotor (e.g., method IIi). Experimental investigations
of axial-flow compressors indicate that, where
inlet. Since compressors have been operated
blade-loading limits are not exceeded, the stage
efficiently at high values of relative inlet Mach
number, the role of inlet guide vanes has become efficiencies remain at a relatively constant high
decreasingly important in compressor design. value. A slight decrease in efficiency in the rear
However, the use of counterrotation inlet guide stages of the compressor has usually been at-
vanes to increase Mach number at a given wheel tributed to distortions of the radial distributions
speed for the attainment of high stage pressure of velocity in these blade rows. Also, the ratio
DESIGN
VELOCITY
DISTRIBUTION
IN MERIDIONAL
PLANE 269
of wetted area to flow area is greater in the latter high losses, while extremely high solidities lead to
stages than in the inlet stage, so that boundary- hub choking problems and high losses.
layer effects become more prominent. The design- Although the tip clearance used in a com-
speed peak adiabatic efficiency for an inlet stage pressor design is usually set by mechanical con-
operating as a single-stage unit is about 0.92. Of siderations, large effects of tip clearance on aero-
course, the assumed design efficiency will vary with dynamic performance have been noted _in various
the performance requirements of pressure ratio and compressor investigations. Some effects of blade
weight flow and perhaps with axial position in the tip clearance are discussed in reference 5, which
compressor. reports that the smallest clearance used in the
Boundary-layer eharacteristies.--Unfor tunately, series of tests gave the best rotor efficiency.
there is very little information from which the OFF-DESIGN PERFORMANCE
boundary-layer growth through a compressor can In regard to compressor weight, it is desirable

be determined accurately beyond that mentioned to select a design for the minimum number of
in reference 243. Values of correction factors used
stages consistent with good aerodynamic efficiency
to account for boundary-layer growth have been to achieve a specified over-all pressure ratio.
given and discussed in the section on weight-flow Since the compressor must also have good ac-
blockage. Data obtained from an 8-stage axial- celeration characteristics, good high flight Mach
flow compressor (ref. 247) indicate that the bound- number performance, and a reasonable overspeed
ary-layer thickness (expressed as a percent of blade
margin as well as satisfactory design-point opera-
height) remained approximately constant through tion, the off-design operating characteristics should
the last four stages near the design weight flow. be considered when the stagewise variation of
Although the boundary layer in the compressor of blade loading is chosen. Possible means of de-
reference 247 was thicker than might be generally termining the off-design operating characteristics
expected, these results support the choice of a are given in chapter X. At compressor speeds
constant value of Kbk through the latter stages of above and below design speed, the front and rear
an axial-flow compressor. stages deviate considerably from design angle of
PHYSICAL ASPECTS incidence, operating over a range fronl choked
flow to stall (ref. 248). Therefore, it. is im-
Physical considerations limit some compressor
portant to prescribe blading and velocity dia-
variables that affect the aerodynamics of the flow.
The shape of the compressor outer casing is limited grams in the front and rear stages that will permit
the attainment of a large stall-free range of
by restrictions on over-all size of the engine and
operation.
accessories, and a constant-tip-radius configura-
Consideration of compressor-inlet flow distor-
tion has been used in the past as a good compro-
tions resulting from inlet-diffuser boundary layers,
mise between aerodynamic and weight considera-
aircraft flight at angle of attack, and so forth,
tions. The required decrease in annular area
may also influence the stage design selection,
from inlet to outlet is then obtained by gradually
especially in the inlet stages of the compressor.
increasing the hub radius. Of course, other com-
binations of hub and tip shapes may be desirable APPLICATION OF EQUATIONS
for specific applications; for example, the section DESIGN EQUATIONS
on radial-flow accelerations indicates that tapering
The equations to be used in a design are grouped
the tip casing at the compressor inlet may be
in table III for ease of reference. They are either
desirable to reduce hub-wall curvature effects, if
repeated or are directly derived from equations in
these are otherwise detrimental.
the previous sections. Additional relations are
The value of the solidity used in each blade
obtained from the velocity diagram such as is
row may be varied slightly to keep the blade
shown in figure 210.
loading (expressed for the present by the diffusion Equations (dlb) (the isre solution) and (d2b)
factor) within certain limits. Reasonable values (the nisre solution) for determining the axial
of solidity for the transonic compressors appear to velocity variation along the radius are obtained
be in tile order of 1.0 at the tip section. Ex- from equations (dla) and (d2a) by evaluating
tremely low solidities lead to poor guidance and the integrals by the trapezoidal rule. [In addi-
TABLE III.--DESIGN EQUATIONS
Jgcp(T2--T1) = (UVo)2-- (UVo), (316) V,--

2__
V_.2 _q- 2gJc,( T-- T,) -- (V,--
2
V,.2 _)
2 2
_(V_+ V_,,'_ (r--rO (dlb)

V,--V_.,+2gJc,(T--TI)--(V_--V_._)--
2__ 2
Y: 2V_ dr
r
\r r/
2__
(dla) V,-- Vz.2 ,+ 2gJc,( T-- T,) -- (V,--
2
V,.2 ,)
FZ--
2__
_ In
LEJJ
1----_--- In
+ 2Jgc,(T-- T,)--(V,--V,.,)--( r +--_ ) (r--r,)--ln T_ I[gR(T+T,)__ (V;V:.,) (d2b)
F, ]
Yp7 It
w=K_2rg f [' (pV,rdr), (d5)

F,=kY,/ =\_'_/ (302)
"r--i
7 (P,y-4-_ l
P,=(r_,-, P_] (317)
Pl \T1]
[1 {E
T,
(d3a) Tz' AV '

1 -- 2--1- e (31o)
(p,) 1-- 1+ __ (M;) _ D=. -- _-- 2-gV;
P_ ,,
(d6)
P3
_=l--g
[
1-- -
1+
1
Mi
(d3b)
Vz=V,, _cosp_csB
exp ( -- f, rsin_/_
--dr
r
) (d7)
l
T
p' T,_-I
(_._), :[1___5, 1 (or,)'
"_gRT_ /"1___'_"]_--1
\ rlJJ (59) (3Ol)
1
J (_)-- (S),=ln[
" _
_ J
"
P
gp=--R--_(1 V "__2i-t (d4)
2gJc,T] J gcpt =J gcpT-- Y_- (d8)
tion, eqs. (304) and (305) or eqs. (301) and (dS) BOUNDARY-LAYER EFFECTS are used to determine
(with the radial velocity equal to zero) are applied the velocity distribution and annulus area geometry
to derive eq. (d2b) from eq. (d2a).] An accurate after the rotor. The design variables that must be
evaluation of the axial velocity distribution by specified for the first rotor are the tip radius at
use of equations (dlb) and (d2b) requires that the the rotor discharge, the tangential and axial
reference radius be shifted from point to point. velocity changes (based on blade-loading considera-
That is, the integration is first carried out fronl the tions) across the critical blade element (usually
initial reference radius to an adjacent, radial the tip) of the rotor, and the radial distributions
station. The computed values of velocity at this of energy addition and blade-element loss. The
adjacent radial station are then used as the refer- specification of these quantities completely de-
ence-point values to compute conditions at the termines the flow parameters at the discharge of
following radial station. Thus, the effect of any the blade row. Application of the blockage
variation of entropy, temperature, and tangential correction Kbk in the continuity equation then
velocity on the axial velocity distribution may be permits the determination of the hub radius
accurately considered if enough radial stations of the annular flow passage after the rotor. A
are specified across the annulus area. similar procedure is used to determine the flow
Equation (d7) is a form of (dla) for the special conditions after the following stator.
case of inlet guide vanes where the stagnation It is then necessary to review completely the
temperature is constant. This equation is de- preliminary design in order to determine its critical
rived in reference 249. Equation (d6) is an alter- and undesirable features with respect to both the
nate form of the diffusion-factor relation (eq. compressor performance and the performance of
(310)). A graphical solution of equation (d6) is the other engine components. For instance, it
presented in chapter IX. will be necessary to go through the design pro-
cedure again in order to correct for streamline-
GENERAL DETERMINATION OF AXIAL VELOCITY
DISTRIBUTION curvature effects, or to improve the shape of the
The design of the nmltistage compressor requires hub contour, or to revise the loss assumptions made
the solution of the general flow equations after originally. A recalculation may also be required
each blade row in the compressor. This section is to change the loading or Mach ntmlber level
concerned with the methods of deterlnining the because certain blade elements appear to be too
velocity distributions after the inlet guide vanes critically loaded. The blade sections may then be
and rotor and stator blade rows. determined from the two-dimensional and annular-
For the case of no inlet guide vanes or for guide cascade data of chapters VI and VII and the
vanes that impose a vortex turning distribution, it calculated design flow conditions.
may be assumed for the initial design trial that the Three methods discussed generally in the section
on CONSIDERATION OF WALL BOUNDARY-LAYER
axial velocity is constant along the radius at the
inlet to the first rotor row. For compressors EFFECTS for determining the flow conditions in
the compressor are presented here to indicate the
having inlet guide vanes imparting a nonvortex
turning distribution to the flow, the axial velocities possible uses of the available equations and data.
In discussing these methods, it is assumed that the
at the outlet of the guide vanes or at the inlet to
the first rotor will vary with radius and must be compressor tip geometry and aerodynamic con-
computed. As indicated in the previous dis- ditions are known (i.e., inlet and outlet tip radii,
cussion, the effects of streamline curvature may be wheel speed, limiting-loading parameter, and
sufficiently large in certain cases to necessitate axial velocity ratio) and that inlet values for
consideration of these effects in the calculation pressure, temperature, weight flow, and velocity
are known. It is assmned that the radial velocity
procedure. In the design procedure, corrections
for these curvature effects may be applied after terms may be neglected. The tangential velocity
the preliminary velocity distributions and passage distribution is taken to be the prescribed outlet
variable. The values selected are not to be
geometry have been specified.
After the flow conditions at the inlet to the considered as uniquely desirable values. They
rotor are determined, the steps previously enu- are chosen merely to illustrate the methods of
merated in the section on CONSIDERATION OF WALL solution of the design equations. It should be era-
phasized that, once the preliminary flow and geom- (2) The axial velocity at the tip radius after
etry conditions are determined, it will be necessary the rotor is specified. The tip tangential velocity
to review the design procedure to ensure the after the rotor is then calculated from equation
attainment of satisfactory performance. (310) for a specified value of diffusion factor (con-
METHOD I sistent with low loss or high efficiency) and an
assumed tip solidity.
As pointed out previously, the solution of the
(3) The radial distribution of tangential velocity
flow equations by method I assumes a complete
after the rotor is specified.
knowledge of the radial variations of energy
(4) The radial distribution of stagnation tem-
addition or tangential velocity after the rotor as
perature after the rotor is computed from equation
well as the radial variation of entropy even into
(316).
the wall boundary layers. Because of the lack of
(5) The radial distribution of loss from wall
sufficient data of this type, this method may not
to wall is assumed from the diffusion-factor--
be generally usable at the present time.
loss correlation of figure 212 (which is the same as
The steps itemized in the following sections for
fig. 203, ch. VII) and from data taken in the
application of method I follow as closely as pos-
wall boundary layers. The radial distribution of
sible the procedure enumerated in the previous
section. stagnation pressure after the rotor is calculated
from equation (d3a).
Inlet guide vanes. I
(1) Tip radius and hub-tip radius ratio at the % 81ode height
discharge of the inlet guide vanes are specified. from tip
(2) The desired weight flow is specified. This
weight flow will be used in the continuity equa-
tion to determine the magnitude of axial velocity b
required.
(3) The radial distribution of tangential veloc-
ity is specified. (Some restrictions on this are
.05 _ ..................................................
given in ref. 43.)
(4) The outlet stagnation temperature is equal
to the inlet stagnation temperature and is constant 0 .I .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7
radially. Diffusion foctor, O
(5) The radial distribution of loss 5 is assumed

(a) Rotor.
from wall to wall on the basis of data obtained
(b) Stator.
from similar blade sections. The radial distribu-
FIGURE 212.--Design chart relating _' cos B_12a to dif-
tion of outlet stagnation pressure is computed
fusion factor (see fig. 203, ch. VII, for larger print).
from equation (d3b).
(6) The radial variation of axial velocity is
computed from equation (d2b). (6) The radial distribution of axial velocity
(7) The density variation along the radius is is calculated from equation (d2b) using the speci-
computed from equation (d4). fied tip axial velocity as the initial reference
(8) The magnitude of the axial velocity is de- velocity V_. _.
termined by trial-and-error application of the (7) The radial distribution of density is com-
continuity equation (eq. (d5)) with the blockage puted from equation (d4).
factor Kbk equal to 1.0. It should be emphasized (8) The hub radius after the rotor is determined
that in this method the velocities are calculated
from equation (d5) with the blockage factor Kb_
into the wall boundary layer so ttmt additional
equal to 1.0. If this hub radius causes a shift
boundary-layer corrections are unnecessary.
in the strea_nline configuration from that used
Rotor.-- in the initial calculation, it may be necessary
(1) The tip radius at the rotor discharge is to repeat this procedure using the modified
specified. streamline locations.
Stator.-- (dlb) is used in step (6) of method I. Equation

(dT) may be used to compute the axial velocity
(1) The tip radius at the discharge of the stator
distribution for blade rows having negligible
blade row is specified.
radial gradients of stagnation temperature and
(2) The axial velocity and tangential velocity
pressure. In applying equation (dT), however,
at the tip radius after tile stator are specified
it is necessary to specify the flow-angle distribu-
considering the effect of these values on the losses
tion after the blade row rather than the tangential
and on the characteristics that are desirable for
velocity distribution.
the following rotor row.
METHOD Ill
(3) The radial distribution of tangential velocity
after the stator is specified. The principal difference between the solution
(4) The radial variation of stagnation tempera- by method III and that by method II is in con-
ture is assumed to be the same after the stator sideration of the blade-element loss. Rather
as at the inlet to the stator. than estimating a blade-element loss w', an average
(5) The radial distribution of loss froln wall rotor row efficiency is assigned in this method.
to wall is assumed from boundary-layer data of It is then assumed that the rotor blade-element
similar stators and from the diffusion-factor-- efficiency is equal to this average rotor efficiency.
loss correlation of chapter VII. The radial The stator losses may then be considered by
distribution of stagnation pressure is computed specifying an average stage efficiency. The stag-
from equation (d3b). nation pressure after the rotor and stator blades
(6) The radial distribution of axial velocity )nay then be determined from the rotor and stage
is computed from equation (d2b). temperature ratios and the appropriate efficiencies.
(7) The density variation along the radius is The isre equation ((dla) or (dlb)) is then used in
computed from equation (d4). calculating the velocity distribution after the
(8) The hub radius after the stator is deter- blade row. A method very similar to this one is
mined from equation (d5) with the blockage presented in chapter IX, in which the solution is
factor K_k equal to 1.0. accomplisimd by the use of charts.
METHOD II REMARKS
The essential difference between solution of It niust be emphasized that the previously
the flow equations by methods II and I is that in outlined calculations are to be considered as
method II the flow distributions are computed preliminary calculations. After the annulus area
using available blade-element data as if no wall geometry is determined, it will be necessary to
boundary layers were present. Appropriate cor- review and probably recalculate the design to
rection factors for the effects of the wall boundary determine the final flow conditions through the
layers are then applied. Specifically, the principal compressor.
differences are in the evaluation of the loss dis- Naturally, other forms of these equations can
tribution along the radius (step (5) of method I) lead to variations in the design procedure. It
and in consideration of the wall boundary-layer should be noted, however, that any variations
blockage factor in the flow-continuity condition must use self-consistent boundary-layer correction
(step (8) of method I). The radial variation of factors. Indiscrhninate use of correction factors
loss for method II is determined from blade- can lead to a design that is as poor as or worse
element considerations alone and does not go than one in which boundary-layer corrections are
into the wall boundary-layer effects. The block- completely neglected.
age factor K_k used in applying the continuity The radial velocity terms may be included in
equation (d5) in method II is some value less than the methods presented if the streamline slope in
1.0. As pointed out in reference 243, it may vary the meridional plane is estimated. Thus, the
from 0.98 to 0.96 through the compressor. radial velocity is related to the axial velocity.
The isre equation can also be used in this method This necessitates retaining the radial velocity
for an initial approximation of the flow or for terms in equations (d4) and (dS).
cases in which the radial gradients of entropy Some secondary-flow effects may also be con-
are negligible. In these cases, equation (dla) or sidered for certain specific cases in the design
691-564 0-65-19
system. For instance, reference 43 presents a The actual weight flow is obtained from
method of considering the induced effects of the
Ar.1----Tr_. t----7.069 sq ft
trailing vortex system on the inlet-guide-vane
turning angle. Research on secondary-flow effects w_
in annular cascades will no doubt eventually lead 6A; Av , ,-----_=w----247 lb/sec
to corrections in the design system.
The conditions at the rotor tip design station a
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
(10 percent of passage depth) are computed next.
As an illustration of the design procedure of From M,., and reference 250,
method II, the design calculations for an inlet
stage consisting of inlet rotor and stator are pre- a, =0.9658
aa.,
sented here. The given inlet conditions are as
follows: a_= 1078 ft/sec
P,----2116 lb/sq ft a,. ,----1116 ft/sec V,. _=a,M,. ,= (1078) (0.6) ----647 ft/sec
T,----518.7 R rLt=l.5 ft V[a =-aiM'l. ,-- (1078) (1.1) = 1186 ft/sec
gl. _----Vo. 1._---[ (V_.,)2--Va.. 1.,]'/2---994 ft/see

ft
Vo. _----0 _--_ =35.0 (lb/sec)/sq
ff,.,:tan-' (V_._) ----56.9

The following design variables are selected:
V,,2. _= (1.0)(V,. L,) =647 ft/sec

Radial stations ra, r_, r,, r_, and r, at 10, 30, 50,
70, and 90 percent of passage depth. The value of _;._ is computed from equation
(d6) by application of the appropriate chart (fig.
M.,,=0.6 Vo, 3=O DR,.__ 0.6
217, ch. IX):
M[,=I.1 DR,,,=0.35 Ds< 0.6 _'.o----46.0
Kay----0.98 V;. _., = V_ 2.o tan/_', _= 670 ft/sec
Ke, K,, and K_ are not used. v,.2,.-- U,..- V_,s.,=297 ft/sec
The iteration procedure for the computation of

=1.0
(V,.
V,, _) r2.
l/_ rs. ,----1.44
,----1.44 ft
ft the radial variation of gas state is started by
selecting the inlet radial stations. The computa-
V,, 3"_ : aR, o= 1.0 tion lineups and results for the velocity calcula-
V,,,/_ 1.0 crs,_=0.7 tions using the isre and nisre equations are shown
in tables IV (a) and (b), respectively, where only
Values used for various constants are the final results and final calculation lineups of the
g=32.17 ft/sec * c_----0.243 Btu/(lb)(R) iteration procedure are presented.

In _hese designs the variation of outlet tangen-
J= 778.2 ft-lb/Btu R= 53.35 ft-lb/(lb) (R)
tial velocity is prescribed as a function of r2, so
7= 1.4
that an analytical integration of the isre equation
The value of inlet hub-tip radius ratio is com- is possible. Of course, graphical or numerical
puted from the flow per unit frontal area, axial procedures may also be used. This velocity
Mach number, and tip radius, as follows: distribution is
w__ 1 35 Vo,=V,, (2--r2"_

..... 35.7 (lb/sec)/sq ft . . .t \ r_,#
SAt Kb_ 0.98
It should be emphasized that this distribution is
From M,. ,, w_fO/_Ar, and figure 211, rh/rt= 0.377. chosen only to illustrate the design procedure for
TABLE IV.--CALCULATION PROCEDURES
(a) Using lere equations
Radial position
Known design Procedure
Step Parameter
condition
a 0
Choose 10, 30, 50, 70, 90 percent of passage depth 0.938 0.813 0.688 0.564 0. 439
1 rt/rl, j n. _/rl,, =0.377
[71. ,= I060 U]. drl/rh t) 994 862 729 508 465

2 Ut= V_ .I
ten-' (V',._/V.,) 56.9 53.1 48.4 42.8 35.7

V.,=647
4 v_ iv.! ,+( V",,)j\_Ifl 1186 1078 975 881 797
1, 100 O. 999 O. 904 O. 817 0.739

5 MI m = 1078 Vi/o,
rl. _ known from preliminary design (step 1) 0.950 0.832 0.720 0.608 0.496
r_, r= 1.44
V,.=. ,[2-- (r/r0s] 297 331 382 394 426

7 V_,2 V,,:. ,ffi283
UI. t(r/r =)* 967 847 733 619 605

8 U= U:.,ffil018
565 562 559 554
9 T2=T* T] =518.7 7"i+[(U= V,, a-- U, V,,,)/OJc.] 566
027 612 6OO

10 V,.s V,,I,a'647 Eq. (311) 647 640
Us-- Vo. s 070 510 371 225 79

II l:_.=
30.0 20.2 7.5

12 _ tan-X(V_.s/V_s ) 46.0 38.9
728 652 6O5

13 V V,.=/cos B_ 932 822
1162 1158 1153

14 a,.s a.,lffilll6 aa,](T=/TI)t_= 1166 1165
Vda.,, end ref. 250 O. 635 O. 644 O, 649 O. 055 0.666

15 _Ms
0.830 0,735 0.653 0.587 O. 548
16 M_ MIV_/VI
1.00 1.15 1.34 1.61 2.02

17 r _=-1.0 ,(r,, r+r,. ,)/(r, +n)
0. 351 O.377 0. 390 0. 391 O.360

18 D' 1-(v',/v;)+(av;
/2,,vl)
19 D' D', cos _]2, end fig.212 0. 0734 0. 0369 0. 0405 0. 0446 0. 0489
M_ and ref. 250 0. 636 0. 699 0. 751 0. 792 0. 810

20 (p/P')a
'_-I V ,/ i01\'I
1. 320 1. 333 1. 313 1. 284 1. 248
21 PdP, _,,) L 1-= (,,I-F=)J
1
p! V;, =+ V;, =_ _-1 O. 0764 0. 0769 0. 0759 O. 0744 O. 0724
22 OPl RTs 1 2
2Jgcj, T,2 ] --
(_ V_')= d (rdrJ, J 247

23 w 1.0
24 rslrl, i r,, _ known from preliminary design (step I) O. 960 ,838 O. 730 O, 022 O. 514
647 637 612 576 524

25 V,.I- Va [VI,,,.,+?4Jc_,(T,- T|.O] `tl
26 Ms Vdao.t end ref.260 O. 573 O. 564 O. 527 O. 498 O. 455
27 ,-0.7 t(r_ rt- rs, t)/(rl+rl) O. 700 O. 796 O. 917 1.08 1.32
28 D l- (Vd Va)+ (A V d2_rV,) O. 389 O.405 O. 427 O.458 O. 507
29 D, 2, and fig. 212 O. 0182 O. 0223 O. 0275 O, 0346 O.0501
M_ and ref. 250 0.800 0.80_ 0.819 0.837 0.862

30 (P/P)s
31 Pt/Ps , o(1 ) i
0.996 0.996 0.995 0.994 0.993
p, / v| \_:i O.0788 O.0800 O.0_)0 O.0799 O.0799

32 #m
,Ll-w aJ
33 to
2,rK_tr=,= rt.0
_jr,)= (# V.r)= d (rdrt, ,) 247
1.32 1.33 1.31 1.28 1.24
34 Ps/PI
35 _ad,S?" --1 _--l ) 0.895 0.94(I 0.944 0.940

O.928
(T,/ T,)., Mass-average T,/T, 1.088
(P*/P,),, Mass-average P=/ P, 1.29
Mass-average ,_.&sr O.932

TABLE IV.--CALCULATION PROCEDURES--Concluded

(b) Using nisre equations
Stel Parameter Known design Procedure Radial position

condition
a
36 rl/rl, # rl.h/rl,, (Step 1) 0.9_ 0.81; 0.68 0.5_ 0.43t

37 UI _ v'#. 1 UI._= 1060 _., (r]/n. #) 9t 86 / 72 59_ 46_
38 V,, i = 647 tan-_ (V;. dV,,O 56. 53. ] 48. 42. 35.
39 v[ { V,=. _+(V'a. z)_F 2 11_ 107[ 97, 88_ 79;
4o M,' aJ = 1078
1.1C 0.99_ 0.9O. 0.8E 0. 781
41 r2/r2,t r2.t=l.44 rs, _ known from preliminary design 0.95 0.83[ 0. 731 0. 62_ 0.514
42 Vs. Ve,:.:=283
....[ i 2 r
29 32_ 35_ 39( 42_
43 U2 U2,t= 1018 Us, ,(r,/r,. ,) 96 85_ 74; f13_ 52fi
44 T2=T_ 7"1=518.7 TI+[f U2 Vt,|- UI V_,O/#Jel,] 56 56_ 56; 55_ 555
T_._
82. _- 8_
45 P_ known from pre-
RJ-J In L.. P2,tP2 d I,009 0.98t 0.981 0.974
vious trial
46 gin, 2 V,,2. _ ={_7 Eq. (312) 647 662 65_ 640 628
47 V_, 2 U2- V0,3 670 524 384 243 103
48 o_ tan -I (V'e.2/V,,,) 46.0 38. 4 30. t 20.8 9.8
49 aa,2 aa, t = 1116 a_,l ( T=/ TOVt 1166 1165 116_ 1159 1154
5O V_/a_.: and ref. 250 0.635 0.6_2 0.66_ 0.675 0.685
51 M; MW_/v_ 0. 830 0.750 0.680 0.617 0.577
52 o, =_=1.0 _,(r_,,+r_,,)/(n+r_) 1.0 1.14 1.33 1.59 1.98
53 D'
i--(V_V;) + (aV ;12aV ;) 0.35l 0.353 0.356 0.350 0.316
54 ,o'
D', cos _;/2,and fig.212 0. 0734 0. 0350 0. 0371 0.0409 0.0422
55 (p/P')l M; and ref.250 0. 636 0. 885 0. 734 0. 774 0.798
T _ --
56 P=/P1
(_,_) v- ] [ l--w' (I--_) ] 1. 320 1. 332 1.316 1.290 1. 256
V 2 __V _ I
57 gp.J P_ ..2_- ,.2
0.0764 0.0761 0.0750 0.0738 0.0719
58 w K b} =0.98 2xK_r_.tf I.o (z V,r): d (r_/r_, _) 247

J(ra/rt)_
59 r3/r3, t r3. i = 1,44
r3,_ known from preliminary design (step 1) 0.950 0.844 0. 740 0.63_ 0.532
$3,1--$3
6O Ps known from in/x _/ [
RJ-]
previous trial t__.A 0.0152 0. 0005 0.0000 --0,0004
61 V,,3= V3 V_,_=647 Eq. (313) 647 658 638 606 550

62 M3 Vda..z and ref. 250 0.573 0.584 0.566 O. 538 0.496
63
_,(rz.,+r,.,)l(r_+rs) 0.700 0.791 0.9O5 1.057 1. 272
64 D
1-- (V_/V_) + (h V[2(rVi) 0.390 0.391 O. 410 O. 438 0. 480
65
D, 2#, and fig. 212 0.0182 0.0206 O. 0253 O. 0317 0.0445
66 (P/P) 3 A-Q and rot. 250 0.8OO5 0. 794 0.804 0.822 0.845
67 Ps/P3 t-: (1-_ 0.9964 0. 9958 O. 9951 O. 9941

\ Psi 0.9931 1
68 gP3 P_' (1-- Vi ,I

0.0788 0.0792 0.0791 0.0792 0, 0791
\ 2_Jc_Ts/
69 W
2x K_rs, J r_._/r_._ m V,,3r3 d(n/r_.O 247
70 Ps/PI "y-I
1.315 1.327 1.309 1.282 1.247
P_ _- Ts
71 _ad, ST
0.895 0.947 0.946 0.940 0.932
( T_/ TO o, Mass-average TdT_ 1.090
(Ps/PO, Mass-average PdPJ 1.30
Mass-average r_,_._r 0.936

the general case where radial temperature gra- of computing the outlet axial velocity is now
dients are present and does not necessarily repre- changed, since data from a previous approxima-
sent an optimum design condition. The isre tion are used in the solution. Here the final
equation (dla) can then be directly integrated, results of the isre solution are used to obtain the
with the following result: loss data for the initial nisre solution for outlet
axial velocity. This is an intermediate step for
V_,._= V2,.2. _+ 2gJc_( T2-- T2. _)-- (V_.2-- V_._. ,) which the data are not presented in the tables.
The nisre equation for outlet axial velocity for
--8V_.._ t Eln r2.r2, r2.1(r2--r2'*)+8(_2,,)(_--_'*)]t
1 1 the assumed conditions is
(311)
V_., E1 ' 7--1 d (&. ]
where the a station is used as the initial reference
station. All the terms on the right side of =V,.
2
_. , + 2gJcp(T2-- T2. ,) -- (V_. _--Vo. 2. ,)
2
equation (311) are known as functions of the trial

values of r2 (r: depends on the selection of r2. t and --8V_2 t In r2 r2--I_2._4__ (r,,- _,_)
' ' r2. _ r2, t ,
7'2.h, since in this procedure the radial stations were
chosen at stated percentages of the passage depth).
J[- R'T --T" _--1 V2
The final value of r2.h is obtained by the iteration 2, ,+ V2 o,_+V,._.,)]
2
procedure of steps 6 to 23 in table IV(a). The

($2. ,--$2) (312)
weight flow is computed numerically (e.g., by
where
plotting (27rIV_b,pV_rtr)_ against (r/r,): and carrying
out a graphical integration).
In order to compute weight flow, density and (T, ,y-,
hence stagnation pressure must be calculated at s, Rln
the blade-row outlet. Stagnation pressure can be
computed from stagnation temperature and the
loss-velocity-diagram correlations presented in
Equation (312) was obtained under the following
chapters VI and VII. The design chart (from restrictions: (1) that V_=0, and (2) that entropy
data presented in ch. VII) used here to relate and static temperature vary linearly with radius
stagnation-pressure loss to velocity diagram is in the interval of integration and thus the refer-
shown in figure 212. This chart is used in the ence radius is shifted from point to point, starting
design procedure shown in table IV, while an at a near the tip. This solution illustrates a
explanation of its significance is given in chapter numerical solution of the equilibrium equation.
VII. Here (P'_/P_)_d is taken equal to 1.0, which The remainder of this calculation for the rotor is
is exact for a constant-radius blade element.
the same as that for the isre case.
The stator design is simpler than that for the The loss estimates for the stator are made
rotor in this case, since Ve.3 is chosen to be zero;
initially from the isre solution for the stator, and
however, the basic approach is the same. The the entropy variation is computed from these
isre equation becomes values. The stator velocity-diagram calculations
then proceed as do the rotor nisre calculations,
V,2.3: V_,3,, + 2gJcp( T3-- T3. _)
using the equation
where again the a station is used as the initial
reference station. The stator curve in figure 212
is used for all radial stations.
The rotor and stator design using the nisre =V2,. 3. ,+ 2gJc,(T3-- 113.,)
equation is carried out with the same design
conditions as prescribed for the design using the
isre equation. Thus steps 36 to 44 of table IV(b)
are the same as those from 1 to 9. The method (S_._--S_) (313)
CONCLUDING REMARKS
tions where streamline-curvature effects are large.
The general flow equations that must be solved In the high-performance compressors being con-
in the determination of design velocity distribu- sidered at the present time, accurate prediction of
tions and flow passage configuration in compressors design-point performance may not be possible
until these curvature effects can be considered in
have been presented. In general, it is felt that
more data are required to establish accurately the the design procedure. For the time being, these
boundary-layer effects and correction factors on three-dimensional-flow problems may be alleviated
by geometric modifications of the hub and casing
weight flow or annulus area and average stage
profile. It should be reemphasized here that the
pressure ratio and efficiency. It is expected, how-
compressor design procedure is a triM-and-error
ever, that the boundary-layer correction system
compromise procedure. It is generally necessary
discussed in this chapter will lead to a satisfactory to go through the design calculations a number of
design approximation. The need for concentrated times before all elements of the compressor may
analytical and experimental work is indicated by be considered to be satisfactorily designed with
the lack of satisfactorily evaluated calculation respect to aerodynamic and mechanical consid-
procedures for determination of velocity distri])u- erations.
CHAPTER IX
CHART PROCEDURES FOR DESIGN VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION
By ARTHUR A. MEDEIROS and BETTY JANE HOOD
A series o.f charts .for the solution o] the flow Mach number on blade-section efficiency. Com-
equations used in the design o] axial-flow compressors pressor blade stresses, other than vibratory stresses,
is developed. The equations, which are presented play only a small part in this compromise. The
in chart]otto, are radial equilibrium (in a simplified factors affecting these considerations are discussed
form), continuity oJ flow, energy addition, ez_ciency, more completely in chapter II and in reference 17.
vector relations, and diffusion ]actor. Other compromises must be made in the com-
Because the charts are based on general flow pressor design in addition to the inlet configura-
equations, they can be used zn the design o.f any tion. The compressor-discharge velocity nmst be
axial-flow compressor. An example o] the use o.f the adjusted on the basis of compressor diffuser and
charts in the design o] a stage consisting o] a rotor combustor-inlet requirements. Low compressor-
and stator blade row is presented. Comparison o.f discharge axial velocities are favorable with re-
the pertinent design values obtained by the chart spect to combustor efficiency; however, high axial
procedure with analytically calculated values indi- velocities are desirable through the compressor
cates that good accuracy can be attained by careful use for attaining high stage pressure ratios and hence
o] the charts. decreasing compressor weight. With the inlet
INTRODUCTION and discharge axial velocities selected, it is then
necessary to prescribe a stagewise variation in the
The over-all design requirements of airflow axial velocities and blade-loading limits so that a
and pressure ratio for the compressor component reasonable hub shape is obtained.
of a gas-turbine engine are generally determined Another variable that must be dealt with is the
on the basis of a cycle analysis for the particular radial distribution of tangential velocities. Not a
application of the engine. For many present-day
great deal of information is available on the over-
aircraft applications, an axial-flow compressor is all desirability of the various radial distributions
selected because of its high efficiency and high of velocity diagrams, so that, for the most part,
flow per unit frontal area. the choice is a matter of experience with some
The general geometry of the compressor, such
particular distribution.
as the tip diameter, blade speed, inlet and dis- It is obvious that, with this wide selection of
charge axial velocities, and inlet and discharge combinations of axial and radial distributions of
areas, is determined by consideration not only of velocities and the compromises required because
the compressor but also of the combustor and tur- of the factors affecting aerodynamic performance,
bine components of the engine. The selection of
weight, and mechanical reliability of the various
inlet axial velocity, compressor blade speed, and
components, many compressor configurations are
inlet hub and tip diameters involves a compro-
possible to meet the given over-all design require-
mise among high weight flow per unit frontal area
ments. Some preliminary design calculations are
(low [rob-tip diameter ratio and high axial veloc-
therefore necessary before a final compressor con-
ity), high stage pressure ratio (high blade speed),
figuration is selected.
and reasonable turbine blade stresses (low blade
Each of these preliminary design calculations
speed, low axial velocity, and high hub-tip
diameter ratio). The magnitudes of the axial requires the solution of the fundamental flow
velocity and blade speed must also be compro- equations after each blade row. The application
mised on the basis of the effects of the resultant of the fundamental flow equations to compressor
279
design is discussed in detail in chapter VIII. preliminary design procedure in easily used chart
However, the complete design procedure pre- form.
sented in chapter VIII would be very tilne- This chapter develops and presents a chart
consuming if used for the purpose of design procedure for the design of axial-flow compressors
evaluations. It is desirable to put the funda- using any consistent set of assumed design values
mental flow equations applicable to compressor and velocity distributions. The radial-equilibrium
design in simple and easily used chart form. equation (in simplified form), the continuity
Another reason for simplifying the compressor equation, the energy-addition and efficiency equa-
design procedure for certain applications is the tions, vector relations, and the diffusion-factor
iterative nature of the complete design proce- equation (see ref. 9) are presented in graph forln.
dure. The iteration is a result of the mutual The method can be used for making preliminary
interrelation between the calculation of the radial design calculations to determine the compressor
distribution of velocities, the passage shape of the configuration to meet given over-all performance
compressor, and the selection of blading to achieve requirements with any given set of aerodynamic
the radial distributions of velocity. For example, limitations such as Mach number and blade-
the _xial velocity distribution after any blade row loading levels. It can also be used as the first
is a function not only of the radial distribution of step in a complete design procedure to determine
tangential velocities but also of the energy gradient initial velocity diagrams and passage shape var-
and the gradient of losses. However, the tan- iations. An intelligent estimate of losses in the
gential velocities (or energy) and losses are func- blading and streamline curvatures due to the walls
tions of the blading and the angular setting of the can then be made, so that iterations in the com-
blading with respect to the flow. The general plete design procedure can be minimized or elim-
procedure is to prescribe the desired radial dis- inated. When the corrections to the design due
tribution of tangential velocity or energy and to entropy gradients and streamline curvatures
assume a loss at each radial station at which the are _xpected to be small, the charts can be used
axial velocity is to be calculated. The calculation for final design calculations, provided, of course,
of the axial velocity to satisfy the radial-equilib- that they are used with care and judgment. An
rium condition completes the vector diagram, example of the use of the charts in the design of an
and it is then possible to select blading on the axial-flow compressor stage is presented herein,
basis of data such as that presented in chapters and the results of the graphical procedure are
VI and VII. At this point, the losses for the compared for accuracy with analytically calculated
selected blade section can be obtained from blade- values.
element data and checked against the assumed SYMBOLS
losses. If the assumed and calculated losses are
sufficiently different, the entire calculation must The following symbols are used in this chapter:
be repeated with new assumed values of losses. A area, sq ft
Streamline curvature, particularly in stages a speed of sound, ft/sec
with low hub-tip diameter ratios and high pressure a_ speed of sound based on stagnation con-
ratios, will affect ttle radial distribution of axial ditions, ft/sec
velocity. Some of tile factors that control the B _+ V_--V_., (ft/sec) 2
streamline curvature and methods of analytically C 2gJcp(T_--T), (ft/sec) 2
correcting for the effect on axial velocity are cp specific heat at constant pressure, 0.243
discussed in chapter VIII and in references 34, Btu/(lb) (R)
49,236, 238, and 239. It is obvious that the hub D diffusion factor
and tip diameter variation through the compressor o_ blade force acting on gas, lb
will greatly influence the streamline shape. g acceleration due to gravity, 32.17 ft/sec _
Therefore, a preliminary design calculation is H total or stagnation enthalpy, Btu/lb
necessary to determine the approximate passage J mechanical equivalent of heat, 778.2 ft-lb/
shape variation before streamline-curvature cor- Btu
rections to the axial velocity can be made. For Kbk weight-flow blockage factor
this reason, also, it is advantageous to have the M Mach number
CHART PROCEDURES FOR DESIGN VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION 281
P total or stagnation pressure, lb/sq ft 2a station at exit of rotor blade row at equi-
p static or stream pressure, lb/sq ft spaced distances across annulus
3a station at exit of stator blade row at
r radius, ft equispaced distances across annulus
S entropy, Btu/(lb) (R) Superscript :
T total or stagnation temperature, R
relative to rotor
t static or stream temperature, R
U rotor speed, ft/sec DESIGN EQUATIONS
V air velocity, ft/sec
The flow equations applicable to compressor
w weight flow, lb/sec
design are discussed in detail in chapters III and
z coordinate along axis, ft
VIII. These equations, in the form usually used
/_ air angle, angle between air velocity and
in compressor design, are as follows:
_, ratio of specific heats, 1.4 Radial equilibrium :
ratio of total pressure to NASA standard
sea-level pressure of 2116 lb/sq ft
gj b_H=e)_ +gjt,_, ____bS
VOrb(rVo)br
n_ adiabatic efficiency
0 ratio of total temperature to NASA stand- bV,
ard sea-level temperature of 518.7 R +Vz _-_ -Vz _--_- (314)
p density, lb-sec_/f0 Continuity:
angular velocity of rotor, radians/sec
Wk=2_Kbk f)' h
ogVr cos t_ dr (315)
total-pressure-loss coefficient
Energy addition:
Subscripts:
gJc_( T2-- I,) =o_(r2Vo. 2--rl Vs. ,)
an annulus
=U2Vo.2--U,Ve.i (316)
av average
b radial station midway between tip and mean
Adiabatic temperature-rise efficiency:
c radial station midway between mean and
hub
F
h
frontal
hub
( (317)
i reference position, radial station where _a= T2 1.0
variables are known T1
k continuity value, value corrected for bound-
Diffusion factor :
ary-layer blockage
1 local value of flow per unit annulus area D . V_'_ 5V_ (310)
m mean State :
R rotor p= pgR t (34)
r radial direction Mach number:
S stator
V (318)
sl NASA standard sea-level conditions M = _f_gR t
t tip
z axial direction In addition to these are the trigonometric
0 tangential direction relations equating velocities and flow angles, and
1 station at inlet to rotor blade row at the adiabatic relations equating the static and
equispaced distances across annulus stagnation values of pressure and temperature.
2 station at exit of rotor blade row at equi- The adiabatic relations, as function of Mach
spaced distances from tip to assumed number, are presented in tabular form in reference
hub 250.
Equations (34) and (318) can be handled con- With a rearrangement of terms, equation (321)
veniently by using readily computed stagnation becomes
conditions, instead of static conditions, and using
the tables of reference 250; therefore, no charts 2gJc, ( T, -- T) + V_-- V:, V_,
are deemed necessary to determine state conditions V_--_.: z. =2 (I_v_. _)
and Mach numbers. Charts for the solution of
equations (310) and (314) to (317) and the vector +r,(V h r (322)
-;
relations are presented herein.
FORMULATION OF CHARTS Equation (322) is presented in graph form in
RADIAL EQUILIBRIUM figure 213. In the first quadrant, the tangential
In order to calculate the vector diagrams for an velocity ratio Ve/Ve. _ is plotted against the right
axial-flow turbomachine, it is necessary to satisfy side of equation (322) with the radius ratio
the radial-equilibrium condition given as equation r/r, as a parameter. Then, with Ve., as a param-
(314). For the purpose of preliminary design eter in the second quadrant, the numerator of
analyses and, in some instances, even for the final the left side of equation (322) appears as the
design procedure, it is possible to simplify the abscissa. Therefore, if the tangential velocities
equation. are known at two radii, use of the first two
Since the equation is usually applied between quadrants of figure 213 will give a value for
blade rows, the blade force term oj_ is zero. If the
2gJc_,( T_-- T) + V_,-- V2,. ,= B
entropy gradient OS/_)r is assumed zero and the
streamline curvature is assumed small so that the
If the radial interval is sufficiently close for the
change in radial velocity in the axial direction
approximation of linearity between V_/r and r, the
_)Vr/_)z can be neglected, equation (314) can be
value of B will be that required to satisfy isen-
written
tropic simplified radial equilibrium between radial
i_H V_ V,i_V, V, SV,
gJ -_f = T q----_ - + i_r (319) stations r_ and r. For convenience, let
2gJcp(T_--T):12,170(T,--T):C (323)
Equation (319) is the isentropic simplified-radial-
Then
equilibrium equation that is widely used in the 2 2
V_--V_., =B-- C (324)
design of axial-flow compressors and will be put
in chart form.
The third quadrant of figure 213 is a plot of
Integration of equation (319) between any B-- C against Vz with V,. _ as the parameter. The
radius r and the radius at which all values are abscissa of quadrants II and III, then, represents
known r_ gives the following: two values, depending on which quadrant is being
used. When used with the second quadrant, its
gJ(H,--H) =f r, -f
V_ 5r-_ V 2,,,--.,
2 12_ _ V,.,--V,
_ 2 2 (320) value is B; when used with the third quadrant,
its value is B--('. If the temperature gradient is
If the absolute tangential velocity Ve is expressed known, C can be calculated by the use of equation
analytically as a function of radius r, the integral (323). This value is subtracted from the value
in equation (320) can be evaluated analytically of B, determined by use of the first two quadrants
and the equation solved for any desired variable. of figure 213, and the difference (B--C) is used
However, it is sometimes impossible or undesir- as the abscissa of the third quadrant together with
able to use a distribution of tangential velocity the known value of axial velocity V_._ to deter-
that makes equation (320) convenient to apply. mine the value of axial velocity V, at radius r.
If it is assumed that V_/r is linear with respect Although the use of figure 213 has been dis-
to r over the interval r,--r, equation (320) can be cussed on the basis of known tangential velocities
written and temperatures at all radii and solving for the
axial velocities, it is obvious that the chart can
2gJcp( T_-- T) + V2,-- V2,. ,=
also be used with other assumptions. For example,
the axial velocities and temperatures can be
\r/, r3 (r,--r). ,.,-- , (321) assumed at all radii and the tangential velocity
Referer_ce absolule tangential
velocity, ["'n,,c, ' ftl'sec
55
6O
65
70
75
8O
85
9O
95
2O0 4OO 6OO 8OO I000
FIGURE 213.--Chart to satisfy simple radial equilibrium.
assumed at one radius. The tangential velocity less of the size of the interval r_--r. However,
required to satisfy radial equilibrium at all other with nonlinear radial variations of V]/r, the
radii can then be obtained from the chart. ]n accuracy of the results obtained from figure 213 will
other words, figure 213 may be used to determine depend on the interval used. For this reason, a
any independent variable of equation (322). small radial interval is recommended.
The accuracy of the method of utilizing figure In order to illustrate the effect of the radial
213 is limited only by the assumption of linearity interval on the accuracy of the results of figure 213,
of V_/r with respect to radius. For wheel-type axial velocities were read using 3 and 7 radial
rotation, for example, V_/r is linear with radius; positions. An arbitrary, nonlinear radial dis-
therefore, good accuracy can be expected regard- t ribution of V]/r was assumed. The distribution
of tangential velocity is a combination of constant, Substituting equations (325) and (326) into the
wheel, and vortex rotations. The assumptions continuity equation (315)produces the following
and results are as follows: expression:
Vo=2400--900 r--900
r t r w,= 2rK_ ._r, _PM cos O _+1 r dr (327)
_=0.5; Vz. t=450; dT=0 ,,

rt dr
Writing equation (327) in terms of equivalent

3-Point chart 7-Point chart
weight flow,
procedure procedure
L Calculated
r4 VJ Vo
V, Percent V, Percent
error error
(W_e)k:27rKb*fr:' I %, (l_.F_2
"rgP,l__)_(_-nj-v+'"
zM cos _ "] r dr
1.0 5O0 45O 450 ...... 45O
.9 5_ 538 536 O. 4
.8 555 636 .3
.75 525 691 683 1.2 691 0 (328)
.7 4_ 744 743 .1
.6 360 846 844 .2
.5 15O 921 910 1.2 921 0
The part of the integrand in brackets is the local
value (value at radius r) of equivalent weight flow
As the table shows, even with the larger radial per unit annulus area:
interval, the errors in axial velocity are only 1.2
percent; however, with the 7-radial-position pro- wx/O_ _'gP,,M cos _ (329)
cedure, the error is reduced to a maximum of 0.4
percent. It should be noted that the radial a,, (1-}-%-_ M') '(*-l,
intervals used in the 7-position procedure are not
all equispaced; an extra position was used at r/rt=
0.75. The error in the region of this smallest The first quadrant of figure 214 is a plot of
interval was 0.1 percent. Thus, extremely good equation (329). The local value of equivalent
accuracy can be obtained by the use of the radial- flow per unit annulus area is plotted against
absolute resultant Mach number for constant
equilibrium chart, even with nonhnear distribu-
tions of V_/r, if small radial intervals are used. values of absolute flow angle. Local values of
equivalent flow per unit annulus area can be
CONTINUITY
determined from figure 214 for all radii at which

Another condition that must be satisfied, in the vector diagrams have been determined; then,
addition to the radial-equilibrium condition, is the continuity value of equation (328) becomes
continuity of flow:
w_=21rKbk __r, pgVr cos _ dr (315) o ,,, d'_ \_]z rdr (330)
h
The use of the boundary-layer blockage factor The integral can be evaluated by a graphical or
Kbk in compressor design is discussed in chapter mathematical procedure, and either the con-
VIII. From tim equations of state and Mach tinuity value of equivalent flow, the tip radius, or
number and the adiabatic relations, the following the hub radius can be calculated, depending on
equations can be obtained: which conditions are given.
1 If the radial gradient of (w_/_A_,)z is small,
P 7-1
smfficient accuracy in evaluating the integral can
be attained by using either an arithmetic average
and
or the mean-radius value of local equivalent flow
V M_gRT
(326) per unit annulus areas. This, of course, means
V:a.(;): that
known
the hub and tip diameters
or assumed. The continuity
must either
value of the
be
6ap '_ 'alBU0 ,_01j. ainlosqv
o@ o o o o o o o o
_tfi:il
i_iil
4-
!i!_i
m;
i:!ii
i;:u
i!:
i!f
"1_i!
I?ii
<
o _
Ig
Q-
2: !
_k4
o
cO
flow per unit annulus area then becomes velocity and in blade speed across the blade row.
The magnitude of the energy addition is given by
w_/b_ K (w_/0_ (331) Euler's equation as
A= ,o
The annulus area of the compressor in terms of gJc_(T_-- TI) = U2Ve,2-- UtVe.z (316)
or
the frontal area and hub-tip radius ratio is given by
gJcp( T2-- T_) = U_(Ve._-- Ve,_)+ V,.2(U_-- U_)
(335)
A,,=Ar [1 -- (r;_"]
",_/..I (332)
Solving equation (335) for the temperature
Combining equations (331) and (332) gives
ratio T2/T_ across the blade element gives
(333) -_---- 1 *0_
U1 (Ve. 2-Ve. 1) +Ve, 2(U2--U1)

gJcpTl
L \rt/_l
( or, by using equivalent velocities,
Equation (333) is plotted in the second quadrant

Te= 1.0_ _
of figure 214, with w_c_/_Aan as the ordinate, T, gJc_T,_ _ gJcoT,_ (336)
w_/O/$Ar as the abscissa, and r^/r, as the parameter.
After determining values of (w_/$A..)z at all where
radii at which the vector diagrams have been _=_._-_._
calculated, (w4_/SA..)_ is computed from equa- and
tion (331). Then this vMue is used in the second _ U= U_- U,=,_(r_- r,)
quadrant to find the value of rh/rt for a given
value of w_/O/$Ar. If the specific weight flow The last term on the right side of equation (336)
w_c_/SAp is specified at one axial station (1), the is the contribution to the temperature ratio of
value at any other axial station (2) is obtained as the change in radius across the blade element;
follows : therefore, if the design is carried out on cylindrical
stream surfaces (r_=r2), equation (336) can be
used in the following form:
where (T2/T1),, and (P2/P1)., are arithmetically gJc, T,, (337)

averaged values across the annulus.
If the value of hub.tip radius ratio determined Equation (337) is plotted in quadrant I of figure
by this procedure is greatly different from the 215 with T2/T_ as a function of AValon, for
constant values of U1/_.
value assumed for the purpose of averaging the
If there is a change in streamline radius across
local values of flow per unit annulus area in equa-
tion (331) and the temperature and pressure the blade element, figure 215 can still be used
ratio in equation (334), it will be necessary to directly to determine the temperature ratio
repeat the procedure with a new assumed radius ratio. because of the change in tangential velocity.
By proper use of figure 214 and equations (331) The contribution to the temperature ratio of the
change in radius across the blade element can be
and (334), the continuity requirement, with any
consistent set of assumptions, can be met. Use obtained either by calculating the last term of
of the charts and equations is shown in a specific equation (336) or by obtaining it from the chart,
example later in this chapter. and adding this value to the temperature ratio
previously obtained from the chart result based
ENERGY ADDITION AND EFFICIENCY
on U1/_/#_ and AV_/_/_I." In order to use the chart
The energy addition across a rotor blade element
for obtaining the last term of equation (336), the
is a function of both the change in tangential abscissa is considered as AU/_/#, and the parameter
o o o
o o o 8 8
bJO
:>
"0
E_
l,
*
as Ve;2/4_l. The ordinate will then be the value
of the last term of equation (336) plus 1 ; therefore,
1 should be subtracted from this value before it
is added to the first two terms of equation (336). In compressor design it may be more desirable to
The chart can also be used for any change in specify a value of relative pressure-loss coefficient
radius if either Ve._ or Ve.: is zero. If Ve.l=0, instead of a blade-element efficiency. A dis-
then U----Us and AVe= Ve.2; and, if Ve._----0, then cussion of the relative pressure-loss coefficient and
U--U1 and AVo=Vo, I. its use in compressor design is presented in chap-
The second quadrant, of figure 215 gives pressure ters VI and VII. If a relative pressure-loss
ratio as a function of temperature ratio and coefficient is used, the adiabatic temperature-rise
adiabatic temperature-rise efficiency. The rela- efficiency can be obtained from the following
tion is as follows: expression :
7--1
T
.
1 0--[" 1.0 1
J J
1.0 --1.0
T,
{ 1.0-.b_ (aU--_)'
\ a. 1_ Fl
L- "0--\_/J)
V,yl'_ _
?Tad _ (339)
VECTOR RELATIONS DIFFUSION FACTOR
The constant use of the relations between A blade-element-loading criterion for axial-flow
velocities and angles in the compressor velocity compressors is developed in reference 9. The
diagram warrants a chart regardless of the sim- application of this loading criterion to blade
plicity of application. Construction of the chart elements in cascades and in compressors is pre-
can be illustrated by inspecting the following two sented in chapters VI and VII. The loading
relations: criterion, or diffusion factor, in the form usually
V:,+V_=V _ (340) applied is given by the following expression:
and
V'
Ve----V, tan _ (341) D___ 1__2,__ AV;
2aV' (342)
From equation (340) it can be seen- that, if V, and

The diffusion factor can be used in two ways in
Ve are used as rectilinear coordinates, constant
compressor design: (1) With the vector diagrams
values of V will be concentric circles with Ve=
known, the diffusion factor is computed and the
V,----0 as a center. Using the same coordinates, a
energy losses across the blade element are esti-
plot of equation (341) would produce a family of
mated from data such as presented in chapters
straight lines going through the origin (Ve= V,----
VI and VII; or (2) a limiting value of diffusion
0). The angle between these lines and the V,
factor is prescribed and the conditions required to
axis would be equal to the value of B.
satisfy the assumed diffusion factor for given inlet
Such a vector chart is shown in figure 216 with
or outlet conditions are calculated.
V, as the abscissa and Ve as the ordinate. Ob-
viously, relative values of the velocities and flow Although equation (342) is in satisfactory form
angle can also be used in the chart. Further, the for the first of these purposes, it is not directly
coordinates can represent Mach numbers if the applicable for the second purpose. In order to
decimal point is changed for the values appearing put equation (342) in a form that can be used to
in both axes. determine conditions for a prescribed diffusion
_800
1700
t600
1500
1400
1300
1200
I tO0
:>,,
__ I O00
B 900
c
800
I.-
7OO
6OO
500
4OO
300
2OO
_00
0
0 I00 200 300 400 5OO 600 700 800 900 IO00 IlO0 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
Axi01 velocity
Fm_mE 216.--Chart for vector relations.
factor, it can be written in terms of flow angles A rearrangement of terms produces the following
and axial velocities: expression:
Yz 2
a(1--D)
cos/9, 4- tan/9,]
2 V_
=V,',, Lcos _2 _{_tan2 _]J
[___C__ (343)
Equation (343) is readily adaptable to chart form.

The terms in brackets on both sides of the equation
In the applieat,ion of this equation, flow angles are are identical with fll substituted for fl_ and _(1 -D)
always taken relative to the blade row under substituted for a; therefore, a single family of
consideration. curves can be used to represent each function
691-564 0-65--20
I0
[]
-I0 0 lO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Air ongle, [_ or _ ,(:leg
FIGURE 217.--Chart for solution of diffusion-factor equation (see eqs. (343) to (345)).
CHART
PROCEDURES
FORDESIGN
VELOCITY
DISTRIBUTION 291
EXAMPLE
I 2 ond 20 30
The procedure in using thecharts is best illus-

trated by an example of the design of an axial-flow-
compressor stage. The stage design assumptions
were made so that they would provide a stringent
case for the charts and also to illustrate as many
uses of the charts as possible. The axial and
radial station designations and a typical vector
diagram are shown in figures 218 and 219, respec-
tively. The design assumptions and calculation
procedure are as follows.
Compute the vector diagrams, pressure ratio,
temperature ratio, Mach number, and diffusion
factor at five equispaced radial positions and the
passage shape for an axial-flow-compressor stage
consisting of rotor and stator blade row to meet
FIGURE 218.--Crosss section of typical stage showing the following specifications:
axial and radial stations. Assumed design parameters: a
inside the brackets. The ratio of the two functions Parameter Design value Design value
Parameter [
will be equal to the axial velocity ratio across the
35.0 0b/sec)/sq It dT/dr 12 R/ft
blade row. In order to simplify the expression, let sd 0.6 DR,t 0.35
Mtt,l 1.2 DK,P, <0.6
rill 1.50 It Ds,_ <0.fi
1.42, ft cra,i 1.0
X -_(1-D) 4-tan f_ (344) r i_l _i"/,la
rll_ll 1.41 It crs,i 0.7
cos/_ - 2 (V.,I/V,,O I 1.1 J(sl 0.98
(V. ,_,,/V.,l.) t 1.0 Bs 0.02
and _l)PI,I _ ]P,3 i 0 Ti= Tit 518.70 R
il alliN 0.92 Pl=Psl 2116 lb/sq It
y _ tan 82 (345)
cos 82 + 2 Blade chords constant from hub to tlo.
Then,
Vz I X
'- =-- (346)
V_I Y
Figure 217 is a plot of X as a function of B_for

constant values of a(1-D). The same family of
curves represents Y as a function of f_ for constant
values of a. Figure 217 and equation (346) can
be used for the solution of equation (343) for any
desired parameter. The use of figure 217 to
compute diffusion factor with the velocity dia-
grams known and to compute the discharge flow "-A%s:%2o_
. I. v_,,:u_ U2o
angle for given diffusion factor, inlet conditions,
and axial velocity ratio, is shown in the following FIGURE 219.--Vector diagram for typical stage; BI=
example. _,.=0.
292 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN" OF AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS
Calculated design parameters:
Parameter Procedure Value Parameter Procedure Value
AF,I 7.069sq ft
Y /(v.,q 2.1o
(7.0 0) 247 lb/see
Y=1.96, cs.ffil.0, and 46.3
fig. 217
Ma,1=0.6, B_=0, and fig. 214 41.6 (lb/sec)/
_/LI
sq ft V,,, (V"I'_ =(647) (1.1)
'[71, i.i 712 R/see
\V,.I],
x. (\_A..'_w), ,I =(o_8)(41.6)
40.8 (lb/sec) /

sq ft v;.,., V:.,.,ffi712, 0_. sffi46.3, and
744 R/see
0.378 V;,I fig. 216 1028 ft/sec
Uf,I V,,, (r-') -(1120) 0.42) 1060 ft/sec

\rl/ ,-- \1.50]
(_--A_r0), =35.0, and fig. 214
U._- V_, L m= 1060-744 316 ft/sec
f_.,l 0.567 ft
(alah
r,.,
._/,.1=0.6
(_)=(1.5)(0.378)
and ref. 250 0.9658 (.R), = 1060, h V,. _=316, 1.1061
_/_=1.0, and fig. 215

al a,., (),=(1116)(0.9658) 1078 it/see
V., 1 al.$l,d=(1078) (0.6) 647 R/see (R), (_) = 1.1061, rt.d,._ =0.02,
1.386
1294 R/see and fig. 215

V_,I aj.Vl:,t=(1078) (1.2)
AT, T,,_--T,.I=
V,.1=647, V_,t_1294 , and
fig. 216 r / r,'_
T*[k_],- lO]
" .,
,_a, dl-Ds, J 1.0 (1.00--0.35) =518.7(1.1061--1.0) 55.03 R
X as,(1--Ds. J =0.65, 01. l =60,

and fig. 217
Vector-diagram calculation:
Radial position
Parameter Known design Procedure
condition I
_p b I Mean Hub
rl r,.1=1.50 1._ 1.267 t 1.034 O. 800 0. 567

rh,1=0.567 I
U_'Ve.I U|, 1= I120

r,.l=l.50
(,_,) 11_ 946 772 597 423
rl /1
v; 1144 ' 1006 879 772

V.. 1- 647 V.. i, Ut, and fig. 216
a; _.o 55.6 50.0 42. 7 33. I
Mi a_ffi1078 (?), i,061 0. 933 O. 815 0. 716
61 rl rr,zffi1.42 1._ 1.207 0.994 O. 780 0. 567

r _.,--ra,_=0.567
7 AT AT,= 55.03 dT 55.03 52. 47 49. 92 47. 35 44.79
'_ 1 AT,-- (_ r ) (rl,l-rl)

_;)- 2
7"1
8 T_-518.7 I,1061 1.1012 1.0962 1.0913 I.0864
T+I.0
9 Us 1060 901 742 582 423

r_,_ffil.42 rl /1
AV, V#,j UI
10 0t-l.0 T_, and fig. 215 316 I 355 409 496 645
_'T,
P2 T_
11 'V,a./e-- 0.92 1.386 1.366 1.346 1. 326 1,308
T--]' y.a, _, and fig. 215
12
(;), Example at mean (_-i) ,ffi (_),
0. 85 0. 82 0.78 0. 73
V, V# V_,
13 1.123 1.152 1.213 1. 300
(_,),
14 BI
( 'V#
,(;,),v,.....and...213 0. 012X10 _ 0.021Xl_ 0. 025 X 10s 0. 050Xl0e
15 C2 12,170(,1 T_--A T) 0.031Xl_ 0.031X10 _ 0. 031X10* 0. 031X10 _
16 (v*.-vl.,). (B-C), ...... --0. 019X 10_ -0.010X10_ --0, 0O6X10_ 0. 019X 10_
CHART
PROCEDURES
FORDESIGN
VELOCITY
DISTRIBUTION 293
Step Radial po_Itlon

condition
Tip b Mean e Hub
17 V.. t, t--712 (V_--V2,._),, V.,=,_, and fig. 213 712 696 688 683 698
18 Y'e,! 744 546 333 86 --222
19 v; 1028 883 763 689 732
2O 46.3 38.2 25. 8 7.0 --17.6
21 V_ 778 78O 8OO 843 949

V,,=, Vs,), and fig.216
22 23.8 27. 0 30.6 36.0 42. 7
V_
23 (D, a,1=1116 0.6629 0.664}1 O.6847 0. 7231 O. 8159
24 M, (v) = and ref. 250

0. 694 0.698 O. 719 0. 764 0.876
25
MI, $_. and fig. 214 41.2 40.2 39. 3 37.8 35.8
26 K_k=0.98
6A,_/
40.4 39.4 38, 5 37.0 35.1
27 (2)-"
rt. 1= 1.50 29.6 30.0 30,4 30.8 31.1
r,,_=1.42
( ei ,_(_,.,'_,
28
0. 450
214
29 7|a rt,_==r,,==l.42
1, 420 1,225 1,030 0. 834 O. 639
30 ( _ 4-o'_
8A_ ] k,== From plot of \$A=,,] _._ (step 26) 40.4 39. 7 38.7 37. 5 35.8
against r= (step 6) read at r=.
(step 29)
31 20. 6 30. 0 30. 3 30. 7 31.0

From plot of (_) fstep27)
8A_, ]1.
against rs read at rl.
32 r (',),. ( ( , O. 460
fig. 214
33 rga r,,_.=1.42 1.420 1.228 1.037 0.845 0.653
Using value of r==from step 33 repeat

steps 30 to 33 until consecutive
t
vMues of (_),, In step 32 agree
34 I Tl__ T3..___ l. 1061 1.1fi17 1. 0973 I.0929 1. 0885

From plots of T_ P_ V_,_, V.,=,
T1 Ti _, p--_,
and M_ against rl read at r_
35 P2J (final) I. 386 1.368 1.350 1. 332 1.315
36 I P1
316 350 397 463 570
Vo.2=
37 V.,,. 712 697 630 684 689
J
46. 3 39. 2 28.6 13.1 --6. 7
38 a_.
39 M=. 0. 694 0. fl07 0. 712 O. 744 0. 822
40 V=. 778 780 794 824 900

V.,I=, V_,=., and fig. 216
41 B2* 23.8 26.6 30. 0 34. 0 40.0
an. ,=i.0
[r,,_Tr,,_._
42 cR.=. r,,i=l.50
1.00 1.17 1.41 1.78 2. 39
r,,=.=1.42
43 Y 1.96 1.91 1.89 1.94 2. 84

an, .,,$_., and fig. 217
44 X V., 1=647 y( V..,.'_ 2.16 2. 06 2. 01 2. O5 2. 49
\-V777..,/
45 =rs,..(I--DR) X, 3_, and fig. 217 0.65 O. 76 0. 91 1.17 1.80
46 ," L _, a. J
0. 35 0.35 0. 35 O. 34 0. 25
T_. Tl=
47 CSs T1=518.7 O. 028X10_ 0. 028X10_ 0. 028X10_ 0.028XI0_
294 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COMI:rRESSOR8
Radial position
step
condition i
Tip : b Mean Itub
i
Vo, ls=O
48 (v:- v,' ,). .'. Bt.=0
(B-C)t, ...... , -0.028X10_ --O. 028XlOe --0.028X10' -0.028X10_
V,.I,'_ 10 ] -I 670 650 629

49 V., 3._ Vt, (Vo--'i.',, ,)s,, V,. h. _, and fig. 213 712 691
V.7_-,./,=
V
5o ao, 151116
VI o 0. 6067 O, 5899 0.5732 0. 5572 O. 5402
a, i 4Tt, _'1
51 3it. i nOte,.= 0.= 0.01 0.593 O. 575 0,557
-G),. P i
I 31=, and ref. 250 0. 7248 0. 7229 0.7132 0.6925 0.6417
PI_ 1.342 1.324 1.300

53 -- _s=O.02 _[,.0--:a (1.0--_) ] ,.378 1.3_0
PI
BI,--0 _It,, O't., and fig. 214 42.8 42.0 41.8 40.5 39,7
54 ',.5-X:-:.I.,.
Kbt--0.98 K( u' _It_'_ 41.9 41.2 40. 5 39.7 38.9

55 ',._/t, s. \&4o_]:. is
_ 4_'_ 35 30.9 31.8 31.6
i PI* ft, 3, I
r_ t =1.50
r i'.ls= 1.41
57 I ksa._J,,, .... '_$A_ Ji .... , and O. 484

I fig. 214
! I. 410 I. 228 1,046 0.864 0.382
58 rls r,. Is=l.41 i %
-(r,. ,.+r,. ,,} 0. 70 0.81 0. 95 1.16 1.48

59 as, .. as. i=0.7
rl, I.=1.42 cs,, \ rls+rl_----_- /
rl, tt=l.41
6O Y a. d,, Ors, and fig. 217 O. 70 O. 81 0, 95 1.16 1.48

Ot,=O
/ XV,, n. l 1.35
61 X 0. 02 1.10
Y t V-_, _,) O. 70 0.80
0.54 0.08 0.72

62 8, a *(1-DS) X, at,, and fig. 217 O. 44 O. 49
!
1 0 r.s. ,.(l-os)'] 0.37 0.40 0.43 0.46 0.51
' -- L as, _J
63 ] Ds PI Tts 0.900 O. 899 O. 896

64 llo$ _-, -_-_[, and fig. 215 0.904 0.902
COMPARISON OF CHART AND CALCULATED VALUES
The more important parameters obtained by use of the cha_t pxocedures are summarized in tile
following table. Tile analytically calculated values of tile parameters are also given for comparison and
an indication of accuracy:
Chart procedure Analytical calculation
Parameter Radial position R m:lial position
Tip b Mean c Hub Tip b Mean c Hub
M_ 1. 200 1. 061 0. 933 0. 815 0.716 1. 200 1. 064 0. 934 0. 817 0. 717
00.0 55.6 50.0 42.7 33.1 60.0 55.7 50.0 42.7 33.2
46. 3 39.2 28. 5 13. 1 --6.7 463 39.8 29.1 15.4 --5.1
23. 8 26. 6 30.0 34.0 40.0 24. 0 26.6 29.9 34,1 39. 7
712 697 689 684 689 712 697 686 679 678
694 697 712 744 .822 695 697 . 710 , 740 804
DR 35 35 35 34 .25 35 .35 .35 .33 25
Vs.l 712 601 670 65O 629 712 692 671 648 626
630 612 593 575 557 630 612 ,504 .574 553
Ds 37 40 .43 46 .51 38 ,39 .42 ,45 .51
TWT, 1. 1061 1. 1017 1. 0973 1. 0929 10885 1. 1066 1. 1021 1.0976 I. 0928 1. 0882
Pa,/Pl 1. 378 1.360 1. 342 1. 324 1.306 1. 380 1. 360 1. 342 l. 324 1.305
(r ,/r ,) , O. 378 0. 377

(r'h/r ? _. O. 460 0. 471
(rh/r t)s, O. 484 0. 495
Comparison of the values in the table indicates that good accuracy can be obtained with the charts.
The largest differences in axial velocities and resultant Mach numbers were about 2 percent, occurring
at the hub of the rotor-discharge station. At all other stations the differences were less than 0.7 per-
cent. The flow angles agreed within 0.6 at all stations except the hub and c positions at the rotor
discharge, where the chart values of the relative flow angles varied 1.6 and 2.3 , respectively, from the
analytically calculated values. The passage areas obtained by the chart procedure were within 1.4
percent of the analytically calculated areas.
CHAPTER X
PREDICTION OF OFF-DESIGN PERFORMANCE OF

MULTISTAGE COMPRESSORS
By WILLIAM H. ROBmNS and JAMES F. DUQA_, JR.
Three techniques are presented for estimating original design is called the "inverse" or "design
compressor o_-design performance. The first meth- problem." The design problem is discussed in
od, which is based on blade-element theory, is useful detail in chapter VIII.
Jor obtaining only a small part of the compressor Prediction of off-design performance is con-
map over which all blade elements in the compressor sidered in this chapter. A typical compressor
operate unstalled. The second method, which in- performance map is shown in figure 220 with the
volves individual stage performance curves and a design point and the stall-limit or surge line indi-
stage-by-stage calculation, is useful for estimating cated. The regions of the performance map that
the performance oJ a compressor for which reliable are discussed herein are those to the right of the
stage performance curves are available. The third stall-limit line along lines of constant speed; in
method, which is based on over-all performance data other words, the complete compressor map.
of existing compressors, may be used to estimate the Three techniques for predicting off-design per-
complete performance map of a new compressor i] formance are presented.
the compressor design conditions are specified. In the first method, compressor performance is
INTRODUCTION obtained by first radially integrating compressor

blade-element data to obtain blade-row performance.
The availability of good analytical techniques The performance of successive blade rows is deter-
for predicting performance maps of designed com- mined by utilizing the computed outlet conditions of
pressors reduces costly and time-consuming testing one blade row as the inlet conditions to the follow-
and development and in addition aids in selecting ing blade rowuntil complete compressor performance
the best compressor for a given application. is obtained. This type of solution for compres-
Specific information that is required to achieve sor off-design performance, of course, requires a
these goals is the relation between the stall-limit rather complete knowledge of compressor blade-
line and the operating line and the variation of element flow, radial integration techniques, bound-
efficiency and pressure ratio along the operating ary-layer growth, blade-row interactions, and the
line. Therefore, one of the goals of compressor radial mixing process. Some of this information
research is to obtain reliable performance predic- is currently available; although it is limited in
tion methods. This problem, which can be con- many cases, the amount is steadily increasing.
sidered as an analysis of off-design compressor For example, the axial-flow-compressor blade-
performance, is one of the most difficult tasks element theory and correlation results are given
facing the compressor designer. in chapters VI and VII for cascades and single-
Off-design performance is defined as the per- stage compressors. By utilizing this type of data,
formance of the compressor at flow conditions and
the performance of a compressor blade element
speeds other than those for which the compressor can be determined. Furthermore, the results of
was specifically designed. The off-design analysis
chapter VIII provide a means for radial stacking
differs from the design case in that the compressor
of blade elements to estimate blade-row perform-
geometry is given and the object is to find the
ance and axial stacking of blade rows to determine
compressor-outlet conditions for a range of speeds
and weight flows. It is sometimes referred to as design-point performance, provided adequate
the "direct compressor problem," whereas the blade-element performance data arc available.
297
I00 chapter is based on data obtained from over-all

performance maps of previously designed com-
.80 " pressors. It is considerably more simplified than
the first two methods, because there are no inte-
gration procedures or stage-stacking techniques
__ 60
involved in the computation of performance maps.
This method was first proposed in reference 256
< .40 and was subsequently used in the analysis of two-
spool compressor performance in reference 26.
In the present chapter, data from several multi-
stage compressors are correlated, so that it is
8
possible to obtain a complete performance map
from known compressor design conditions by
"" 7 means of a few simple and short numerical
calculations.
Essentially, the purpose of this chapter is to

review the methods currently available for predict-
0
o)
ing multistage-compressor performance. Although
the techniques apply primarily to fixed-geometry
Ct_
compressors, they may be adapted to study oper-
O.
--' 4 ation with variable geometry and bleed. The

O
0 advantages, disadvantages, limitations, and appli-

cability of each method are discussed.
oi 5
SYMBOLS
o
2
A area, sq ft
a speed of sound, ft/sec
1
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 cp specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/
Equivalent specific weight flow, wv'_/SA, (lb)(R)
(Ib/sec)/sq ft
FIGURE 220.--Typical axial-flow-compressor over-all H total or stagnation enthalpy, Btu/lb
performance map. J mechanical equivalent of heat, 778.2 ft-lb/
Btu
This information can be applied to the off-design
Kbk weight-flow blockage factor
problem and is discussed in detail herein.
M Mach number
The second method is somewhat more simplified
N rotational speed, rpm
than the first, in that the average performance of
P total or stagnation pressure, lb/sq ft
each stage is obtained and the stages are axially
stacked to acquire the compressor map. There- R gas constant, 53.35 ft-lb/(lb)(R)
fore, neither blade-element data nor radial inte- r radius, ft
gration is necessary to obtain a performance map S entropy, Btu/(lb) (R)
by this method. The success or failure of the T total or stagnation temperature, R
technique depends upon the accuracy of the indi- t static or stream temperature, R
vidual stage performance curves used for the com- U rotor speed, ft/sec
putation of over-all performance. This method V air velocity, ft/sec
is used in the analyses of multistage-compressor w weight flow, lb/sec
performance in references 248 and 251 to 255 and "_--1
in chapter XIII.
The final method of predicting multistage-
compressor performance that is discussed in this z coordinate along axis, ft
PREDICTION" OF OFF-DESIGN PERFORMANCE OF MULTISTAGE COMPRESSORS 299
air angle, angle between air velocity and Station 0 I 2 3

ratio of total pressure to NASA standard
sea-level pressure of 2116 lb/sq ft
boundary-layer displacenlent thickness
efficiency
0 ratio of total temperature to NASA stand-
ard sea-level temperature of 518.7 R
P density, lb-sec2/f0
flow coefficient
pressure coefficient
Subscripts: Compressor axis i
a stagnation conditions
ac actual conditions FIGURE 221.--Schematic diagram of compressor stage.
ad adiabatic
art annulus ment is known and that over-all compressor per-
b backbone formance can then be obtained by an inte_ation
d design of the performance of each blade row. In this
h hub section, blade-element theory is applied to solve
i reference position, radial station where the off-design problem.
variables are known Basically, the solution for the off-design com-
id ideal pressor performance proceeds as follows: From
in compressor inlet specified inlet conditions and blade geometry, tho
m nlean outlet conditions are computed from a knowledge
of the flow about blade elements and with the
out compressor outlet
r radial direction conditions that continuity and radial equilibrium
must be satisfied. Allowances must be made for
re/ reference
,_ stall limit boundary-layer growth, blade-row interaction
sl NASA standard sea-level conditions effects, and radial mixing of blade wakes. The
t tip approach is admittedly an idealized one at present,
z axial direction since much of the information (blade-element
losses at off-desigu operating conditions, bound-
O tangential direction
ary-layer growth, interactions, and radial mixing
0, 1, 2, 3 station numbers (fig. 221) of blade wakes) required to carry out this calcu-
lation is not currently available. The general
Superscrip t: method is presented, because it has the greatest
denotes conditions relative to rotor blade potentiality for providing a picture of the internal-
row flow mechanism through a compressor at off-design
operating conditions. A method for computing
METHODS OF PREDICTING OFF-DESIGN the performance of a complete compressor stage
PERFORMANCE (inlet guide vanes, rotors, and stators) is outlined;
BLADE-ELEMENT METHOD recourse is made to the equations and techniques
Blade-element theory is used extensively in the for radial stacking of blade elements presented in
compressor design technique (ch. VIII). Com- chapter VIII. The performance of successive
pressor blades are evolved by a radial stacking of a stages can be determined by utilizing the com-
series of blade sections or blade elements to form puted outlet conditions of one stage as the inlet
the complete blade. The theory proposes, there- conditions to the following stage.
fore, that the blade-row characteristics can be Performance of inlet guide vanes.--Guide vanes
determined ff the performance of each blade ele- are utilized to establish a specified prerotation
3OO AERODYNA3,IIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS
at the design condition (ch. VIII). For the off-

design problem, it is necessary to determine the
effect of changes in weight flow and speed on guide-
vane performance.
Experimental evidence indicates that the effect
of variations of inlet Mach number and secondary V I'
b
flows (caused by variations in weight flow) on
guide-vane turning angle is very small over the
range of inlet Mach numbers usually encountered
in axial-flow-compressor guide vanes (0.3 to 0.5). v0,1
Also, changes in rotor speed have very little -_ U I
i
effect on turning angle. Therefore, for the
purpose of this analysis it call be assumed that, FmunE 222.---Typical velocity diagram.
for fixed-geometry guide vanes, the guide-vane-

outlet angle remains constant (the design value) locity diagram is shown in fig. 222.) In order
for all values of speed and weight flow if the sub- to solve for values of axial velocity at all radial
sequent rotor is operating unstalled. positions, a value of reference axial velocity
nmst be assumed.
With the guide-vane-outlet angle fixed, the
outlet velocity distribution may be computed. The assumption of the reference axial velocity
The radial variation of axial and tangential can be checked by means of the continuity
velocity leaving an annular row of blades for equation, since the condition that the inlet
steady axially symmetric flow, neglecting terms weight flow equals the outlet weight flow must
involving viscosity, is expressed ill chapter VIII be satisfied. The continuity equation can be
as follows: expressed as follows:
OH OS bVomT 1 OV,__V_ V aVr Wo=Wl :K_k27rp,. o9 f r rt Pl

-- V_. lr dr
Jg-_--=Jgt _+Ve Or .--z Or" r z Oz ^ Pa, O
(347) *'-_* P_ V,,lr dr (349)

:27rp,.0g jrh+5* p,.o
For flow across inlet guide vanes, the total where
1
enthalpy is constant and entropy variations
along the radial height can be considered negligible o, I-i (v,
t _S 0
in most cases, making OH/Or----O and -_= .
for inlet guide vanes.
In addition, experimental data for guide vanes
From equations (348) and (349) an iteration
with small wall taper and relatively low-aspect- solution is necessary to solve for the correct
ratio blading indicate that the effect of radial
axial velocity to satisfy weight flow. The area
accelerations and the radial velocity component
blockage caused by boundary-layer growth is
can be neglected with little error. Therefore,
taken into account by the linfits of integration of
when equation (347) is integrated with respect to
equation (349), so that values of (rn+_*) and
r, the following equation results:
(r,--_*) correspond to the effective passage area
rather than to the geometric area, or by the use
of the blockage factor Kb, described in chapter
VIII. Experimental results indicate that the
Equation (348) can be utilized to express the ratio of effective area to actual passage area is
axial velocity in terms of outlet angle and radial approximately 0.98 at station 1. Equations
position for zero radial gradients of enthalpy (347) to (349) do not consider guide-vane losses.
and entropy and no radial velocity component. Since little data are available for estimating
(Subscripts 0, 1, 2, and 3 denote axial stations guide-vane losses, it is difficult to obtain a com-
and are indicated in fig. 221 on a schematic plete loss picture. However, if at all possible, it
diagram of a compressor stage. A typical ve- is desirable that a reasonable estimate of the
PREDICTION OF OFF-DESIGN PERFORMANCE OF MULTISTAGE COMPRESSORS 301
losses be made. In some cases a guide-vane axial velocity. Solutions of equations of this type
over-all efficiency is assumed. Some information are readily adaptable to high-speed electronic
that may be helpful ill estimating losses is pre- computing equipment.
sented in reference 213. The solution of equations (349) and (350) pro-
Rotor and stator analysis.--With the guide- vides only a first approximation to the rotor-
vane-outlet (rotor-inlet) conditions fixed, the outlet velocity distribution, because no allowance
rotor-outlet calculations can proceed. The pro- for losses is included in the calculation. One way
cedure for determining the performance of the of refining this calculation to account for losses is
rotor is more complicated than that for the guide by the use of the equilibrium equation with the
vanes, and the following information must be entropy-gradient term included. The equilibrium
provided: equation with entropy gradient is given in chapter
VIII and can be expressed as follows:
(1) Blade camber/_ . .
.... /Determined from blade
(2) Dlade angle | V_. 2--V_. 2. _=[(U--V_ tan/_')_. _
(3) Solidity ] geometry
--(U-- V_ tan O')_l+ 2Jgc,( Tr T:. _)
(4) Relative inlet-air angle Determined
(5) Relative inlet Mach number from inlet
2[ "_, (U--V_ tan fl')_ dr
(6) Rotor speed conditions J, r
With this information available, blade-element

+2JgR_"t(_-r)dr (352)
results similar to those in chapters VI and VII
are required to determine the turning angle and
therefore the variation of rotor-outlet air angle. A detailed discussion of the solution of equations
In order to obtain an appro_ximate velocity dis- (352) and (349) for the design case is presented in
tribution at the rotor exit, zero losses are assumed chapter VIII. A solution of these equations to
between stations 1 and 2 and simple radial equi- satisfy the off-design problem is similar and re-
librium with no radial entropy gradient, is assumed quires detailed knowledge of bo.mdary-layer
at station 2. The simple-radial-equilibrium equa- growtil and blade-element losses over the complete
tion can be expressed as follows: range of operating conditions. Although com-
plete loss information is not readily available at
V_.2--V:,._. _----[(U--V_ tan fl')i. _ the present time, the relations between the diffu-
--(U--V_ tan V)_]-i-2Jgcp(T2--T2. ,) sion factor and blade-element losses (chs. VI and
VII) might be used for operating points in the
+2 _i(U--V_ tan _')_ dr (350) vicinity of the design point. If a solution of these
dr Y
equations is obtained, mass-averaged values of
where
rotor over-all pressure ratio and efficiency can be
calculated.
Jgc,T_=JgcpTl-- U, Vo , + U_(U-- V_ tan B')_
The blade-element calculations for the stator
blade performance are similar to those for the
As in the case of the inlet guide vanes, the varia-
rotor. Values of outlet axial velocity can be
tion of outlet axial velocity V_ can be determined
determined by an iteration solution of equation
by assuming a reference value of outlet axial
(352) where the subscript 1 becomes 2, the sub-
velocity V_._. The assumption of V,._ can be
script 2 becomes 3, and the term (U--V_ tan _')
verified by means of the continuity equation
becomes (V, tan /_). Continuing this iteration
(eq. (349)), where
process blade row by blade row through the com-
1
pressor will ultimately provide the compressor-
02 (JgcpT,+U2Vo, 2--U,Vo, _VJ\C:i-1] outlet conditions.
_._=\ _ '2/ (351) Remarks on blade-element method.--Unfortu-
nately, at present the complete blade-element-
for the rotor blade row with no losses. The flow picture is unknown. In the region near the
simultaneous solutions of equations (349) and compressor design point, adequate blade-element
(350) for the rotor require a double iteration for data are available for entrance stages. However,
the variations of loss and turning angle have not presented as plots of efficiency and pressure co-
been established as compressor stall is approached. efficient against a flow coefficient. These dimen-
In addition, boundary-layer theory does not as yet sionless quantities are defined by the following
provide a means of calculating the boundary-layer equations:
growth through a multistage compressor, and hHu (353)
there are no unsteady-flow results, blade-row in- _=AH_
teraction effects, nor data concerning radial
AH_
mixing of blade wakes that can be applied di-
rectly to compressor design. 0 Jgc,T_,Y (354)
The preceding analysis reveals the gaps in our

knowledge (particularly off-design blade-element
data) that must be bridged by future research pro- V,
grams. In view of the length of the preceding _'=(U)m (355)
calculation, it probably is not justified at present
unless a good estimate can be made of the blade- Representative single-stage performance curves
element flow at off-design operating conditions. are shown in figure 223. These curves may vary
As stated previously, the method is presented in the multistage environment (ch. XIII); how-
because it has the greatest potentiality for pro- ever, for undistorted inlet flow, stage performance
viding a complete picture of the internal-flow generalizes quite well for a considerable range of
mechanism through a compressor at off-design Reynolds and Mach numbers. The stage charac-
operating conditions. Of course, one obvious teristics at different speeds may be presented as
way of simplifying the calculation would be to a single line (fig. 223) for relative stage-inlet Mach
carry it out at only one radius of the compressor. numbers up to approximately 0.75. An exception
This procedure would not be exact; however, a is made for stage operation at low angles of attack.
qualitative picture could be obtained of the com- Even for relatively low values of relative stage-
pressor operating characteristics. inlet Mach number, the flow coefficient denoting
a choked condition changes with wheel speed, so
STAGE-STACKING METHOD
that a family of curves is required in the high-flow-
Over-all compressor performance for a range of coefficient range. Stage performance for relative
speeds and weight flows may be estimated by a stage-inlet Mach numbers higher than about 0.75
stage-stacking method. The performance of each may be presented as a family of curves for the
stage of the multistage compressor is obtained and different wheel speeds. Stage performance is
presented so that its performance is a function influenced by flow distortion at its inlet, but very
only of its inlet equivalent weight flow and wheel little quantitative information is available.
speed. For assigned values of compressor weight Sources of stage performanee.--The stage per-
flow and speed, the first-stage performance yields formance curves needed for the stage-stacking
the inlet equivalent flow and wheel speed to the method may be obtained from single-stage and
second stage. A stage-by-stage calculation multistage testing or from theoretical calculations.
through the compressor gives the individual stage The chief shortcoming of the single-stage test data
pressure and temperature ratios, so that over-all available to date is the lack of information con-
compressor pressure ratio and efficiency can be cerning radial maldistribution of flow and unsteady
calculated for the assigned values of compressor flow. Such information is needed to estimate
weight flow and wheel speed. over-all compressor performance by the stage-
Stage performance.--Single-stage performance stacking method; for example, at low wheel speeds,
tests are conveniently made at constant speed, so the inlet stage of a multistage compressor operates
that performance is very often presented as plots stalled so that the inlet flow to the second stage
of pressure ratio and adiabatic efficiency against often is far from uniform.
equivalent weight flow for constant values of Stage performance obtained from interstage
equivalent speed. Such plots, however, are not data on multistage compressors (see refs. 253,257,
convenient to use in applying the stage-stacking and 258) includes specific amounts of radial
method, and stage performance for this use is mMdistribution of flow; for example, the stalled
.5 The over-all compressor performance can be calcu-

C lated for assigned values of compressor-inlet
D
_ _= "_- .2 equivalent weight flow w-_/_/_ and rotative speed
0- 8 U_. _/_. The value of flow coefficient into the

first stage is found from
VZ. l
ID _=U (356)
m, 1
C.)
where the value of V,. _/_/_ is read from curves
.o_ representing the following equation:
t 1 ] i L __
.40_. .4 .5
FPow
.6
coefficient,
.7
<0
.8 .9
,,,+o
_A_, _ L \-re/ 2JgcpT, z cos 2/_ ],-' gp,, (357)
FIGURE 223.--Typical stage characteristic curves. 3"he area term A_= in equation (357) is commonly
taken as the geometrical annulus area. However,
portions of the second-stage curves are obtained experience has shown that more realistic values of
for inlet flow affected by stall in the first stage. axial velocity are obtained from equation (357)
The difficulty in estimating stage performance if effective annulus area is used. In order to
from theoretical calculations is concerned with determine effective annulus area, the boundary-
the fact that the flow in a compressor is three- layer growth through the compressor must 1)e
dimensional, while the basic data normally used known (ch. VIII). Again, information concern-
are based on two-dimensional flow. Employing ing the growth and behavior of the boundary
blade-element theory to obtain stage performance layer in an axial-flow compressor is required for
involves all the difficulties discussed in the section the off-design case.
entitled Blade-Element Method. As before, the The first-stage performance curves yield values
calculation breaks down when a blade element of &_ and _ that permit calculation of the first-
stalls. A theoretical method of estimating stage stage pressure ratio and temperature ratio from
performance along the mean line is presented in the following equations:
reference 256. Conditions at the mean diameter T
are taken as representative for the stage. For

stages having hub-tip radius ratios lower than 0.6, _:
P3 Id (358)
reference 256 indicates that some form of inte- Pl JgepT, t .]
gration of the individual blade-element character-
istics (possibly by means of the blade-element
method) along the blade height should be at- (359)
tempted. An example of stage performance T, L -+ _,_J
calculated from mean diameter conditions is
presented in appendix I of reference 256. The values of equivalent flow and speed at the
inlet to the second stage are calculated from
Stacking procedure.--In order to estimate the
performance of a multistage axial-flow compressor
with a stacking procedure, the following must be
known: (360)
_3 _1 Ps
(1) Stage performance curves of each stage P1
(2) Annulus area at inlet to each stage
(3) Mean radius at inlet to each stage Urn, _ U,n, z rm, a 1
(361)
(4) Design value of absolute flow angle at ,'...,
inlet to each stage
The values of equivalent weight flow and equiva-

lent wheel speed at the second-stage inlet deter-
lnine the value of the flow coefficient _3, so that
the second-stage pressure and temperature ratios
may be calculated from the vahles of _3 and 73.
The stage-by-stage calculation is continued
throughout the compressor, and over-all pressure
ratio and efficiency are calculated from the
compressor-inlet and -outlet pressures and tem-
peratures. Thus, for any wheel speed, the over-
all compressor pressure ratio and efficiency can
be calculated for each assigned value of compressor
weight flow.
In calculating a compressor performance map,
some means must be employed for estimating the
surge line, which influences starting, acceleration,
and control problems. One scheme is to draw
the surge line through the peak-pressure-ratio
points of the over-all performance map. If the
stage performance curves exhibit discontinuities,
surge at any compressor speed may be taken to
correspond to flow conditions for which a dis-
continuity is encountered in the performance
curve of any stage.
Remarks on stage-stacking method.--The stage-
stacking method may be used as a research tool
to investigate compressor off-design problems or
to estimate the performance of an untested com-
pressor. In reference 3, the stage-stacking method
was employed to indicate qualitatively the
operation of each stage in a high-pressure-ratio
multistage compressor over a full range of operat- FIGURE 224.--Comparison of predicted and experimental
ing flows and speeds, the effect of stage perform- over-all performance for modified eight-stage compressor.
ance on off-design performance, the effect of
designing for different stage-matching points, and illustrated in reference 254, where the perform-
the effect on over-all performance of loading exit anee of a modified compressor is predicted from
stages and unloading inlet stages hy resetting the stage curves of the original version of the
stator blade angles. The part-speed operation compressor. The results of this performance-map
for high-pressure-ratio multistage axial-flow com- prediction by the stage-stacking method are illus-
pressors is analyzed in chapter XIII with regard trated in figure 224. Calculated and measured
to the surge-line dip and the multiple performance values agreed particularly well at the higher com-
curves that exist in the intermediate-speed pressor speeds.
range. In both these references, stage perform- This method is also useful for determining the
ance curves were assumed. effects of interstage bleed and variable geometry
The difficulty in estimating the performance of on compressor perfornmnce. In the interstage-
an actual compressor lies in obtaining reliable bleed calculation, the flow coefficient _ can be
stage performance curves. Use of stage curves adjusted for the amount of air bled from the com-
obtained from a given nmltistage compressor re- pressor. The effect of variable geometry can be
sults in good performance estimation of a com- accounted for in the calculation procedure if the
pressor having similar stages and only a slightly variation of the stage curves is known as the com-
different over-all design pressure ratio. This is pressor geometry is varied.
SIMPLIFIED METHOD
values. Second, the stall-limit line is determined,
A drawback common to the blade-element and and values along the stall-limit line are referred to
stage-stacking methods of estimating over-all coin- as stall-limit values or stall-limit points. Finally,
pressor performance is tile length of time required points along lines of constant speed are calculated
for the calculations. A simplified method requir- from the stall limit to maximunl flow. Tile inte-
ing much less calculating time is discussed herein. gration of these phases results in a complete com-
This method provides a means of obtaining the pressor performance map.
performance map of a new compressor from tile Calculation of compressor backbone.--Experi-
results of previously designed compressors. Cor- mental over-all performance maps (similar to
relation curves are provided to facilitate the fig. 220) of eight compressors (listed in table V)
calculation. were obtained. For the condition of maximum
Background information.--In reference 256 a adiabatic efficiency at each speed, values of
method for predicting multistage-compressor per- pressure ratio, weight flow, and efficiency were
formance is outlined. It was used to estimate tabulated. From these backbone values, the
the performance map of a newly designed coln- reference-point values of speed, pressure ratio,
pressor having blading similar to an existing com- weight flow, and adiabatic efficiency were found.
pressor but slightly different design values of The reference point of a compressor map, which is
weight flow, pressure ratio, wheel speed, and num- not necessarily the design point, is defined as the
ber of stages. The application of this method to point of maximum polytropic efficiency of the
new compressor designs is, of course, restricted to compressor backbone.
cases where a compressor nlap of a similar exist- The effect of reference-point pressure ratio on
ing compressor is available. backbone characteristics is shown in figure 225,
In this report, an attempt is made to extend where each backbone value is plotted as a percent-
the method presented in reference 256 to a more age of its reference-point vMue. In figure 225(a),
general case. Therefore, experimental data on values of backbone pressure ratio are plotted
eight multistage compressors were collected, cor- against reference pressure ratio with equivalent
related, and plotted in curve form, so that multi- rotor speed as a parameter. Similar plots of
stage-compressor performance maps of new con]- backbone weight flow and adiabatic efficiency are
pressors could be obtained easily from a knowledge shown in figures 225 (b) and (c), respectively.
of the design conditions alone. The method pre- The backbone of a new compressor may be
sented herein is similar to that used in reference calculated from figure 225 and known reference-
26 to obtain multistage performance maps. There point values of pressure ratio, weight flow, adia-
are three phases of the calculation procedure. batic efficiency, and rotor speed. For the refer-
First, points of maximum efficiency at each speed ence pressure ratio, the backbone values of pressure
are calculated. The line of maximum efficiency ratio, weight flow, and efficiency at various speeds
is called the backbone of the compressor map, are read from figure 225. Absolute backbone
and values along this line are termed backbone values are obtained by multiplying the values
TABLE V.--EXPERIMENTAL COMPRESSOR DATA
Inlet Reference Outer Inlet hub-

Compressor guide pressure Stages tip ratio Reference
vanes ratio dia_nneter,
1. Subsonic .... Yes 2.08 6 15, 75 0, 575
2. Subsonic .... Yes
3. Subsonic .... Yes Variable --77--

4. Transonic.._ No ---V-- ---/V-
5. Subsonic .... Yes --W--
6. Transonic.._ No 7.35 ---7--
7. Subsonic .... Yes
8. Transonic.._ No ---7- Variable
691-564 0-65-21
140,
12C
C
_<" 8o
o_
_ 6G
u_
Q.
I
- 40
ca 20
o
2 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 It
Reference pressure rotlo (_uf/Pm)ref
(a) Pressure ratio.
FIGURE 225.--Effect of reference pressure ratio oil stall-limit line.
read from figure 225 by appropriate reference- Constant-speed characteristics.--The constant-

point values. speed characteristics of an existing compressor
Calculation of stall-limit line.--The effect of may be obtained from its performance map. For
reference pressure ratio on stall-lilnit or surge-line several points along each speed line, values of
characteristics is shown in figure 226, in which temperature rise (To,,--T_)/O,, adiabatic effi-
stall-limit pressure ratio is plotted against ref- ciency _, and flow parameter (w_,_/_/_,)
erence pressure ratio with stall-limit weight flow (y'To:t_,_/x{Po_t/P,n) are calculated and divided
as a parameter. The values of stall-limit weight by their respective backbone values to yield rela-
flow and pressure ratio are plotted as percent of tive temperature rise, efficiency, and flow param-
the reference values. The stall-lilnit line of a new eter. Values from the entire compressor map
compressor may be calculated l)y multiplying the tend lo give a single curve of relative temt)erature
stall-limit values of pressure ratio and weight flow rise against relative flow parameter and a single
read from figure 226 for the known reference curve of relative efficiency against relative flow
pressure ratio by their respective reference values. paraineter. These two curves define the constant-
Stall-limit lines estimated in this manner are single- speed characteristics of a compressor. Plots of
valued ; whereas, the stall-limit lines of some actual this type are illustrated in figure 227. The data
compressors are multivalued (ch. XIII). points represent seven different compressor speeds,
PREDICTION" OF OFF-DESIGN PERFORMANCE OF MULTISTAGE COMPRESSORS 307
120
c
o)
0)
(19
I00
u
8,0
6O
> 40
co
0
J2)
g
m 20
t_ LO5i
9 c95
o o9
0 CO
_Z 85
o
-5 _i1:_!.1
75 : il! iiilf!uriluiJ,,
!i!itit!t it.. i!it!it!tf!ltli
!i!iiuJit!!!!!i
-ih!ihl-t.{:
2 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 II
Reference pressure roho, (PoutPin )ref
(b) Weight flow.

(c) Efficiency.
FIGURE 225.--Concluded. Effect of reference pressure ratio on backbone characteristics.
and in general the correlation of data at all speeds be used successfully for the compressor constant-
is relatively good. speed characteristics, if the design system is similar
In figure 228 faired curves are plotted repre- to that presented in chapter VIII.
senting the constant-speed characteristics of four The lines of constant speed for a desired com-
compressors designed according 1o the basic prin- pressor performance map may be calculated from
ciples outlined in chapter VIII. When specific a given set of constant-speed characteristic curves
data are lacking on the constant-speed charac- and the calculated backbone values. For each
teristics of a newly designed compressor, an speed, relative values of flow parameter are
average of the curves of figure 228 could probably assigned and relative values of temperature rise
160
140
c
"E
120
(_.
"- I0
E
- 80
s
un
_o 6O
0
o. 40
p
"S
20
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 II
Reference pressure ro?lo, (Pout /"Oln)ref
FIGURE 226.--Effect of reference pressure ratio on stall-limit line.
and efficiency are read from the constant-speed the reference point is usually found at values of
curves. Absolute values are calculated from these compressor speed somewhat below the actual
relative values and the appropriate backbone design speed. Unfortunately, attempts to obtain
values. In the use of these curves, one end is an exact relation between the actual compressor
limited by the stall-limit line and the other end design point and the reference point were unsuc-
by the maximum-weight-flow value. Compressor cessful. In the case of the four NACA compres-
pressure ratio is calculated from the values of sors that utilized the design principles of chapter
temperature rise and efficiency, and compressor
VIII, the reference speed varied from 90 to 100
weight flow is calculated from values of tempera-
percent of the actual design speed. This fact may
ture ratio, pressure ratio, and flow parameter.
be helpful in establishing the relation of these
Comments on reference point.---As stated pre-
viously, the reference point is defined as the point two points.
of maximum polytropic efficiency of the com- The following procedure may be used to com-
pressor map. Experimental data indicate that pute referencc conditions from design conditions
PREDICTION OF OFF-DESIGN PERFORMANCE OF MULTISTAGE COI_,IPRESSORS 309
for a particular ratio of design speed to reference __ ko

speed (Nl_)_/(Nt_),es: "6
.o>,
O9 [
! o ]
(1) A trial value of reference pressure ratio __ .s--'
(Pou#P_,),e: is selected, o_
(2) A value of backbone total-pressure ratio __
(Pou,/P_,)b _ .6
(pou#i) O,e: 100 is read from figure 225(a) for the 1.3
I I _ ' >v/_,
values of (Po_#P_,)_: and (N/_:O)a 100. v ' i - % design
0\7@).: '_._, i / / D 30 o 80
(3) A value of (Po_#P_,),,: is calculated from e .... I I o
[':"__l-d--- _, 60 ,, _oo _
[ "%_1 7o
Pou,) i I i_ v <'L .
_o
(Po_t) _ ".P,,,/a (362)
-',,-. Pout
%
..... ___
.9
!_
I.O
_
t.I 1.2
_ x__ol
1.3
o
1.4
(% P_n /re/ Relative flow parameter, _ "V Pout/P/_
If this calculated value does not equal the trial FIGURE 227.--Generalized performance parameters at
several speeds for typical axial-flow compressor.
value from step (1), steps (1) to (3) are repeated
until tile two values do agree.
i.o 1
(4) A value of (w_rO/5)o 100 is read from figure
(w_,_/_),,: o _ l l (table _ )) J ] "_'Q | | [
225 (b) for the wdues of \_-/,,t and (N/_/O)_,: 100.
(5) The value of (w,rb/_)_e: is calculated from

_1.2
(363)
E
-------
.8
Y
."8 .9 hO I.I
[ 1.2 1.5
- 1.4
(6) A value of v_'_ 100 isread from figure 225(@ Relative flow parameter,
"lTad. re/
(NI@)_
for the values of (Pou,)
,, pt,, :,,: and 100. FIGURE 228.--Generalized performance curves of four
multistage compressors.
(7) The value of ,a_. ,,: is calculated from
_ad. d backbone, stall-limit, and constant-speed curves,

"t'lad,rel--
)/_a,_ (364) (2) how closely design conditions are realized in
_ad, ref the new compressor, and (3) how accurately ref-
erence-point conditions are calculated from design
Remarks on simplified method.--How closely conditions. The performance maps of the limited
the performance map calculated by the simplified number of compressors designed along the lines
method will conform with the actual performance suggested in this volume have had some affinity
map depends on each phase of the calculation. in shape. As previously noted, however, double-
The agreement depends on (1) how well the avail- valued stall lines cannot be anticipated by this
able compressor performance maps generalize to method.
CONCLUDING REMARKS The second method, which involves individual

Three techniques have been presented for esti- stage performance curves and a stage-by-stage
calculation, is useful for estimating the perform-
mating compressor off-design performance. The
ance of a compressor for which reliable stage per-
first method, which is based on blade-element
formance curves are available. In addition, this
theory, is useful for obtaining only a small part
inethod has been used effectively as a research
of the compressor map over which all blade ele-
ments in the compressor remain unstalled. This tool to determinc the effects of interstage bleed
technique is restricted at present because of the and variable geometry on compressor performance.
limited amount of available information concern- The third method, whicil is based on over-all
ing off-design blade-element data, boundary-layer performance data of existing compressors, may be
growth, blade-row interaction effects, and radial used to estilnate the.complete performance map
mixing of blade wakes. This method has the of a new compressor if the compressor design con-
greatest potential for providing a complete pic- ditions are specified. At present, it is as effective
ture of the internal-flow inechanisiu through a as the other methods and has the advantages of
compressor. simplicity and short calculating time.
CHAPTER XI
COMPRESSOR STALL AND BLADE VIBRATION
By ROBERT W. GRAHAM and ELEANOR COSTILOW GUENTERT
The extent of the useful operating range of the in reference 261 (1951), which presented the stall-
multistage axial-flow compressor is greatly influenced ing characteristics of an axial-flow compressor.
by its stalling characteristics. Over the entire The rotating-stall patterns found in that investi-
range of possible compressor speeds there is a gation were detected with high-frequency-response
minimum flow point for each speed where the com- hot-wire anemometers. During the past three
pressor will either surge or stall, depending upon years, much research effort has been devoted to
the geometry of the compressor receiver. If surge the study of rotating stall in both single- and
does not occur, the e_ciency will be so poor in the multistage compressors.
stalled condition that the compressor will limit the OFF-DESIGN OPERATION
useful operation of a turboiet engine. These surge With the use of aerodynamic theory, the design-
or stall points define the familiar surge or stall-
point performance of a multistage compressor
limit line. In addition to this stall line, stall of
can be predicted with reasonable accuracy.
the front and rear stages occurs at part-speed and
However, as is pointed out in chapter X, current
overspeed operation, respectively. Serious blade
design techniques cannot be used to predict
vibrations may occur .for either of these conditions
compressor operation that deviates markedly
as a result of stall.
from design. Since the compressor of a turbojet
Compressor stall may be manifested as rotating
engine must operate at part design speed (luring
stall, individual stall of each blade, or stall flutter.
acceleration of the engine and also at high flight
From experimental evidence, the first oJ these seems
Mach numbers, analytical methods for accurately
the most prevalent.
predicting part-speed operation are desired by
Several theories of rotating stall in single-stage
compressor designers. In addition, designers are
compressors appear in the literature, none o/which concerned with blade vibrations that occur during
can be used to predict propagation rates with any
operation in stall.
appreciable degree oJ reliability. However, these
The internal aerodynamics of the compressor
theories are useful in evaluating the significance of
must be throughly understood at off-design
parameters pertinent to the stall-propagation mech-
conditions before design techniques applicable to
anism and thus in planning experimental research
this region of operation can be developed. During
programs. The prediction of rotating-stall data
compressor off-design operation, degeneration of
ffor multistage compressors is even. more complicated,
the performance of a stage is accompanied by a
because of interaction effects among the stages.
serious flow separation in the blade passages.
INTRODUCTION This unfavorable operating condition is termed
stall. Two significant areas of off-design per-
Historically, it is interesting that one of tile
earliest references to rotating stall appeared in formance are labeled in figure 229, which is a
1945 in a British report on the performance of a representative multistage-compressor map: (1)
centrifugal compressor (ref. 259). In 1950 an inlet-stage stall, and (2) the stall-limit or surge
line. These conditions result from stall of some
NACA publication (ref. 260) reported the oc-
currence of an asymmetric flow pattern in an im- of the compressor blade elements. The occurrence
pulse axial-tlow compressor. In both of these of separated flow at each of these regions can be
early investigations, flow patterns were detected explained without an elaborate analysis.
by means of wool tufts. This asymmetric flow Inlet-stage stall.--At tow speeds, insufficient
phenomenon was labeled as a propagating stall pressure rise in the stages causes the density level
311
being aerodynamic phenomena and the last an

o I i aeroelastic phenomenon:
(1) Rotating or propagating stall, which con-
sists of large stall zones covering several blade
passages and propagating at some fraction of rotor
r Region of inlet-I[ _ \ IO0 I
speed in the absolute direction of rotor rotation.
stage stall_,,, _--_-[ _ '\[ I / i
These stall zones can produce resonant |)lade
vibrations. The number of stall zones and the
/ / I/&,,,,-Y__/8o Equivalent speed,
_> I-_'(_,__ _ percent design propagation rate vary considerably. Compressor
0 L...c/;lVT///Z/////X/T/,;_Z/Z._'_I_ I l i L _ L__.L_
I0 20 40 60 80 I00 120 140 160 180 investigation has shown rotating stall to be the
Equivalent weight flow Ib/sec most prevalent, type of stall phenomenon.
FZOURE 229.--Over-all performance of a multistage (2) Individual blade stall, which is character-
compressor. ized by the development of large separated-flow
regions or zones of low flow in the wake of each
of the fluid to be too low in the rear stages. The blade.
resulting high relative velocities and incidence (3) Stall flutter, which is a self-excited blade
angles cause choking in the rear stages. This oscillation that nmst be distinguished from the
choking limits the flow through the front stages more familiar classical flutter. The latter, which
and causes excessively high angles of attack or is a self-sustained oscillation caused by the
_tall.
coupling of the inertia, damping, elastic, and
Stall-limit or surge line.--The stall-limit line aerodynamic forces on a wing section, takes place
represents the locus of minimum-flow points just at low angles of attack (unstalled flow) when a
before the performance of the compressor deteri- certain critical velocity that is a function of the
orates abruptly. This deterioration in perform- wing design is reached. In contrast, stall flutter
ance, which is attributed to the operation of one
takes place at high angles of attack and is asso-
or more of the stages in severe stall, is sometimes ciated with individual blade stall.
called "complete compressor stall." In chapter
The present report summarizes the pertinent
XIII, the stages instigating the stall limit are
experimental and theoretical work that has been
analyzed and the significance of the shape of the
done on these three stall phenomena. The as-
stall-limit line and its relative position on the com-
sumptions and analytical techniques are empha-
pressor map is discussed. The stall-limit is
sized in presenting the theories. Wherever pos-
often referred to as the surge line, since surge may
sible, theoretical results are compared with
occur, depending on the geometry of the com-
experimental data. The discussion includes ex-
pressor receiver. An analysis of surge in the
perimental data on blade vibration incurred during
multistage compressor is presented in chapter XII.
rotating stall.
In addition to the part-speed stalling conditions
discussed earlier, the possibility of rear-stage stall SYMBOLS
at near-design and overspeed operation of the The following symbols are used in this chapter:
compressor must be admitted. Experimental
evidence for overspeed stall is lacking, but such a N rotational speed, rpm
stalling condition seems possible. At these con- U rotor speed, ft/sec
ditions, continuity requirements in the rear stages V air velocity, ft/sec
cause some of the blade elements to operate at air angle, angle between air velocity
stalled angles of attack. Chapter XII] concludes and axial direction, deg
that stall of the rear stages determines the stall- 0 ratio of total temperature to NACA
limit line at high part-speed an(] overspeed standard sea-level temperature of
operation. 518.7 R
STALL eH_NOMENA p density, lb-sec2/ft 4
Experimental data and analyses give credi- ApV/pl,-'-_ amplitude of pV fluctuation divided by
bility to the existence of at least three distinct average pV based on average ane-
phenomena during stall operation, the first two mometer current
COMPRESSOR STALL AND BLADE VIBRATION 313
Direction The retarded-flow or stall zone moves from the

of
rotation pressure side to the suction side of each blade (the
opposite direction of rotor rotation). The stall
zone may cover several blade passages. From
compressor tests, the relative speed of propagation
has been observed to be less than absolute rotor
speed. Consequently, as observed from an abso-
lute frame of reference, the stall zones appear to
be moving in the direction of rotor rotation.
EXPERIMENTAL DETECTION OF ROTATING STALL
The hot-wire anenlometer has generally been

used at the NACA Lewis laboratory to detect and
measure the flow fluctuation of stall. However,
since a pressure change accompanies these flow
fluctuations, a high-frequency-response electronic
propagation pressure pickup is also a suitable detection device.
The hot-wire-anenlometer probe and two types of
Direction
of
tmt,-wire-anenmmeter amplifying systems, the con-
stant-current and tim constant-temperature, are
FIGUaE 230.--Propagating stall in a cascade. discussed in references 262 to 264. A method of
determining from hot-wire-anemonleter data the
Subscripts: number of stall zones in a given pattern and the
t tip magnitude of the flow fluctuation in the stall zones

z axial direction with respect to some mean flow value is given in
1 station at exit of guide vanes reference 265.
2 station at rotor exit The testing procedure generally followed in de-
3 station at stator exit termining the rotating-stall clmracteristics of a
compressor is to operate the compressor at a
Superscript: constant speed and gradually decrease the weight
flow while observing the resulting changes in the
relative to rotor
hot-wire-anemometer output. The hot-wire-ane-
ROTATING STALL mometer signal, usually observed on an oscillo-
MECHANISM OF STALL PROPAGATION
scope, follows a definite evolutionary process as
the weight flow is decreased. As an illustration,
Rotating stall has been depicted as tile propaga- this process is described in conjunction with the
tion of large stall zones relative to the blade row. performance characteristic of a single-stage axial-
The propagation mechanism can be described by flow compressor (fig. 231).
considering the blade row to be a cascade of blades
similar to that shown in figure 230. Assuming
that some flow perturbation has caused blade 2 to
reach a stalled condition before the other blades
in the cascade, then this stalled blade does not
produce sufficient pressure rise to maintain the
_1.5
flow around it. Consequently, effective flow
blockage or a zone of reduced flow develops.
This retarded flow (shaded in fig. 230) diverts the
flow around it so that the angle of attack increases
1"26 8 I0 12 14
on blade 3 and decreases on blade 1. The stall
Equivalenl weight flow, Ib/sec
propagates downward relative to tim blade row;
the diverted flow stalls the blades below the re- FIGURE 231.--Performance of compressor as operation
tarded-flow zone and unstalls the blades above it,. point varies from unstalled to stalled.
compressors with symmetrical, solid-body, or

free-vortex velocity diagrams and a variety of
blade shapes. The rotating-stall data obtained
embrace a wide range of stall-propagation rates
and number of zones in each stall pattern. The
number of zones varies from 1 to 12, and the ab-
O solute propagation rate varies from approximately
10 to 85 percent of rotor speed. Generally, more
O than one stall pattern occurs; that is, the number
of zones and the geometric configuration of the
stall-zone region change as the flow is varied in a
given compre_ssor. Figure 234 is a typical single-
stage-compressor performance map with the stall
patterns observed and the weight-flow range of
each pattern indicated on the figure. Generally,
Time as in the example used in the figure, the propaga-
tion rate remained essentially constant over the
Fiauaz 232.--Oscillograms of blade wakes. entire stall region, notwithstanding changes in the
number of stall zones. Some exceptions to the
When the test is begun, at high weight flows consistency of the stall-propagation rate have been
near the best operating point of the compressor, observed when appreciable changes in the radial
the hot-wire signal viewed on the oscilloscope extent of the stall zone take place.
indicates sharply defined blade wakes in region h. Multistage compressors: Multistage compres-
Typical oscillograms showing these blade wakes sors exhibit stall characteristics similar to those of
are given in figure 232. As the weight flow is the single-stage units. The stall zones appear to
reduced below the peak-pressure-ratio weight flow extend axially through the compressor, that is,
denoted by region B of figure 23 l, the blade wakes with little or no spiraling. As the weight flow was
become wider and less well defined, indicating flow throttled at a constant speed, the number of stall
separation and the possibility of stall somewhere zones in the annulus varied from 1 to 7 among the
along the blade. A momentary or unstable stall several compressors investigated. Rotating stall
zone covering several blade passages is occasion- in multistage compressors may exist from choked
ally observed on the oscilloscope. The sporadic flow to surge at low speeds. The rotational speed
stall zone is often the herald of a periodic rotating- of the stall zones ranged from 43 to 57 percent of
stall pattern that develops at lower weight flows.
Periodic rotating-stall zones are observed as the
weight flow is further reduced to region C of
figure 231. A typical rotating-stall pattern for
this area is shown by the oscillogram of figure 233.
Further throttling of the compressor weight flow
may promote changes in the rotating-stall patterns
with respect to the number and size of the stall
zones. If the weight flow is gradually increased,
generally the same rotating-stall patterns will ap-
pear; however, the stall pattern will be instigated
at higher weight flow, as shown in figure 231.
This behavior of stall instigation is called hysteresis.
Characteristics of experimentally observed stall
Time
patterns.--Single-stage compressors: Rotating-
stall characteristics have been investigated in a
considerable number of single-stage experimental FIGUaE 233.--Typical rotating-stall oscillogram.
4.2
_Number of . / . -_
:o_ --|stall zones
- --
3.8
.9 3.4
X o
_ 5L.(Z I I 3.0
I,o
n 21_._ _]_ ._ ..... .4 .5 ,6 .7 .8
Flow coefficient c_ 2.6
FIGURE 234.--Performance of single-stage compressor 2 2.2
showing conditions at which rotating stall occurs (3

,
>
the rotor speed, and the stall propagated in the 0
direction of the rotor rotation (absolute frame of
1.4
reference) for all compressors investigated.
Rotating-stall characteristics are superimposed t.C
_2 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44
on a typical multistage-compressor performance
Equivolent weight flow, Ib/sec
map in figure 235. For this compressor, stall
existed throughout the compressor in the inter- FIGURE 235.--l'crformance of multistage compressor
mediate-speed range. The number of stall zones showing conditions at which rotating stall occurs.
increased with a decrease in the weight flow at a

given speed. Single-stage-compressor design data are given in
table VII.
Single-stage and multistage stall data sum-
CLASSIFICATION OF STALL
mary. Tables VI (a) and (b) give a general
summary of the stall data from single-stage and Rotating stall may be classified as progressive
multistage colnpressors, respectively. More in- or abrupt, according to the performance charac-
formation regarding stall has been taken for teristic of the COnlpressor. In addition, the stall
single-stage units than for multistage compressors. pattern is described as partial or total span and
TABLE VI.--SUMMARY OF ROTATING-STALL DATA
(a) single-stage compressors
Corn- IIub-tip Number Propagation Weight-flow Radial

Type of velocity prcssor radius of stall rate, Stall fluctuation extent of Type of stall Refer-
diagram number ratio zones speed, abs/ (luring stall, stall zone enee
rotor speed _p V/p V
Symmetrical __ 1 0. 50 3 0. 420 1.39 Partial Progressive

4
5
475
.523
2.14
1.66 l i
265
2 0.90 1 0.305 1.2 Total Abrupt
3 0. 80 8 0. 87 0. 76 Partial Progressive
1 36 1.30 Total Abrupt
4 0. 76 7 0. 25 2.14 Partial Progressive

8 25 I.10
5 25 I. 10
3 .23 2.02
4 48 1.47 Total
3 48 2.02
2 .49 1.71
O. 72 6,8 O. 245 0.71 to 1.33 Total Progressive 271
Free vortex .... O. 60 l 0.48 0.6O Partial Progressive

2 .36 .60 Partial Progressive
t .10 .68 Total Abrupt 268
Solid body ..... 0.60 l 0.45 0,60 Partial Progressive

l ,12 .65 Total Abrupt
Vortex 0.50 3 0. 816 ............ Partial Progressive 55

transonic 2 334 ............ Total Progressive J
O. 50 O. 565 ............ Total Abrupt ......
O. 40 ........................ Partial Progressive 233

TABLE VI.--Conchlded. SUMMARY OF ROTATING-STALL DATA
(b) Multistage compressors
Propagation
Compres- Number rate, Stall Radial
sor num- of stall speed, abs/ extent of Periodicity Type of stall Reference
ber zones rotor speed stall zone
1 3 0. 57 Partial
'
5
6
7
1 1
2 4 0.55 Partial Intermittent Progressive 19
5
0 1 i
3 1 O. 48 Partial Steady Progressive Unpublished
data
4 1 0. 57 Partial
3
4-' [ t Stiady P rogiessive
5 i 1 0. 57 Partial Intermittent Progressive 20
3
4
5
1
6 1 O. 47 Total Stead y Abrupt Unpublished
data
7 1 O. 43 Total Steady Abrupt 267
8 1 O. 53 Total Steady Abrupt 20
TABLE VII.--SINGLE-STAGE-COMPRESSOR DESIGN DATA
/ - \\ \fv_,3
vZ, I
, V2
I/z,i, VI
i= u, "--'-'_1 v' [
] u2
Compressors 2, 4, 5, ond I0 Compressors I ond 5 Compressor 8
Com- I
pres- Hub- Design VI.I
tip n, t 'j U, t',t u,
L
tip V2/ U, ,,_lu, U, tU U deg deg
(t__le ratio speed, deg deg
VI(a)) ft/sec
777.5 L 706 L 846 L 856 ,.740 Io. 745 10.6_ _. 694 0. 7[6 1.749 L763 18.9 37.9 36.0 20. 48 t$.9 1
o._ 6 725 9475 9475 .725 1.725 1.670 .670 670 .950 .950 2'2. 68 45 45 2'2.68 zz.6s I
i 8o 826 ._15 915 941 .670 1.701 1.6oo .637 . _170 .898 .898 18.95 49.12 47.38 17.9'2 17.1 1
79O 9471 9585 9585 94711 .9471'.7328 .7328 7328 .8807 .S807 20.30 39.70 39.70 20. 30 20.30
790 9273 .9363 9363 .9'273 .9273 .7213 7213 .'3'213 .8594 ._594 20,49 39.25 39.25 20. 49 20.49 ]
1000 .60 :_--- _?-- ::::: _ -{_---

1000
: 40 .6 1000 647 9,53 -_)--- a?_- _i?i ,_?_
steady or intermittent, according to the geometry important way to denote stall types. A smooth,
of the stall zone and the periodicity. continuous stage performance characteristic in the
Progressive or abrupt stall.--Classifying rotat- stall region similar to that shown in figure 234
ing stall by the type of stage performance charac- indicates the gradual increase in blocked annulus
teristic assooiated with it is probably the most area due to stall. Appropriately, this type is
COMPRESSOR
STALLANDBLADEVIBRATION 317
.6 characteristic for classifying rotating stall. In

addition to extending circumferentially over sev-
-5
eral blade passages, the stall zone also covers part
or all of the blade span. Thus, the term partial-
_.4 span stall is used to denote stall covering part of
-I the blade span, and total-span refers to stall
o_ covering the whole blade length. Figure 237
shows the type of oscillogram obtained during a
_.2 radial traverse with a hot-wire-anemometer probe.
The large-amplitude pulsations from hub to tip
a_
(fig. 237(a)) are typical for total-span stall.
Figure 237(b) shows a partial-span stall concen-
0 2 4 trated at the tip, as shown by the disappearance
6 8
Pressure ratio at stall of the stall "blip" from the anemometer trace at
the hub.
FIGURE 236.--Correlation of pressure drop at stall with
compressor pressure ratio at stall. Steady or intermittent stall.--It has been ob-
served that compressors may also have an inter-
called "progressive" stall. In contrast, a discon- mittent type of stall pattern for a given operating
tinuous stage performance characteristic like that point. In this case one stall pattern exists for an
instant, then changes to a new stall pattern. In-
shown in figure 231 has also been observed during
termittent changing among three different stall
stall. Generally, for this type of performance
patterns has been observed in one multistage
curve a single stall zone covering as much as half
the annulus area and extending over the entire compressor.
blade span has been observed. Because of the GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON ROTATING-STALL PHENOMENA
discontinuity in the pressure curve, this type of The following general observations concerning
stall is called "abrupt." rotating-stall phenomena are made from examina-
The term "complete compressor stall" is applied tion of the existing data. The remarks apply to
to multistage compressors to describe a discon- both single-stage and multistage compressors.
tinuous performance curve similar to that for Exceptions to the generalizations are also discussed.
abrupt stall of single-stage compressors. The Hysteresis effect.--When a COnlpressor is be-
complete-compressor-stall points on the perform- ing run at a constant aerodynamic speed and a
ance may define the stall-limit line. rotating-stall pattern is encountered during a
Tile magnitude of the pressure drop at tile throttling of the weight flow, usually that same
discontinuous point of the performance character- stall pattern will be observed for subsequent re-
istic is shown in figure 236 for abrupt stall of blade peated tests. In fact, for single-stage tests over
elements. Here the pressure drop due to stall a range of speeds the stall pattern will be repeated
divided by the pressure rise immediately before for all speeds if the compressor is operated at the
encountering stall is plotted against the com- same flow coefficient in each case. However, it is
pressor pressure ratio measured just before com- interesting that once a stall pattern has been
pressor stall. Both single-stage and multistage established during a throttling process, if the flow
data are included; that is, both abrupt and com- is allowed to increase, the pattern will persist above
plete-compressor stall data are plotted. Evi- the value of the throttled weight flow (or flow
dently, abrupt stall of some blade elements and coefficient for single-stage compressors) to a higher
complete compressor stall are similar. From this weight flow before disappearing. A graphical
figure it is apparent that the pressure drop accom- superposition of this apparent reluctance of the
panying complete compressor stall is severe and stall pattern to change on a compressor perform-
will result in appreciable penalties in compressor ance curve resembles the well-known hysteresis
efficiency. loop of other physical phenomena. Consequently,
Partial- or total-span stall.--The radial extent it has been labeled "hysteresis," although no time-
of the stall zone along a blade is another convenient dependency is involved. The resemblance is most
weight flow marking the inception of a pattern

during the throttling process is lower than that
marking the disappearance of the pattern when
the flow is increased.
Stall-propagation rates.--Single-stage compres-
sors exhibit a wider range of stall-propagation rate
than multistage c_)mpressors. Most multistage
compressors have stall patterns with propagation
Mean
rates of about half the rotor speed; whereas, single-
stage-compressor stall patterns range from approx-
imately 10 to 85 percent of rotor speed. Both
multi-stage and single-stage compressors usually
exhibit one stall-propagation rate for all stall
patterns, if the geometry of the stall pattern does
0 i not change. Exceptions to this generality have
Hub been mentioned in the discussion of single-stage
stall data. No exceptions have been observed for
multistage compressors.
+ Flow and pressure fluetuations.--Table VI(a)
includes a column in which the flow fluctuation
accompanying rotating stall in a single-stage com-
pressor is listed in terms of the parameter ApV//pV.
o The magnitude of ApV p/_-varies from 0.6 to 2.14.
No apparent correlation of the magnitude of the
parameter with the size or number of stall zones
T f-TT"
T can be obtained
stage compressors.
The
measured
from
magnitude
from the existing
of ApV/_
during design flow conditions
approximately
the stall disturbance
0.1 to 0.2.
is rather
data on single-
for blade wakes

may range
By comparison,
severe.
The magnitude of the parameter _pV/p-Vin the
ol
Mean inlet stage of a 10-stage research compressor was
found to be similar to that observed in single-stage
compressors. The stall data reported in refer-
ence 266 were obtained at 50, 60, and 70 percent
of design speed. This operating region is the
ol
Hub inlet-stage stall region indicated in figure 229.
By locating hotwire anemometers at various axial
stages, the magnitude of the flow fluctuation
(b)
throughout the entire compressor was measured.
Time
The data of figure 238 (ref. 266) show that the in-
(a) Total-span stall. tensity of the flow-fluctuation level diminished
(b) Partial-span stall. appreciably after the fourth or fifth stage of the
compressor.
FIaUR_. 237.--Sketches of typical oscilloscope traces of
total- and partial-span rotating stall. The pressure fluctuations peculiar to the abrupt
stall that occurs along the stall-limit or surge line
striking for abrupt stall, because a distinct loop is of multistage compressors are significant, because
formed. the attendant efficiency drop limits the useful en-
This so-called hysteresis effect is also present gine operating range. In discussing figure 236, it
when a change in the stall pattern occurs. The was pointed out that an abrupt (40- or 50-percent)
drop in pressure rise may occur when the com- _.4 -
pressor operating point reaches the stall-limit line.

"5 1,2
In reference 267 the drop in the discharge pressure
and the pressure fluctuation accompanying abrupt 2_
g_ r.o
stall were measured during stalled operation. At g_
82-percent design speed, when the compressor
reached the stall-limit line, the mean level of the
discharge pressure dropped 50 percent and the o
_=_ .6
discharge pressure fluctuated 25 percent above and
below the mean pressure level of the stalled oper- _5_ .4
ation. o
Usually, the rotating-stall pattern observed a_ .2

when the stall-limit line is reached is a single-
zone total-span stall. Because of the disconti-
0 Stator 2 Stat0r 4 Stator 7
nuity in the performance curve, the stall is Axial distance

classified as abrupt. FIGURE 238.--Variation of flow fluctuation with axial
Multistaging effect.--Experimental evidence has distance in compressor at three radii at 50-percent
shown that data on propagation rate or number of design speed fief. 266).
stall zones in single-stage compressors do not ap-
ply to the rotating-stall characteristics of multi- were used to block part of the flow into the com-
stage units composed of these stages. In refer- pressor inlet. When the screens were arranged to
ence 268, the single-stage stall data for three produce circumferential variation in the flow, no
identical stages composing a multistage compres- appreciable changes in the stalling characteristics
sor are compared with the multistage stall data. were evident. However, when radial gradients in
In order to explain the difference in the stall of the flow were achieved by partial blockage of the
stages tested individually and as a part of a multi- whole annulus of the inlet passage, the stalling
stage compressor, multistaging or interaction characteristic of the compressor was altered sig-
effects must be considered. nificantly.
In multistage compressors, each stage operates ]t was previously pointed out that, when rotat-
in an aerodynamic environment determined to ing stall occurs in multistage compressors, the stall
some extent by all the compressor stages. This zones extend throughout the entire axial length of
environment comprises two multistaging or inter- the compressor, as shown in figure 238. This
action effects: means that each stage in the compressor will ex-
(1) The radial gradients in axial velocity perience periodically recurring low-flow zones. If
emanating from a stage at off-design opera- a stage or stages operate sufficiently near the stall
tion, which may be sufficiently severe to point, the presence of the low-flow zones may cause
cause a stall angle of attack over a part of stall angles of attack to occur when the blades
the blade span of some downstream blade pass through the stall zones.
row
Variation in stall patterns.--One of the objec-
(2) The influence of low-flow or stall zones tives in presenting table VI is to emphasize the
emanating from other stages of the com- great variety of stall patterns that have been
pressor observed. At present, there appears to be no
The result of the radial gradient in axial ve- way of cataloging the stall with respect to any
locity might well be the development of a rotat- type of compressor design. Among several com-
ing-stall pattern considerably different from any- mercial engines of one type, each of which was in-
thing expected from single-stage stall data alone. stalled in the same test facility, the stall patterns
In a series of tests conducted at the NACA l,ewis were different, although the propagation rate re-
laboratory on a production turbojet engine, it was mained essentially the same. Apparently, in this
observed that the stall characteristics of the c.om- case the stall pattern was sensitive to such small
pressor could be changed by altering the velocity changes in compressor geometry as would result
profile entering the first blade row. Wire screens from production tolerances. Such minute differ-
, , , r i
ences in geometry would be difficult to include in I 1-1 I)i klumber of stall zones-
a theory that would predict the stall pattern from Resonance with.,_ 4 , 3
1.0 fundomental J/_ ]
design data. o_
_'g .8
Effect of inlet temperature.--Stall frequency for Resonance __
-with first _ ] _ i
a given stall pattern is proportional to actual
engine speed and is independent of inlet tempera-
17
:Resononce wth _L_
ture. The speed range over _hieh a given stall _OD _ .4
second harmonicl
pattern is observed is a function of equivalent __ _-_no4nnc: with
speed and therefore
If the mechanical
varies with inlet temperature.
speed is changed to accom-
r'r" c
<:f'i'7"rr7
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360
modate inlet temperature changes, so that the Rotor speed, rps
corrected speed N/x_ is constant, the stall fre-
FIt_URE 239.--Variation of stall frequency with rotor speed
quency will vary with the mechanical speed.
for three stall patterns in a single-stage compressor.
Consequently, it. will be impossible to tune the
natural frequency of the compressor blades to
first two harnmnics, as shown in figure 239, which
avoid a resonance with the fundamental stall
is a plot of the ratio of the stall frequency to the
disturbance or its harmonics over a range of
natural bending frequency of the blade against
compressor-inlet temperatures.
rotor speed. Resonant vibrations occur at com-
BLADE VIBRATION INCURRED DURING ROTATING STALL
pressor speeds corresponding to the intersection
Since rotating stall consists of one or more low- of the stall-frequency line with horizontal lines
flow zones that rotate in the compressor annulus, representing resonance with the fundamental
usually at constant speed, the blade rows experi- stall frequency and the first two harmonics.
ence periodic aerodynamic forces as the low- and Other fatigue failures of experimental single-
high-flow zones go by the blades. In reference stage compressors have been attributed to rotating
269 the fluctuating forces due to rotating stall stall. Stall data were not obtained for all the
were measured on the guide wines and stators of compressors that failed, but each compressor had
a single-stage compressor. The blade-force fluctu- been operated in the stalled region. Most of
ations during rotating stall were comparable to these compressors were stages of 0.5 hub-tip ratio.
the steady-state blade force measured during A fatigue failure with much shorter blades, where
unstalled operation. This periodic force can the hub-tip ratio was 0.72, was attributed to
therefore be a source of resonant blade vibration, resonance between the relative fundamental stall
where the frequency of the stall relative to the frequency and the natural bending frequency of
blades excites the blades. From current evidence, the blades (see ref. 271).
the compressor designer must ahvays be concerned Multistage compressors,--Although several
with the possibility of blade failure due to reso- multistage-compressor failures at the NACA might
nance between the blade frequency and the stall be attributable to rotating stall, only one was
frequency. sufficiently instrumented with strain gages and
Single-stage compressors.--When the high hot-wire anemometers to trace the failure directly
stresses accompanying rotating st_dl are investi- to rotating stall. This investigation is reported in
gated, it is necessary first to determine the magni- reference 19, in which a resonant-vibration condi-
tude of the blade stresses when accompanied by tion was found in the first-stage rotor at approxi-
rotating stall. An investigation of the effect of inately 62- and 70-percent design speed, as shown
rotating stall on the blading of a single-stage in figure 240. The strain-age data indicated vibra-
compressor with a hub-tip radius ratio of 0.5 is tory stresses of approximately =t=13,500 and
reported in reference 270. The experimental 4-34,800 pounds per square inch, respectively, at
results show that stall zones can excite blade these operating points, which were sufficient to
vibration with resultant bending stresses suffi- cause fatigue failure of the aluminum blades.
ciently severe to cause blade failure. Fatigue Typical high-stress vibration bursts caused by
cracks were observed in the aluminum stator rotating stall as recorded from the strain gages are
blades. The blades were in resonance with the shown in figure 241 for 62-percent design speed.
260 _-Colc blade - fillet radius may substantially increase the stiffness
r _ r v
of blades. In addition, the method of blade at-
7f,_ std blade - tachment or blade support is a design variable
that can alter the damping.
Preventing stalled attitude: As was mentioned
250 _ in the INTRODUCTION, part-speed operation
of multistage compressors causes the exit stages
to choke, which limits the flow in the inlet stages
and causes them to stall. Any bleed-off system
that unchokes the rear stages will alleviate the
stalling condition in the inlet stages and conse-
19054 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76
quently will increase the stall-free range of the
Speed, percent raled
compressor.
FIGUaE 240.--Correlation of relative stall frequency with Another possible method of increasing the stall-
rotor blade-vibration frequency for a multistage com- free range of a compressor is the use of adjustable
pressor (ref. 19).
guide vanes and stators. By this method, the
angle of attack on the inlet rotors is diminished
Methods of alleviating blade vibration.--To the
so tlmt stall of the early stages is delayed. By
axial-flow-compressor designer, t:he most serious increasing the angle of attack in the latter stages,
result of rotating stall is blade failure. The theory the situation there is improved. This device is
of rotating stall developed thus far does not pro- currently being used in one commercial multistage
vide a method for predicting stall frequency for compressor as a means of improving the part-
new designs and thus "tuning" blades out of
speed operation.
dangerous blade-vibration frequencies. Further-
Disrupting periodicity of stall: As a means of
more, as mentioned in the discussion of the effect
controlling the stalling characteristics of multi-
of inlet temperature on the stall frequency, it ap- stage compressors, adjustable inlet ramps or
pears impossible to tune the blades for all the baffles have been used. Reference 20 reports the
troublesome stall frequencies over the range of successful application of ramps at the hub that
inlet temperature encountered in flight. appreciably reduced the range of inlet-stage stall.
Since it appears impossible to tune blades to The effect of the ramps or baffles is to reduce the
avoid critical stall frequencies, other possible inlet flow area. In engines tested with the baffles,
means of circumventing the blade-vibration prob- rotating-stall patterns were no longer periodic, and
lem must be considered. These include (1) in- the danger of blade failure due to resonant vibra-
creasing the damping of the blades, (2) preventing tion was eliminated.
the operation of any compressor blade row in a
THEORIES OF ROTATING STALL
stalled attitude, and (3) disrupting the periodicity

of the stall patterns so that a resonant condition Several theoretical analyses have been proposed
between tile blade frequency and the stall fre- to predict the propagation rate of rotating stall.
quency cannot exist. In order to identify the theories for discussion,
Increasing blade damping: The vibration- each is referred to by the name of the first author.
damping properties of a blade may be changed The notation is that used in the original references.
markedly by changing tile blade material. Some Emmons theory.--In the presentation of the
materials exhibit greater damping properties than Emmons theory in reference 272, the authors did
others; for example, stainless steel has better not produce a result involving the prediction of
damping properties than aluminum. Blades fab- Stall-propagation rates. The purpose of the
bricated from plastics are currently being investi- analysis was to establish the necessary conditions
gated for their damping qualities. Obviously, for the amplification of small disturbances of
the damping properties of a blade may also be asymmetric flow corresponding to those observed
improved by changing the mecimnical desi_g_l of in stall propagation.
the blade. Such modifications as altering the The physical model analyzed was a cascade in
thickness-chord ratio, the aspect ratio, or the which total-pressure losses were considered by
691-564 0-65-22
FIGURE 241.--Oscillogram of vibration burst caused by six-zone stall patterm Engine speed, 62-percent demgn; blade-
vibration frequency, 219 cps (r('f. 19).
introducing a parameter a, which consisted of the chord to wavelength ratio, and effective-area to
ratio of an isentropic flow area required to carry inlet-area ratio.
the inlet flow to the actual exit flow area. A Results and conclusions: According to Sten-
linear dependence between this parameter and the ning, the equation for stall-propagation rate is
tangent of the inlet flow angle of the cascade was
assumed, and the static pressure behind the blade U,,,__ cot/_, (365)
row was considered constant. (NACA data
(ref. 273) show that the static pressure behind the where
blade row varies appreciably.) Under certain
circumstances, with the assumption of an initial u_ stall-zone velocity relative to blade row
small asymmetric disturbance at the cascade en- Cz axial velocity
trance, the analysis showed emphatically that the relative inlet-air angle
asymmetric flow will develop into a large dis- ratio of effective exit area to inlet area
turbance. $2 relative outlet-air angle
As a result of the small-perturbation analysis, L blade chord
the authors of the Emmons theory concluded that n integers giving harmonics
the velocity of propagation is proportional to the b one-half wavelength of disturbance
wavelength. The Emmons theory suggests that
an analysis involving finite disturbances will A carpet plot of equation (365) is shown in
yield an answer to the size of the stall zones. figure 242. The inlet-air angle _ and the outlet-
Stenning theory.--The Stenning theory (ref. air angle/_ are treated as variables in the plot, and
274) extends the work of Emznons by more pre- the ratio L/b is considered as a parameter. The
cisely defining the time-delay mechanisms on ordinate of the graph is the stall-propagation
which the velocity or propagation of rotating stall parameter (ratio of relative stall speed U to
depends. The principal time delays considered rotor speed at mean blade height o_R) multiplied
are the inertia of the fluid between the airfoils and by the square of the area-ratio parameter a.
the response of the boundary layer. Data from table VI(a) are presented for compari-
Theory: The author bases his analysis on the son with the values predicted by theory. It
same model setup used by Emmons, where it was shouhl be pointed out that the configuration of the
assumed that the effective outlet area of a chan- compressors did not closely correspond to Sten-
nel representing the blade passage is reduced as a ning's model. Because it, is impossible to obtain
result of stall and that the static pressure remains reliable measurements of flow angles during stall,
constant behind the cascade. By considering the inlet angle was calculated from the weight-
small perturbations in velocity from the steady flow data, and outlet angle could only be estimated.
flow, a solution is obtained from momentum con- In addition, the ratio a is not a measurable quan-
siderations within the cascade for the velocity of tity and could only be estimated as some value
stall propagation in terms of inlet and exit angle, less than unity. (Stenning considers it to be
-- Stenning theory
..... Experimental res.ults[
i _
1
i i
0
FIGURE 242.--Carpet plot of Stenning's results (cq. (365)) ; 0</9=<40 .
0.75.) Thus, only the inlet-air angle, the prop- first paper (ref. 275) demonstrates that asym-
agation-rate parameter, and the value of L/b metric flow can exist in a cascade. It also presents
could be considered to be "data" in the compari- a picture of the model used by Sears for the second
son. The carpet surfaces were drawn to extend paper.
over a wide range of possible exit and inlet flow Theory: To represent a blade row in a compres-
angles. Assuming o_ to be 0.5, most experimental sor, an annulus of infinitely many blades of small
data of table VI(a) are within the values predicted chord was chosen. This configuration amounts to
by the Stenning theory. These points are plotted an actuator disk or vortex sheet simulating the
on the interpolated L/b carpet plots indicated by blade row, as shown in figure 243. The flow
the dashed lines. If a is taken as 0.75 as Stenning pattern was considered steady with respect to a
suggests, the data do not agree well with the rotating coordinate system (rotating slower than
theoretical values. These points do not appear rotor speed), so that the circulation distribution in
in figure 242. It is not clear whether the in- the disk could be assumed to be a function of the
consistency of the predicted values as compared
with the data should be attributed to the limita-
tions of the theory or to inappropriate applica-
tion of the theory to compressors not similar to the
model used by Stenning.
Region of
The theoretical results show that the velocity irrotational
of stall propagation relative to the rotor increases flow
Rotational flow
with the size of the stall zone. A comparison with I
/
the test results of Emmons also shows this to be /
/
true; however, stall data taken from the com- L Swirl angle of
pressors of table VI(a) indicate this may not always asymmetric flow with
respect to inlet flow x
be the case. The inclusion of a boundary-layer \
veclor \
time delay in the analysis had the effect of de- 41"
_- Rotation of
creasing the velocity of propagation of the stall asymmetric
flow
zone and indicated that rotating stall is possible
for a range of inlet angles.
Sears airfoil theory.--Sears has published two
papers on the subject of stall propagation. The FIGURE 243.--Actuator disk employed by Sears.
y-coordinate of figure 243. An incompressible flow an asymmetric pattern imposed on the flow field;
field was assumed, and small-perturbation theory Sears did not emi)loy a stability study to show that
was applied in the analysis. Since the blades of an asymnmtric flow could initiate itself under the
this rotor move relative to a fixed circulation discon(litions mentioned in the preceding paragraph.
tribution, they experience unsteady flow. Un- Sears channel theory.--Theory: The second
steady-flow theory states that airfoils will shed paper by Sears (ref. 277) presents an extension of
wakes at their trailing edges. The complete the first theory. The analysis involving the
model, then, consists of a vortex sheet representing airfoil relations is repeated, but the final results are
the rotor, an irrotational flow field representing the presented in a somewhat different manner. The
flow entering the rotor, and a rotational flow phase angle A is related to the asymmetric-flow
representing the wake leaving the rotor disk. propagation rate and the properties of tile cascade
The model proposed by Sears differs from that by the following formula:
used by Emmons in the following respects: Sears
2k+b
used an actuator disk where Emmons used a tan A=b+(_) (l+b') (366)
cascade of finite length; and, while Emmons
where
assumed constant static pressure at the exit of
the cascade, Sears considered the vorticity follow-
ing the blade row to be uniformly distributed and b _ (h--q_ tan _)
did not impose any restrictions on the pressure
field.
The principal object of Sears in reference 275 flow coefficient
was to develop the relation between the induced
h/N ratio of stall-propagation rate to rotor speed,
velocities at the rotor disk and the circulation
absolute frame of reference
distribution. Briefly, the manner of solving the
absolute inlet-air angle
problem was to divide the flow field into two parts,
an irrotational part and a rotational part, and The analysis also presents an equation that
then to devise relations between the x and y
relates the slope of the lift curve m to the variables
velocity components in each type of flow (see fig.
appearing in equation (366):
243). The next step was to develop expressions
for the circulation in terms of the velocity distribu- --mcr l+b 2
tion. The induced inflow velocities at the actuator 4 -- _ _/l+(b-l-k)' cos A (367)
disk could then be calculated when the circulation
distribution was known. To complete the solu- where is the solidity. The curves of the pre-
tion, airfoil theory was used to relate the circula- dicted asymnletrie flow patterns for the airfoil
tion function to the incidence angle of the blade theory (fig. 244(a)) result from the simultaneous
row. This type of solution is called the "airfoil solution of equations (366) and (367). It should
theory" to distinguish it from another analysis in be noted that the parameter k used by Sears is the
which Sears substituted a so-called "channel ratio of the stall-propagation speed to the axial
theory." velocity.
Results and conclusions: Assuming a sinusoidal In this theory, an analysis involving channel
variation in the circulation distribution, Sears relations is substituted for the airfoil analysis.
found that no solution could be obtained for a lift The so-called channel theory is based on empirical
function that was linear with incidence angle, relations derived from cascade tests. The two
whether the airfoil is s_alled or unstalled. How- principal relations of the channel theory state that
ever, when a phase angle was introduced between the relative outlet-air angle is a function of the
the lift and angle of attack so that the lift lagged inlet angle and that the pressure rise across the
the angle of attack, a solution was found, which blade row is independent of the inlet-air angle.
means that a permanent asymmetric flow pattern The principal distinction between tile airfoil theory
exists. The phase-angle concept used by Sears and the channel theory is an inclusion of the total-
was based on the work presented in reference 276. pressure loss in the latter. Since stall implies
Emmons and Stenning studied the stability of large losses, it would seem at the outset that the
COMPRESSOR
STALLANDBLADEVIBRATION 325
the tangent of the swirl angle of the asymmetric

i t Phase aeg
angle, z_.' flow pattern relative to the rotor.
.-20 For the airfoil analysis, solutions were found for
40 a considerable range of phase angles including zero.
<50 ]n reference 275 Sears assumed a small swirl
angle and did not obtain a solution for zero phase
angle; but in reference 277 the swirl angle con-
sidered was larger, and a solution resulted for
zero phase angle. However, the zero-phase-angle
solutions do seem out of the range of the compres-
sor data and consequently are of little interest.
The channel-analysis solution shown in figure
244(b) indicates that asymmetric flow patterns are
possible for a wider range of conditions than was
evident from the airfoil analysis. For flow condi-
tions comparable to actual compressor data,
asymmetric flow solutions are possible with zero
phase lag. The equation for the please angle
used in tile channel analysis is
1 b2- k 2
tan 6=b(b+k)_+2k+b (368)
where k and b are the same parameters used in the

airfoil analysis. In the channel-theory analysis,
the slope of the pressure-rise curve plays a role
analogous to that of the slope of the lift curve in
(a) Airfoil theory.
the airfoil theory. The expression for the slope
(b) Channel theory.
m of the pressure-rise curve is
FIGURE 244.--Predicted asymmetric flow patterns ob-
tained from Sears theory of rotating stall.
ra _ l+(b+/c)2 (369)
_/i -t- b 2
channel theory would conform more nearly to the
physics of tile actual flow. The procedure of the The curves of the asymmetric flow patterns for
analysis involving channel theory is similar to that the channel theory shown in figure 244(b) result
of the airfoil theory previously outlined. Also, a from simultaneous solution of equations (368) and
phase angle $ comparable to the phase angle A (369).
of airfoil theory is introduced. Experimental comparison: In reference 278, ex-
Results and conclusions: Solutions for asym- perimental rotating-stall data from several single-
metric flows satisfying the conditions of the prob- stage compressors are compared with the results
lem were found for both types of analysis. The of Sears' theory. Both the airfoil and channel
results of both airfoil and channel analyses are analyses were tried; however, it was found that,
presented in reference 277 in graphical form and in using the channel analysis, the phase angle
are reproduced here in figure 244. The ordinate was consistently negative. To the authors of
and abscissa are labeled with Sears' notation and reference 278, a negative phase angle seemed in-
consistent with physical interl)retation, and for
in terms of the vector-diagram terminology. The
this reason the comparison was limited to the air-
ordinate is the rotor tangentiM velocity relative
foil analysis, where the computed phase angle A
to the tangential velocity of the stall propagation was positive for all the data used.
divided by the axial velocity, anti the abscissa is The points in figure 245 rel)resent experimental
simply the tangent of the mean relative inlet-air data superimpose(l on the theoretieMly derived
angle/_'. The ordinate may also be expressed as curves. The data points for each stall-propaga-
326 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
I I t t 1 1 o _rt_hs_n stall_ Experiment 8O

t t t _ _ flo Total-spanstall l (refs.265,.
t4 ' 2ro,27s)
5.0 " -- 70
....
..,=-_
_ _.o
0 .4 .8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 5.2 5.6 4.0

Tangentof meanrelative inlet-airangle,tan B'
0 .I .2 .5 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
FmcaE 2]5.--Correlation of stall data with analytically Stall speed relative to rolor
derived phase angle (Sears theory).
Rotor speed
tion rate lie along curves of approximately con- FIGURE 246.--Relation between stall rotational speed
st ant phase angle. Furthermore, if the phase relative to rotor and phase angle (ref. 278).
angle is plotted as a function of the stall-propaga-
tion rate, a correlation exists, as shown by figure across the actuator disk. The pressure-rise curw_
246. The stall-propagation rate diminishes as the across the disk (based on experimental evidence)
was assumed to be a linear function of the air
phase angle increases, which seems to be in accord
inlet angle for unstalled flow, but for stalled flow
with the generally accepted mechanism of stall
the pressure rise was assumed to drop discon-
propagation. Also apparently involved in the
process of stall propagation is a time constant tinuously to zero. In choosing this discontinuous
that governs the propagation rate. The greater lift curve, Marble more fully described the per-
the time constant., the slower the propagation formance of the channel in comparison with the
rate. The correlation of phase angle and stall- Sears linearized lift curve. Consequently, Marble
propagation rate of figure 246 does not permit was able to obtain solutions for the peripheral
extent of the stall zone as well as the stall-
the prediction of stall-propagation rates, since the
phase angle cannot be determined from design propagation rate.
data. The expression for stall-propagation rate differs
Marble theory.--A recent analysis of rotating from that of Sears, in that a phase angle was not
stall is presented by Marble in reference 279. In included in Marble's equation. Bv considering
this theory, an expression for the stall-propagation the pressure-rise parameter to be a function of
rate and the peripheral extent of the stall zone is the air inlet angle and to behave as described,
developed. the increased losses attending stall were included
Theory: The model employed in the analysis is in the analysis. Marble simulated the asym-
similar to that used by Sears in his channel theory, metric flow in his model by considering a stall
zone of variahle circumferential width to exist in
in that the blade row is simulated by means of
the actuator disk. It was assumed that small-
an actuator disk across which pressure and fluid
velocity change discontinuously. Using an actu- perturbation theory could be applied to describe
ator disk to represent the blade row without the the influence of rotatingstall on the velocity and
introduction of a phase angle prohibits Marble pressure. The coordinate system used in the
from introducing inertia effects within the blade analysis was selected to rotate at stall frequency
row. The Stenning analysis demonstrated the so that the steady-flow equations would apply.
significance of inertia in the blade passage and In order to describe the "flow field upstream and
its effect on stall-propagation velocity. Experi- downstream of the actuator disk, it was assumed
mental characteristics of a cascade were utilized that the pressure and angle perturbations vanished
to prescribe the change in pressure and velocity far upstream and were at most a constant value
far downstream. When these upstream and down- The peripheral extent of the stall zone a for the
stream conditions were known, as well as the pres- more general cascade model is given by
sure rise and flow angle for both tile stalled and
1
unstalled region of the actuator disk, the problem
was to find a stall zone of suitable size and propa- pu_ I'-,r cos_/3,'_
a:_--4(_*--_,) _- Ltlq--a co_ / csc 2fl,--t-_]
gation rate to satisfy these flow conditions. First
of all, Marble solved the problem for a "simple (373)
cascade," one in which deviation angle remained
constant for all values of incidence angle. A very where b is a constant in the expression for pressure
rise across the cascade.
simple expression for stall-propagation rate and
circumferential extent of the stall zone was Marble concluded that t}le ratio a is generally
obtained. a small positive quantity, and that variations in
The equation for stall-propagation speed is the deviation angle prescribed by the "general
cascade characteristics" would not alter the stall-
_R propagation rate predicted from the simple-
--=csc 2fl, (370)
7_ cascade equation. Consequently, variations in
where the deviation angle do not influence the stall-
propagation rate. This conclusion agrees with
oR stall-propagation speed most experhncntal evidence. As has been pointed
u axial velocity out in the general discussion of rotating-stall
fl, relative inlet-air angle characteristics, stall-propagation rate remains
constant over a wide range of weight-flow condi-
The peripheral extent of the stall zone a is given
tions in the stall region.
by the following expression:
Experimental comparison: Because of the lack
1 2 of unclassified experimental rotating-stall data,
1 Marble was able to use the data from only one
(371)
a=5--4(fl*--fl,) csc 2fl, \AT*/
compressor to compare the experimental stall-
where propagation rates with predictions from his
theory. Stall data from several NACA single-
fl* relative inlet-air angle at stall stage compressors were compared with propaga-
p density tion rates predicted by Marble. Included in the
Ap* static-pressure rise at stall comparison were data on total-span rotating-stall
patterns in order to resemble more closely the
After solving the problem for the simple cascade, geometry of the stall zone used in Marble's model.
a solution was completed with "general cascade Equation (370), which is the solution for the simple
characteristics." For the general characteristics cascade, was used to calculate the propagation
the pressure rise across the cascade and the devia- rates. The equation was modified so tilat the
tion angle are considered functions of the incidence guide-vane turning and the stall-propagation-rate
angle. This is a nlore realistic representation of parameter of table VI could be used.
an actual cascade. Expressions were developed The ordinate of figure 247 is the absolute stall-
for the stall-propagation rate anti the circum- propagation-rate parameter, and the abscissa is
ferential extent of the stall zone that were more
the inlet-airflow angle computed at the mid-
complicated than for the simple case. The ex- radius station. Good agreement was obtained
pression for the stall-propagation rate based on between Mari)le's predicted propagation rate and
general cascade characteristics is the data from compressor 4 of table V[(a), but
the comparison with the other data on the curve
_-=
( 1 +a cos 2
(372) was poor.
._ co_T-_2 / csc 2_,
As is shown in figure 247, Marble's theory
where a is the ratio of outlet-angle perturbation predicts that, for proper inlet angle and counter-
to inlet-angle perturbation, and f12 is the relative rotating guide-vane turning, the stall zones shouht
outlet-air angle. rotate in the opposite direction (absolute coordi-
row generally manifests itself in some type of

propagating stall and that individual blade stall
is an exception.
STALL FLUTTER
DISTINCTION BETWEEN STALL AN]) CLASSICAL FLUTTER
Before flutter is discussed, the distinction

between classical flutter and stall flutter should be
made clear. Classical flutter is a coupled torsional-
flexural vibration that occurs when the free-
stream velocity over a wing or airfoil section
reaches a certain critical velocity. For wings of
low frequency, this critical velocity can be calcu-
lated. According to reference 280, classical flutter
cannot, occur with compressor or turbine blades,
FIGURE 247.--Comparison of single-stage stall data with because the critical velocity required would be
Marble's theory. unreasonably high. Stall flutter, on the other
hand, is a phenomenon that has been explained
nate system) to rotor rotation. Experimental evi- on the basis of the behavior of the lift characteristic
dence has shown that this does not occur. The at stall.
sense of the stall-zone rotation is the same for MECHANISM OF STALL FLUTTER
counterrotating guide-vane turning as for con- At stall the lift may decrease sharply as shown
ventional guide vanes. in figure 248, where a typical lift characteristic
Remarks on stall theories.--In order to compare is plotted as a function of angle of attack. Accord-
the results of the Stenning, Sears, and Marble ing to reference 280, the aerodynamic damping
theories, the phase angle introduced by Sears in of a blade is a function of the partial derivative
the channel theory is considered to be zero. For of lift with respect to angle of attack. When
this condition the results show that the Sears and this derivative becomes negative, stall flutter is
Marble theories are identical in their expression likely to take place. That is, a reduction in the
of propagation rate. A comparable result from aerodynamic damping allows the airstream to
Stenning's analysis indicates that his predicted feed energy into the blades and produce a self-
propagation rate is twice that of the other two excited oscillation.
investigators. Another explanation for stall flutter is presented
Experimental evidence shows that the radial in reference 281, in which the airfoil vii)ration is
extent of the stall zones varies considerably, but considered to result from a systenl of K_rln_n
none of the existing theories include radial effects. vortices in the airfoil wake. Whenever the fI'e-
All the theories apply to a single blade row. quency of these vortices coincides with a natural
There is considerable doubt whether the theories frequency of the airfoil, flutter will occur.
can be applied to a single stage including guide The concept of an aerodynamic hysteresis was
vanes, rotor, and stators, or whether the theories developed by Studer to show that energy could
can be further extended to the more complicated be absorbed from the airstream to promote I)lade
ease of the multistage compressor. vibration (ref. 276). It was hypothesized in this
INDIVIDUAL BLADE STALL explanation of stall flutter that separation at the
stall point was delayed until the oscillating blade
A type of stall in which all the t)lades around reached its position of maxinlum angle of attack,
the compressor annulus stall simultaneously, and t hen l he nonseparated flow was not estal)lished
without the occurrence of a stall-propagation until the blade reached its minilnunl angle of
mechanism, has been observed. The circum- atta('k. The ],axiluunl and minimum angles of
stances under which individual blade stall is attack were considered to I)e ahove and below
established rather than rotating stall are unknown the stalling anglc of attack, respectively, giving
at present. It appears that the stalling of a blade rise to the hysteresis ett'ect.
which in turn caused the lift. force to vary. How-

ever, the lift. force always lags the elastic force by
a phase angle. The forces acting on a blade are
shown in figure 249. Whenever the component of
the force parallel to the damping force exceeds
the damping force, a self-excited vibration of the
blade takes place.
"5 The authors of reference 283 observed that
\
\ self-induced vibrations occurred whenever the

free-stream velocity entering the cascade reached
(9
a critical value. They found that the critical
.7
velocity could be determined from a dimensionless
J
velocity coetficient that was shown to be a function

lall
of the geometry of the cascade (stagger angle and
angle of incidence) and the angle between the
direction of the blade displacement and the I)ladc
chord.
In a more recent paper (ref. 284), only one
degree of freedom, a flexural oscillation, is ad-
mitted as a possible mode of stall-flutter vibration
in a two-dimensional cascade representing com-
Angle of attack
pressor blades. A different interpretation of the
FI(;VRE 248.--Life characteristic of an airfoil. mechanism of flexural vibration is also presented
in this paper. After rather extensive experimental
Brief literature survey.--The general theory of observations, it was concluded that no appreciable
flutter, even for an isolated airfoil in a potential changes in lift were observed for wtrying positions
flow, is not a very elementary mathemati<'al of the cascade in a separated-flow field; conse-
problem. The problem t)ecomes much more quently, no self-excited flexural vibrations could
complicated when flutter in a cascade of airfoils is
considered, because the effects of the geometry of
the cascade must be included in the theory in
order to account for the interference effects
between the blades. Much of the early work on
flutter theory was devoted to airfoils with but one LIft_
degree of freedom, a torsional oscillation or

vibration.
However, in the type of cascade that more
accurately represents conditions in a turbine or / __ift cam poneni
/
compressor, according to reference 282, the stall- EIos__
flutter oscillations may have at least two degrees
o[ freedom, torsional oscillation and flexural
bending. This latter type of flutter is treated in
reference 283. The experimental observations of
su('h a cascade showed that either torsional or
flexural vihrations were obtained,.dcpending upon
the velocity el the airstream; and the frequencies
of each mode were practically identical. The
two modes of vibration were not couplM as in the
ease of the classical flutter for wings. The flutter
or bending self-excited vibrations were explained
as the result of variations in the angle of in(.idence, FIGURE 249.--I)iagram of forces on blade.
be established by this mechanism as proposed in In this chapter, rotating-stall patterns are cat-
reference 283. IIowever, it. was observed that, aloged according to their effect on the performance
when an airfoil is translated in separated flow, the characteristic of single-stage compressors. A pro-
lift force will feed energy into tile blade and thus gressive rotating stall is associated with a smooth
sustain a self-excited motion. continuous performance characteristic; and an
Other more nlathematically complicated treat- abrupt rotating-stall pattern, with a discontinuous
ments of flutter in cascades have been considered performance characteristic that is coincident with
in papers such as reference 285. Phase differences an abrupt drop in compressor pressure. Similar
in the mode of the vibration between the blades types of stall are observed in multistage com-
in the cascade are considered mathematically in pressors; however, the discontinuous perforlnance
this paper. characteristic for a multistage unit is defined here
Extension of flutter theory to compressor blades as complete compressor stall. The pressure rise
brings up a most complicated prol)lem, because across a multistage compressor may drop as much
not only cascading effects but also centrifugal as 50 l)ereent after complete compressor stall is
effects must be considered. The cascading or initiated. This stalling condition is particularly
interference effects on flutter are not well under- important, because it determines the limit of use-
stood for the compressor. ful operation of the compressor (the surge limit or
Experimental evidence.--Although stall flutter stall limit shown in fig. 229).
has been considered to be a cause of compressor With a single blade row as a model, several
blade failure, there is insufficient experimental theories have been developed showing the existence
evidence to support this view. According to of asymmetric flow and in some cases predicting
reference 282, conditions where flutter exists do the rotative speed and the size of the pattern.
not correspond to operation at high angles of inci- The results of the theories are in poor agreement
dence and low speed, the mode of operation that with experimental data.
has caused compressor blades to fail. The meas- VIBRATION ASPECT
urements required of rotating rigs in order to Although rotating stall seems to be the most
investigate the possibility of stall flutter are al- significant cause of blade vibration in compressors,
most impossible to make with current research it must be recognized from cascade data that stall
techniques. flutter may be a possible cause of blade vibration.
CONCLUSIONS
No experimental evidence is presently available
AERODYNAMIC ASPECT to show that stall flutter has been the cause of
The stalled operation of a compressor may be compressor blade excitation. If the rotating-
described as the degeneration of compressor per- stall frequency coincides with the natural bending
formance accompanied by serious flow separation frequency of tile blade or a harmonic thereof, a
in the flow passages. Three distinctively different resonant condition will result that may cause
phenomena may occur during stalled operation: blade failure. Other possible causes of blade vi-
(1) rotating stall, (2) individual blade stall, or (3) bration include (1) resonance of the rotor blade
stall flutter. The first two are aero(lynamic effects frequency with the frequency of wakes from
and the third is an aeroelastic effect. Rotating stators or supporting struts, and (2) mechanical
stall has been found to be the most prevalent failures resulting from a resonance between the
type of stall phenomenon. A large amount of natural bending frequency of the blade and trans-
data is available which demonstrates that poor mitted vibrations emanating from the gearing or
performance of compressors may be directly at- shafts. These effects are considered unimportant
tributable to the occurrence of rotating stall. compared with the problem of rotating stall.
CHAPTER XII
COMPRESSOR SURGE
By MERLE C. HUPPERT
SYMBOLS
Experimental data .indicate that there are two
prise;pal type._ of ._urge in compressors: (1) surge The following symbols are used in this chapter:
(t_ t_) au abrupt stall, and (2) surge due to progre._-
site stall. Surge due to abrupt stall is generally /e_t_. frequency of flow fluctuations due to
violent and au_t_[ble, whereas that occurring with rotating stall, cps
progre._'._i_,e ,_tall i,s' generally mild and ir_audible. /_g_ frequency of flow fluctuations due to
The violent ._urge obtaiT_d in jet engines during surge, cps
engine acceleration is identified as surge due to P total or stagnation pressure, lb/sq ft
abrupt ._'tall. APe compressor total-pressure rise at stall
INTRODUCTION point, lb/sq ft
/_P,t_, decrease in compressor-discharge total
The effect of unsteady flows on compressor
pressure due to abrupt stall, lb/sq ft
p(_rformance and life expectancy has become of
AP,_,z_ amplitude of total-pressure fluctuation
considerable interest and importance in the appli-
due to surge, lb/sq ft
cation of axial-flow compressors to jet engines.
V air velocity, ftr/SeC
Perhaps the most significant flow fluctuations are
W weight flow, lb/sec
those associated with stall of blade elements
w_/Ol_ equivalent weight flow, lb/sec
within the compressor. In the p_st, any audible
a angular spacing of hot-wire-anemom-
flow fluctuation or rumbling noise emanating from
eter probes, deg
a compressor was loosely defined as surge. Com-
ratio of total pressure to NASA stand-
paratively recent investigations show that certain
ard sea-level pressure of 2116 lb/sq ft
flow fluctuations are not due to surge in a strict
0 ratio of total temperature to NASA
sense, but are due to a phenomenon called prop-
standard sea-level temperature of
agating or rotating stall. Rotating stall, which is
518.7 R
discussed in detail in chapter XI, consists of zones
number of stall zones in stall pattern
of low flow that revolve about the compressor axis.
p density, lb/cu ft
The term surge, as used herein, defines flow
5pV/pV ainplitude of pVfluctuation divided by
fluctuations distinctly different from those due to
rotating stall. Surge involves fluctuations in the average pV based on average ane-
mometer current (see ch. XI)
net flow through the compressor; whereas rotating
stall consists of low-flow zones revolving about
Subscripts:
the compressor axis, but with a constant net or
average flow through the compressor. 1 station at compressor inlet
This chapter presents a discussion of surge in 2 compressor-discharge station
axial-flow compressors. Pressure- and flow-fluc- STEADY-STATE COMPRESSOR CHARACTERISTIC
tuation data obtained from surging compressors
are presented and discussed. Data obtained from Before the phenomenon of surge is considered,
both compressor test facilities and jet engines are "steady-state" or "surge-free" colnpressor opera-
included. Some theoretical aspects of surge are tion shouhl be discussed. Steady-state operation
discussed, and a distinction is made between surge (sometimes called static operation) is operation
due to abrupt stall and surge due to progressive under con(litions in which the net flow through the
stall. The surging compressor is compared with compressor and the torque required to drive the
other types of oscillators. compressor are constant for any given operating
331
results in an abrupt or apparently discontinuous

42f_ drop in compressor pressure rise and efficiency and
a "hysteresis" loop between stall and stall re-
38? - covery. A single-zone stall pattern is associated
with abrupt stall.
In the intermediate-speed range, the steady-
o 30
state performance at a given compressor speed is
Number _ S
of sloll not always unique. As discussed in chapter
261 regions --
__ _ m stall XIII, several steady-state performance character-
isties may be obtained at a single compressor
--'_ 22 patternx.
2 speed.
_z4
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS OF SURGE
On the basis of experimental evidence, two

0 1 4_
types of surge may be distinguished as follows:
(1) surge associated with discontinuous compressor
I-OI_2 ' i_
S 2O characteristi<,s due to abrupt stall, and (2) surge
Equivalent weight flow, w.,/"O-/S Ib/sec associated with apparently continuous compressor
characteristi(,s where blade-row stall is progressive
FIOURE 250.--Over-all compressor performance map
showing conditions at which rotating stall occurred in rather than abrupt.
10-stage subsonic axial-flow research compressor (ref. SURGE DUE TO ABRUPT STALL
266).
In order to describe the flow fluctuations due to
surge associated with abrupt stall, the results of
point. From this definition, operation with recent investigations in which fast-response pres-
rotating stall is considered a steady-state con- sure and flow instrumentation were used will be
dition. (Rotating stall is discussed in detail in reviewed.
ch. XI.) Figure 250 shows the range of flow for 10-Stage subsonic axial-flow research compres-
each of several compressor speeds over which sor.--The investigation reported in reference 266
steady-state operation occurred in a 10-stage was conducted with a 10-stage subsonic axial-flow
axial-flow research compressor. The shaded areas research compressor. The test facility incor-
indicate the flow range where rotating stall porated a large inlet tank and a large receiver at
existed. At 50 percent of design speed, rotating the compressor discharge. The overall compressor
stall occurred over the entire range of flow from performance map showing the speed and flow range
the surge point to the maximum flow obtainable. where rotating stall occurred is presented in figure
The number of zones in the stall pattern, however, 250. At all rotational speeds investigated, the
varies from 3 at the highest flow attainable to 7 at useful operating [low range was terminated at low
the surge point. At higher values of rotational flows t)y a violent surge.
speed, rotating stall existed over only a part or The flow fluctuations associated with surge at
none of the flow range between maximum flow and 50 percent of design speed were investigated in
the surge line. The surging obtained was due to some (lctail; the variation in compressor-inlet
abrupt stall of the compressor, as will be discussed and -discharge total pressure and the variation in
later. flow rate measured behind the first rotor due to
Stall may, in most cases, be classified as either surge are shown in figure 251. The amplitude of
progressive or abrupt (ch. XI). Progressive the compressor-discharge total-pressure variation
stall results in a gradual reduction in stage pressure (fig. 251(a)) was 75 percent of the compressor
ratio and efficiency as the flow is decreased and pressure rise at the surge point. The variation in
generally results in the formation of a rotating- compressor-inlet stagnation pressure wassome-
stall pattern consisting of more than one stall zone. what smaller. The compressor-discharge pressure
The shaded area of figure 250 represents the con- recovered to the value at the surge point at the
dition of progressive stall in the inlet stages. end of each surge pulse. The hot-wire-anemom-
Abrupt stall in single- or multistage compressors eter signal (flow fluctuations, fig. 251) indicates
COMPRESSOR SURGE 333
(a) Compressor-discharge total pressure (_P,_,_,)2/z_Pe -0.75.

(b) ltot-wire .memomet('r behind first rotor n(qtr tip.
(c) Compressor-inlet total pressure (3P ..... )I/P_=O.I.
FIGURE 2,51.-- Varialion of eompressor-inh't an(l -(tischargo total pressures and m'tss-flow rat(' during sur_' of lO-stqg(_
txial-flow compressor at 50 percent_ of design speed. Surge fr(,qu(,ncy, 0.57 eps (r('f. 266).
that the initial drop in compressor-discharge an anemometer probe installed behind the first.
pressure was coincident with a sharp drop in flow. rotor. A rotat.ing-stall pattern with a single stall
As the compressor-discharGe pressure contimwd zone is shown at all four axial stations at the begin-
to decrease, however, the flow increased and ex- ning of the surge pulse. As pointed out. in chapter
ceeded its value at the beginnin G of the surge XI, single-zone rotating stall is typical of abrupt
stall. As the flow was reduced following the for-
pulse.
The flow is maximum when the coinpressor- marion of the single-zone stall pattern, the stall
discharge pressure is mininmm. The recording zone evidently spread to cover the complete annu-
oscilliograph used to obtain the oscillogram re- lus of the compressor. Stall-zone spreading to
produced in figure 251 was not capable of recording cover the complete annulus during surge, as noted
frequencies Greater than about 90 cps. (?onse- in this investigation, is not typical. Surge data
quently, these oscillograms indicate only the obtained from several jet engines and from other
low-frequency components of the variation in flow compressors operating in compressor test facilities
and pressure during surging operations. indicate that the single-zone rotating-stall pattern
The flow fluctuations that occurred during a usually exists up to the time of stall recovery.
surge pulse are shown in much greater detail in Stall recovery resulted in a marked increase in tlow
figure 252. The oseillo_ams shown (fihn strips) followed by a comparatively gradual reduction.
were obtained from hot-wire-anemometer signals As the flow was reduced following stall recovery,
recorded from a dual-beam direct-coupled cathode- tim first, stall pattern indicated on the oscilloGram
ray oscilloscope (signal filtered to pass frequencies was the one consisting of three stall zones. A1-
from 0 to 10,000 cps). Sigmds from ancmometer tlmugh not shown in figure 252, the stall patterns
probes installed behind the third, seventh, and with four, five, and six stall zones appeared in
succession as the flow was further reduced. Just
tenth stators are shown along with the signal from
u_
I recovery
Time
(a) l_pper trace behind first rotor; lower trace behind third stator. Angle between probes, 64.6 .
(b) Upper trace behind first rotor; lower tract' behind seventh stator. Angle between probes, 104.1 .
(c) Upper trace behind first rotor; lower trace behind tenth stator. Angle betw(,en probes, 104.9 .
FmvaE 252.--Oscillogram of surge at various axial stations in 10-stage axial-flow compressor at 50 percent of design speed.
Anemometer probes near causing; surge frequency, 0.57 cps (ref. 266). (h indicates X of 7, f,t_tt of 340 cps; B indicates
;_ of 3, f,t,n of 140 cps; C indicates ), of l, f,t_zl of 30 cps.)
before abrupt stall (end of one surge pulse and used. Figure 253 is an oscillogram showing the
beginning of next), the stall pattern with seven variation in total pressure at the compressor inlet
stall zones was indicated (fig. 252). The stall pat.- and discharge during surging operation with the
terns obtained after stall recovery (weight flow large receiver volume at 50 percent of design speed.
decreasing) were the same as those obtained during The surge frequency was about 1 cps. The com-
steady-state operation (fig. 250). Abrupt stall pressor-discharge pressure reduction during the
without surge was not obtained during this surge was about 40 percent of the compressor
investigation. pressure rise at the surge point. _he inlet pressure
16-Stage subsonic axial-flow compressor,--The increased about 8 percent during a surge pulse.
test facility used for the investigation of the 16- Rotating stall is indicated on the oscillograms
stage subsonic axial-flow compressor was similar during the time interval in which the compressor-
to that used for the 10-stage compressor. A large discharge pressure is decreasing. The rotating
inlet tank was used at the compressor inlet.. The stall is, however, shown much better by the hot-
construction of the receiver at the compressor dis- wire-anemometer trace in figure 254. The oscillo-
charge permitted the installation of flow-control gram shown in figure 254 was also obtained during
devices (throttles) at two stations. The throttle surging operation at 50 percent of design speed.
close to the compressor permitted operation with The surge frequency, however, was 1.6 cps at the
a small receiver volume, and the throttle somewhat time the oscillogram was obtained. The rotating-
downstream of the compressor permitted opera- stall pattern contained one stall zone and was ro-
tion with a much larger effective receiver volume. tating about the compressor axis in the direction
The large receiver volume was approximately 9 of rotor rotation (absolute frame of reference) at
times that of the small receiver volume. about 45 percent of compressor speed.
A violent audible surge was obtained at all The pressure and flow fluctuations due to surge
compressor speeds from 30-percent design to de- obtained with the 16-stage axial-flow compressor
sign speed when the large receiver volume was are quite similar to those obtained with the 10-
COMPRESSOR SURGE 335
Time
:_--_ 7 7 _ = Compressor inlet : : !_:/:]-::/:;_t=_Lt:?_( _-:-.# _-_-_ " -_ -
I ISec JI
':_ _f _ f t T_ _:_-........... '=- _

_Dt:_[ !-] ;/E_/:_tm-Compressor discharge t_-/:_tt Z - __7(A:s_,r_,e;2:_'Vf:7_--_t:lq:_-lq 71:I 7_:
:_: ._, , g ,V -
]q(;YRE 253.- Variation of compressor-inh't and -discharge total pressures during surge of 16-st.ige axial-flow compressor
at 50 perc{qll of design speed. Large receiver volume; AP,,,,_)z/APe 0.41; (AP ..... )l/Ph 0.085 (ref. :265).
Time
%y_4--g-\ \ \ X _ _, \ , \ :\
I Sec 4
o
, , /- J
j t'/ f i :li-m i i:i:,:l i

_,ISIoll recovery |---iv, : :t I [ :: I [ [ I_
i
i l_t !.!t
l:I(;v_: 25.1 --l[ot-wire-'l (,mon',eter output during surge of 16-stage axial-flow compressor at 50 percent of design_ speed.
Anemometer in seventh-stage stator ; large receiver volume ; probe spacing, 105 ; surge amplitude, kp V/p V, + 0.3 ;
I
rotating-stall amplitude, ApY/pV, 1.2 (ref. 265).
stage compressor. The surge pulse was initiated gram in figure 255. The rotating-stall pattern
by the formation of a single-zone rotating-stall obtained is the same as that indicated during the
pattern; but, unlike that of tim 10-stage com- surging operation when the large receiver volume
pressor, the stall pattern persisted until stall was used. The decrease in compressor-discharge
recovery was effected. Actually, the persistence pressure due to abrupt stall was approximately
of the single-zone rotating-stall pattern, until stall the same as the amplitude of the compressor-
recovery occurs, is fairly typical of compressors discharge pressure oscillation due to surge (fig.
surging in jet engines. 253). The compressor-inlet and -discharge pres-
When the compressor was operated with the sures increased gradually following stall because
small receiver volume, audible surge was not of the flow reduction through the inlet throttle.
obtained at 50 percent of design speed. Instead, The compressor pressure ratio following abrupt
abrupt stall was obtained lls shown t)y the oscillo- stall was essentially constant. Audible surge was
Time
The oscillogram was obtained with a fixed setting
!ff / 7-id47 ili I ii i I! of both the inlet and discharge throttles. While
the compressor remained stalled, a single-zone
rotating stall with a frequency of about 14 cps
was indicated. Tile stall zone was rotating at
i l 't \ \ "_\ .fqi.Sec_,(T_ '_k, t \ \ \ \ k k _: approxiluately 45 percent of compressor speed.
Also, during stalled operation a mild inaudible
surge was indicated on the oscillogram. The
Mhl surge frequency, about 2 c.ps, was somewhat
less than that obtained with stalled operation at
50 percent of design speed (fig. 255), where the
mild-surge frequency was about 5 cps.
FIGURE 255.--Abrupt stall of 16-stage axial-tlow com-
According to reference 272, the frequency of
pressor at 52 percent of design Sl)eed. Small receiver
vohime; (AP.(.(D_/AP<>, 0.41; conq)r(,ss.r pressure ratio surge should t)e proportional to the reciprocal of
at stall point, 1.7. the square roul of the receiver volume. The htrge
receiver vohiine was approximately 9 times that
not obtained when the small receiver volume was of the small rec(,iver volume. Then, according
used, presumably because stall recovery did not to reference 272, the surge frequcllcy with the
occur (luring the flow transielit caused by abrupt sinall receiver volume would be approximately 3
stall. The reduced receiver volume resulted in a tilnes that with the hu'ge receiver volume. This
more rapid adjustinent in receiver pressure fol- is in agreeinent with inihl-surge data. ]'lie surge
lowing stall and consequently snMler oscillations (hlta at)rained for the 16-stage axiGftow com-
in net flow. It is of interest to note that, although pressor (h'monstratc that surge may or may not
audible surge due to cyclic stall aM stall recovery result from abrupt stall, depending oil the volume
was not obtained when the small receiver volume of tlie receiver into which the compressor is dis-
was used, stalled operation was not completely charging. In li(l(]ilioli, the data demonstrate that,
stable. A mild inaudible surge with a frequency witti ii given receiver volume, surge due to abrupt
of approximately 5 eps was imitated (fig. 255). stall is nlore likely to occur at high thaii at low
The amplitude of these Mhl sm'gc oscillations conlpressor sp(_cds. In lnany cases, abrupt stall
appeared to vary in a somewhal rluidom fashion. is obtained without surge as defined herein (e.g.,
Operation at 30 percent of design speed with the refs. 260 aid 2,_6). But,. for high-pressure-ratio
large receiver volume resulted in intermittent compressors, surge due to abrupt stall is conimon
abrupt stall and surge, as silowll ill figure 256. in compressor test facilities and in jet engines.
FIGURE '25(L--Inh'rnlitti!iit "ibrupt stall an(I surge of Ill-stag(! .txi:ll-ftow (!onit)wssor at 3(} ])('rcent of di!sign spee(I. I,arge
rt'c('iv('r vo[uiil(,; (A I'.<,_DdA Pc, 0.30; ('omt)ressor pr(,ssur(, nllio aI stall point, 1.25.
COMPRESSOR
SURGE 337
Surge in jet engines.--Surge in the compressor 267, shows the pressure-ratio oscillations due to
component of a jet engine is m,ch the same as surge obtained by step increases in fuel flow at
surge obtained with the 16-stage axial-flow compressor speeds of 72.8 and 78 percent of design
compressor operating in a test facility. The speed. Also shown are the pressure ratio at the
principal difference is 01at the surge frequency in a stall point, the pressure ratio after stall, and the
jet engine is generally somewhat greater (5 to 15 steady-state or equilibrium operating line. The
cps) than that for tile same comI)ressor operating sequence of events following the increase in fuel
in a test facility. The surge frequency in a jet flow was as follows: The compressor-discharge
engine is increased mainly because the volume of pressure increased until the stall point was
jet-engine combustors is somewhat smaller than reached. Several cycles of surge occurred, and
that of the receivers used in compressor test then surging ceased and the compressor remained
facilities. stalled. The engine speed increased even though
An experimental investigation of stall and surge surging occurred. When the compressor quit
in a jet engine is reported in reference 267. Surge surging and was operating stalled, the rate of sl)eed
was obtained by subjecting the engine to a step increase (acceleration) was markedly reduced.
increase in fuel flow. For the particular jet During surge investigations in jet engines it has
engine used in the investigation, surge occurred been noted that surge does not, in all cases, begin
as a result of abrupt stall at compressor rotational immediately after the stall point is reached. In
speeds where the pressure drop due to stall was some cases, surging does not begin until after the
greater than 16 percent of the pressure rise at the compressor has operated in a stalled condition
stall point. The pressure ratio at which stall (al)rupt stall) for a short time and the engine
occurred is referred to as the critical pressure in speed has increased somewhat.
reference 267. Figure 257, taken from reference SURGE DUE TO PROGRESSIVE STALL
Surge due to progressive stall involves flow

I !f:i fluctuations in the flow range of the compressor
map where there are no apparent abrupt changes
in pressure ratio due to stall. Progressive stall
may occur at flows greater or less than that at
which abrupt stall occurs. Surge associated with
, I '
'-Steody-stote or progressive stall is generally quite mild compared

equ, librium with surge caused by abrupt stall. Mild surge
obtained during stalled operation of the 16-stage
axial-flow compressor is shown in figures 255 and
256. The amplitude of the compressor-discharge
total-pressure fluctuations that occurred during
mild surge is from 15 to 20 percent of that for surge
due to abrupt stall.
Mild inaudible surge is sometimes observed in
Pressure ratio - :
single-stage compressors operating near the peak
of the characteristic curve. In these cases, a
partial-span rotating-stall pattern is generally
associated with the surge. The amplitude of the
.i iJ flow fluctuation due to rotating stall varies as the
net flow rate varies. An example of this type of
11 14!4
lsar e=8.Scps ,
surge obtained with a single-stage compressor is
1.7_
s e:lOcps
1
i
i
J [[,I,[ shown in figure 258 (taken from ref. 263). The
70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88
Engine speed, pereenl raled stall pattern obtained contained eight stall zones,
_md the flow-fluctu_tion frequency due to the
FIGURE 257.--Behavior of compressor total-pressure ratio stall pattern was 1420 cps. The surge frequency
in surge encountered during engine acceleration from
was from 10 to 15 cps. The amplitude of the flow
initial speeds of 72.8 and 78 perce/tt of rated speed
fluctuations of rotating stall is greatest when the
(ref. 267).
691-564 0-65--23
338 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOV*" COMPRESSORS
net flow is minimum and smallest when the net those presented in references 272 or 287, in that
flow" rate is maximum. The amplitude of the net the inertia and capacitance effects of each stage
flow variation due to surge shown in figure 258 was of a multistage compressor are considered.
estimated to be 10 percent of the average flow rate. The analysis of the stability of an operating
The amplitude of the surge fluctuations, however, point of the compressor in equilibrium with a flow
increased and decreased in a somewhat random system involves setting up linear differentia!
fashion similar to the mild surge shown in figures equations in an approximate way to describe the
255 and 256. dynamics of the system. The stability of the
Although a rotating-stall pattern is generally system may be (tetermined without actually
present during all or part of the surge cycle, mild solving the differential equations by use of the
inaudible surge without rotating st_fll has been method of Routh (see ref. 289 or 290, e.g.).
observed in single-stage compressors. Presumably, In general, the conclusions drawn as a result of
individual blade stall had occurred without ro- all surge analyses are essentially the same: The
tating stall. (See ch. XI for discussion of indi- system becomes unstable at compressor operating
vidual blade stall.) Other examples of mild surge points where the slope of the compressor char-
are reported in references 55 and 272. acteristic is zero or slighly positive. When the
THEORETICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF SURGE system is unstable, the system damping is nega-

tive, so that any small distrubances will grow in
Theories of surge have been concerned primarily amplitude. A point of critical stability has no
with the question of tile stability of the flow damping. As the flow varies, however, the
through the compressor and the system in which system damping also varies. That is, the system
it is operating. The complexity of the flow system damping depends on the slope of the compressor
associated with the compressor considered in the ctmracteristic at the instantaneous operating point
theories has varied considerably. The analysis during the flow fluctuation. As a consequence,
in reference 287 involves a relatively simple the linear theory used to determine the stability
system consisting of an inlet throttle for controlling no longer applies after the amplitude of the flow
the flow and an inlet duct or tank followed by the fluctuations becomes finite. Surge occurs as a
compressor. Reference 272 considers a somewhat result of the instability if the nonlinearities of the
more complete system consisting of an inlet duct system are such as cause oscillations to grow in
and an inlet tank followed by the compressor, amplitude until some limiting stable value of
which discharges into a discharge tank or receiver steady-state oscillations occurs. The resulting
connected to an exit duct. The analysis presented cycle of oscillations is called the "limit cycle"
in reference 288 is somewhat more complex than (e.g., ref. 290). So far as is known, there are no
FIGURE 258.--Hot-wire-armmometer oscillogram of flow fluctuations during mihl inaudible surge of single-stage com-
pressor with hub-tip ratio of 0.8 at 70 percent of design speed (ref. 265).
COMPRESSOR SU'RGE 339
-- Compressor characteristic
published analyses of surge that consider the non- ------ Throttle characteristic
linear aspects of the problem. It seems evident, ----- Surge cycle
Receiver .... Abrupt stall without surge
however, that the flow oscillations that result from ..... Steady backflow
pressure
an instability will depend to a great extent on the
shapc of the compressor characteristic. That is,
/
the variation in the slope of the compressor - _ A
characteristic with flow, at flows greater and less

titan that at an unstable operating point, probably / ' /
constitutes the principal nonlinearity of the system.
In chapter XI compressor characteristics are
classified as either continuous or discontinuous,
depending on whether stall occurred in a gradual
or progressive manner or abruptly. It seems ingle-zone !
_rotahng stall
appropriate to classify surge in a similar way.
That is, surge may occur because of the dis- 0 +
continuous decrease in pressure ratio due to Compressor weight flow

abrupt stall, or because of an instability resulting
FIGURE 259.--Flow and pressure oscillations due to abrupt
from a gradual reduction in compressor pressure stall.
ratio due to progressive stall.
SURGE DUE TO ABRUPT STALL a few damped oscillations in pressure and flow
_urge due to abrupt stall may be descrihed in a (indicated by the spiral path), the system comes
qualitative manner with the aid of figure 259. to equilibrium at point [3. If, however, the flow
The compresso r static or steady-state character- oscillations are sufficiently large to exceed the
istic is represented by the solid line. The throttle value required for stall recover)' (point ca, equi-
characteristic is represented by the dashed line librium will not be established at point B. In-
that crosses the compressor characteristic curve at stead, stall recovery will occur and result in an
points h and S. Point C is the stall recovery increase ira flow followed by a gradual increase in
point. The compressor is operating at point A receiver pressure and itecrease in flow. Following
(the stall point). Point [3 is a possible stable stall recovery, the system tends toward equilib-
operating point. Point A is unstable, because a rium at point A. Stall will occur again, and the
small reduction in flow will cause the compressor cycle (called the limit cycle) will be repeated as
to stall and immediately become incapable of pro- indicated in figure 259. Surging will cease if the
during a discharge pressure equal to that in the throttle is opened (throttle curve moved to the
receiver. If the receiver volume were infinite, the right in fig. 259) sufficiently to prevent stall from
direction of flow through the compressor wouht occurring (luring the flow transient following stall
reverse after stall, and steady backflow would recovery. Similarly, surging will cease if the
occur with operation at point D. If the receiver throttle is closed (throttle curve moved to the left
volume were very small, its pressure would adjust in fig. 259) sufficiently that stall recovery does
very quickly after stall to that which the com- not occur (luring the ttow transient following stall.
pressor is capable of producing, and operation If equilibrium is established on the stalled branch
would instantaneously come to equilibrium at of the compressor characteristic and the throttle
point [3. is then opened so that the throttle characteristic
In any compressor installation the receiver passes t]u'ough the stall recovery point C, the
volume wouh[ be neither large enough to permit situation is quite similar to that with operation at
steady operation at point D nor small enough to the stall point. A small disturbance in the flow
cause equilil)rium to be established instantane- may cause stall recovery, and a surge cycle may
ously at point [3. In the practical case, then, the be established similar to that which occurs with
pressure and flow fluctuations may follow paths the throttle characteristic l)assing through the
(lepieted in figure 259 as surge or al)rupt stall. stall point. Equilibrium operation after stall is
For the case of abrupt stall, the receiver pressure not always completely stable. Mild surge may
and flow may follow the path indicated. After occur after abrupt stall has occurred (figs. 255 and
256). The flow fluctuations of mild surge may, in elated with progressive stall indicate a mild in-
some cases, become sufficiently large to cause stall audible surge. Although the relation between the
recovery, as indicated by the oscillogram shown in shape of the compressor cimracteristic and the
figure 256. amplitude of the flow fluctuations of surge has
SURGE DUE TO PROGRESSIVE STALL not been established, it seems quite likely that
Mild surge due to progressive stall will be dis- surge with progressive stall may, in some cases,
cussed in conjunction with figure 260. The solid become quite violent. In fact, if the damping is
curve is the compressor characteristic, and the sufficiently negative, the situation is not unlike
dashed curve is the throttle characteristic, which that for abrupt stall.
crosses the compressor characteristic at the highest COMPARISON OF COMPRESSOR SURGE WITH OTHER OSCIL-
LATORY PHENOMENA
flow at which the system is critically stable. That
is, small oscillations about the intersection point Although surge in compressors is very undesir-
are undamped. Since the slope of the compres- able, there are many technologically useful devices
sor characteristic becomes larger positively at flows that utilize oscillatory phenomena. Since much
less than point A, the damping becomes larger neg- of the theory of nonlinear effects has been devel-
atively if the flow is reduced a finite amount. oped through the study of oscillators, it seems
If the flow increases to a value greater than that appropriate to apply some of concepts and ter-
at point A, the slope of the compressor character- minology used in oscillator theory to explain
istic becomes negative and the system damping compressor surge.
becomes positive. As a consequence of the wtriation According to reference 290, there are two
system damping with compressor flow, any small principal kinds of oscillators, feedback and relaxa-
disturbance will grow in amplitude, as indicated by tion oscillators. All oscillators depend for their
the spiral path from point A, until the effective or operation on some nonlinear action, and feedback
average damping of the cycle vanishes (see ref. 290). and relaxation oscillators are distinguished by the
The resulting cycle of oscillation is the limitcycle. Ro- type of nonlinearity utilized to control the ampli-
tating stall may exist during all or part of the surge tude of the oscillations. Relaxation oscillators
cycle (fig. 258). Presumably, surge could occur at operate by virtue of some discontinuous or quasi-
any compressor operating point where the system discontinuous effect. Certain trigger circuits used
damping is negative, since the flow is unstable there. with relaxation oscillators are discussed in reference
As pointed out in the section on experimental 291. The effects of the discontinuous steady-state
investigations, mos t data obtained with surge asso- compressor characteristic are evidently analogous
to those of the trigger circuits used with relaxation
oscillators. Consequently, it seems justifiable to
Damping refer to surge associated with abrupt stall as a
0
relaxation oscillation. Similarly, it seems justifiable
to refer to surge associated with progressive stall
I
I as feedback-type oscillations. Progressive stall
_Rolating stall _ / results in a progressive nonlinearity. The theo-
K'&". retical treatment of compressor surge could un-
doubtedly be enhanced by use of the theory of
nonlinear systems.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
(J
A survey of available data obtained from surging
compressors indicates that there are two principal
Compressor charocteNshc \
Throttle charactenshc \ types of surge: (1) surge due to abrupt stall,
which is generally a violent audible surge, and (2)
Surge cycle _
surge due to progressive stall, which is generally a
mild inaudible surge detectable by use of fast-
Compressor weight flow
response instrumentation. The violent surge ob-
FIGVRE 260.--Flow and pressure fluctuations due to surge tained in jet engines during engine acceleration is
associated with progressive stall. identified as surge due to abrupt stall.
CHAPTER XIII
COMPRESSOR OPERATION WITH ONE OR MORE BLADE

ROWS STALLED
By WILLIAM A. BENSER
INTRODUCTION
An analysis oJ the part"speed operating problems
of high-pressure-ratio multi.stage axial:/_ow com- High-pressure-ratio multistage axial-flow com-
pressors is made by means of a simplified stage- pressors frequently exhibit extremely low efficien-
stacking study. The principal problems considered cies and severe blade-vibration problems at
are poor low-speed e_g_ciency, multiple-valued per- intermediate and low rotational speeds. In
formnance characteristics at i_derrnediate speeds, and addition, such compressors may exhibit a sharp
poor" intermediate-speed compressor surge or stall- dip or kink in the surge or stall-limit line at
limit characteristics. The analysis indicates that intermediate rotational speeds, so that the attain-
all these problems can be attributed to discontinuities able pressure ratios in this speed range are severely
in the performnance characteristics of the front stages. limited. Multiple performance characteristics
Such discontinuit_e._ can be due to the type of stage have also been observed in this intermediate-
stall or to a deterioration qi stage performance re- speed range. Operation such as engine accelera-
sulting from stall of adjacent stages. tion and high Mach number flight requires that
The effec_ of compromises of stage matching to the compressor component of the engine operate
facor part.speed operation are also considered. This satisfactorily in the low- and intermediate-speed
phase of the study indicates that such compromises ranges. In order to alleviate these part-speed
would severely reduce the complete-compressor-stall compressor problems, an understanding of the
margin. Furthermore, the low-speed stage stall flow mechanism that causes poor part-speed per-
problem is tran,_erred from the inlet stages to the formance is required. Such variable-geometry
middle stages, which are more susceptible to abrupt- features as adjustable guide vanes or compressor
stall characteristics. air bleed may solve some part-speed operating
The analysis indicates that inlet stages having problems, but satisfactory application of such
continuous performance characteristics at their stall features also depends on a knowledge of the flow
poirt_ are desirable with respect to part.speed com- mechanism.
pre'ssor performance. However, these characteristics As indicated by the stage-matching analysis of
must be obtained when the stages are operating in reference 248, the fundamental difficulty of low-
the flow environment of the multistage compressor. speed operation results from stalling of the front
Alleciation of part"speed operational problems may stages of the compressor. As compressor speed
also be obtained by improvement in either stage flow is decreased, the density ratio across the com-
range or stage-loading margin. pressor decreases rapidly; and at low values of
The resulbs of this analysis are only qualitative. density ratio the small flow area of the rear stages
The trends obtained, however, are in agreement with seriously limits the flow through the compressor.
those obtained fromn experimental studies oJ high- Thus, the inlet stages are forced to operate at
pressure-ratio multistage axial-flow compressors, and flOWS well below their stall limits. These trends
the result,_ are valuable .in developing an understand- have been verified experimentally. For example,
ing of the off-de.s'ign problem. In addition to these reference 253 indicated first-stage stall for speeds
stage-matching studies, a general di,_.cussion of below 80 percent of design speed, and reference
variable-geometry features such as air bleed and 257 indicated first-stage stall for speeds below 70
adjustable blades is included. percent of design speed. It should be noted that
341
this mismatching of the front and rear stages of each stage is not easily obtained, particularly in
the compressor at low speeds will, in general, be the range of speeds and flows where rotating stall
more severe for high-pressure-ratio than for low- exists in the compressor. Furthermore, the range
pressure-ratio compressors. A further indication of stage operation that can be studied experi-
as to the source of the part-speed problem can be mentally is limited because of compressor surge.
obtained from chapter XI, which shows that Therefore, to obtain a qualitative evaluation of
rotating stall is the prevalent type of stage stall the effects of stage stalling characteristics and of
and that rotating stall originating in the first. stage interactions on the general part-speed com-
stage of a multistage compressor results in flow pressor performance problem, a simplified stage-
fluctuations that extend completely through the stacking study was made. The basic hypothetical
compressor. Tile flow fluctuations of rotating compressor considered was a 12-stage unit with
stall are also a serious source of compressor blade an overall pressure ratio of 7.75. The stage per-
vibrations (ch. XI). formance characteristics used in the computation
As pointed out in chapter XIl, serious com- of nmltistage performance were assumed to be
pressor surge is a result of a discontinuity in the similar to those obtained from single-stage com-
compressor performance characteristics. This pressors. Interaction effects were evaluated by
discontinuity of performance may result, from the arbitrary modification of the assumed stage per-
abrupt type of stage stall discussed in chapter XI formance curves. The first three cases considered
or from a deterioration of the performance of herein (repeated from refs. 294 and 295) concern
several stages as a result of the tlow fluctuations various severities of interaction effects. The last
imposed by the instigation of rotating stall in two cases considered evaluate the effect of com-
the inlet stage. The dip or kink in the surge- promises of stage matching to favor part-speed
limit line of a 16-stage research compressor (ref. performance as suggested in reference 248. When
253) was attributed to these interaction effects or possible, the results of these studies are compared
to deterioration of performance of several stages with experimental data.
as a result of stall of the inlet stage. Because of the assumptions made in regard to
The existence of multiple-valued performance stage performance characteristics and stage inter-
characteristics is shown in reference 292, which action effects and because of the simplified stacking
presents data showing three separate and distinct technique used, the computed values of com-
performance curves for a three-stage axial-flow pressor performance must be considered only as
compressor operating at a constant value of qualitative values. The general trends, however,
rotational speed. Tests of a high-pressure-ratio are valuable in obtaining an understanding of the
multi-stage compressor (ref. 293) show the exist- part-speed efficiency problem, the intermediate-
ence of six separate performance characteristic speed surge or stall problem, and the multiple-
curves for a rotational speed of approximately valued performance characteristic problem of
75 percent of the design value. Hot-wire- high-pressure-ratio axial-flow compressors. An
anemometer data taken during this investigation indication of desirable types of stage performance
indicate a correlation between compressor per- characteristics is obtained; and, in addition, this
formance and the number of stall zones in the analysis indicates some of the factors that must be
rotating-stall pattern. evaluated if accurate performance predictions are
It is evident that the problems of poor part- to be obtained for the range of compressor opera-
speed efficiency, compressor blade vibration, tion where one or more of the elements are stalled.
intermediate-speed surge or stall limit, and This analysis, however, does not consider the
multiple-valued performance characteristics of adverse effects of inlet flow distortion on the
high-pressure-ratio multi-stage axial-flow com- compressor stall limit.
pressors are all related to rotating stall and the GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
attendant interactions or deteriorations of stage SINGLE-STAGE STALL CHARACTERISTICS
performance due to unsteady flow. The experi-
mental approach does not yield a complete under- As dis('uss('d in chapter Xl, stag,' stall may bc
standing of the general part-speed performance divided into two types: (1) progressive stall, char-
problem, because the inherent performance of acterized by a gradual but continuous decrease m
COMPRESSOR OPERATION WITH ONE OR MORE BLADE ROWS STALLED 343
stage performance as tile flow coefficient is de- the design radial distribution of flow. For any
creased below the stalling value, and (2) abrupt shtge other than the first stage of a multistage
stall, characterized by a sudden or abrupt drop compressor, these radial maldistributions of flow
in stage performance tit the stalling value of flow result from off-design performance of preceding
coefficient. Either type of stage stall normally stages. For exanlple, as the flow coefficient of the
results in the formation of one or more low-flow or first stage is decreased, the energy addition at the
stalled zones thai rotate about the compressor tip of this stage usually increases more rapidly
axis and are thus defined as rotating stall. Pro- than that at the root. Requirements of radial
gressive stall is normally associated with rotating- equilibrium of static pressure at the exit of the
stall zones that start at one end of the blade and first-stage stator may therefore lead to a ratio of
grow radially and circumferentially as the flow axial velocity at the blade tip to that at the blade
coefficient is decreased. The stall pattern for root that is larger than the design value. This
this type of stall may consist of from one to radial variation from design flow may be aggra-
twelve stall zones, aim the number of stall zones vated through the first few stages of the com-
generally increases as flow coefficient is decreased. pressor and may alter the relative rate of at)preach
Abrupt stall is normally associated with a simul- to stall for the tip and root sections of subsequent
taneous stall of till radial elements of the blade, stages. Thus, a silage that exhibits a partial-span
and the stall pattern generally consists of a single progressive stall when tested as a single stage may
stall zone. exhibit an abrupt, total-span stall when operated
Progressive stall is prevalent in low hub-tip as a stage of a multistage compressor. Further-
ratio or inlet stages, whereas abrupt stall is more, radial maldistribution of flow can result in
prevalent in high hub-tip ratio or exit stages. appreciable variations in average st age-work input
Typical middle stages of a multistage compressor for a given value of /tow coefficient as well as in
or intermediate hub-tip ratio stages may exhibit variations in the stalling value of flow coefficient
a progressive stall followed by an abrupt stall as for any stage.
flow is further reduced. Both progressive and
abrupt stalls exhibit a hysteresis effect, in that the Unsteady flow,--When rotating stall exists in a
flow coefficient at which stall recovery is achieved multistage compressor, the resulting flow fluctu-
is higher than that at which stall was first en- ations extend through all stages (ch. XI). These
countered as the flow was decreased. This flow fluctuations of rotating stall impose a time-
hysteresis effect is also discussed in chapter Xl. unsteady circumferential velocity variation on all
stages, and the instantaneous loading of the blades
STAGE INTERACTIONS is certainly altered from that for steady flow at
the same mean value of flow coefficient. Thus,
The performance and stalling characteristics
when rotating stall is instigated by an inlet stage,
may be appreciably different when a stake is
the performance of all subsequent stages may be
operated as a single stage and when it is
altered because of the resulting variations in
operated as a stake of a multistage compressor. circumferential flow distribution.
These differences of performance, which may be
Imposition of flow fuctuations of rotating stall
designated as interaction effects, result from the
on any stage that is operating near its stall point
radial and circumferential variations of stage-inlet
may result, in stall of that stage. Thus, the flow
conditions that may exist in the multistage
fuctuations may be increased in magnitude, as
compressor. As pointed out in chapter XI, inter-
was the case for the 10-staKe compressor discussed
action effects inay be attributed to two main
in chal)ter Xl. In addition to premature incur-
sources: (1) radial maldistribution of flow due to
rence of stall in a given stage due to stall of an
off-design performance of adjacent stages, and
adjacent stage, the resulting stall pattern and
(2) circunffcrcntial maldistribution of flow or un-
I)erfornlance of the given stage nlay be appreciably
steady flow due to rotating stall originating in
different from those predicted by single-stage
adjacent stages.
tests. Stages operating at flow coefficients al>pre-
Radial maldistribution of flow,--Radial maldis- ciably above the value for stall or near their choke
tribution may be defined as large variations from lintit, however, tend to decrease the amplitude of
344 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLO_ r COMPRESSORS
flow fluctuations resulting fronl rotating stall tropic work int)ul, to actual work input; the pres-
originating in preceding stages. ('onsequently, sure ('oeffieient is a function of useful work input
the effects of flow fluctuations on the performance divided by the square of the mean-radius wheel
of such stages may t)e small. speed; and the flow coefficient is the ratio of the
average inlet axial velocity to the wheel speed at
COMPLETE COMPRESSOR STALL AND SURGE
the mean radius. Study of the performance of
Abrupt stall of one or more stages and progres- numerous stages indicates that stage performance
sive stall of the inlet stage, which result ill deterio- for a range of speeds can t)e generalized to a single
ration of the performance of several subsequent curve on the basis of these parameters. The
stages, will both result in discontinuities in over-all effe('t,iveness of this manner of generalization of
performance of a multistage compressor. For the data is illustrated in figure 261, which is a plot of
purposes of this analysis, discontinuity points in the performance of the first,, fifth, and tenth stages
the over-all compressor performance (,haracteristic of the compressor rel)orted in reference 257. Some
at a given speed are designated as complete con> random variations exist, because of the difficulty
pressor stall to differentiate between stall of the of obtaining accurate stage performance data in
over-all compressor and stall of the in(lividual the multistage compressor. The stage data, how-
stages. As discussed in chapter X[I, discon- ever, can be well approximated by a single curve
tinuities in over-all compressor performance may for all speeds ex('ept, for the maximum-flow points
result in compressor surge. The occurrence of in the tentll or htst stage of the compressor. In
surge will, of course, depend on the external this case lhe effect of stage-inlet Math number on
system ctmracteristics as well as the compressor the negative-incidence stalling angle tends to
characteristics. If surge does not occur, stat)le decrease the ('hoking value of flow coefficient as
performance at a lower level of pressure ratio and compressor speed is increased. Similar Math
efficiency will be obtained. During component number effects may exist in the inlet stage. At
tests of a multistage compressor, these discon- any given speed, however, the inlet stage covers
tinuities in performance are not often observed, only a small part of its total range. Therefore,
because compressor surge is encountered. Com- the Mach numl)er effect, is not noted on such a
plete compressor stall and surge, however, repre- plot of experimental data. The fifth stage does
sent the same limit of compressor operation. not cover an appreciable flow range and thus does
not exhibit a noticeable Mach number effect..
STAGE STACKING Since the inclusion of Mach number effects would
As pointed out in chapter X, the off-design not appre('ial)ly alter the trend obtained from the
performance of a multistage axial-flow compressor stage-stacking analysis, these effects are not.
may be approximated by a simplified stage- considered in the computation of compressor
stacking technique if the generalized stage per- perform ante.
formance characteristics are known. The main Interaction effects were small for the ,compressor
purpose of the analysis reported herein is to study of reference 257, as indicated by the measured
qualitatively the effects of various stage stall stage performance characteristics. For the con>
characteristics and stage interactions on the part- pressor of reference 253, however, appreciable
speed operating characteristics of multistage axial- interaction effects were noted. For tile computa-
flow compressors. In order to simplify the tions reported herein, interaction effects due to
computations, effects of radial maldistribution unsteady flow resulting from stall in the inlet
of flow and effects of Mach number on stage flow stage were estimated by altering the individual
range and efficiency are ignored. The detailed stage peri'ormanee curves of several succeeding
stacking procedure used for these computations is stages for those conditions where stall existed in
given in appendix B of reference 294 and is similar tim inlet stage. Estimated hysteresis effects in
to that outlined in chapter X. the unstalling characteristics are also incorporated
For this analysis the stage curves are assumed in the stage curves.
in terms of adiabatic efficiency and pressure For cases I to III, three combinations of stage
coefficient as functions of flow coefficient. The stall, interaction effects, and unst.alling hysteresis
adiabatic efficiency is the ratio of useful or isen- are considered. In cases IV and V, stage matching
CO_,IPRESSOR OPERATION WITH ONE OR MORE BLADE ROWS STALLED 345
o ! [ ,
I
,0 0
J" 4 --_- s_ <
I :' r, 0 C,O
! @"_vc_ oo
I A
Speed,
-- percent design Z3
/
io
I
__ 60
ac 70
50 __
o 80 .
-- o 90 --i
c I00
I
__
0
09 1
% _z, o,
_3 'V
8 A
2
g
v_ .2
2
EL
(o)
% .5 .7 .9 .5 .7 .9 .7 I.I 1.3
Flow coefficient
(a) Stage 1. (b) Stage 5. (c) Stage 10.
FIGURE 261.--Generalized stage performance for stages 1, 5, and 10 of reference 258.
is compromised to favor part-speed operation. Absolute inlet-air angle at pitch radius of each
stage, deg ................................. 221/_
No effects of interaction or unstalling hysteresis are
Flow coefficient for each stage .............. 0. 69
evaluated for cases IV and V.
Pressure coefficient for each stage .............. 0. 3
HYPOTHETICAL COMPRESSOR, CASES I. I1. AND Ill Individual stage hub-tip radius ratios, area ratios, mean-
radius ratios and reference-point pressure ratios are listed
Tile basic hypothetical compressor was identical in table VIII(a).
for the first three cases considered and was the
same as that presented in references 294 and 295. The assumptions of stall type, interactions, and
The compressor had 12 stages of constant tip hysteresis effects for cases I to III are as follows
diameter. All stages had identical perfornlance
Type of stall
in terms of pressure coefficient and efficiency Inter- Hystere-
Case actions sis
against flow coefficient, except for the stalling Stages effects
Stages 1 to 4 Stages 5 to 8
characteristics. Pertinent reference-point details
to 12
of the compressor are as follows: I Progressive Progressive
Abrupt None None
and ahrupt
Over-all total-pressure ratio ................... 7. 75 II Progressive Progressive
and abrupt Abrupt s?_? , Stage1
Inlet specific weight flow, equivalent flow per sq ft III Progressive Progressive Stages 1 _ Stage 1
annulus area ................................ 33. 5 and abrupt Abrupt to 8 1
Inlet corrected tip speed, ft/sec .................. 950
(b) Cases IV and V

The individual stage curves assumed for each con-
figuration are discussed in the section Discussion Area Mean- Uub-tip Stage Flow Pressure
Stag ratio radius radius pressure i coeffi- coeffi-
OF COMPUTED PERFORMANCE. I ratio b ratio cient
I
HYPOTHETICAL COMPRESSOR. CASES IV AND V ratfo elent
1 0.9D09 1.040 0.5000 1.136 O. 7OO 0 .Zfl
2 .8929 1.038 .5696 1.157 l .741 .252
Reference 248 suggests that ilnprovements in 3 .8889 1.031 .6299 1.173 i
.723 .270
4 .8857 1.026 .6810 1.186 ] .705 287
part-speed performance of multistage compressors 5 .8818 1,022 .7246 .304
0 .8803 1.018 .7623 1.205 .668 .320
might be obtained by nlatching the stages so that 7 .8606 1.018 .7944 1.210 .650 .335
8 .8651 1.014 .8261 1.205 .650 .335
at design speed the inlet stages operate at the high 9 .8787 1.010 .8516 1.198 .650 .335
10 .88,50 1 .CO8 .8709 1.193 .643 .340
end and the rear stages at the low end of their 11 .8857 1.007 .8867 l. 189
1.197 l
.636
,686
.346
12 .8889 1.006 .9003 1,183 .630 .3,50
flow-coefficient ranges. Case IV was therefore 13 .8897 ] .006 .9100 l. 177 .626 .353
considered in order to evahmte the potential of

Ratio of exit to inlet area for stage.
such stage-matching compromises. Thus, the Ratio of exit to i,llet mean radius for stage.
match-point flow coefficients for ease IV were RANGE OF CALCULATIONS

arbitrarily varied from 0.76 in the first stage to
0.63 in the twelfth stage, as compared with a con- For each case considered, calculations were
made for a range of speeds of 50 to 1 l0 percent of
stant value of 0.69 for eases I to IlI. The stage
the reference value. The maximum flow con-
characteristics used were identical to those for
ease [. Since the results of case IV indicated that sidered at each speed was the estimated exit-vane
this stage-matching compromise greatly reduced choke flow. For these examples, choke flow was
assumed to exist at a value of specific weight flow
the complete-compressor-stall or surge margin at
at the exit of the last stage of 41.4 pounds per
design speed, case V was considered, in which a
thirteenth stage was added. The performance second per square foot of annulus area. This value
of specific flow is based on flow conditions at the exit
characteristics for this added stage were assumed
of the last stage The minimum flow considered
identical to those for stages 9 to 12, and the match-
point flow coefficient was taken as 0.626. As in at each speed was that at which a discontinuity
previous cases, the compressor was assumed to in the performance curve of any stage was en-
have a constant ti I) dianteter. countered. As indicated in chapter XII, discon-
tinuities in multistage-compressor performance at
Pertinent reference-point values for cases IV and
V are as follows: a given speed may lead to either compressor surge
Case IV Case V or complete compressor stall. In the computa-
Number of stages .......... 12 13 tion of intermediate-speed performance for cases
7. 73 9. 10
Over-all total-pressure ratio .... lI and II], operation with the inlet stage stalled
Inlet specific weight flow, equivalent and unstalled was considered.
flow per sq ft of annulus area .... 35. 96 35. 96
950 950
Inlet corrected tip speed, ft/sec___ DISCUSSION OF COMPUTED PERFORMANCE
Absolute inlet-air angle at pitch radius
CASE I
of each stage, deg ........... 22_ 22_,_
The assumed stage performance curves for case
Individual stage parameters for these two cases are
listed in table VIII(b). I are presented in figure 262. The first four stages
were assumed to have only a progressive stall, and
TABLE VIII.--REFERENCE-POINT VALUES
the pressure coefficient and efficiency were taken
(a) Ca,ues I, II, and III
as continuous functions of the flow coefficient, as
Area Mean- Hu_tlp Stage shown in figure 262(a). Stages 5 to 8 were as-
Stage ratio radius radius pressure
r_LlO b ratio ratio sumed to have an initial progressive stall and an
abrupt stall at lower values of flow coefficient
l 0,8431 1.071 0.5000 1.179
2 ,8510 1. 046 .OOt_ 1.196 (fig. 262(b)). Stages 9 to 12 were assumed to
3 .8547 1.033 .6795 1,203
4 .8580 1.025 .7348 1.204 have only an abrupt stall (fig. 262(c)). As noted
5 .8630 1.019 .7779 1.202
6 .8695 1.015 ,8120 1.198 in figures 262 (b) and (c), a discontinuity of stage
7 .8720 1.012 .8389 1.192
8 .8780 t .010 .8613 1.186 performance characteristics was considered to re-
9 .8835 1.008 .8794 1.170
r0 .8875 1 .OO7 .8943 1.172 sult from abrupt stall. The stage characteristics
11 .8020 1.0055 .9068 1.166
12 .8960 1.0045 .9173 1.159 for stage pressure ratios below 1.00, which were
the same for all stages, are given in figure 263.
1.0
.8
5"
5 .6 i//1_
/ /
/ /
_.4 - /
(D
/
/
/
- /
/ /
.2 _ / _ /
/ /
/
-/ -//
11111111 I I / I I I I IIII I 1 I I I I I I
J
"4 7 Progressive f
Progres sive i J'F._,
_- stall_
_) . o Reference
\ \
- stall V'_
- -- Abrupt
- stall
(o)I I I I I I I I I\ I ))I I I I I I I I I\ I (c)I I I I I I

0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
Flow coefficient
(a) Stages 1 to 4. (I)) Stages 5 to 8. (c) Stages 9 to 12.
t"rOUnE 262.--Assumed stage performance characteristics for case I.
As noted in appendix B of reference 294, a modi- The computed maximum elficiencies for this
fied computational procedure was used when stages case varied from slightly over 0.70 at 50 percent
operated at turbining pressure ratios. Inter- of reference speed to approximately 0.87 at 100-
action effects were considered negligible through- percent speed. The wdues of computed efficiency
out the compressor. at the lowest, speeds considered indi(,ate that
Computed over-all performance.-The com- stage mismatching at low speeds will not com-
puted over-all performance map for ease l is given pletely explain the extremely low efficiencies ob-
in figure 264 as a plot of over-all total-pressure tained experimentally for some high-pressure-ratio
ratio against spe('ific weight flow. The over-all multistage axial-flow compressors.
total-pressure ratio, which is the ratio of total The exit-vane choke limit was the maxinlunL
pressure at the exit of last stage to that at the flow considered at each speed. Further deerease_
compressor inlet, would not include an exit-vane in over-all pressure ratio wouht not alter the stage
or diffuser loss. The specific weight flow is the matching but would merely increase the losses
equivalent weight flow per square foot of annulus downstream of the point of choking.
area at the compressor inlet. Also shown in The complete-compressor-stall limit at each
figure 264 are contours of constant efIieiene.v, the speed was the flow at which a discontinuity of
estimated choking-flow condition for the exit performance occurred because of abrupt stall of
vanes, and the estimated coral)lore-compressor- some stage. Occurrence of abrupt stall in a stage
stall limit. results in very large flow fluctuations that could
seriously affect, the performance of all stages in

the compressor. Therefore, the occurrence of
abrupt stall in the multistage compressor can
logically be taken as the lower limit of usable
range at that speed. As pointed out in chapter
XII, discontinuities in overall performance of
the compressor may result in compressor surge;
and, thus, the complete-compressor-stall limit
may also be considered to be the surge limit of
the compressor. As noted in figure 264, this
limit does not exhibit the customary dip or kink
at interlnediate speeds. If surge were assumed
to occur at the maximum-pressure-ratio points
as in reference 248, the general trends would be
unchanged.
t.0 F
Specific weight ftow
33.68/
8"
-_7 .8 ,9 I.O I I 12 15
Flow coefficient
FIGVrtE 263.--Assumed performance characteristics for

negative values of pressure coefficient for all stages. i.O
12r
Limit
20.50 ,
E 7 t7. L_-_.-_
II compressor
i .... Complete
stall
I0 ----- Exit-vane Reference
choke po,nt -
9 , i
8
' -i ,
i
i
1.2
;_7__ --
, /
\
1/22, I \
Stage
(a) Speed, 100 percent of reference.

(b) Speed, 80 percent of reference.
(c) Speed, 50 percent of reference.
12 16 20 24 28 52 56 40
Specific weight flow FIGURe, 265.--Stagewise variation of flow coefficient for
case I.
FImuaE 264.--Computed over-all performance for case 1.
COMPRESSOR
OPERATION
WITHONEORMOREBLADE
ROWS
STALLED 349
Variation of stage flow coefflcients.--In order to In order to define more clearly the relation of
illustrate the stages that are stalled at various stage stall to compressor speed and flow, the
inlet flows and speeds, the stage flow coefficient is individual stage stall limits are cross-plotted on the
plotted against stage number (fig. 265) for several computed performance map in figure 266. This
values of inlet flow at speeds of 100, 80, and 50 figure shows that progressive stall exists in from
percent of the reference value. The heavily one to eight stages for all speeds below 80 percent
shaded area on these plots represents the range of of the reference value and for the low-flow portion
progressive stall, and the lightly shaded area of the flow range at speeds of 85 and 90 percent.
represents the range of abrupt stall with the It should be noted that, near the coxnplete-
associated discontinuity of stage pressure coeffi- compressor-stall point at 90-percent speed (fig.
cient (fig. 262). 266), nearly all the stages stall at approximately
At 100 percent of reference speed (fig. 265(a)), the same value of specific weight flow. In fact,
flow-coefficient variations are shown for the stages 2 to 5 stall at a slightly higher value of
reference-point specific flow of 33.5, the approxi- inlet flow than stage 1. As pointed out in chapter
mate exit-vane choke flow of 33.68, and the com- XI, rotating stall is a prevalent source of com-
plete-compressor-stall flow of 33.06. The varia- pressor blade vibration. Therefore, this range of
tion of flow coefficient in the front stages is small, operation where progressive stall exists is ex-
and thus the specific-weight-flow range at this tremely important with respect to engine re-
speed is also small. The maximum change in liability.
flow coefficient occurs in the last stage, and com- In general, the computed progressive-stall limits
plete compressor stall results from abrupt stall of of this hypothetical compressor (fig. 266) are
this stage. verified by experimental studies of rotating stall
As the speed is reduced to 80 percent of the in multistage compressors. The speeds at which
reference value, the flow coefficients decrease for this type stall are encountered are somewhat
the entrance stage and increase for the exit stage,
as shown in figure 265(b). At this speed, the
first stage operates in the progressive-stall range
even at the maximum specific weight flow of
23.40. Complete compressor stall results from
stall of the ninth stage at a specific weight flow
of 17.16. It should also be noted that the number
of stages operating in the progressive-stall range
increases from one to eight as the flow is decreased
from the exit-vane choke value of 23.40 to the
complete-compressor-stall value of 17.16.
As the speed is further decreased to 50 percent
of the reference value (fig. 265(c)), the front
stages move deeper into stall and the rear stages
closer to choking flow. Complete compressor stall Stage 8
results from occurrence of abrupt stall in the fifth
stage. From five to seven stages operate in the
progressive-stall range at all flows.
A comparison of figures 265 (a), (b), and (c)
shows that at high speeds complete compressor
stall results from abrupt stall of the rear stages;
and, as speed is reduced, earlier stages in the
compressor instigate complete compressor stall.
16 PO 14 18 22 26 50 54 58
As shown by the variation of stage flow coefficient
Specific weight flow
and by the assumed abrupt-stall limits (fig. 265),
complete compressor stall will only be instigated FIGURE 266.--Relation of stagc stall and over-all
by stages 5, 9, and 12 for this example. compressor performance for case I.
higher than discussed in chapter XI. The speed The stage characteristics used for stages 1 to 4
at which inlet-stage stall first occurs, however, of case I| are given in figure 267. These stage
would be a function of stage characteristics as well performance characteristics were obtained by
as design-point matching. For this example, arbitrarily modifying the pressure-coefficient char-
all stages were assumed to have identical charac- acteristics used in case I and computing the modi-
teristics up to the stall point and were matched at fied efficiency curves assuming no change in the
a constant value of flow coefficient of 0.69. Mach actual work input from that of case I. A small
number effects, which were ignored in this analysis, discontinuity in the performance of stage 1 was
may also vary the speed at which inlet-stage stall assumed as shown in figure 267(a). The un-
is first encountered. As can be seen from the stalling hysteresis effect is also indicated in this
stage curves of figure 261, a reduction in rotational figure. Stall recovery was assumed to occur
speed, which corresponds to a reduction in stage- at a flow coefficient of 0.60, whereas stall origi-
inlet Mach number, results in an increase in the nally occurred at a flow coefficient of 0.565. To
maximum obtainable flow coefficient of the exit evaluate interaction effects, stages 1 to 4 were
stage of a multistage compressor. Correspond- assumed to operate on the lower or stalled por-
ingly, a decrease in inlet Mach number of the tions of their performance curves (fig. 267)
first stage would tend to decrease the flow co- whenever any of these stages encountered stall.
efficient at which stall of this stage is encountered. The stage performance characteristics for stages
Both of these effects would tend to decrease the 5 to 12 were identical to those of case I (figs.
speed at which first-stage stall is encountered in 262 (b) and (c)).
the multistage compressor but would not alter Performance with front stages unstalled.--The
the trends indicated by the computed compressor calculated performance map for case ]I for the
performance. condition of no stall in the front stages is presented
The lines of abrupt stall (fig. 266) show that, in figure 268(a). This performance map is identi-
for speeds up to 70 percent of the reference value, cal to the high-speed part of the map for case
complete compressor stall results from abrupt I (figs. 264 and 266) except for the complete-
stall of the fifth stage; for speeds of 75 to 90 compressor-stall limit at speeds below 95 percent
percent, from abrupt stall of the ninth stage; of the reference value. In case II the stall of
and for speeds of 95 percent and higher, from one of the front stages leads to a discontinuity
abrupt stall of the twelfth stage. The resulting of over-all performance because of the assumed
complete-compressor-stall limit, however, is free interaction effects. Thus, an envelope of the
of the normal dip or kink that is frequently progressive-stall limits for case I (fig. 266) repre-
encountered in high-pressure-ratio multistage com- sents the complete-compressor-stall limit for case
pressors. II for speeds from 80 to approximately 95 percent
of reference speed. No operation with the front
CASE II
stage unstalled is obtainable below 80-percent
Case II was computed to evaluate the effects speed.
of small discontinuities resulting from interaction Performance with first stage staUed,--The
effects in the first few stages of a multistage computed performance for case II for the condition
compressor, and also to evaluate the effects of of stall in the first stage and interactions in
unstalling hysteresis of the inlet stage. Inter- stages 2 to 4 is shown in figure 268(b) for speeds
action effects were assumed to exist in the first of 50 to 95 percent of the reference speed. The
four stages. The detailed t]ow studies of the 10- upper limit of flow for speeds of 85, 90, and 95
stage research compressor discussed in chapter percent of the reference value was determined
XI reveal that flow fluctuations of rotating by the unstalling flow coefficient for the first:
stall increased through the first four stages and stage. At 95-percent speed, the front-stage un-
then decreased through the remaining stages. stalling limit intersects the ninth-stage stall-
Therefore, the assumption of interaction effects limit, line (fig. 268(b)). Therefore, this was the
in four stages appeared reasonable. The magni- maximum speed for which calculations of per-
tude of the decrease in performance was arbi- formancc with the front stage stalled were made.
trarily chosen. Complete compressor stall at speeds of 50 to 70
1.00
I I
(b)
1.0 0
Flow coefficient
(a) Stage 1. (b) Stages 2 to 4.
FIGURE 267.--Assumed performance characteristics for stages 1 to 4 for case II.
percent results from discontinuities due to the map for operation with the inlet stage stalled
occurrence of abrupt stall of the fifth stage; and interactions in stages 2 to 4 (figs. 268 (a) and
and at speeds of 75 to 95 percent, from abrupt (b)). The resulting perfornmnce in terms of
stall of the ninth stage. pressure ratio against specific weight flow is given
The efficiencies for case II at intermediate in figure 268(c) for a range of speeds from 50
speeds are somewhat lower than for case [. to ll0 percent of the reference value. For a
This decrease in efficiency is a direct result, of the range of speeds from 80 to 95 percent of the refer-
decrease in pressure coefficient assumed for stages ence wdue, operation with both the inlet stage
1 to 4 for the condition of progressive stall and stalled and the inlet stage unstalled is possible.
stage interaction effects in these stages. Thus, in this intermediate-speed range, the ex-
Complete performance map.--The complete istence of double performance curves and two
perfornmnce map for c_se I! is obtained by super- complete-conlpressor-stall or surge points at a
imposing the performance maps for operation given speed is indicated. The double curves
with the inlet stage unstalled and the performance of this analysis were obtained as a result of a
12F _ T T r__
----- Inlet stage unsfalled __

[ ..... StolI in stage I and [
II _ interactions in _--
[ stages 2 to 4 I i
[- ..... Complete-compressor -_-

i0 l_ stall limit _L__
95-Percent speed_ l---- Exit-vane choke hrnitT---
.... _.---_--;_--4---
Reference point-
9
9 stage I_ , ]z"_
I ! . x l I
t' ii 8
I
7
3-
6
-i--_Qo-----
.95_
Speed,
percem -- --
reference
J_
20 24 28 52 56 4O
(a) Front stage unstallcd. (b) Front stage stalled and interactions in stages 2 to 4.
(c) Composite performance (superimposition of (d) Transition from stalled to unstalled inlet
figs. 268(a) and (b)). stage on exit-vane choke line.
FzGvas 268.--Computed over-all performance for case II,

COMPRESSOR
OPERATION
WITHONEORMOREBLADE
ROWS
STALLED 353
small discontinuity in the performance char- the inlet stage are not considered, and the com-
acteristics of the first stage and interactions in pressor operation is assumed to change discon-
stages 2 to 4. These results are verified by the tinuously from that for inlet stage stalled to that
multiple performance curves obtained in the for inlet stage unstalled.
experimental investigations reported in refer- The type of over-all performance map obtained
ences 292 and 293. from the normal compressor-component rating
It should be noted that, for the computations of techniques described is given in figure 268 (d).
case II, a small discontinuity in the pressure- For speeds up to 85 percent of the reference value,
coefficient curve of stage 1 was assumed. Similar the compressor would operate with the front
results would be obtained, however, if the per- stage stalled; and for speeds above 85 percent,
formance of stage 1 were assumed to be continuous, with the front stage unstalled. Therefore, both
provided discontinuities of stage performance as branches of the performance curve are given at this
a result of interaction were assumed for any of crossover speed of 85 percent of the reference value.
the following stages. 0omplete-compressor-stall limit.--The com-
Transition from stalled to unstalled operation of plete-compressor-stall limit will follow the dis-
inlet stage.--Reference 293 indicates multiple continuity points of the dashed speed curves up
values of surge-point performance for inter- to the crossover speed and the discontinuity point
mediate-speed operation. In these tests, the on the solid curves above this speed. Thus,
particular surge point obtained depended upon a stall-limit line faired through these points
the schedule of speed and flow that preceded the exhibits the dip common to most high-pressure-
occurrence of surge. The double-valued curves ratio axial-flow compressors. As indicated by
of figure 268(c) and the dependence of com- this analysis of case II, however, two discrete
pressor performance on the manner in which a stall-limit lines exist, the low-speed stall limit
particular operating point is approached indicate representing the mode of operation with the front
the necessity of studying the transition from stages stalled and the high-speed stall limit
compressor operation with the inlet stage stalled representing the mode of operation with no stages
to operation with the inlet stage unstalled. stalled. Since these two stall-limit lines may
The usual operating schedule in compressor- overlap in the intermediate-speed range where
component testing is to start at maximum or multiple performance characteristics may exist,
a continuous stall-limit line should not be faired
choke flow for a given speed and increase the
throttling in successive steps until surge is through the stall points for the complete range of
obtained. Since compressor operation at maxi- speeds. In presentation of experimental data,
mum flow at low and intermediate speeds is however, the compressor stall or surge line is
normally set by the choke of the exit vanes, faired through a finite number of points and is
transition from stalled to unstalled operation of generally considered a continuous function of
the inlet stage can be considered to occur along flow, pressure ratio, and speed.
the exit-vane choke limit of figure 268 (c). Thus, The analysis of case II shows that the dip in
as the compressor speed is increased, the choking the compressor stall or surge limit that is experi-
limit of the exit vanes will prevent unstalling of mentally found to exist for intermediate-speed
the inlet stages for this case until a speed of 85 operation of high-pressure-ratio multistage com-
percent of the reference value is attained. Un- pressors can be simulated by assuming a small
stalling of the inlet stage and alleviation of the discontinuity in the performance characteristics
resulting interaction effects will result in a of the inlet stage and interaction effects in stages
transient change of operation from the exit-vane 2 to 4. Similar results would be obtained from
choke point on the dashed speed curve to the any combination of discontinuous performance
exit-vane choke point on the solid speed curve. characteristics of the inlet stages. For example,
For this example, the specific weight flow in- the performance characteristics of the first stage
creases from 26 to 26.3 and the pressure ratio of the 16-stage compressor reported in reference
from 4.23 to 4.30. The efficiency is not changed 253 were continuous, but discontinuities did exist
appreciably. For the purposes of this chapter, in the characteristics of a few stages after the first.
the transient conditions following unstalling of It should also be noted that relatively continuous
691-564 0-65-24
stage characteristics will result in a fairly smooth where multiple performance curves exist for a
surge or stall-limit line, as indicated in reference given compressor rotational speed. The data of
257. reference 293 indicate six separate performance
The transition from the complete-compressor- curves at approximately 75 percent of design
stall limit for operation with the inlet stage stalled speed. For this compressor, the performance
to that for operation with the inlet unstalled de- characteristic that exhibited no stall in the inlet
pends on the manner in which this limit is ap- stages was easily duplicated. Points on the
proached. If the compressor-discharge throttling performance characteristics for the condition of
is sufficient to cause the compressor to operate stall in the inlet stages were in general duphcable,
appreciably above the exit-vane choke limit as but minor variations in the method of approach
speed is increased, unstalling of the front stage to this particular speed would result in operation
may not be achieved until a speed appreciably on different curves of the separate performance
greater than 85 percent of the reference value is characteristics for the condition of stall in the inlet
attained. In the range of speeds from 85 to 95 stages. Thus, estimation of the compressor per-
percent of the reference value, the complete- formance in the actual engine based on compressor-
compressor-stall limit may follow that of figure component tests may be difficult for this inter-
268 (b). But, if the speed is first increased above mediate-speed range. During component testing
the value for unstalling of the inlet stage and then of compressors, however, it is desirable to evaluate
reduced, complete compressor stall may occur on all possible performance characteristics in this
the limit of figure 268(a) for speeds of 80 to some intermediate-speed range where multiple charac-
what over 90 percent of the reference value. teristics may exist.
Thus, for case II, double-valued compressor stall Effect of unstalling hysteresis.--For case II a
points at a given speed may be obtained for the hysteresis effect was assumed in the unstalling
range of speeds from 80 to 95 percent of reference characteristic of the inlet stage. This had no
speed, as indicated in figure 268(c). As previously effect on the general trend of complete-compressor-
discussed, this phenomenon has been observed in stall characteristics, except with respect to the
experimental studies of multistage axial-flow- speed at which transition from stalled to unstalled
compressor performance. For cases where un- operation of the inlet stage was achieved. For no
stalling of groups of stages or alleviation of inter- hysteresis effect, unstalhng of the inlet stage along
action effects occurs stepwise, even more than the exit-vane choke line (fig. 208(b)) would be
two compressor performance characteristic curves achieved at 81.5 percent of reference speed rather
may be obtained at a given value of speed. than at 85 percent as for the case with hysteresis.
For maximum engine acceleration, the compres- Possible discontinuities in the complete-compres-
sor operating line in an engine will be very close sor-stall limit and the potential of double-valued
to the surge or stall limit at low and intermediate points between speeds of 80 to 93 percent can be
speeds. Thus, the intermediate-speed complete- seen from figure 268(c).
compressor-stall limit obtained by normal com- Part-speed etiteiency.--At 85-percent speed,
pressor rating techniques may not be representa- the transition speed, the maximum computed
tive of the complete-compressor-stall or surge efficiency for operation with no stage stalled was
limit obtained during engine acceleration. There- 0.86; whereas the maximum efficiency was 0.84
fore, when multiple operating curves exist at any at this speed for the condition of inlet stage stalled
compressor speed, performance evaluations must and interactions in stages 2 to 4. This small
include all possible operating conditions. This difference in computed efficiency simply reflects
may be done by approaching a given operating the small changes in stage performance that were
point by varying compressor speed at each of assume(l to result from inlet-stage stall and the
several fixed system throttle settings, as well as attendant interactions (fig. 267). Thus, no con-
by variation of throttle settings at a fixed speed. clusive results can be obtained from these com-
Speed changes must include both increases and puted efficiencies. Interaction effects or sharp
decreases in rotational speed. An operating tech- decreases in stage efficiency as a result of stage
nique such as this will give performance maps of stall will, however, affect compressor efficiency
the type shown in figure 268(c) for those cases adversely.
COMPRESSOR
OPERATION
WITHONEORMOREBLADE
ROWS
STALLED 355
CASE Ill
The performance of this case for the condition
In order to evaluate more serious interaction of unstalled operation of the inlat stage is identical
effects, calculations were made for case ]II that to that for case II (fig. 268(a)). For the condition
assumed the same conditions in stages 1 to 4 of stall of the inlet stage, however, the performance
as for case ]I and, in addition, assumed large inter- is markedly changed (fig. 270(a)).
action effects in stages 5 to 8. The modified Complete performance map.--The complete
performance curves for these middle stages are computed compressor performance map for case
given in figure 269. As for stages 1 to 4, the III (fig. 270(b)) is obtained by superimposing
pressure-coel_cient curve for stages 5 to 8 was figures 268(a) and 270(a). As in case ]I, the
arbitralily modified and the efficiency curve was multiple performance curves at speeds above 80
computed from the pressure coefficient by assum- percent of the reference value indicate the neces-
ing no change in total work input for the stage. sity of varying the mode of testing in component
The magnitude of discontinuity of pzessure co- rating so that all possible compressor operating
efficient is representative of that for an abrupt conditions can be ewduated.
type of stage stall. When progressive stall Transition from stalled to unstalled operation of
existed in stage l, stages 5 to 8 were assumed to inlet stage.--For case III, if compressor speed is
operate on the dashed curves of figure 269. Tile increased along the exit-vane choke limit, inlet-
performance of stages 9 to 12 was identical to stage unstalling will be effected at 94 percent of
that for case I. the reference speed. At this speed the transient
change in computed pressure ratio would be from
L.oo .........
4.85 to 5.2, the change in specific weight _ow
would be from 28.3 to 30.9, and the change in
efficiency from 0.71 to 0.81. Thus, for large inter-
.80 % ....
/ - .
/ action effects, unstalling of the inlet stage is oc-
companied by relatively large increases in weight
flow, pressure ratio, and efficiency. The transi-
5 60 -- 1
tion speed of 94 percent is shown in figure 270(b)
.U_ ..... ,/-- -- "
for both the condition of stall in the inlet stage
B / and interactions in stages 2 to 8 and the condition
g .40 / ' !
5 / I of no stall in the inlet stage and no interactions.
/
If interaction effects of the magnitude assumed for
.2o _ Z ..... this case do exist and the compressor operating
/
/ characteristic follows a throttling line close to the
complete-compressor-stall limit, unstalling of the
o Jr ..... I inlet stage may not be achieved even at design
speed. By increasing the speed to a value above
that for unstalling of the inlet stage and then
l__ - -
/
J_"\ ..... q decreasing the speed, stall-free operation might be
.3 , ! .... _ .... ---t obtained down to 80 percent of the reference speed
e)
at low values of pressure ratio.
Complete-compressor-stall limit.--For the high-
2
tn
d: .I ......
Io Reference _point
............. \
\
1 speed portion
stages are stalled
percent
sor stall results
stage;
percent,
of the compressor
(fig. 268(a)),
of tile reference
and at speeds
map
at speeds
wdue, complete
from abrupt
compres-
stall of tile twelfth
of 80 to approximately
from stall of stages 1 to 4 and the attend-
where
95
no
above 95
\ I ant stage interactions. For tile operating condi-

0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
Flow coefficient tions where stall in the inlet stage and interactions
FIOURE 26(.).--Assumed performance charactcristics for in stages 2 to 8 exist (fig. 270(a)), complete com-
stages 5 to 8 for case III. pressor stall for speeds up to 95 percent of the
reference value results from abrupt stall of the inlet stage t)eeomes unstalled regardless of the
ninth stage, and for higher speeds, from abrupt throLtling or compressor operating line.
stall of the twelfth stage. Part-speed efficiency.--As can be seen from a
The complete-compressor-stall-limit line indica- comparison of figures 264 and 270(a), interactions
ted for case III for the normal component rating of the magnitude assumed for case Ill result in
technique can be obtained from figure 270(b). large reductions in efficiency for operation with
This stall-limit line would follow the complete- stall in the inlet, stages. The comI)uted values
compressor-stall-limit points for the dashed speed indicate a reduction in efficiency of about 15
curves (fig. 270(a)) up to 94 percent of reference percent compared with about 2 percent for case II.
speed. In this speed range the compressor would Tlms, the low part-speed effieiencics exhihited by
operate with tile first stage stalled and interactions some multistage axial-flow compressors may
ill stages 2 to 8. For speeds above 94 percent, result from severe interaction cffe('ts.
the stall-limit line will follow the complete-com- Multiple-valued performance characteristics,--
pressor-stall-limit points for the solid speed curves, Both cases II and III indicate the potential of two
which represent a condition of stall-free operation separate curves in this general speed range.
for all stages. If at any given value of speed the potential of
Effect of unstalling hysteresis.----] f the hysteresis different degrees of deterioration of stage per-
effect oil unstalling of the inlet stage were ne- fornlanee due to interactions is considered, then
glected, the first stage in this case would become more than two l)erformance curves may be
unstalled at 91.5 percent of reference speed for obtained. For example, if the characteristics for
operation along the exit-vane choke limit. The 85-percent Sl)eed are considered for cases I to III,
general trend of performance and complete- tile performance characteristics shown in figure 271
compressor-stall limit wouht, however, be un- arc obtained. (!urve I represents a condition of
changed. The effect of inlet-stage unstalling unstalled operation for all stages; curve I[, a
hysteresis is to increase the speed at which the condition of stall in the inlet, stages and inter-
II
IO
O
i
7
o_
o9
Ck
i
5 .... Stage
O
16
(a) Front, stage stalled anti interactions in (b) Compositc i)erformance (superimposition of
stages 2 to _. fi_s. 268(a) and 270(a)).
F[fiURE 270.--Computed over-all performance for case III.

COMPRESSOR
OPERATION
WITHONEORMOREBLADE
ROWS
STALLED 357
I F the compressor stages for some speed lower than

the design value, as suggested in reference 248.
In addition to improving part-speed performance,
such compromises in stage matching may reduce
the speed at which progressive stall is encountered
and thus decrease the potential of blade vibrations
o \
"5 excited by rotating stall. To evaluate these
(D potentials, case IV was computed. In this case,
the reference-point flow coefficients of the stages
(D
C_ were varied as shown in table VIII (b) from a value
o of 0.760 in the inlet, stage to a value of 0.630 in
iiI the twelfth stage. The principal purpose of this
study was to investigate variations of stage
operation with speed. Therefore, no interactions
were considered. The stage characteristics used
for the individual stages were identical to those
I
J for case I (fig. 262).
16 20 24 28
Computed over-all performanee.--The com-
Specific weight ftow
puted over-all performance map for case IV is
FIGURE 271.--Comparison of computed performance at given in figure 272(a) as a plot of over-all total-
85-percent speed for cases I to III.
pressure ratio against specific weight flow. For
this case as for case I, complete compressor stall
actions in stages 2 to 4 as obtained for case II;
was assumed to occur when abrupt stage stall was
and curve IIl, a condition of stall in the inlet.
encountered in any stage. Complete compressor
stages and interactions in stages 2 to 8 as obtained
stall for case IV results from abrupt stall of the
for ease III. Such variations in performance
fifth stage for speeds of 50, 60, and 70 percent of
may be a result of changes in the number of stages
the reference value, from abrupt stall of the ninth
that exhibit this deterioration of performance or
stage for speeds of 80 and 90 percent, and from
changes in the nmgnitude of the performance
abrupt, stall of the twelfth stage for 100 and 110
deterioration of each stage that is affected.
percent. These results are similar to those for
Variations of stall interaction effects, therefore,
case I.
will result in a multiplicity of over-all performance
The peak efficiencies calculated for case IV
characteristics at a given speed; and the com-
varied from approximately 0.74 at 50 percent of
pressor flow, pressure ratio, and efficiency will
reference speed to a maximum of 0.87 at 90-percent
increase with decreasing severity of stall and
interaction effects. The particular performance speed, and decreased to 0.85 at the reference speed.
Stage progressive-stall limits.--In order to
obtained Mll depetM on the previous history of
determine the speed at which various stages
speed and flow as well as the hysteresis effect
reach the flow coefficient for progressive stall
accompanying changes of stall pattern in any
(0.565), the progressive-stall limits for stages 1 to 8
given compressor. Needless to say, flow dis-
are cross-plotted on the computed performance
tortions at the compressor inlet can aggravate
these adverse effects. map in figure 272(b). This figure shows that the
EASE IV first stage is stalled over almost the entire flow
Since part-speed perforumnee problems of high- range at 70 percent of reference speed, and over
pressure-ratio axial-flow compressors can be att.rib- only the low-flow portion of the compressor flow
uted to stalling of the inlet, stages as a result of range at 80-percent speed. The first-stage stall
flow limitations of the rear stages, some improve- limit intersects the con_plete-colnpressor-stall limit.
ment in part-speed performance may be expected at approximately 85 percent of reference speed.
by matching the front stages near their choking Consideration of the stall limits of stages 2 to 7
value of flow coefficient and the rear stages near indicates that. at. 90-percent speed stage 7 is the
their stalling value of flow coefficient. This stage- first stage to encounter progressive stall. In the
matching compromise is equivalent to matching range of approximately 70- to 85-percent speed,
several of the front stages approach stall almost marked decrease in the attainable pressure ratio
simultaneously at a weight flow somewhat higher at all speeds. It can also be seen from figure
than that for first-stage stall. At the higher 272(c) that tim percentages of reference-point
values of pressure ratio at intermediate speeds, the specific weight flow at the lower speeds are higher
general effect of the stage-matching compromise for case IV than for case I. At the overspeed
was to transfer the progressive-stall problem from condition, however, the condition is reversed, and
the front stages towards the middle stages of the case I indicates the higher percentage of reference-
compressor. point flow.
No interaction effects were considered in this The progressive-stall limits shown in figure
analysis. However, as pointed out previously, 272(c) represent the envelope of the progressive-
stages operating near the stalling value of flow stall limit for stages 1 to 8 as given in figures 264
coefficient are very susceptible to deteriorations and 272(b). A comparison of these limits for
of performance induced by flow fluctuations result- cases I and IV indicates that, along the exit-vane
ing from stall of adjacent stages. Therefore, choke limit, the speed at which progressive stall is
serious interaction effects maybe expected where encountered is decreased from 80-percent speed
simultaneous stall of several stages occurs (fig. for case I to slightly less than 70-percent speed
2720))). Furthermore, the stages with higher for case IV. Along the complete-compressor-
huh-tip ratio, such as stages 5 to 7 of case IV, are stall limit, however, progressive stall occurs at
more apt to exhibit an abrupt stall than are the somewhat higher speeds for the compromise
stages with low hub-tip ratio, such as stages 1 to 3. matching design (case IV) than for case I. During
At speeds of 80 to 90 percent, therefore, interaction engine operation at part speed, the compressor
effects may instigate abrupt stall of one of the will nolznaUy operate in the high-pressure-ratio
middle stages of the case IV compressor and there- range at any given speed. As shown in figure
by limit the flow range at these speeds. 272(c), the stage-matching compromise used for
Comparison of cases I and IV.--A comparison of case IV gave no effective reduction in the speed at
the e_ciencies of case I (fig. 264) and case IV which progressive stall might be encountered
(fig. 272(a)) indicates no appreciable variations during engine operation but merely transferred
of the over-all compressor efficiency due to the the instigation of this stall from the first stage to
stage-matching compromises of case IV. It one of the middle stages of the compressor.
should he noted, however, that in case I the stages From the comparison of the computed perform-
were not matched at the peak-efficiency points ance of cases I and IV, it is obvious that the com-
(see fig. 262). Compared with a compressor for promise in stage matching used in case IV does
which all stages were matched at the peak- not improve the progressive-stall limit appre-
efficiency points, the compromise of case IV would ciably but decreases the complete-compressor-stall
have decreased the overall compressor efficiency margin. Since this compromise in stage matching
at high speeds and increased it at low speeds. does not result in a marked decrease in the speed
The increase in first-stage flow coefficient for at which rotating stall could be encountered, it
case IV resulted in an increased specific weight would not appreciably alter the potential blade-
flow from 33.5 for case I to 35.9 for case IV. Thus, vibration problem associated with rotating stall.
for a given weight-flow requirement, the com- CASE V
promised matching would permit the use of a Since the compromise matching of case IV indi-
slightly smaller compressor diameter. cated a severe decrease in the pressure ratio esti-
In order to compare the conlplete-compressor- mated for complete compressor stall, the effect
stall limits and stage progressive-stall limits for of an additional stage was considered. This hypo-
cases I and IV, these perforInance maps are super thetical compressor, designated case V, is identical
imposed in figure 272(c). This figure is plotted as to that of case IV except for the addition of a
pressure ratio against percent of reference-point thirteenth stage. The stage characteristics as-
specific weight flow in order to compare compres- sumed for this added stage were the same as for
sors of equivalent flow capacities. Comparison stages 9 to 12 (fig. 262(c)). As in case IV, no
of the complete-compressor-stall limits shows that stage interaction effects were considered in case V.
the compromise of stage matching (case IV) gave a The details of the stage matching and stage
i I
o
'E
e$
g I
&

reference-point performance characteristics for As in case IV, the specific weight flow for case V
this case are given in table VIII(b). was 35.9 pounds per second per square foot of
Computed over-all performanee.--Figure 273 (a) annulus area as compared with 33.5 for case I.
presents the computed over-all performance for Figure 273(c) indicates that case I has a slightly
case V as a plot of over-all total-pressure ratio better coomplete-compressor-stall margin at. speeds
against specific weight flow. The reference-point of 50 to 70 percent of the reference value; the two
total-pressure ratio indicated in this figure is 9.1 compressors exhibit about the same complete-
as compared with 7.73 for case IV. Complete compressor-stall limit at speeds of 80 to 90 percent;
compressor stall at speeds of 50, 60, and 70 percent and case V has a slightly better stall limit at
of the reference value results from abrupt stall of 100- and ll0-percent speed.
the fifth stage; at speeds of 80 and 90 percent, The envelope lines of the stage progressive-stall
from abrupt stall of the ninth stage; and at speeds limits for stages 1 to 8 are also plotted in figure
of 100 and ll0 percent, from abrupt stall of the 273(c). These limits indicate that along the exit-
thirteenth stage. vane choke limit case I encounters progressive
The peak efficiencies computed for case V stall at 80 percent of reference speed, whereas
varied from 0.70 at 50 percent of reference speed case V encounters progressive stall at about
to 0.85 at reference speed with a maximum of 72-percent speed. Along the complete-compressor-
0.87 at 90-percent speed. stall limit, both cases I and V encounter progressive
Stage progressive-stall limits.--The stage pro- stall at somewhat over 90 percent of reference
gressive-stall limits for case V are cross-plotted speed. Thus, the compromise of stage matching
on the over-all performance map in figure 273(b). and the addition of a stage (case V) do not
Progressive-stall limits for stages 1 to 8 are shown decrease the speed at which progressive stall is
in this figure, and the results are similar to those encountered in the vicinity of the complete-
for case IV (fig. 272(b)). At 90 percent of compressor-stall limit. Therefore, the potential
reference speed for case V, the seventh stage en- of blade vibrations excited by progressive stall
counters progressive stall at a flow only slightly would be equally as critical for a compressor such
higher than that for complete compressor stall. as case V as for one such as case I.
At 80-percent speed, stages 3 to 6 encounter Figure 273(c) also shows that the compromised
progressive stall almost simultaneously at a flow compressor (case V) has a slightly higher per-
about halfway between the exit-vane choke limit centage of reference-point flow at lower than
and the complete-compressor-stall limit; and at reference speed and a slightly lower percentage at
70-percent speed, stages 1 to 4 are stalled at the
higher than reference speed than does the com-
exit-vane choke limit.
pressor of case I.
Comparison of cases I and V.--Comparison of This comparison indicates that, with respect to
the efficiencies of case I (fig. 264) and case V complete-compressor-stall and progressive-stall
(fig. 273(a)) shows that the stage-matching com-
limits, the original 12-stage hypothetical com-
promise and the addition of a thirteenth stage
pressor (case I) is comparable with the 13-stage
have little effect on the computed over-all effi-
compressor witl_ modified stage matching (case V).
ciency. The addition of the thirteenth stage
For a given design flow, the case V compressor
resulted in a higher reference-point pressure ratio would be slightly smaller than that for case I, but
(9.1 for case V compared with 7.75 for case I). this advantage is offset by the necessity of an
Because the efficiency contours are displaced extra stage in order to maintain the complete-
towards higher pressure ratios, the case V com- compressor-stall margin for the compressor with
pressor indicates a computed efficiency of approxi-
compromised stage matching.
mately 0.84 at a pressure ratio of 7.75 as compared
with a value of 0.86 for case I at the same pressure CONCLUDING REMARKS
ratio.
PART-SPEED PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS
The comparison of complete-compressor-stall

limits for cases I and V are presented in figure The analysis reported herein was made to study
273 (c), which gives a plot of pressure ratio against the effects of various stage stall and interaction
percent of reference-point specific weight flow. characteristics on the part-speed efficiency, inter-
mediate-speed complete-compressor-stall charac- of double-valued performance curves at inter-

teristics, and multiple-valued performance charac- mediate speeds. The existence of large unstalling
teristics of high-pressure-ratio multistage axial- hysteresis in combination with severe discontinu-
flow compressors. In addition, the range of ities in stage performance may prevent unstalling
conditions where progressive rotating stall exists of the inlet stages until very high speeds are
was considered as a range of potential blade vibra- obtained.
tions. Effects of compromising stage matching to With respect to part-speed efficiency and inter-
favor part-speed performance have also been con- mediate-speed complete compressor stall, this
sidered. Because of the simplifying assumptions study indicates the desirability of stages having
used, the results obtained represent only a first continuous characteristics at their stall points. It
approximation. The qualitative results, however, should be noted that these stage characteristics
are generally in agreement with trends observed must be maintained when the stage is operating
experimentally. in the flow environment of the multistage com-
This analysis indicates that multiple-valued pressor. Stages of this type generally have a
multistage performance curves will be obtained if progressive stall that originates at one end of the
stall of the inlet stage results in discontinuities of blade and gradually increases in severity as the
that stage or of one or more of the succeeding flow coefficient is decreased. Design of such
stages. Discontinuities of these succeeding stages stages depends on a better knowledge of the effects
may be a result of interaction effects due to un- of unsteady flow and of radial maldistribution of
steady flow initiated by progressive stall of the flow, which result from off-design operation of
first stage. The particular operating point of the adjacent stages. The stage data and over-all
compressor at the speeds where multiple curves compressor performance characteristics obtained
exist depends on the manner in which that oper- from the 10-stage compressor of reference 257,
ating point is approached. .More than two per- however, indicate that these desirable stage
formance curves may be obtained at a given speed characteristics can to a degree be achieved.
if the number of stages affected by interaction Although the use of stages having progressive stall
varies or if the severity of interactions varies. may alleviate the part-speed efficiency and com-
The dip obtained in the experimentally deter- plete-compressor-stall problems, it would not
mined surge or complete-compressor-stall-limit alleviate the potential of blade vibrations excited
lines of high-pressure-ratio axial-flow compressors by rotating stall.
apparently is merely a result of transition from Increasing the stall-free range of operation of
compressor operation with the front stages stalled the inlet stages would, of course, increase the
to operation with these stages unstalled. The in- range of stall-free operation of the multistage
termediate-speed limit obtained by normal com- compressor. Since the part-speed problem in the
ponent test techniques may not be representative multistage compressor results from flow limitations
of that obtained in an engine at the same speed. of the exit stages, stage range with respect to
Furthermore, the engine corn plete-com pressor-stall off-design performance can best be evaluated on
limit obtained during accelerations may be differ- the basis of flow range at the discharge rather than
ent from that obtained during decelerations. that at the inlet of the stage. Therefore, devices
This analysis indicates that extremely poor or design improvements that would increase the
part-speed efficiencies cannot |)_ attributed en- stage-loading limit or flow range must be evaluated
tirely to stage mismatching but can to a large to determine the potential gains in effective stage
extent be attributed to stage interactions or de-
range.
terioration of stage performance due to unsteady
More complete data on effects of stage design
flow resulting from rotating stall ori_nating in the
and blading geometry on stage stall characteristics,
inlet stages. The magnitude of interaction effects
as well as a better understanding of stage inter-
for each stage and the number of stages affected
will determine the reductions in performance at actions due to radial maldistribution of flow and
low and intermediate speeds. unsteady flow as encountered in multistage com-
Hysteresis effects in the unstalling character- pressors, are required in order to obtain a more
istics of the first stage do not alter the existence quantitative evaluation of part-speed performance.
STAGE-MATCHING COMPROMISES
the inlet guide vanes reduces both the flow coeffi-
One proposed technique of improving part- cient and the pressure coefficient of the first stage.
speed performance is to compromise stage match- This change in pressure coefficient tends to mod-
ing to favor low-speed operation of the compressor. erate the decrease in first-stage flow coefficient
The analysis of this technique indicates that such so that the flow coefficient of thesecond stage is
compromises severely reduce tt_e complete-conl- not appreciably altered. The operation of middle
pressor-stall margin unless additional stages are and latter stages, therefore, tends to be primarily
used. The higher flow coefficients of entrance a function of compressor speed and throttling
stages may permit the use of a slightly stnaller rather than of inlet-guide-vane position. Thus,
compressor for a given flow capacity, but this closing the inlet guide wines results in an appre-
advantage wouhl be offset by the necessity of an ciable reduction in flow but only a small reduction
additional stage to obtain the required complete- in over-all pressure ratio for the compressor. This,
compressor-stall margin. Furthermore, no gain in general, improves the complete-compressor-
in the range of speeds where no rotating stall stall-limit or surge-limit characteristics. Of course,
exists is obtained except near the exit-vane choke when the guide vanes are opened, the converse
lilnit. Stage compromises tend to result in pro- is true. References 296 and 297 also point out
gressive stall in the middle stages at speeds above that closing the inlet guide vanes alters the radial
that for stall of the inlet stage. Thus, the po- variation of loading of the first rotor as a result
tential for al)rupt stall, interaction effects, and of the establishment of radial equilibrium of static
poor intermediate-speed conlplete-compressor-stall pressure. This radial variation of loading is in
characteristics would he greater for the com- the direction of increasing the value of flow coeffi-
promised design. No reduction in the potential cient at which tip stall is encountered and thus
of blade vibration excited by rotating stall is would tend to reduce the effectiveness of guide-
indicated. Furthermore, stage-matching coin- vane adjustment in relieving the part-speed
promises to favor part-speed performance wouh[ operating problem. Furthermore, alterations in
definitely restrict the o})tainable ovempeed per- radial distribution of flow and blade loading may
formance of any compressor. affect the stalling characteristics of the individual
VARIABLE GEOMETRY stages. Adjustable inlet guide vanes have, how-
ever, been effectively used as a means of improving
Inlet bafltes.--As indicated in chapter XI, the engine acceleration characteristics, and adjustable
use of adjustable inlet blockage either in the forth guide vanes and stators provide a potential tech-
of baffles or ramps may disrupt the periodic nature nique for improving the flexibility of high-pressure-
of rotating stall and thus present a potential solu- ratio compressor operation without sacrificing
tion to the blade-vibration problem. Preliminary design-point performance. Tile added weight and
tests of a hub baffle (ref. 20) indicate that the use complexity of the engine and its control system
of such a baffle may also result in some improve- must be considered, however.
ment in the complet, e-compressor-stall or surge
margin at low speeds. In addition, baffles inay Compressor air bleed.--Coinpressor-discharge
be used at high speeds to reduce the compressor bleed has been used effectively to alter the nlatch-
mass flow and therefore to act as a thrust-spoiling
ing of the compressor and turbine at part speed
device.
so as to avoid serious intermediate-speed conlplete-
Adjustable blading.--Adjustable inlet guide compressor-stall problems (ref. 22). This tech-
vanes and adjustable stator blades have also been nique, however, does not eliminate the potential
proposed as variable-geometry features for allevia- of blade vibrations instigated by rotating stall.
tion of part-speed performance problems and
Interstage air bleed in the multistage compressor
improvement of flexibility of engine operation.
has the potential of effectively altering the match-
The satisfactory application of such adjustable
ing of the inlet and exit stages and thus appre-
blading, however, depends on a knowledge of the
ciably reducing the speed at which rotating stall
w_riations of stage matching and radial distribu-
tion of flows that result, fronl blade adjustment. is encountered, as well as improving the complete-
As indicated in references 296 and 297, closing compressor-stall or surge margin at intermediate
speeds. The computed effects of bleed on a 16- distribution in the vicinity of the bleed ports.
stage compressor (ref. 23) in(li('_lte improvements The use of interstage bleed will add some weight
in efficiency at part speed ev(,r_ when the com- and complexity to the turbojet engine but, in
pressor is charged with tile work added to the general, offers improvement in regard to inter-
bleed air. Care must be exercised in design of mediate-speed complete-compressor-stall or surge
bleed ports to avoid resommce with adjacent margins and to I)lade-vibration problems resulting
blades and to avoid serious distortions of flow from rotating stall.
CHAPTER XIV
THREE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSOR FLOW THEORY AND

REAL FLOW EFFECTS
By HOWARD Z. HERZlG and ARTHUR G. HANSEN
The discrepancies observed between the actual which solutions can be obtained. Such procedures
flows in an axial-flow compressor and theoretical are necessarily conditional upon obtaining phys-
simplified design flows increase in magnitude and ically valid flow descriptions by their use.
diversity with the trend toward more compact com- In practice, the aerodynamic design of subsonic
pressors. The research into design procedures to compressors has usually been based on two prin-
reduce these discrepancies is reviewed and discussed. cipal assumptions: (1) axially symmetric flow and
The iTnproved design procedures are arbitrarily (2) blade-element flow. The axially symmetric
classified into two categories. One category includes flow assumption is primarily a mathematical de-
investigations that successit,ely extend the design vice that reduces the g_neral flow equation from
procedu.res from the simplified-radial-equilibrium a three-dimensional to a two-dimensional system.
axially symmetric designs to the complex complete In order to linearize and further simplify the flow
three-dimensional design. The second category in- equations, several auxiliary flow assumptions are
cl_des individ_lal studies _ more restricted problems made, such as considering the flow to be nonvis-
such as secondary flows, radial variation of circula- cous and time-steady. Additional assumptions
r|oft, entropy, or enthalpy. Such research leads to often made within the axial-symmetry approach
more adequate correction factors for use with sim- in('lude simple radial equilibrium and constant
plified design procedures. entrophy radially.
INTRODUCTION The assumption of 1)lade-element flow enables
the designer to use lhe performance data (obtained
One of the most important problems in the
aerodynamic design of compressors is that of chiefly from two-dimensional-cascade investiga-
tions, eh. VI) in the compressor blading design.
expressing the design flow equations in forms that
are at once simple enough and accurate enough. In fine, the over-all adwmced compressor design
The equations and their solutions should be simple requires a combined approach. It is necessary to
enough that the designer can see the relative simplify the mathematical problem in order to
obtain solutions readily; and it. is likewise neces-
significance of the variables he is free to specify,
sary to use empirical information obtained in re-
and it. must be possible to solve the relations
lated investigations in order to correct, as far as
quickly. The latter is important because it. is
possible, for the discrepancies between the real and
frequently necessary to compute many compressor
designs in order to select the one most suitable the design flows in the compressor.
for a particular application. The equations and In the past, suitable compressors have been de-
their solutions must represent the fluid mot.ion signed I)y this simplified design procedure. Ex-
accurately enough that the discrepancies between perience has taught that, by adlmring to well-
predicted and measured flow conditions are established limits on inlet relative flow Mach
acceptably small. numbers, blade-turning and -loading parameters,
The equations of motion for the flow of a real wheel speeds, pressure ratios, and others, designers
fuid in an axial-flow compressor are nonlinear can consistently produce satisfactory compressors.
_bree-(limensional equations and to date have From a practical point of view, these results justify
proved mathenmtically intractable. Accordingly, the axial-symmetry and blade-element-flow ap-
designers have evolved the use of w_rious assump- proach to the design of such compressors (oh. III),
tions to obtain reduced linear flow equations for herein called "conservative compressors."
365
However, with the present requirements of com- summarizes and reviews some of this literature
pact engines, it becomes necessary to increase the and includes examples of improved axisymmetric
airflow-handling capacity and the stage pressure design theories as well as examples of further
ratios while maintaining or even improving the advanced design approaches. Because of increas-
efficiency if possible. Therefore, the Mach num- ing importance, blade-row interference effects and
bers, wheel speeds, and blade loading must be time-unsteady effects are also discussed, despite
allowed to rise while the hub-tip radius ratio, the the fact that only crude beginnings have been
axial length per stage, and the number of stages made toward solutions of these complex problems.
must go down. Thus, the higher compressor per- SYMBOLS
formance requirements make it desirable to exceed
the design limits earlier found advisable for con- The following symbols are used in this chapter:
servative compressor design. In addition, such
differentiation with respect to time fol-
problems as blade-row interference, unsteady-flow D/Dr
lowing the motion
phenomena, and off-design performance may be-
come increasingly important. ___ magnitude of o_
Changing design conditions in order to meet blade force acting on gas particles per
increased compressor performance requirements, of unit mass of gas
course, requires corresponding adjustments in H total or stagnation enthalpy per unit
design techniques. These follow several courses. mass of gas, h+ (V_/2)
Particular flow problems may be attacked by in- h static enthalpy per unit mass of gas,
tensive theoretical and experimental studies lim- u + (p/t,)
ited to the specific problem at hand. Such studies I (V')2 U_
modified total enthalpy, h-_ 2 2 --
are directed toward learning enough about the
H-_(rVe)
nature of the flow process involved and the magni-
tudes of the effects to enable this information to n polytropic compression exponent
static or stream pressure
be incorporated into the design approach. Re- P
suits of such studies have made available modified Q external heat added to gas per unit mass
per unit time
theoretical design procedures in which one or more
of the auxiliary simplifying assumptions (e.g., sire- R gas constant
radius
plified radial equilibrium) can be avoided (refs. r
236,244, and 298 to 301). These have been called S entropy per unit mass of gas
"improved" axially symnletric designs. Or, the t static or stream temperature
I
information may take the form of new empirical U magnitude of U

design criteria or blade shapes, that is, new blade- U vector velocity of rotor blades at radius r
loading and flow Mach number criteria. The u internal energy per unit mass of gas
diffusion factor is a pertinent example (ref. 9). V magnitude of V
Eventually, the trend toward high power output V absolute vector velocity of gas
I
with efficiency and compactness results in a condi- V' magnitude of V'

tion wherein the discrepancies between the real 17' vector velocity of gas relative to rotor
and the design flows may no longer be encompassed blade
by quantitative correction factors and improved z coordinate along axis
axial-symmetry theories. In order to obtain
I' circulation
physically valid descriptions of such real flows,
further advanced design approaches must be _'
found. The three-dimensional-flow theory of absolute vorticity vector
reference 242 is cited as an example. ,7_ polytropic efficiency

angular distance
In view of the importance to compressor de-
viscosity
signers of finding satisfactory solutions for these
design problems, it is hardly surprising that there v kinematic viscosity
should exist an already extensive and now rapidly p mass density
growing body of related literature. This chapter r time
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
COMPRESSOR
FLOWTHEORY
ANDREALFLOWEFFECTS 367
(I, viscous dissipation of energy per unit proach a mean surface. The streamlines are
volume of gas per unit time confined to such a mean surface.
o_ angular velocity of rotor Mathematically, the assumption serves to
simplify the calculation problems. Physically,
Subscripts: the assumption of axial symmetry, at least between
the blade rows, is somewhat justified, because in a
r radial direction
compressor, where adjacent blade rows rotato
z axial direction
relative to each other, the blade-row incidenco
0 tangential direction
angles can be correct only for an average exit
flow from the preceding blade row. As to design,
DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
the assumption of axial symmetry enables tho
The chief desideratum in compressor design is designer to fix his attention on the radial distribu-
to perceive the most advantageous compromise tion of the gas properties at a station between
between ease of obtaining possible design solutions
blade rows by averaging out the gas-property
and magnitude of the resulting inaccuracies. It variations in the circumferential direction.
is clear that the present trend toward higher-
Simple radial equilibrium.--An auxiliary simpli-
power-output, more compact, and yet more effi-
fying assumption that has been found convenient
cient compressors requires shifting the compromise
is the assumption of simple radial equilibriunl.
point in tile direction of fewer simplifying assump-
The condition of simple radial equilibrium further
tions, despite the increased complexity of the
simplifies the flow equations by considering radial
calculation procedures involved. The first pre-
accelerations due to curvature of the streamlines
requisite, however, is a better understanding of the
in the radial-axial plane equal to zero. Physically,
ptlysical significance of the various design assump-
this assumption does not mean that radial velocity
tions and their ranges of applicability.
components are zero, but that the acceleration due
AXIAL SYMMETRY
to curvature of the flow path is negligible.
Tile assumption of axially synunetric flow is As the trend shifts toward higher aspect ratios
one of the two mosL important assumptions used or toward transonic and supersonic compressors,
in axial-flow-compressor design. By this assump- this assumption becomes increasingly inappro-
tion, all the partial derivatives of the gas properties priate for two reasons: (1) Tile requirement of
with respect to tlle angular coordinate are taken high mass flow per unit frontal area in such com-
equal to zero. The system of flow equations is pressors necessitates low hub-tip radius ratios in
thereby reduced to a two-dimensional system, in the first stages, with attendant high curvature of
which the gas properties are functions of the axial tile annulus walls and large aspect ratios. High
and radial coordinates only. Basically, this is pressure ratios per stage generally mean tapered
equivalent to assuming the three-dimensional passages. (2) Main-flow radial displacement due
flow through a blade row can be represented to boundary-layer accumulations, especially in the
sufficiently accurately, at a measuring station stator hub regions, may assume sizable proportions
between blade rows, by a circumferential average at the higher Mach numbers as a result of second-
of the flow conditions at each radial position. ary flows. These factors combine to qualify
Symmetry about the axis of rotation does, of seriously the physical validity of the simple-radial-
course, obtain for the limiting case of an infinite equilibrium condition.
number of blades. Thus, one way of envisioning Constant entropy radially.--Another auxiliary
axially symmetric flow is to consider the flow as simplifying assumption often used for compressor
being restricted to hypothetical flow surfaces, as
design is that the radial variation of entropy is
follows: Consider the number of blades in the
zero. Radial variation of entropy depends upon
blade row to increase without bound, in such
viscous dissipation of energy and upon radial
fashion that tile ratio of the spacing to blade
variations of heat transfer to or from the com-
thickness remains constant. Then the spacing
between blades approaches zero, and the thickness pressor. In the absence of cooling, the heat
of the blades approaches zero, so that the two transfer to or from a compressor is negligible.
blade surfaces and the space between them ap- The entropy gradient can be considered negligible
368 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OFAXIAL-FLOW
COMPRESSORS
in the inlet stagesat all radii exceptin the blade of such information and data on compressor blade
endregions. rows available for use (chs. IV to VII).
In conservativecompressors,therefore,the When large deviations from the physical as-
sumption of flow on conical surfaces independent
assumptionof zerow_riationof entropyradially
is reasonable, at leastfor the inlet stage(ref. 49 of radial gradients occur, tile flow estimations
based on blade-element flow become correspond-
and ch. VIII). Flow conditionstlmt result in
increased lossesand corresponding entropyrises ingly more inaccurate. At higher inlet Mach
numbers and increasing stage pressure ratios,
result in increasedsecondary-flow effects. The
stream surface distortions also increase, from
attendantredistributionofincreased-en tropyfluids
secondarv-flow boundary-layer displacement phe-
leadsto nonnegligibleradial entropywu-iations.
nomena, for example. Under these conditions
In general,this is the physicalsituation,at least
the combined assumptions of axial symmetry and
in tile rearstagesofcompressors.In thesestages,
blade-element theory may no longer give a satis-
if constantentropyradiallyis not assumed, agree-
factory, p]lysically valid flow picture at a given
ment betweendesignand actualflow conditions
measuring station. Considerable research is being
may beconsiderably improved.
devoted at 1)resent to obtaining more insight into
BLADE-ELEMENT FLOW the nature of the losses that result from flow
The assumption of blade-elenmnt flow is an through a blade row and to obtaining better
important assumption used i,_ conjunction with n_ethods of accounting for the losses than is
the axisymmetric approach. Poth theoretical afforded by current blade-element-flow theories.
and experimental considerations are involved.
IMPROVED DESIGN THEORIES
Underlying the assumption of blade-element flow
is the physical assumption that stream surfaces High-output compact axial-flow compressors,
through a blade row are largely undistorted and in order to outperform conventional compressors,
that the fluid, by and large, remains on nearly must be designed to operate at higher relative
conical surfaces, independent o[' _he radi'd gradi- flow Mach numbers, wheel speeds, and blade
ents. This assumption imt)lics that the flow about loading, with lower hub-tip radius ratios and
any blade section or element remains the same axial length per stage, and with fewer stages.
regardless of whether the section is in a two- Experience ill(ticates that under these conditions
diinensional casc,_de or in an arbitrary rotor the real flows in compressor configurations are
configuration. different locally from those predicted by the
The blade-element characteristics are obtained simplified design methods to an extent which
from measurements made on similar blade sections, suggests that the simplifying assumptions therein
usually in two-dimensional cascades (ch. VI). nmy be qualitatively as well as quantitatively
wrong for such applications. The quantitative
Strong efforts are made to eliminate the distorting
influences of the end-wall boundalS" layers by differences arise from augmented boundary-layer
means of various (leviccs such as porous-wall phenoinena such as viscous losses, separation
boundary-layer suction, and so forth. Enlpirical effects, clearance effects, secondary-flow effects,
correlation formulas are thus obtained for the and others as well. The qualitative differences
flows about the blade sections for wide ranges of include large distortions in the mainstream flow
surfaces. Near sonic velocities, the secondary-
blade-setting angles, solidities, aml flow velocities.
In recognition of the influence of three-dinlensional flow distribution may change drastically from that
flows and the wall boundary layers in annular at subsonic flow conditions (ch. XV), with result-
configurations, experimental data are likewise ing large local accumulations of low-energy fluids
taken from tests in such configurations (oh. VII). that give rise to local blockage effects. Likewise,
Correlations are obtained for the perfornlance of near sonic velocities, small changes in flow area
the blade sections at wtrious ra(tbd positions lnean large changes in flow Mach number.
spanwise. Empirical loss factors are thus devel- Thus, even minor deviations from predicted
oped to account for the viscous losses that arise flow directions and expected boundary-layer
in flow through a blade row. As a result of con- behavior (due to secondary-flow effects or to three-
tinuing experiinents, there is a large growing body dimensional effects, e.g.) can cause large deviations
THREE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSOR FLOW THEORY AND REAL FLOW EFFECTS 369
from design flow conditions. As a result of these unit mass H and entropy per unit mass S. These
deviations, measurements in compressors, partic- are defined by
ularly in the blade end regions, show the following
major discrepancies from design predictions based V2 u P V2 (374)
H=hA-y= A-_A-_-
on two-dimensional-cascade data (chs. VI and
and
VII): (1) Integrated total-pressure losses across
t dS=du+pdp -_ (375)
the blade row are greater than predicted from
blade-element theory, (2) flow directions deviate The equation of state for a perfect gas is
from those predicted at the blade-row exit, and
(3) the operating range of angle of attack (without p----pRt (376)
sharp rise in losses) is different from that pre-
dicted. The measurements further indicate that As given in reference 236, the Navier-Stokes
these blade end-region effects may account for equation of motion for a real fluid with constant
half the observable losses. viscosity is
To the designer seeking to achieve high-
performance compressors, this increasing inability
D-_-r-- O_ --p Vptp V(V"
to approximate satisfactorily the real flows in
actual compressors by means of idealized flows
The energy equation is
through simple configurations, with corrections
for the anticipated differences between the real Du Dp-_=O_u__ (289)
and the simulated cases, presents problems that Dr 4-p Dr "_--p
must be solved. The importance of incorporating
progressively more complete solutions of the flo_v The continuity equation is
equations into compressor design procedures has
0p
led to a series of experimental and theoretical JrV. (pV)--0 (290)
investigations. The research toward improved
compressor design procedures falls roughly into
The six preceding equations are combined to
two categories. One phase of this research has
give general flow equations (378) to (381).
been devoted to lifting the restrictions on the
Equilibrium equation.--The equilibrium equa-
design flow calculations--that is, using a more tion
exact basis for design. The results of these
-- -- -- 0V
investigations appear in reports for proposed
vH=oT+tvS+V/(vXV) i)_
design procedures such as improved axisymmetric,
quasi-three-dimensional- and three-dimensional-
flow solutions. Another phase of the research has +v [V2_+l V(V-_)] (378)
been to make a series of individual studies of
more restricted problems within a chosen over-all expresses the instantaneous gradient of total
design approach. enthalpy at a measuring station in terms of blade
The succeeding sections of this chapter present force, viscous forces, velocity, entropy gradient,
brief reviews and discussions of some of the and so forth. For design purposes, the desired
investigations into hoth aspects of the compressor velocity diagram and thermodynamic properties
design problem. A brief section is devoted to the of the gases are determined at measuring stations
timewise variations of the gas properties in com- t)etween successive blade rows. ]n such locations,
pressors exclusive of the surging and stalling the blade force _ is zero, and the flow is generally
phenomena (see chs. XI to XIII). presumed time-steady; that is, OVfi)'r is zero.
The last term in equation (378), in the brackets,
COMPRESSOR DESIGN THEORIES
represents the results of viscous action. In
B,sm EQU*TmNS
reasonably efficient flow, at least through the main
Following reference 236, the state of a gas in flow except in thin boundary-layer regions, this
motion may be specified in terms of its velocity V term is sm'dl. Therefore, for design purposes, the
and two thermodynamic properties, enthalpy per last term is considered negligible.
691-564 0-65-25
The substantial derivative D/Dr indicates that

The flow at tile measuring station is considered
the variation in total enthalpy of a particle along
inviscid. Physically, this is equivalent to assum-
its streamline path from station to station is ex-
ing that the variations in velocity caused by
viscous effects in the fluid in the spaces between pressed by equation (379); whereas, equation (378)
is used to define the variations in total enthalpy
the blade rows are small compared with the vari-
from streamline 'to streamline at a fixed station.
ations in velocity at those stations which are the
The rate of change of total enthalpy per unit mass
results of viscous dissipation within the blade rows
of fluid along a streamline is seen in equation (379)
upstream. This appears in general to be a rea-
to be a function of the rate of external heat addi-
sonable assumption. At any rate, the correction
factors used to account for boundary-layer effects tion Q, the rate of viscous dissipation of useful
can accommodate such viscous losses as may arise energy along the path _/p, the rate of work done
in the space between blade rows. by the blades, measured by V. 09", and the viscous
effects on the velocity distributions as measured
Equation (378) thus becomes
by the last term v[V2V-t-tV(V V)]. In the case
D
vH----tvS-t-VX (vXV) (378a) of steady real flow through a rotor, the V. oq" is
the predominating term on the right side of
where v X'_7 is the absolute vorticity _ of the fluid. equation (379). For the real flow through a
Thus, the modified equilibrium equation stator blade row, all the terms on the right side
are usually small enough to be ignored.
For nonviscous flow, the energy equation
vH= tvS+.V X _ (378b)
becomes
shows how the gradient in total enthalpy at a DH

b-T=q_+1 _rp+v.cT. (379a)
measuring station is related to the gradient of
entropy and the absolute vorticity of the fluid. and there is the additional relation that the blade
The aerothermodynamic equations for rotating force is normal to the blade surface (normal to the
blade rows can be expressed more conveniently in
relative velocity of the fluid),
terms of relative velocity vector _', entropy S, and
a quantity I in place, respectively, of absolute (v-u) .07=0
velocity vector "_, entropy S, and total enthalpy
H. The relative quantities I and i7' are defined Thus, the energy equation for nonviscous flow
as follows (ref. 301): through a stator in absolute quantities is written
l=h-_ (V')* U2 DH - 1 Op (379b)

2 2 =H--w(rVe) =H--UV,
Correspondingly, in terms of relative quantities,

In cylindrical coordinates, with z-axis (of ma-
the energy equation for nonviscous flow through a
chine) parallel to _,
rotor is written
m -
V=V'+_Xr DI Q+ l i_p (379c)
The modified equilibrium equation for a rotating

system can thus be written According to this equation, for steady adiabatic
flow the entropy and the quantity I remain con-
VI--tvS_-V' X_ (378c) stant along relative streamlines through the rotor.
For steady relative flow, the rate of change of I
Energy equation.--The energy equation is along a streamline is proportional to the change of
Q along the streamline. In addition to their
convenience mathematically in finding the flows
DH ^++1 _+_
through rotating blade rows, the relative quanti-
ties help greatly in clarifying physical occurrences
(379) in nonviscous fluid flows in rotating turbomachines.
In compressors, the external heat exchange Q is Continuity equation.--The continuity equation

small. If Q is neglected, for inviscid steady flow,
equation (379) becomes -- 1 Dlnt D /S\=O (381)
V.V_-_,_I Dr Dr
DH= V
Dr O" (379d) which is the last of the general flow equations
presented herein, expresses the continuity relation
which is equivalent to (ref. 236) in terms of divergence of velocity, rate of change
of temperature function, and rate of change of
DH D(rVs) entropy.
(379e)
Dr ---:o_ Dr AXISYMMETRIC-FLOW THEORY
In order to simplify the analysis, the flow about

that is, the rate of change of enthalpy along a
the axis of rotation is usually assumed symmetri-
streamline (work done on the gas) is equal to the
cal. As has been discussed previously, this is
angular speed of the blades multiplied by the rate
often interpreted physically as assuming that the
of change of angular momentum about the com-
number of blades is allowed to increase without
pressor axis of the particle along the streamline.
In terms of relative quantities, limit in such a way as to keep the total circulation
constant, and accordingly the flow approaches the
axisymmetric solution as a limit. Mathemati-
DI -- DH _ D(rV0) = 0 (379f)
Dr Dr Dr cally, the action of the blades can be computed
by representing the blades by a volume distribu-
Maintaining the quantity I constant is a more tion of forces in the flow equations. The magni-
concise but equivalent way of expressing that the tude of the force at a point is obtained by
rate of change of total enthalpy H along a stream- maintaining the product of the number of blades
line is equal to the angular speed of the blade and the resultant force constant at any point on
multiplied by the rate of change of whirl of the gas blade as the number of blades is increased.
streamline as it passes through the rotor. This is The resultant force is the difference between the
Euler's turbine equation. forces on the two sides of the blade. The flow
For conventional compressors, the rotors are follows stream surfaces, and the derivatives in
often designed to add the same amount of energy the equations refer to changes of the fluid prop-
to the gas at all sections radially ; that is, H is kept erties on the stream surfaces. This kind of
radially constant through the machine for design solution, which gives average values in the
purposes. For free-vortex distribution and addi- circumferential direction, is usually valid when
tion of whirl, I is radially constant throughout the the departure from that average is small. For
machine. incompressible frictionless flow, when the blades
Entropy equation.--The entropy equation are thin and the solidity fairly high, the solution
can be considered as applying to the mean stream
DS Q surface between two blades based on mass-flow
Dr-- t _-R -P (380) considerations (ref. 5).
Equilibrium equation: All partial derivatives of

indicates that the rate of change of entropy along
gas properties with respect to time and angular
a streamline depends only upon the rate of ex-
position are taken as zero for steady axisymmetric
ternal heat addition and the rate of viscous
flow. With this simplification and neglecting the
dissipation of useful energy. As observed earlier,
viscosity effects, the radial, tangential, and axial
Q, the external beat-exchange rate, can be con-
components of equation (378) become
sidered zero for compressors.
The first two terms in equation (379) axe thus
OH _S Vo O(rVo) [-V_ 5V_ V, i_V,
seen to be a measure of rate of entropy change br -- _'_ + t -_ -_ r Dr -_--- bz
along a streamline: (382a)
DS Q+_ 0: o__, V,r 5(rV,)0r V, 5V,0_ (382b)

and Continuity equation.--For axisymmetric flow,

_H O'z+t DS DV,_v" DV,+v DVo
D-T= _ +Vr _r -_- De
(382c) r1 D(rV,)__DV_+
or bz _-11 ( V, _ +V,-_-zDin t_/
Equation (382a) is the radial-equilibrium equa-

tion. At a station between blade rows, o_', is
zero. For the usual assumption of constant Or Dz
entropy radially, the second term on the right IMeROVF.D F_.OWTHzomEs
side is taken to be zero. The fifth term repre- Design theories have been presented that dis-
sents the effect of radial motion on tile condition
pense with several of the flow assumptions made
of radial equilibrimn and is neglected (ch. VIII) for the simplified axisymmetric designs. The
for tile assumption of simplified radial equilibrium. first of these (ref. 236) used a modified equation
Tile simplified-radial-equilibriunl equation is thus (382a) for the radial-equilibrium condition (see
generally written as follows for design purposes: oh. VIII for details) in lieu of equation (382d),
the simplified-radial-equilibrium condition. In
OH Vo b(rVo) OV_
_= r or _-V, -or succeeding reports (refs. 298 to 300), the theories
are extended to finite numbers of blades. In
or, by differentiating and comt)ining, reference 301, a through-flow theory is developed;
and the effects of blade thickness are considered
DH_I
D 2
V, 4_1 DV$+ V_
2 2
in references 127 and 302.
Dr 2 Dr-2 Dr r (382d)
Radial-equilibrium eondition.IThe preceding
analysis, as developed in reference 236, has led
Energy equation.--From equation (379) for
to the development of six equations with eight
steady axially symmetric viscous flow and the
independent variables, namely Ve, V,, V,, Oee,
assumption that heat generated by frictional work
0",, O'_, H, and S. Of these equations ((379e),
remains in the stream, DH/Dr can be written as
(382a), (382b), (382c), (383a), and (384)), five are
DH D(rVe) independent. For nonviscous flow, the following
Dr =Q+oJ Dr relation must hold:
in which Q is generally considered zero. This (V--U) o_----0 (385)

same relation was previously derived for friction-
less steady flow (eq. (379e)). as discussed earlier. This provides a sixth inde-
Entropy equation.--For axially symmetric flow, pendent equation to replace equation (379e).
equation (380) becomes For this case, equation (383b) is used instead of
equation (383a).
For viscous flow, a sixth independent relation is
developed (ref. 236) for the rate of change of
t +2 / entropy along a streamline, in terms of n, the
polytropic exponent of the flow process:
/DVo\ z /DV_ DV_\ z DS n---_ { D In t . DIn t']

Dr -R (n--1)(_,--1) \V_+Vz-_-} (386)
where
1
(383a) l'y--1
+ r __2[1D(rV_)Dr _-_2 1
r/p 3'
For the frictionless case,

and vp is the assumed design polytropic efficiency.
DS_Q For the design problem, two degrees of freedom
(383b)
Dr t arc thus available. Accordingly, the desirable
variation of two of the gas properties, one of which sults obtained by improved axisymmetric and
is usually _._, can be specified; and the variation three-dimensional analyses.
of the other gas properties and the blade force The analysis presented in reference 236, while
can then be determined theoretically. it gives much useful information concerning the
Current design procedure is to specify desired flow within blade rows, does not readily yield
gas conditions at stations in the gaps between information concerning the flow just upstream
I)lade rows only, where the blade-force terms or just downstream of such blade rows. The
are zero. One of the two available degrees of distribution of flow properties near a blade
freedom in going from one such station to the row is considered as an individual study in
next is taken up by the blade section selected. references 238 and 303. The problem is treated
Accordingly, except at tile first-stage inlet, there as an investigation into the matter of the flow
is only one condition at each station that the near a blade row rather than with regard to
designer can specify. design, and therefore is discussed in this chapter
No general analytical solution is presented in the section SOME ASPECTS OF THREE-
in reference 236, but two numerical methods of DIMENSIONAL FLOWS.
solution are suggested. In one method, the design Finite blade spacing.--The design theories are
equations are written as finite-difference equa- extended from the blade systems with infinitesimal
tions and applied to successive closely spaced blade spacing (i.e., axially symmetric) to systems
axial stations. The second method employs only with finite bh_de spacing in an interesting series of
three stations per stage but assumes the shape of reports (refs. 298 to 300). The procedure requires
the radial-flow paths between stations. This the axisymmetric solution for the flow as a first
method is considerably simpler to apply than the step. Reference 298 first presents the axisym-
first. In reference 236, with assumed sinusoidal metric solution for the complete inverse (design)
radial-flow paths, a form of the radial-equilibrium problem; that is, neither the blade shapes nor the
equation is developed which shows that the wall geometry is specified in advance. The axial-
effects of radial motion are functions of the radial flow-compressor designer starting with a reference
displacement, the square of the axial velocity, streamline does specify the desired radial varia-
and the square of the t)lade-row aspect ratio. tion of the axial velocity component V, (as in
Summarizing briefly the results and conclusions ref. 298) and an enthalpy function fdp/p. By
of reference 236, an investigation was conducted integration of the continuity equation (for ]sen-
into the radial motion of the flow in a turbo- tropic flow in refs. 298 and 299), the radial velocity
machine by means of an axial-symmetry theory component V, is obtained. The tangential veloc-
that does not assume simplified radial equilibrium. ity component Ve is next obtained from the energy
Blade aspect ratio had an important effect on equation. The continuous force field that re-
the radial motion. The amount of radial motion places the blade system in axially symmetric solu-
depended also upon the passage taper, hub-tip tions can then be calculated from the Euler dy-
ratio, speed of the main flow and design type nanfic equations for axially symmetric flow. The
(velocity diagram). Thus, for large blade-row infinitesimally spaced blades (stream surfaces) can
aspect ratio or high axial velocity even with a be computed by use of the streamline equations
small amount of radial displacement, the effect
br V,
of radial motion may be large (i.e., a large oscilla-
_z V,
tory radial motion may be expected within the
blade row). In reference 236, radial entropy r_ Ve
gradients were neglected. Under certain condi- _r V,
tions (ref. 49), these gradients }rove been shown
r_ Ve
to be important. _z V,
The results of a simplified analysis by the
methods of reference 236, assuming sinusoidal and the inlet conditions. Thus, the compression
flow paths through the blade row, are found m ratio, the form of the airfoils, and the flow around
reference 241 to compare fttvorably with the re- them can be determined.
When the cascade of blades with infinitesimal the Bauersfeld condition, that for a nonviscous
spacing and axially symmetric flow is replaced by fluid the force field must be perpendicular to the
a cascade of blades with finite spacing, the flow streamlines defining the blade surfaces, was not
can no longer be considered circumferentially uni- considered. And in the treatment of the viscous-
form. The uniform force field, which in the equa- flow case (appendix of ref. 300), it was not possible
tions replaced the effects of the blades in the in the one-step perturbation method to satisfy
axially symmetric case, is in turn replaced in the some boundary conditions and obtain closure of
equations by the asymmetric inertia and pres- the nose and trailing edges of the blades.
sure terms, the b/b8 terms, that had earlier been In a series of reports (refs. 304 to 306), a treat-
neglected. Changing the force field and adding ment of the viscous flow through infinitely many
circumferentially asymmetric terms means that thin blades is developed and extended, using the
the streamlines of flow must change as well. One frozen-streamline notion, to develop the theory
set of "mean" stream surfaces, considered to be for an iteration process for the viscous, laminar,
halfway between the finite-spacing blades, is incompressible flow through blade rows with a
assumed "frozen," that is, unchanged. All the finite number of blades of finite thickness. The
other streamlines shift and deform. This means application of this considerably more complex
the velocity and pressure terms must also change. procedure greatly improves the solutions and
Corrective terms are to be found, which are to makes possible the closure of the blade surface
be added to the axisymmetric flow in order to at the nose and trailing edge. Even with this
obtain the asymmetric flow in the spaces between procedure, however, it is necessary to relax the
blades. These corrective terms are obtained as a boundary condition of zero velocity (no slip) at
power-series development for the flow-variable the blade surfaces in order to linearize the prob-
changes in terms of a spacing parameter _b, the lem sufficiently for possible solutions.
angular distance from the frozen streamline sur- Through-flow theory.--A further generalization
faces. Recurrence formulas are developed for beyond the simplified axisymmetric-flow approach,
these corrective terms, and an iteration process is the through-flow theory (ref. 301), considers the
set up for the desired solution. For simplicity, it flow along an arbitrary surface S(r,8,z)=C.
is assumed that the changes in the flow variables Retaining the blade force terms c7" in the equations
are small enough that only terms linear in _k need of motion partially takes into account the circum-
be kept. This is equivalent to assuming a linear ferential variations of pressure (enthalpy) and
pressure variation across each passage. density. The development of the analysis pre-
Thus, when the radial variations of a velocity sents a unified theory; that is, the direct and
component and of an enthalpy (pressure) function inverse problems are solved for compressible flow,
are prescribed, the steady, nonviscous three- either subsonic or supersonic, for arbitrary blade
dimensional flow through a cascade of blades with and wall shapes, and for high-solidity, thin blades.
finite spacing can be found. For the two-dimen- A principal equation is developed from the con-
sional solution (ref. 300), only the enthalpy tinuity equation, the equation of motion in the
function need he prescribed. While airfoils of radial direction, and through use of a stream func-
finite thickness can be designed in this way, the tion. Two main groups of designs are considered.
numerical example of reference 300 is actually for In the first group the designer prescribes the varia-
a cascade of line (zero-thickness) airfoils with tion of the angular momentum. This group
shapes approximating closely the streamlines includes the free-vortex type, the wheel type, the
found for the axisymmetric solution and with symmetrical-velocity-diagram type, and so forth.
small lift coefficients. A further extension to the In tile second group of designs a relation between
viscous-flow case is made in the appendix of the tangentml and axial velocities is prescribed.
reference 300. The methods developed in ref- This group includes such radial-blade-element
erences 298 to 300 are instructive, as they indi- configurations as are found in high-speed centrifu-
cate that the blade-to-blade variations with finite gal and mixed-flow impellers.
numbers of blades of finite thickness can be treated Criteria are estat)lished for both groups to deter-
as perturbations on a mean, "frozen" streamline. mine whcthcr the principal equation is elliptic or
However, in the nonviscous case (e.g., ref. 300), hyperbolic, roughly whether the flow is subsonic or
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
COMPRESSOR
FLOWTHEORY
supersonic. Two methods are presented for solv- stream and on specific mass flow are similar to,
ing the elliptic case. In one method the equations albeit somewhat larger than, the corresponding
can be expressed in difference form and solved effects in the incompressible case. The variation
either by relaxation procedures or by a suggested in specific mass flow was higher than that given
iterative procedure if a high-speed large-scale by the one-dimensional calculations based on
digital computing machine is available. The channel width, and the effect was observed outside
relaxation procedure, for which the machine can the channel.
also be used, is preferred. The other method For supersonic flows (ref. 302) in a configuration
suggested, machine solution of tile set of simul- with higher solidity and thinner blades, the mean
taneous equations by a matrix process, is much streamline conformed more closely to the mean
quicker, especially when a number of solutions is camber line than for the other cascade with lower
to be found. Tim details of this matrix method solidity and thicker blades. The analysis using
are given in reference 129. the thickness-correction factor b shows that the
Blade thickness.--In standard design proce- specific mass flow along the mean streamline
dures, the axisymmetric solutions provide "me,m- increased an average of 9 percent more than
line" information that can then be corrected for anticipated from a one-dimensional calculation.
the effects of blade thickness by use of experi- Comparison of the specific mass flow in the axial
mental data. A simple extension of the through- direction with the variation in channel width like-
flow theory (ref. 301) incorporates some of the wise showed a 9-percent increase on the average
blade-thickness effects directly in the design in specific mass flow axially over the area reduc-
procedure. For blades that are not thin, an tion. This increase, it will be noted, is more than
approximate blade thickness factor b is included in twice the value obtained for the previous sub-
the definition of the stream function. Better sonic cases. The variations of axial and tangential
physical understanding of the significance of such velocity components on the mean streamline
a blade thickness-correction factor is obtained are correspondingly increased.
(refs. 127 and 302) by analyses of the effects of For the symmetrical nozzle configurations (no
blade thickness on flow along a mean streamline turning), the increase in specific mass flow along
on a blade-to-blade flow surface. the mean streamline at supersonic flow conditions
In a thick-bladed turbine configuration (in was about 8 percent higher than expected from a
order to emphasize the effects) with subsonic one-dimensional calculation.
incompressible flows, the mean streamline based
THREE-DIMENSIONAL THEORY
on mass flow in the channel has less curvature
than either the mean channel line or the mean A general three-dimensional, nonviscous, com-
camber line. The variation in the axbd compo- pressible-flow theory is developed in reference
nent of flow is nonlinear across the channel; the 242 for subsonic and supersonic turbomachines
specific mass flow pV" along the mean streamline with finite numbers of blades of finite thickness.
is about 4 percent higher than that obtained by a The theory is applicable to axial-, radial-, or
one-dimensional calculation based on channel- mixed-flow turbomachines for both the direct and
width reduction. Furthermore, the influence of inverse problems. Such a theory may be required
blade thickness extends a short distance upstream for low hubtip radius ratios and for highly loaded
and downstream of the channel. The tangential stages with high inlet Mach numbers, where two-
velocity on the mean streamline rises above its dimensional solutions may be inadequate.
inlet value before the leading edge and decreases As in earlier reports, the equations of motion,
rapidly at first through the channel and then more energy, and continuity are expressed in terms of
slowly to a value below its exit value for some the velocity components, entropy, and the quanti-
distance downstream of the trailing edge. ty I (a modified total enthalpy). Estimated
For compressible flows, the mean streamline entropy changes due to shock waves, heat transfer
approximates the position of the mean channel (turbine cooling), and viscous effects can be ac-
line better than for incompressible flows but still commodated in the calculations.
has a lower curvature. The effects of blade Analysis.--A three-dimensional-flow solution is
thickness on tangential velocities of the mean obtained by combining solutions for mathemati-
cally two-dimensional flows on two different kinds Rotation

of intersecting relative stream surfaces (fig. 274).
A stream surface 51 of the first kind is one traced
out by fluid particles initially, at some axial
position, on a circumferential circular arc of fixed
radius about the axis of the machine. The blade-
to-blade variations of flow can be computed on
such surfaces (which extend from the suction sur-
face of one blade to the pressure surface of the
adjacent blade) in an essentially two-dimensional
fashion. Suitable stream functions are defined
that facilitate the solutions.
FIGURE 275.--Twist of flow surfaces in axial-flow channel.
by assuming that the flow follows the hub and

casing walls.
A relative stream surface of the second kind $2
z is one traced out by fluid particles which, at some
axial position, were initially along a radial or
nearly radial line. The most important $2 sur-
face is the one that starts midway between two
blades (fig. 274) and divides the mass flow in the
channel between the blades into two approxi-
mately equal parts. The through-flow solution
obtained for large numbers of thin blades is a
special case of 52 stream surface solution. The
FIGURE 274.--Intersecting S_ and $2 surfaccs in blade row. problems of surface twist and complications near
the boundaries for $2 surfaces are similar to those
These S_ surfaces will in general be twisted already described for S_ surfaces.
(fig. 275); that is, the flows are not restricted to In general, the three-dime_)sional solutions for
surfaces of revolution as in quasi-three-dimen- both the direct and inverse problems employ the
sional solutions developed elsewhere. The S_ sur- solutions on both these two kinds of surfaces.
faces can be modified and redefined in order to The correct solution on one kind of surface often
cope with the large circumferential derivatives requires information obtained from solutions of
that result from cases of large surface twist. Com- the other kind. For example, determination of
plications arise in regions where, because of second- flow ou S_ surfaces requires information concerning
ary flows, for example, particles leave the walls the radial variation of the velocity components
and flow onto the blade surface, or, as is more that is obtained from solutions along the $2 sur-
likely, leave the blade surface and flow onto the faces. Consequently, iterative solutions between
wall or even out into the passage. In these the two kinds of surfaces may be required. How-
regions it is necessary to approximate a solution ever, the conlputations are essentially two-dimen-
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
COMPRESSOR
FLOWTHEORY
sional and can be handled by present computa More complete knowledge about the effects of the
tional techniques. A general method is provided main stre_ml on the development of viscous bound-
for solving the flow equations manually or by high- cry layers may then aid in understanding the
speed digital machine computations. secondary-flow behavior in the turbomachines.
In the direct problem, the solution starts with The practical utility of the more accurate flow
an assumed flow surface and proceeds with succes- rel)resentation of reference 242 depends, of course,
sive alternate solutions on the two kinds of flow upon its susceptibility to accurate and quick com-
surfaces until a satisfactory approximation is ob- putation. Reference 130 is an investigation of the
tained. The better the first approximation, the mechanics of obtaining solutions for the principal
shorter the computation. flow equations of the general three-dimensional-
The process is usually shorter for the inverse flow theory.
problem. The calculation begins on the mean 52 ]it will be recalled that the three-dimensional
surface on which the designer has one degree of solution was obtained by combinations of mathe-
freedom and an estimated blade thickness distribu- matically two-dimensional solutions on two kinds
tion B to specify. After" the solution on this 5_ of intersecting relative stream surfaces, desig-
surface has heen obtained, the hlade coordinates nated S_ and $2. The principal flow equations
are determined by extending the solution circum- for both kinds of surfaces are similar, and the
ferentially. methods of successive approximations used for
Initial approximations.--The computations of their solution are similar. If it can be shown that
the general theory for three-dimensional flows can the solution on one of the surfaces converges
he shortened materially I)y starting the iteration readily, the solution on the other should converge
procedure with a reasonably good first approxima- as well. Reference 130 evaluates three methods
tion of the detailed flow variation. Reference 307 for obtaining solutions on tile $2 surfaces: (1) a
presents a quick approximate solution for' the relaxation method using a hand-operated desk
two-dimensional, compressit)le, subsonic, non- calculator, (2) a matrix method on an IBM card-
viscous th)w past arl)itrary turl)omachine blades on programmed electronic calculator, and (3) a matrix
arbitrary surfaces of revolution. method on a Univac. The actual machine
The first step in this particular solution is to analyzed was a single-stage axial-flow turbine,
estinlate a mean streamline shape and the specific but the results are equally meaningful to com-
mass llow (product of velocity and density) along pressor design. Free-vortex variation in tangen-
it. (For alternative methods, see oh. IV.) Equa- tial velocity and cylindrical bounding walls were
tions for the flow along stream filaments of revolu- specified to reduce radial-flow effects. The blades
tion are then solved to obtain values of the density are quite long, however, with hub-tip radius ratio
and velocity components separately and of their of 0.6.
derivatives in the circumferential direction. Next For both relaxation and matrix solutions, the
a Taylor series expansion in the circumferential nonlinear partial differential principal equation is
direction using these values, together with mass- replaced by a number of finite-difference equations
flow integrations, provides ('alculated blade shapes. representing the principal equation at the number
Finally, an iteration procedure is set up in which of grid points in the flow region. The equations
the variance between the calculated blade shapes are solved by a method of successive approxima-
and the a('tual blade shapes provides the informa- tions. The accuracy of such solutions depends
tion required as a starting point for tile second upon the grid size (number of points), the degree
cycle. According to reference 307, depending upon of the polynominal representation used, the size
tire configuration and the original estimates, the of the residuals accepted, and the number of
detailed flow variations can be suitably obtained successive cycles completed for convergence.
in two to four' computation cycles. Convergence was readily obtained in all cases
Solutions on flow surfaces S_ and S_.--The of the investigation. The indications are that the
three-dimensional analysis of reference 242 can matrix methods were quicker and somewhat inore
provide a clearer understanding of the flows un- accurate than the relaxation solutions. In any
complicated by viscous, secondary-flow effects event, the calculations were feasible and not overly
than was obtainable from the simplified solutions. difficult for the solution of the flow on a flow
surface, one step in the over-all three-dimensional- approximations to more complete solutions. The
flow solution. simple approximation to the streamline path
Information concerning the detailed flow dis- suggested in reference 236, with an assumed
tribution (ref. 307) and particularly concerning sinusoidal path through the rotor, gave a good
the relations of the pressure gradients and blade approximation to the three-dimensional solution
shape to radial-flow components (ref. 130) is in the case investigated in reference 303.
discussed in the next main section of this chapter.
SOME ASPECTS OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL FLOWS
Evaluation and relation to previous methods.-
Because of the complexity of the over-all three- The formidability of the complete three-
dimensional design theory, very little has been dimensional design theory makes its application
recorded about experience in its use. Little in- to compressor design somewhat impractical at
formation is available concerning the convergence this time. Nevertheless, considerable informa-
of the iteration procedures or the magnitudes of tion about the three-dimensional aspects of the
the random errors of the computational methods. actual fluid behavior in compressors is required
At present, this three-dimensional theory may for design purposes. Such information has been
serve best as a useful guide for evaluating experi- obtained most successfully from many experi-
mental data. mental and theoretical studies, each directed and
As noted in reference 242, the through-flow confined to a particular phase of the real flow.
solution (ref. 301) can be considered as a limiting By restricting the scope of a particular study, the
case for the more general three-dimensional solu- investigator can make sweeping assumptions that
tion. It may be regarded, for example, as the simplify his solutions greatly. He need only be
solution for the flow along the 52 mean stream careful that his assumptions do not qualify the
surface that divides the mass flow equally when particular aspects of the flow being investigated.
the circumferential variation of the velocity com- In the following subsections, several such phases
ponents approaches zero. Thus, the through- of the over-all three-dimensional-flow behavior
flow solution serves to indicate trends when the are described briefly, such as the effects of radial
effects resulting from having a finite number of variations of circulation and of blade loading,
blades are small or constant. In this connection,
radial components of flow within and between the
the use of a blade thickness factor, based on blade rows, the effects of compressibility and of
information about blade thickness effects such as
blade-force components, and some secondary-flow
obtained, for example, in references 127 and 302, effects. Only steady-flow phenomena are con-
should improve the solutions considerably. sidered here. The time-unsteady flows are con-
The effects of compressibility, spanwise varia- sidered in the next main section of this chapter.
tion of circulation V6r, and radial components
RADIAL-FLOW VARIATIONS
c_r or distributed-force vector c_ upon the radial
variations of gas state in a single-stage and in In order to facilitate the investigations of the
effects of radial variation of circulation, the flows
a seven-stage subsonic compressor with sym-
metrical velocity diagram are studied in reference are generally assumed axially symmetric and non-
241. The results of these studies are presented viscous, with constant entropy and enthalpy
briefly in the next main section. The investiga- radially at the inlet. Even for these conditions,
tion includes a brief discussion of the comparison the solutions for the governing equations are simple
between simplified-radial-equilibriunl solutions only for the incompressible case of vortex distribu-
and the solutions according to reference 236, tion of the tangential velocity component, that is,
while employing solutions obtained by means of constant circulation spanwise. For this condition
the through-flow and three-dimensional theories only, the flow is two-dimensional and the stream-
(refs. 301 and 242, respectively) as criteria for lines all lie on cylindrical surfaces. For condi-
accuracy. In this comparison, at axial stations tions of inconstant circulation radially, according
in front of and behind the rotor of the single-stage to Prandtl's theory, vortices trail from the blades
compressor the simplified-equilibriunl solution and with their vorticity vectors downstream in the
the limiting solutions of reference 236 (zero and flow direction. The flow equations are then non-
infinite aspect ratios) produced rather poor linear, nonhomogeneous partial differential equa-
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
COMPRESSOR
FLOWTHEORY
tions; and the flow itself is no longer confined of the axial velocity components behind the rotor
radially to cylindrical surfaces. The aerodynamic lead to undesirable diffusion factors at the rotor
advantages to be gained by use of nonvortex de- tip and high stator-inlet Mach numbers.
signs (i.e., lower relative velocities in the case of By choosing a wheel-type flow distribution at
solid-body rotation design) must be weighed the rotor inlet counter to the rotor direction with
against the radial-flow components that arise, vortex distribution in the rotor, a radially out-
which can be calculated only with difficulty. ward shift in mass flow may be obtained. This
Nevertheless, the aerodynamic advantages asso- should lead to more favorable distributions of
ciated with nonvortex designs have frequently diffusion factor and Mach number.
been beneficial enough to outweigh any detri- Reference 130 points out that the axial compo-
mental effects. nent of velocity is constant radially for free-vortex
Radial-flow shifts.--The radial-flow displace- blading only for the case of simplified radial
ment that occurs within blade rows, both rotating equilibrium. In the more general case, including,
and stationary, is discussed in reference 236. Here for example, the effects of radial variation of
the use of a sinusoidal approximation to the prob- entropy and enthalpy, considerable radial varia-
able flow path was suggested in a calculation tion of the axial velocity components results for
procedure based on this kind of assumed curve. both incompressible and compressible flows. In
For a subsonic single-stage and a subsonic seven- all such cases described in reference 130 (turbine
stage compressor designed for symmetrical velocity configurations), there was a negative radial
diagram at all radii, reference 241 compares the gradient of axial velocity ahead of the rotor.
simplified-radial-equilibrium solution, the assumed Reference 130 indicates that the actual path
sinusoidal-flow-path solution (single stage only) within the blade row may be far from sinsoidal
(ref. 236), the through-flow solution (ref. 301), and and depends upon such factors as radial twist of
the three-dimensional solution (ref. 242). Using the stream (due to o_',, radial component of the
references 301 and 242 as criteria, reference 241 distributed-force term) and compressibility of the
found that, in the single-stage compressor, the gas.
sinusoidal-flow-path assumption gave answers that Flow near blade rows.--Reference 238 provides
agreed closely with the more complete solutions. information about the flow near a blade row,
The simplified-radial-equilibrium solution did not just upstream or just downstream. It is first
agree well. noted in reference 238 that the three-dimensional
One conclusion reached in reference 241 is that, nonviscous incompressible-flow solution is simple
while compressibility does not change the stream- only for the case of vortex distribution of the
line shapes very much, it does affect the velocity tangential velocity component. For this condi-
components a great deal. Another conclusion is tion, the blade circulation spanwise is constant
that the gas undergoes an oscillatory radial mo- and there are no radial components or axial
t.ion in passing through the compressor. The variations. For varying circulation spanwise, it
period of the oscillatory motion is equal to the is still possible to calculate the difference between
length of a stage. The gas (e.g., ref. 241) shifts the axial velocity profiles far upstream and far
inward through the inlet guide vanes and the first downstream of the blade row fairly readily by
rotor and then outward in the first: stator, the neglecting radial transport of vorticity shed from
effects of this oscillatory motion being greatest in the blades. But to determine the velocity dis-
high-aspect-ratio stages. In general, the shift tribution of the flow field near the blade rows is
through the guide vanes, if present, is always in- a more difficult problem, involving nonlinear,
ward. The shift through the rotor depends upon nonhomogeneous, partial differential equations.
the particular velocity diagram and may be inward In reference 238, the flow is considered non-
(for velocity distribution that is wheel type in the viscous, incompressible, and axially symmetric,
direction of the rotor rotation), may not shift (free with no inner- or outer-shroud taper. It is
vortex), or may be outward (wheel type in opposite further assumed that there is no self-transport of
direction to rotor rotation). In a velocity-dia- vorticity; that is, the vorticity is transported only
gram analysis, reference 221 shows that for inward by the mean velocity and not by its own induced
radial shift in a rotor the negative radial gradients velocity. This last qualification reduces the
380 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OFAXIAL-FLOW
COM:PRESSORS
problemto the solutionof a linear, nonhomoge- into the series of terms associated with the blades
neous, partial differential flow equation. The considered stationary and the additional terms
solutions thus obtained provide an approximation due to rotation effects. Thus, the radial velocity
to the velocity fiehl for any blade-loading dis- disturbances, important principally as they affect
tribution. The results are useful, then, for such the axial and tangential velocity components, are
conditions in which self-transport is negligible-- analyzed. An interesting asymmetrical behavoir
that is, for moderate-turning, high-solidity is observed. The induced effects associated with
configurations. the stationary blade attain their maximum
For the particular case where tlw blade chord downstream of the blade midchord position
approaches zero (actuator disk), lhe linearizcd axially; the disturbances associated with rotation
partial differential equation describing the tan- obtain their maximum upstream.
gential velocity coml)onent becomes homogeneous Reference 308 describes two physically possible
as well and can be solved directly by using the types of nonviscous incompressible flow for a
given boundary conditions. Physically, this as- special case of the "actuator-disk" theory, the
sumption is equivalent to requiring the change in limiting case of a cascade of blades with negligible
mean tangential component, lhrough a blade row chord, discussed as an approximation to the
to occur as a discontinuity (the actuator disk) in more exact solution of reference 238. As before,
a plane normal to the axis at a chosen axial loca- only the tangential velocity components have a
tion. By appropriately choosing the location for discontinuity at the actuator-disk section, the
the discontinuous jump it, tangential velocity radial and axial components being continuous
(the axial and radial velocity coml)onents re- throughout. Axial symmetry, neglible heat trans-
maining continuous throughout), the direct solu- fer, and isentropic flow are assumed. The basic
tion for the homogeneous case is shown to be a equations employed are Euler's equation of
useful approximation to the more exact solution motion, the continuity equation, and the thermo-
for the case of finite nonzero blade chord, except. dynamic entropy and energy equations. As
near tile lifting line, where large ra(tial velocities shown by a nunwrical example, the exact solutions
and axial velocity gradients are generated. to the probh, ms as formulated here may match
For both the finite blade chord and the dis- desired turbomachine flow conditions sufficiently
continuous approximation, the linerarized flow closely to provide useful approximations of

interest to designers. [Note that _ and _"should
equations make possible the attainnlent of the
incompressible solution for a multistage turbo- be interchanged in eqs. (9) to (ll) in ref. 308.]
machine by superposition of the flows for the Radial adjustment and blade-row interfer-
individu_d blade rows. Exponential approxima- ence.--The shape of a stream surface as it passes
tions are developed for rapid estimations of the through the stages of an axial turbomachine is
velocity-component distributions, which provide investigated in reference 303 with the use of the
an even simpler method of al)l)roxinlating the exponential approximation to the linearized flow
flow through a turbomachine. Thcsc approxi- solution devcloped in reference 238. Attention is
mations were sufficienl for the particular case directed to the flow near the blade row and the
calculated in reference 238 to estimate the general manner in which the transition is made from the
order of the velocity components and were far-upstream to tim far-downstream velocity pro-
sufficiently to make these relations useful in file. For the configuration investigated in refer-
estimating the interference of adjacent blade rows. ence 241, it was found that the radial velocity
An illustrative example is calculated in ref- requires more than two axial chord lengths up-
erence 238, which assumes a linearly increasing stream of the inlet guide vanes and downstream
circulation distribution front root to tip. The of the stator before becoming negligible. Refer-
calculations indicate sizable changes in axial ence 303 establishes a relation between the aspect
velocity profile both upstream and downstream ratio of tim blades and the rate of radial adjust-
of the blade row. The lincarized apt)roximation ment. The radial adjustment ranges from nearly
used (with the blade loading similar at all radii complete by the time the trailing edge of low-
and assuming no radial force components) makes aspect-ratio blades (_1.0) is reached, to almost
possible the separation of the velocity components negligible radial adjustment at the trailing edges
of high-aspect-ratio blades (=3.0). This infor- In reference 310, the secondary flows are at-
mation is then brought to bear on the dual prob- tributed largely to trailing-edge vortices shed as a
lems of the mutual interference of neighboring result of spanwise variation of circulation along
blade rows and the three-dimensional flows in an the blades and nonuniform inlet approach veloc-
axial turbomachine at off-design conditions. ities (see ch. XV for discussion of passage vortices).
Briefly, for blade aspect ratios of 1.0 or less, tile Reasonable orders of magnitude of three-dimen-
effects on the velocity distribution of interference sional losses are estimated by the methods of
between adjacent blade rows are negligible, and reference 310 for the very conservative flow
distortion of the design axial velocity profile at conditions assumed. A practical extension of this
off-design operation is small. The effects of off- investigation is provided in the guide-vane analysis
design operation may increase considerably with of reference 43. End-wall boundary layers are
higher blade aspect ratio, while the interference shown to cause deviations of the real flow from
between adjacent blade rows may become a pre- blade-element-flow considerations. Some of the
dominant influence for aspect ratios over 3.0. effects noted are first underturning and then over-
turning in the boundary layer as the end wall is
SECONDARY-FLOW EFFECTS
approached, a general decrease in circulation and
General discussion.--The three-dimensional turning angle along the blade in the boundary-
layer regions, and large induced losses in the
behavior of a real fluid is intimately associated
guide-vane end regions. A calculation procedure
with the three-dimensional boundary-layer be-
havior of that fluid. The tendencies of the for quantitative estimations of the mean flow
variations induced by the end-wall boundary-layer
boundary layers to accumulate locally, to develop
effects is set lip in which the distribution along the
large radial and cross-channel flows in a complex
blades is represented by a system of vortices, the
of motions generally termed secondary flows, are
effects of which are calculated by the method of
discussed in chapter XV. Detailed experimental
information on secondary-flow patterns is pre- images, with use of an empirical correlation factor.
The closing section of reference 43 considers several
sented in chapter XV, together with the results
of the more important theoretical developments. nspccts of tile secondary-flow problem, from the
The present chapter is concerned chiefly with the designer's viewpoint., in some detail.
The more coinplex flow situation in rotor blading
overall flow picture; only the broad aspects of
is considered in reference 310. The effects of tip
secondary flows are considered here.
clearance and relative blade to wall motion are
The flow through a blade grid is considered as
discussed in very general terms, as is boundary-
flow through individual channels or curved ducts
layer displacement of the type noted in reference
in reference 309, and three distinct boundary-
309. The action of secondary flows under certain
layer phenomena are discussed: (1) tile cross-
conditions to prevent stalling and to enable blades
channel displacement leading to thickened
to operate above the two-dimensionM stalling
boundary-layer regions at the suction surface of
limit is brought out. The work-done factor and
the passage, (2) the different behavior of boundary
the induced-drag coefficient are connected on
layer when adhering to a solid surface as con-
trasted with detached boundary layers such as the basis of these secondary-flow considerations.
Finally, the conclusion is reached that ordinarily
wakes, and (3) the effect of centrifugal accelera-
(conservative, subsonic t urbomacllines) the pri-
tion inducing radial components of motion affect-
mary flow conditions and primary losses are still
ing especially the boundary layers of moving
due to two-dimensional blade-section performance.
blade rows. A criterion of radial stability is
developed indicating that "stability of compress- Experimental evidence (ch. XV and ref. 311)
indicates that the secondary-flow-induced losses
ible flow depends not only upon the radial
assutne considerably more importance with higher
distribution of total energy, as is the case for
incompressible flow, but also upon the temperature flow velocities and larger turning angles.
distribution." With this criterion, the radial dis- An interesting analysis is developed in reference
placement of boundary layer in turbomachines is 312 of the relation between the secondary flows
analyzed for various conditions of flow circulation and the main flow characterized by radially vary-
and boundary-layer distribution. ing blade circulation and rotational incoming flow.
References 312 and 244 present a clear, under- and

standable physical picture of three-dimensional
u velocity of motion of airfoil (or of gust of
flows in turbomachines.
wind past airfoil)
Commentary.--Despite the great amount of
F0 circulation resulting from vorticity _0(x)
research already devoted to the study of secondary
_0(x) vorticity bound to airfoil that would be
flows in turbomachinery, empirical information,
produced by airfoil motion (or by gust)
useful to designers, concerning the actual flows
if instantaneous velocity were maintained
within the blade rows themselves is still largely
permanently
lacking. Most analyses to date provide informa-
coordinate along blade rearward from mid-
tion and devise design procedures about the flows
chord position
encountered at stations between the blade rows.
vorticity in wake
For design purposes, the nature of the flows in the
blade rows themselves is almost invariably as- The quasi-steady lift L0 is that which would be
sumed. References 302 and 304 give evidence produced if the instantaneous velocity and angle
that the flow patterns within the blade rows are of attack were permanently maintained. The lift
quite complex, that large stream surface distor- L1 represents the forces acting on a body in an
tions can and do exist. These results must be ideal fluid when no circulation is produced because
considered to qualify the conclusions reached from of the reaction of the accelerated fluid masses. It
analyses (e.g., ref. 244) based on assumed simple is obtained by integrating over the surface the
flow configurations in the passages between
is the instan-
stations. "impulsive pressures" p _r (where
TIME-UNSTEADY FLOW taneous potential function). Thelift L2 represents
the contributions to the lift from the wake itself,
A theory of nonstationary motion around airfoils and contains the wake effects. A corresponding
is presented in reference 313. The purpose of the formulation is obtained for the moment:
paper is to present the theory originally developed
by Birnbaum, Wagner, Ktissner, Glauert, and M--Mo+MI+M2
Theodorsen in relatively uncomplicated mathe-
matical forms. A remarkably clear exposition of In these formulas, L0 and M0 as well as L_ and
the fundamental conceptions of the two-dimen- M_ require only solutions of steady-state problems
sional circulation theory of airfoils is presented by usual methods. The wake contributions L2
and ,_I2 can be interpreted physically as the differ-
first. The report shows how a "wake of vorticity"
ences between the instantaneous and the final
is produced if the circulation around the airfoil is
values of lift and moment for a case in which the
a timewise variable. The induced vorticity dis-
tributions over a thin airfoil are presented for such quasi-steady lift and moment undergo a sudden
wake vortices at various distances in the wake change. Hence, L_ and M2 can be called the
"deficiencies" caused by the nonuniformity of the
from the midpoint of the airfoil.
Formulas for the lift and momentum are next motion of the airfoil or of the fluid velocity.
These general results were then applied to an
obtained for the thin airfoil, and here it is seen
oscillating airfoil and to an airfoil entering a
that the simple Joukowski formula L=pVF no
vertical gust with various velocity profiles. The
longer will do. ]nstead, the expression for the lift
general expressions for the lift and moment
consists of three parts:
developed by yon K_rm_n and Sears (ref. 313) are
applied in reference 314 to a series of alternating
where up and down gusts, sinusoidally distributed. The
magnitude of the lift decreases as the frequency
of the gusts increases. As in reference 313, the
lift is shown to act, always, at the quarter-chord
LI=--p _d f_ 1 _,o(x)xdx point of the airfoil. These results axe applied to
a wind-tunnel fan blade operating just downstream
of a set of prerotation vanes. The vanes produce
L2=pu_ "_(_) d_/_/_2-- 1 periodical disturbances through which the fan
blades pass, which in turn give rise to periodical nonsteady circulation components induce large
forces on the blades and perhaps vibrations of effects.)"
dangerous amplitudes. An approximate calcula- (3) In order to calculate the unsteady effects
tion is made in order to apply the results obtained, on a rotor blade, in this same first approximation
in which it is necessary to take the two-dimensional process, the significant contributions are assumed
flow across some mean cross section representative to arise from the steady circulation about the
of the blade and to consider that this mean section stator blades 0F' and from the effects of the rotor
encounters flow conditions in its path that can be blades passing through the vortex wakes shed by
approximated by superimposing a sinusoidal varia- the stator blades.
tion of axial velocity on a uniform mean axial The procedure thus far can considered as the
velocity. No dangerously large vibration ampli- first of a series of successive approximations. The
tudes were calculated in the example given in second step might consider the additional effects
reference 314. of oF' but, as noted in reference 315, would very
The results derived in reference 314 for an airfoil likely be extremely difficult to calculate.
moving through a stationary gust pattern are On the basis of this first-approximation scheme,
extended in references 315 and 316 by means of then, a calculation is made for the unsteady
a simple generalization to provide formulas for velocity at a rotor or stator blade induced by the
calculating the unsteady aerodynamic quantities steady circulation distribution on the blades of
for a single stator row followed by a single rotor the other row in motion relative to the blade in
row. Because the blades are thin, slightly cam- question. From this, the unsteady lift and mo-
bered, and lightly loaded, this configuration ment of a stator or rotor blade can likewise be
resembles a compressor more closely than a tur- calculated. Investigations of numerical examples
bine. The flow is assumed incompressible and were made for configurations of thin, small-
inviscid; the blade rows are represented by infinite turning airfoils, with rotor and stator solidities
cascades of two-dimensional blades. Each airfoil fixed at unity, with a 50-percent reaction stage,
(ref. 315) is considered "to be acting in a velocity and with the stagger angles a,----a,=45 . The
field induced by (a) its own wake, (b) the (variable) calculations were made for a range of the pa-
bound vortices of fellow members of its own blade rameter b'/c, (ratio of axial separation between
row, (c) their wakes, (d) the (variable) bound trailing edge of stator row and leading edge of
vortices of members of the other blade row, and rotor row to rotor half-chord) and over a range of
(e) their wakes." d_/d, (ratio of pitch of rotor blades to pitch of
In order to obtain a solution with reasonable stator blades).
ease, a scheme of successive approximations is The results showed large increase of unsteady
followed: lift with decreasing b'/c,, and appreciable change
(1) Assume first that the unsteady effect on the of lift with variation of dn/d,. In one case the
circulation of a blade is small compared with the unsteady part of the lift was as much as 18 percent
steady circulation ordinarily considered by a of the steady lift and, for this approximation, is
designer. accordingly of practical importance. Also, the
(2) The first approximation to the unsteady contribution of the stator wakes to the unsteady
effects on a typical stator blade _P(r) is calculated lift of the rotor blades was comparable in magni-
tude to the effects induced by the bound circula-
on the assumption that the only significant
tion of the stators themselves. The assumption
contribution arises from the steady circulation
made for the first approximation, namely that the
on the rotor blades oF'. For this first approxima-
unsteady effect on the circulation of a blade is
tion, the unsteady rotor circulation ,F'(r) and the much less than the steady circulation
unsteady parts of the circulation of all the other I,Pl_loP[, was checked and found to be reason-
stator blades and of all the vortex wakes except able. In addition, the authors find the power in
that of the chosen stator blade are neglected. the vortex wakes quite small. (Tile power is
"(Presumably this approximation breaks down for expressed as the ratio of the energy transferred
stator cascades of extremely large solidity, in to the wakes per unit time to the steady power
which the adjacent blades are so close that their required to turn the rotor.)
A further result is that the ener_" in the stator The unsteady lift on both was about the same,
wake for the present cases is about 100 times as however, for the example in reference 316 because
large as the energy in the rotor wake. Because of the differences in chordwise velocity distribu-
the kinetic ener_" transferred to the vortex wakes tions on the stator and rotor. In genera], then,
due to periodic variation in circulation is pro- according to referen('es 315 and 316, the induced
portional to I,Fl _ (ref. 317), tile squared amplitude circulation on a blade row due to the relative
of variation of circulation, and therefore the un- motion of an adjacent downstream row is con-
steady circulation on the stator blames, is about siderably greater than that due to the effects of an
l0 times as large as that on the rotor blades. adjacent upstream row.
CHAPTER XV
SECONDARY FLOWS AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL BOUNDARY-

LAYER EFFECTS
By ARTHUR G. HANSEN and HOWARD Z. HERZIG
A survey of experimental and theoretical research layer behavior predicted by two-dimensional

on secondary flows al_d tl_ree-dimen._iolml boundary- theory. Two-dimensional boundary-layer theory
layer flows as applicable to compressor flow .phe- predicts characteristics of a boundary layer
nomena is presented. The res'ults of experimental resulting from a mainstream flow that has no
research are used to con,_truct a simple model of variation in its lateral direction. In an actual
secondary flow in compressor blade rows. blade row, however, lateral variations of the main
The limitations of the application of present re- stream and the associated boundary layer cannot
search o_ ,_eco_dary flows to flow in a multistage be ignored. The occurrence of secondary flows--
compressor a_d indications of ways this research that is, boundary-layer flows having components
normal to the mainstream direction--often results
might be applied to current design considerations
are also presented. in sizable displacements and accumulations of
boundary-layer material. These flows arise win-
INTRODUCTION
cipally from blade end clearance, blade-to-blade
Tile importance of boundary-layer development and radial pressure gradients, centrifugal-force
in relation to compressor design procedures is dis- effects, and relative motion between blade ends
cussed in chapter III and in reference 318. As and annulus walls (refs. 311 and 318). Flows of
these references point out, there are no simple this type have no counterpart in two-dimensional
techniques that accurately account for viscous theory.
effects in current design systems. Instead, the Losses occurring in blade end regions of com-
effects of boundary layers are taken into account pressor blade rows account for a sizable portion
of the total measured loss (ch. VII). As blade
only by introducing some gross correction factors
into calculations derived from nonviscous-flow end losses are principally the result of boundary-
theory. These correction factors, moreover, are layer displacements and accumulations, it may be
based on empirical data and give only rough esti- stated that future improvement of compressor
mates of boundary-layer development. Never- efficiencies will depend significantly upon under-
theless, this method of accounting for viscous-flow standing the nature and causes of these boundary-
effects has proved relatively adequate for the layer phenomena and upon finding more realistic
design of compressors of the type currently in use. and accurate methods of accounting for them in
With the trend toward high-speed and high-mass- design procedures.
flow turbomachines, however, the influence of For these reasons, the analysis of secondary
boundary layers becomes increasingly critical in flows has become the major problem associated
design calculations. This is simply illustrated with research on boundary-layer behavior in
by noting the sensitivity of flow velocities in the compressors. While many important aspects of
transonic range to slight changes in boundary- secondary-flow phenomena have not as yet been
layer-flow blockage. investigated, considerable research progress has
It is important to recognize that a more satis- been made. This chapter presents an over-all
factory description of boundary-layer flow cannot review of both experimental and theoretical
come from refinements of the two-dimensional research and indicates its relevancy to compressor
boundary-layer theory currently in use (ch. V). design.
The reason is that boundary-layer behavior in At the present time, research on secondary flows
blade rows of an actual turbomachine exhibits has two immediate goals: (1) to find methods of
certain irreconcilable differences from boundary- reducing the magnitude of undesirable secondary-
385
69t-564 0-65-26
flow disturbances in blade rows, and (2) to develop also included in the discussions. This is followed
practical theories of secondary-flow behavior that by a discussion of blade tip clearance and relative
the compressor designer can incorporate into motion between blades and annulus walls. Fi-
design methods. In attaining these goals, three nally, the influence of rotor-stator interaction on
basic problems can be recognized: (1) isolating flow behavior is presented. Comprehensive de-
the factors that may cause secondary flows, (2) scriptions of the methods employed to obtain the
analyzing the types of secondary-flow components results can t)e found in references 311,318, and 320.
resulting from these factors, and (3) determining The section is concluded with consideration of a
the contribution of these components to the total model of the complete secondary-flow pattern as
flow behavior. The factors that cause secondary indicated by the experimental results and a
flows are fairly well known and have been indicated discussion of ways certain aspects of secondary-
previously. The state of knowledge concerning flow theory might be applied to compressor design.
the characteristics of the associated secondary-flow CROSS-CHANNEL FLOWS AND PASSAGE VORTEX FORMATION
components, however, leaves much to be desired.
Apparatus and procedure.--For simplicity, the
As will be evident from the discussions presented, study of secondary-flow components resulting
most of the current knowledge is qualitative in
from cross-channel pressure gradients was begun
nature. Adequate theories furnishing the quanti-
by visualization of the end-wall inlet boundary
tative information necessary for improving com-
layer of a two-dimensional cascade at low air-
pressor designs are still to be formulated.
speeds. It was intended, by using a smoke
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF SECONDARY flow-visualization method (ref. 318), to isolate and
FLOWS to evaluate the effects of cross-channel gradients
upon the wall boundary layer while eliminating
Because of the importance of the problem, many such complicating considerations as radial flows
experimental and theoretical investigations of and possible shock phenomena.
secondary flow in turbomachines are presented A sketch of the two-dimensional cascade rig is
in current literature (surveys 212 to 240, ref. 319).
shown in figure 276. The cascade section was so
In experimental research carried out at the NACA
designed that the solidity, angle of attack, aspect
Lewis laboratory, flow-visualization techniques ratio, turning angle, and blade stagger angle could
as well as total-pressure and flow-angle measure- be varied quite readily. The two-dimensional
ments were used in order to obtain an insight into cascades were used for tests at Mach numbers
the three-dimensional boundary-layer-flow pat- below 0.4. The boundary-layer flow was visual-
terns in typical axial-flow turbomachines. The
ized by means of smoke introduced through a
results of the investigations (refs. 311 and 318) are
probe. The s,noke flow-visualization method was
presented here only for the over-all physical used only at. low mainstream velocities (about 30
understanding of secondary-flow processes in
ft/sec). At higher velocities, dispersion of the
turbomachines that they afford rather than for smoke due 1o turbulence made the method
detailed compressor flow information.
impracticable.
The following discussion attempts to build up a Passage vortex formation.--The overturning in
concept of secondary-flow behavior in compressor
the end-wall boundary layer of a two-dimensional
blade rows by separate descriptions of the various
cascade with no tip clearance is illustrated in
types of secondary-flow components that can
occur. In this regard, an analysis of secondary
flows arising from cross-channel pressure gradients Screens
is first discussed. Next, the influence of radial Combushon-a Jr line[
pressure gradients that contribute to the local

accumulation of boundary-layer material is ana-
lyzed. The size and locations of these accu-
mulations depend upon the character of blade
boundary layers, which are, in turn, a function
of profile shapes; hence, some indication of the FIGURE 276.--Two-dimensional steady-flow cascade
effect of blade profile shapes on secondary flows is (ref. 318).
SECONDARY FLOWS AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL BOUNDARY-LAYER EFFECTS 387
figure 277. The overturning results from imposi-

tion of the mainstream static-pressure gradients
upon the low-momentum boundary-layer fluid.
The smoke used to trace out the flow patterns was
introduced at: the wall by means of the probe. A
downstream view of a boundary-layer streamline
crossing a channel (fig. 278) shows that, as the
streamline approaches the suction surface, it de-
flects spanwise and then rolls up into a vortex-
type flow. (The insert shows the entire stream-
line pattern schematically.) Probe surveys
showed that all the streamlines in tile wall bound-
ary layer converged to approximately the same
region and rolled up into the flow vortex (fig.
279(a)). The pattern of vortex formation was
such that, as the point of smoke introduction was
shifted toward the suction side, the streamlines
along the end wall exhibited increased spanwise
deflection as they approached the region of con-
FIt_vRz 278.--Downstream view showing vortcx formation
vergence, where they rolled up into the central
resulting from roll-up of end-wall boundary layer.
portions of the vortex, as shown schematically in Smoke introduced on wall near blade pressure surface
figure 279(b). (ref. 318).
This secondary-flow vortex is called the "passage
vortex" in order to emphasize the fact that it is a with increasing main-flow turning. When the
passage wall and not a blade trailing-edge vortex turning is large enough (fig. 280), the outermost
due to circulation changes along the [)lade. The layer of the vortex may conle from boundary-layer
size and vorticity of the passage vortex increase flow on tile pressure surface that deflects onto the
end wall and flows all the way across the channel
until it reaches the suction surface.
At low airspeeds where smoke could be used,
passage vortex formation was observed for other
configurations, including cascades of NACA 65-
(12)10 blades. At higher Mach numbers, surface
indications, obtained by use of hydrogen sulphide
traces on white lead paint, show that the cross-
channel deflection pattern remains unchanged
(ref. 318).
It should be noted that the cross-channel com-
ponent of boundary-layer flow can t)e considered
as a "double" boundary layer (fig. 281). The
component normal to the main stream must, have
zero velocity at the wall, rise to some ma.ximunl
value, and then fall to zero again in the main
stream. The outer portion of this cross-channel
boundary layer rolls up to form the passage vortex,
The "sublayer" next to the wall has vorticity of
the opposite sign to the outer portion, and when
it rolls up produces vortices opposite in direction
to passage vortices. Under these test conditions,
FIGURE 277.--()verturning in end-wall boundary layer due
the diffusion of vorticity forces from this sublayer
to secondary flow. Smoke introduced through probe on
wall in passage at inlet (ref. 318). was rapid enough to cause this portion of the
houndary-layer vorticity to disappear rapidly.

Photographs of this sublayer rollup are found in
reference 320 and in the motion-picture supple-
ment to that report.
FxQuRz 280.--Deflection of flow off blade pressure surface

and across passage to roll up into outer layers of passage
vortex (ref. 318).
Cross-channel velocity
FIGURE 281.--Boundary-layer velocity and vorticity pro-

files for cross-channel component of boundary-layer flow
(ref. 320).
Passage vortex behavior and effects.--Once the

passage _'ortex has been formed, it tends to re.sist
turning and does not follow subsequent main-
stream turnings as it proceeds (|ownstrc_lm.
(b) Figure 282 shows how, in tandem cascades, a

vortex formed in the upstream cascad(_ resists
the turning in the, downstream cascade. Test
(a) Convergence of streamlines (ref. 318).
ot)serv(,rs could see the l)assage vortex rieho(,ll(,i
(b) Spanwise deflection and vortex roll-up.
off a pressure surface of the downstream cas('ath'
FXGURE 279.--Passage vortex formation. and cause flow separation in the region of impa,'i.
pressure gradient (a function of mainslream turn-

ing and velocity).
In rotors, the flow picture is I'urther compli-
cated by the centrifugal forces on the rolor blade
boundary layers. In general, for compressors
where the blade speeds are higher lhnn the
mainstreatn tangential w,loeity component, the
1)oundary layer will be forced radially outward
(see ref. a19, section II-F).
Apparatus and procedure.--The effects of radial
pressure ga'adients and higher flow Mach llunlbers
were studied in an annular-cascade test unit,
shown selwmatieally in figure 283. The cascade
blades investigated therein were of several lypes
(ref. 311). [towever, attention is ('onfined ini-
tially to the tests in a cascade of high-turning
vortex blades designed for smooth two-(timen-
sional blade surface velocity profiles. While
these blades are not typical of lhose foun(I in
FlfiURE 282,--Resistance to turning of passage vortex compressor units, the tests conducted provide
generated by upstream cascade causes it to strike sufficient information to formulate theories lhat
pressure surface of blade in downstream cascade.
Smoke introduced through probe on wall at inlet to apply to anlmlar/)lade rows in general.
The _nnular cascade was used for a range of
upstream cascade (ref. 318).
hub discharge Mach mm_bers up to about 1.5.
The phenomenon has been observed in accelerat- As mentioned previously, smoke flow-visualiza-
ing as well as <le<'elerating easca<tes. tion tests were unsatisfactory for flow velocities
Thus, the aecunmlation of low-energy material much in excess of 30 feet per second. (!onse-
near the suction surface of a turbomaehine passage quently, for high speeds, two other flow-visualiza-
causes flow disturbances and losses leading to tion techniques were employed. In the first,
flow-angle deviations and poor angles of attack the surfaces of the blade pass_tges were painle(t
in subsequent blade rows. Furthermore, the with a lead carbonate base paint, llydrogen
vortex behavior as it passes lownstream can sulfide gas (whi<'ll has a density eonlparabh' tO
leal to flow disturbances on the blade surfaces air) was then introduced into the boundary-
that it impinges upon and to additional losses layer region, and boundary-layer motion was
there. This behavior may account for a large indicated by the brown trace made by the reaction
part of the losses variously attributed to secondary of the hydrogen sulfide with the paint. Un-
flows. The mixing action of the vortex behavior fortunately, this method provides indications or
likewise represents a large deviation froin the
Filiered
kind of simplified boundary-layer behavior as- Depression air
sumed in design procedure. tank-, supply
\ j_ _Slraighlenmg
RADIAL SECONDARY FLOWS 1N STATORS _r Test _ vanes
\ ...... _ II L_ij section-, 11
Just as the eross-chaImel pressure gradient ] i !i..--- _I gill ', , TO
imposed by tim main stream causes cross-channel I| '"'', ....... as'
I Airflo_ _"_,,1 ' ' '[ Jsyslem
secondary flows, so the radial pressure gradient
eauses radial boundary-layer flows. Given a
'%Stalic _-Blades
boundary-layer region extending from the inner ,, _ taps at
Thermocouples :_ , nozzle
to the outer shroud in a stator row, radial trans-
" Flow
port from the tip to the root regions can oeeur. nozzle
The quantity ot' such transport depends upon
the thickness of the radial boundary-layer region FI(_URE 283.--Schematic view of annular-cascade test unit
or flow path and the magnitude of the radial fiefs. 311 and 318).
flows along boundaries only; and, because of tile annular-cascade investigations. The measure-
turbulence at higher Mach numbers, the traces ments were made on three sets of blades and at
indicate the flow paths of a region of the boundary two flow conditions for each set of blades. These
layer instead of individual streamline paths. flow conditions are designated, respectively,
The second flow-visualization method was based "lower Mach number" (high subsonic flow) and
on paint flow traces. The paint used was a "higher Math number" (supersonic flow). The
lead carbonate paint deliberately made nondrying measuring probes and hot-wire anemometers
and capable of flowing with the surface flow gradi- used are (]cs('ribed in reference 311. Great care
ents at the higher Mach numbers investigated. was taken in the fabrication and use of these
Since hydrogen sulfide and paint traces cat instruments in order to make the results as reliable
at best give indications of boundary flows directl 3 and accurate as possible. Nevertheless, because
on blade surfaces and annulus walls, tile signifi- of the large pressure and angle gradients involved
cance of these traces is interpreted only on tile in the flow regions of chief interest in this report,
basis of previous information obtained either the results are discussed in qualitative terms
by the smoke visualization metho<l or by quan- only.
titative measurements. Indications of radial flows based on downstream
It should also be noted that total pressures, measurements.--Contours of loss in inlet kinetic
flow angles, and wall static pressures were meas- energy for the annular cascade of vortex blades
ured at a discharge measuring station in the are presented in figure 284. The hut) loss accumu-
5
4
Suchon
LOSS,
(Local velocity) 2
I
(Inlet velocity} 2'
percent
(_
I 0-5 "2
2 5-10
5 I0- 15 b
4 15- 2O -,4
5 20- 25 (b)
6 25 - I O0
i i
/
0 ___One blade pilch _/ 0_._ One blade pitch
(a) Subsonic flow condition (lower Mach number). (b) Supersonic flow condition (higher Mach number).
FmtTR_ 284.--Contours of kinetic-energy loss at exit measuring station of vortex blades (ref. 311).
SECONDARY
FLOWS
AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL BOUNDARY-LAYER EFFECTS 391
lation is much larger than tile outer-shroud loss

accumulation for both tim subsonic and super-
sonic flow conditions, despite the fact that the
"wetted" area is greater in the outer half of the
passages. This fact indicates radial flow of
boundary-layer material. The decrease in outer-
shroud loss core and the increase in inner-shroud
core with increasing Mach number indicate
the development of additional or larger paths
for radial transport of low-energy fluid at the
higher flow Mach number.
Visual indications of radial flows.--In the
presence of a radial pressure gradient in the an- inner
nular cascade, the radial transport of sizable
quantities of low-energy material can be expected
in blade boundary-layer regions having low vis-
cous shear forces along the blade span. Such a
path, for example, might be provided by the blade
trailing-edge regions. Another possible radial
pathway might be provided on the suction surface
of each blade at supersonic flow conditions when a
shock exists across the passage to cause thickening
of the blade suction-surface boundary layer. FI(_URE 285.--Paint traces showing location of shock and
One method used to detect such paths was to radial flow in thickened boundary regions on suction
surfaces of vortex blades (ref. 311).
apply narrow bands of paint on the suction sur-
faces of certain blades in the cascade. The paint
traces found after a test then indicated paths
along which low-energy material might be trans-
ported radially. Such traces are shown in figure
285. For this photograph, bands were painted on
the suction surfaces of blades 1, 2, and 3 at the
inner-shroud, midspan, and outer-shroud radial
positions, respectively. Two such paths are
shown in the figure, one at about midchord on the
suction surface and the other along the blade
trailing edge.
Evaluation of radial components of secondary
flow.--The existence of radial flow of low-energy
material as indicated in the previous section was
proved and the quantity of such flows at the su-
personic flow condition was evaluated by the fol-
lowing rather simple device (ref. 311). Flow (b) Flow fence /'_ a/,o/
fences were fastened to the blades at the midspan
(0.018" thick) -_
position as in figure 286. The full flow fence
(fig. 286(a)) was intended to interrupt radial (a) Flow fence to interrupt radial flow along blade trailing
flows both along the trailing edge and in the edge and in thickened boundary-layer region.
thickened boundary-layer region indicated in

(b) Modified flow fence to interrupt radial flow along
figure 285. The reduced flow fence (fig. 286(b))
blade trailing edge only.
was modified by being cut back so that it now
affected only the trailing-edge radial flows. The F_GURE 286.--Sketches of flow fences located on blades at
results are presented in figure 287. Because of midspan position (ref. 311).
I0
LOSS,
(Locol velocity) 2
(Inlet velocity) 2 '

percent
I 0-5
2 5-t0
5 t0-15
4 15-20
5 20-25
(el 6 25- I00 (b)
blode pitch _----One blode pitch
(a) Full flow fence interrupts radial flow along (b) Modified ttow fence interrupts radial flow along
trailing edge and along suction surface, trailing edge only.
FIGI_RE 287.--Contours of kinetic-energy loss at exit of vortex blades, showillg r_sults of radial-flow fences. Higher
Mach number (ref. 311).
possible losses due to the fences themselves, the ber (fig. 284(b)) indicate the presence at the
reduction in inner-shroud loss core is used to measuring plane of (1) a large accumulation of
measure the quantities of radial transport. At boundary-layer material near the hub corner, (2)
the supersonic flow condition for this set of vortex a much smaller accumulation near the outer
blades, radial transport of boundary layer ac- shroud, and (3) a well-defined wake between.
counted for 65 percent of the low-energy material The interpretation (ref. 311) is straightforward.
in the inner-shroud loss core at the blade-exit Radially inward flow of boundary-layer material
station. Of this 65 percent, 35 percent came originating either on the outer shroud both up-
through along the trailing edge, and 30 percent streaiu and within the cascade or on the blades
through the thickened boundary-layer paths on themselves must, of necessity, take place some-
the suction surfaces. Thus, radial transport of where upstream of the measuring plane. Most
boundary-layer material may be considerable likely, radial-flow regions are on the suction sur-
under certain conditions. faces of the blades and behind the trailing edges.
Loss accumulations and passage vortices.- At higher flow Mach numbers, the measured
Briefly, measurements downstream of a cascade of outer-shroud losses decrease further, the wake be-
vortex blades at a high subsonic flow Mach num- tween remains nearly unchanged, and the inner-
shroud loss core increases further. There being there is no apparent increase in the measured
little reason to assume smaller outer-shroud losses wakes when the shock-thickened suction-surface
at the higher Mach numbers, it is concluded that radial-flow path is established, it might be spec-
increased radial flows must occur at the higher ulated that little of the boundary-layer material
Mach numbers for thesevortex blades. Judg- from this radial-flow path is shed to contribute
ing from the relative sizes of the inner- and outer- to the measured wakes.
shroud loss cores and the total absolute values of For comparison with the preceding results
the losses, the radial-flow mechanism must serve obtained on vortex blades, tests were conducted
to transport sizable quantities of boundary-layer on two sets of constant-discharge-angle blades at
material. The flow-fence tests on the vortex comparable flow conditions. For one set of these
blades proved that this is the case and located blades, designated set A, the measured results
the radial-flow paths behind the blade trailing (fig. 288) indicate very closely the same kind of
edges and in a shock-thickened boundary-layer radial-flow mechanism as for the vortex blades
region along the blade suction surface. for both the lower and higher flow Mach numbers.
The loss measurements at any position do not Thus, the differences in the circulation distribu-
indicate the losses that actually develop at that tion of the vortex blades and the constant-
radial position on the blade. Presumably, even discharge-angle blades are not potent factors
in the radial-transport regions, through-flow com- affecting the over-all secondary-flow picture.
There are no indications from measurements on
ponents of the boundary-layer flow exist, and
some of this material is shed and appears in the either of these sets of blades that outer-shroud
measured wakes at all radial postions. Since passage vortices are ever formed. For the other
_ Passage width =-_ ____--- Passage width _i
\\ ,r
LOSS,
(Local velocity) 2
I-
(Inlet velocity) 2
percent
I 0-5 .'
2 5-10
5 I0-15
4 15 -20
(o)
5
6
20 - 25
25- I00 (b)

i[ ,,
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Circumferential distance, deg Circumferential distance, deg
(a) Lower Mach number. (b) Higher Mach number.
FIat-RE 288.--Contours of kinetic-energy loss at exit measuring station of constant-discharge-angle blades, set A (ref. 311).
394 AERODYNAgIIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS
set of constant-discharge-angle blades, designated tioned, the circulation variation between the two
set B, the measured loss distributions (fig. 289) types does not appear to be a significant factor.
appear quite different. At the lower flow Mach One particular difference noted in reference 31 l,
number in particular (fig. 289 (a)), the measured however, is that at the tip section there were
loss pattern near the outer shroud certainly im- definitc peaks in the blade suction-surface velocity
plies the existence of a passage vortex. The profile for set B. The other vortex blades and set
different kind of loss pattern here requires further A had fairly smooth suction-surface velocity
consideration to establish possible reasons for the profiles at the tips. All three sets of blades }lad
differences. fairly smooth suction-surface velocity profiles _t
The flow Mach numbers and inlet Reynolds midspan and near the hub. According to bound-
numbers are the same for all three sets of blades. ary-laycr theory, velocity peaks and subsequent
Tile over-all apparatus setup is the same. This decelerations on a blade suction surface lead to
means that the boundary-layer conditions at ttle relatively thick and perhaps even to separated
inlets are the same, and measurements show that boundary layers on the blades downstream of these
this is so (ref. 311). The main-flow turning is peaks. By comparison, smooth velocity profiles
nearly tile same for all three blades. As men- are more likely to lead to thinner blade boundary
Passage width -__
2.(
LOSS,
(Locol velocity) 2
I-
{Inlet velocity) 2
percent
I 0-5
2 5-10
5 I0- 15
4 15-20
5 20-25
6 25 - 40
7 40-60
8 60- I O0
(o) Woke (b)
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Circumferenliol d_stonce, dog Circumferenliol dlstonce, deg
(a) Lower Mach number. (b) Higher Mach number.
FIGURE 289.--Contours of kinetic-energy loss at exit measuring station of constant-discharge-angle blades, set B (ref. 31 l).
SECONDARY
FLOWS
ANDTHREE-DIMENSIONAL
BOUNDARY-LAYER
EFFECTS 395
layers. Smoke flow tests on the blades in question ance influences flow behavior, flow-visualization
substantiated this predicted boundary-layer be- studies were made in two-dimensional cascades
havior, albeit at low Math numbers. provided with tip clearance and in a two-dimen-
Thus, it is a fair assunlption that, all other sional cascade nlodified to provide relative motion
things being equal, the boundary layer on the between the blades and an end wall (ref. 318).
suction surface in the tip region for set B is likely This latter ease was chosen to approximate more
to be thicker than for the other blades. On this closely conditions that exist in an actual eonl-
account, reference 311 proposes that, when the pressor or turbine.
cross-channel boundary-layer flow on the outer Tip clearance. The initial studies of blade
shrou<t encounters the relatively thicker blade tip-clearance regions were made in two-dimen-
boundary layer, rollup and passage vortex forma- sional cascades having 0.060- and 0.014-inch tip
tion occur. The boundary-layer material on and clearances (1.7- and 0.4-percent span, respec-
near the annulus outer wall becomes entrained in tively). These studies disclosed that flow along
this passage vortex. Judging from the size of the the blade pressure surface in the tip vicinity and
measured tip loss region, the passage vortex in the wall boundary layer near the pressure sur-
formation in this manner reduces the material face deflected under the tip and formed a vortex
available for secondary-flow radial transport. lying against the suction surface (shown in fig. 290
For the subsonic case (fig. 289(a)), the occurrence for 0.060-in. clearance). Figure 291 shows that
of this phenomenon could conceivably account, for
all the measured loss patterns observed: that is,
(1) a large tip loss region, (2) a small hub loss
region as compared with both the tip region of this
blade and the hub regions of the other two blades
(figs. 287(a) and 288(a)), and (3) smaller measured
wakes between.
At the higher Mach number, once again the
shock-thickened radial-flow path is formed, pro-
viding an additional path for boundary-layer
removal to the inner-shroud region. This path is
formed well up on the blade suction surface, nearer
the point of passage vortex formation than is the
blade trailing-edge region. This additional flow
path mt_y serve (ref. 311) to drain off some of the FIGURE 290.--Deflection of flow off pressure surface at
tip-region boundary-layer material before (or blade end and through tip-clearance region to roll up as
vortex near suction surface (ref. 318).
despite the fact that) it rolls up into the passage
vortex. This criterion is somewhat borne out by
the reduction in measured tip loss region at the
higher flow Mach number and the great increase
in measured hub loss region (fig. 289(b)). Again,
if this criterion is correct, the radial flows through
the thickened boundary-layer region on the blade
suction surface appear to contribute little to the
measured wake losses.
FLOW IN BLADE END REGIONS WITH CLEARANCE
In the blade passages of turbines and axial-flow

compressors, large flow disturbances tend to occur
in blade end regions. Furthermore, in passages
having blade end clearance, the magnitude of the
clearance has a direct influence on losses and flow
behavior in the blade tip regions. In order to FIGURE 291.--Displacement of passage vortex by tip
understand better the manner in which tip clear- clearance vortex (ref. 318).
the passage vortex previously described still exists;

however, it has been displaced by the tip-clearance
vortex. These two vortices rotate side by side in
opposite directions with little apparent mixing.
Furthermore, the formation of the tip-clearance
vortex appeared to influence the magnitude of the
passage vortex only to the extent that some of the
flow on or near the blade pressure surface, which
in the case of no tip clearance would have flowed
into the passage vortex region, now becomes part
of the tip-clearance vortex. Consequently, the
formation of the two vortices, when tip clearance
exists, constitutes a much larger flow disturbance
in the blade end region than would exist with no
clearance.
Relative motion between blades and walL--In
order to study flow in a blade end region when FIGURE 2i}3.--Streamline pattern showing scraping effects
relative motion exists between the blades and an at leading surfaces of blades with relative motion
between blades and wall (ref. 318).
end wall, one of the end walls of a two-dimensional
cascade was replaced by an endless moving belt Another consequence of this scraping action in a
(fig. 292), the direction and speed of which could compressor is that flow along the pressure surface
be varied at will (see ref. 318). Smoke flow- that would normally have deflected under: the
visualization tests were conducted in this modified
blade tip with a stationary wall is deflected away
cascade for various wall speeds. from the wall when relative motion exists. This
The test disclosed two interesting phenomena. flow deflection is shown for a stationary wall in
The first was that a blade surface which was figure 294(a) and for a wall moving at moderate
"leading" relative to the wall motion exerted a speed (approximately equal to airspeed) ill figure
scraping effect on boundary layer entrained on the 294(b). Tile second result of interest was that
moving wall. One effect of this phenomenon was the motion of the wall exerted an "aspirating"
to impart a rolling motion to the boundary layer effect on low-momentum air on the blade surface
as it is piled up near the pressure surface (fig. 293). that was trailing relative to the wall motion and
deflected this air toward the moving wall. Figure
295 depicts the significant increase in flow deflec-
tion toward the wall caused by aspiration on the
= _- r
suction surface.
For both the stationary and moving wall,
smoke tests indicated that the flow over the blade
surface at midspan showed no spanwise deflections
on either the pressure or the suction surface.
Therefore, if it is assumed that the midspan
conditions have not, changed much, the deflection
off the pressure surface near the tip (fig. 294(a))
indicates the static pressure to be lower there
than at midspan. Smoke tests on the blade
suction surface showing a deflection of the blade
tip surface flows toward midspan indicate an
increased static pressure at. the blade suction-
FIaURE 292.--Schematic diagram of apparatus used for surface tip region as compared with midspan.
studying tip-clearance effects with relative motion Thus, tip-clearance effects can result in a smaller
between wall and blades (ref. 318). pressure differential across the blade tip section
SECONDARY
FLOWS
BOUNDARY-LAYER
EFFECTS 397
than at the lnidspansection-in effect,reduced

bladetip loading. The scrapingand aspirat, ing
effectsofrelativemotion(figs.294(b) and 295(b)),
(a) Stationary wall.

(b) Moderate-speed wall.
Fx6uRv. 295.--Aspirating effects on streamline deflections

on suction surface of blades. Probe on nose of blade
(ref. 318).
which show that these tip streainline deflections

can be prevented or reversed, indicate that the
relative-motion secondary-flow effects may even
benefit a compressor by increasing the blade tip
loading.
ROTOR-STATOR INTERACTION EFFECTS
The interference effects of a rotating blade row

upon a stationary row upstream are shown by
high-speed flash in figure 296. (While the blade
(a) Stationary wall.
(b) Moderate-speed wall. rows depicted are more typical of a turbine
configuration, the effects should be qualitatively
FIGURE 294.--Effects of scraping action on streamline
the same for compressor blade rows.) Figure
deflections on pressure surface of blade for "compressor
configuration." Probe on nose of blade (ref. 318). 296(a) shows that the pressure field associated
with the rotor blading at certain rotor positions thickening does not occur. Further tests indicate
causes thickening of the boundary layer on the that these effects depend on the blade stagger
suction surface and along the trailing edge of the angles, pressure distribution, rotor speed, and
upstream blades, and increased radial flow results. mainstream Mach number. The motion-picture
At the second rotor position (fig. 296(b)), this supplement to reference 320 shows these effects
very clearly, as well as blade boundary-layer
development and shedding in annular-cascade
configurations, radial boundary-layer flows, sec-
ondary-flow double-boundary-layer rollup, and
others.
A MODEL OF SECONDARY FLOW IN COMPRESSOR BLADE

ROWS
On the basis of the experimental results pre-

sented herein, it is possible to construct a model
of secondary flow in compressor blade rows.
However, two important factors are not accounted
for in the experimental tests: (1) the effect of
centrifugal forces on flow in a rotor, and (2) the
effect of upstream stages on flow in either stators
or rotors. Therefore, before such a secondary-flow
model can be assumed realistic, further knowledge
of these factors is required.
Insight into the influence of both of these
factors can be obtained from tests conducted on
a multistage compressor (ref. 247). The results
presented give indications of outward radial flow
of boundary-layer material in rotor blade passages
and subsequent accumulation of this material in
the blade tip region. In stators, inward radial
flow is indicated. As boundary-layer air flows
through the various stages, the comparatively
large secondary-flow displacements produce a mix-
ing of this boundary-layer air with the main
stream. This mixing action prevents continuous
boundary-layer buildup on flow surfaces and tends
to make the mainstream velocity more uniform.
It also makes possible more direct application of
the secondary-flow studies in cascades to flow
analyses of multistage compressors. If continuous
boundary-layer growth took place on compressor
annulus walls, a situation would occur in which
flow conditions would be significantly different
from those occurring in the cascade studies.
Theories of compressor flow behavior based on
cascade studies would then be of doubtful validity
even in a qualitative sense.
The aforementioned factors, along with the
(a) First rotor position. experimental results previously presented, are
(by Second rotor position. used to predict the probable secondary-flow
FxouRz 296.--Effect of rotor blade position on radial flow patterns in the various types of blade rows of
(ref. 320). axial-flow compressors.
Flow in shrouded stators.--Pressure gradients in tip-clearance flow through the gap between the
inlet guide vanes or in a shrouded stator transport blade ends and the hub, and (2) flow caused by
wall boundary layers toward the suction-surface the relative motion between the blades and the
side of blade passages and transport blade surface rotating hub. The effect of this relative motion
boundary layer and boundary layer that accumu- appears to be aspiration of boundary-layer mate-
lates near blade tips radially inward. Radial rial from the blade suction surface with attendant
transport of boundary layer takes place in regions transport of this boundary-layer air in the direc-
where viscous shear forces are low; for example, tion of the rotating hub. As these two flow com-
in blade wakes. The paths by which the second- ponents oppose the motion of cross-channel
ary-flow mechanism transports boundary layer secondary-flow components, the resultant flow
are indicated in figure 297. pattern is a function of the respective magnitudes
of the various components. As such, the resultant
flow depends upon such factors as the size of the
blade end-clearance space, blade end loading,
magnitude of cross-channel pressure gradient,
boundary-layer accumulation on blade surfaces,
and speed of the rotor relative to the blades. Be-
cause of the motion of the hub, accumulations of
boundary-layer material that would occur near a
blade suction surface for a stationary hub will now
occur nearer the pressure-surface side of a passage.
As indicated in the tests of the two-dimensional
cascade with a moving wall, boundary-layer mate-
rial may be swept completely across a blade pas-
sage and roll up against the pressure-surface side.
FXGURZ 297.--Schematic sketch of secondary-flow paths Flow in rotors.--Experimental information con-
in annular-nozzle cascade (ref. 311). cerning secondary flow in rotors indicates that
radially outward flow of boundary-layer material
Boundary layer that accumulates near a blade will probably take place because of the pre-
suction surface at the hub generally rolls up into dominance of centrifugal-force effects over radial
a pair of flow vortices rotating side by side in pressure gradients. At present, details of flow
opposite directions. In physical extent, this behavior in the blade tip region must be inferred
vortex pair is dominated by the passage vortex. from knowledge of secondary flows in other types
On the outer annulus walls, vortices may or may of configurations. On this basis, it is highly
not form. As indicated by these experiments, probable that flow behavior in the tip regions
a vortex is likely to form if the boundary layer on should not differ markedly from the behavior
the suction surface is either separated or relatively predicted in the hub region of unshrouded stators.
thick--a condition associated with "poor" suction- THEORETICAL INVESTIGATION OF SECONDARY
surface velocity profiles. If suction-surface bound- FLOWS
ary layers are thin and unseparated, cross- The limitations inherent in the types of experi-
channel boundary layers tend to flow radially mental analysis of secondary flows considered
inward in the wake region rather than to roll up leave several important problems to be investi-
at the blade tip. gated. One of these problems is quantitative
Because of the pressure rise through a given prediction of variations in thermodynamic proper-
stage, there may be flow leakage around a shroud ties of the fluid that result from the development
ring causing local disturbances at the inlet to a of secondary flows. Another problem is the
stage. This would tend to qualify to some degree establishment of the physical basis or underlying
the secondary-flow model presented. causes for certain observed phenomena (e.g.,
Flow in unshrouded stators.--In unshrouded vortex rollup near a blade suction surface).
stator passages, two secondary-flow components Problems of this nature are perhaps best attacked
exist in addition to those noted previously: (1) by means of theoretical investigations.
To date, theoretical research on secondary flows

has been limited because of mathematical com-
plexities. However, certain special aspects of (387b)
secondary-fow behavior have been treated ana-
lytically by use of simplified theories. A fair U
_x +v i_w bw 1 _p ___ ['5_w . _w + _w\
amount of progress, for example, has been made
on the calculation of boundary-layer crossflows (3S7c)
and on the calculation of vorticity components
5u 5v 5w
associated with secondary flows in two-dimensional
5_x +5_+5_z =0 (38S)
cascades and channels. While nmch of the work
has been restricted in scope, important ground- where u, v, and w are components in the x, y, and
work has been provided for more extended z directions, p is the density, p the static pressure,
investigations. and r the kinematic viscosity.
In the following sections a review of representa- Solutions to the complete set of equations are
tive analyses from the body of current theoretical almost impossible to obtain for boundary condi-
research is presented and discussed. It is the tions of the type usually occurring in aerody-
purpose of this review to provide insight into namic problems. In general, it is necessary to
methods of analytically attacking secondary-flow make such simplifying assumptions concerning
problems, to illustrate the nature of the mathe- the nature of the flow problems that the corre-
matical theory involved, to indicate application of sponding simplifications in the equations make
solutions to specific problems, and to point out them mathematically tractable. Two typical
possible bases for further research. simplifying assumptions occurring in secondary-
As will be noted, the analyses discussed are flow research are now considered.
categorized on the basis of assumptions made in One of the ways to simplify the Navier-Stokes
current secondary-flow theory regarding the nature equations greatly is to assume a nonviscous flow,
of the fluid analyzed. The two major categories that is, r=0. Although secondary flows are
are (1) nonviscous-flow analysis and (2) boundary- almost always a result of viscous action in a fluid,
layer-flow analysis. The analyses are discussed the assumption of nonviscous fluid flow is con-
in this way because particular analyses in one of sidered reasonable in certain instances. One of
these categories are necessarily restricted to the the most common is the case where the flow paths
consideration of specific types of physical flow under consideration are not large in extent (e.g.,
phenomena. As a consequence, only certain spe- flow in cascade passage) and where viscous shear
cial aspects of secondary flows observed experi- forces are not likely to be high. The flow crossing
mentally can be treated within the framework of the boundary of this region is considered to have
the theory. A division of the discussion into a velocity gradient, and hence vorticity, by virtue
"analysis types" is therefore equivalent, in a of viscous action upstream of the boundary.
sense, to a division into specific types of problems Within the region, however, the basic assumption
having certain common characteristics. is that the effects of viscosity over the short flow
DISCUSSION OF METHODS path are negligible compared with effects of the
vorticity associated with the flow.
With only minor exceptions, the theoretical
It should be noted at this point that, with the
research on secondary flows has been concerned
assumption r=0, the flow equations are reduced
with steady, incompressible flows. Such flows are
to first-order equations and it is no longer possible
described in their most general form by the
to satisfy the two boundary conditions for a real
Navier-Stokes equations along with the equation
flow, that is, that the normal and tangeritial com-
of continuity. This system of four equations in
ponents of the flow at a surface be zero. The
rectangular coordinates is as follows:
single boundary condition specified is that the
flow normal to the surface is zero and hence the
Ou _u Ou
(_2U.31- _2U4 - C)2U'_ condition of "no-slip" at the surface is not assured.
u _+v 5_+w bz
In actual application of nonviscous-flow analyses,
(387a) this defect is generally of secondary importance.
In flow problems where viscous shear forces ahnost all existing analyses require the application
near bounding surfaces are likely to be high, it is of numerical methods to obtain solutions.
desirable to retain the friction terms (v#0) in the The boundary-layer approach to second ary-flow
Navier-Stokes equations. One of the ways in behavior should be satisfactory for flow problems
which this is done, while still simplifying tile gen- where frictional effects or energy gradients are
eral form of the equations, is by use of boundary- confined to the neighborhood of the fluid bound-
layer theory. The principal physical assumption aries and flow separation does not exist.
made here is that the effects of viscosity are pre- It might be noted that a few investigations of
dominant only in a very thin region (the boundary secondary flows have dealt directly with the
layer) in the neighborhood of the fluid boundaries, Navier-Stokes equations without assuming any
while the rest of the flow is regarded as frictionless. special properties for the flow. This approach is
Furthermore, the pressures associated with the practical only if the aerodynamic configuration is
frictionless region of the flow are assumed known simple in form. At the present time, analyses of
and are superimposed on tile boundary-layer flow. completely viscous flow that nfight have had sig-
Mathematically, the governing equations for the nificance for secondary-flow research in turbo-
boundary layer carl be obtained in several ways, machines have been confined to the study of flows
with the various derivations stressing either intui- in pipes and channels (refs. 322 to 325). Un-
tive physical considerations or rigorous mathe- fortunately, the solutions presented in these
matical theory. [See ref. 152 (vol. I, ch. 4) for references have been achieved only for very low
the physical approach, and ref. 321 (ch. 18) for Reynolds numbers and for the case of fully
the mathematical approach.] To illustrate the developed flow; that is, flow in which the effects
simplifications in the Navier-Stokes equations of the centrifugal forces acting on the energy
that result from boundary-layer hypotheses, the particles and the effects of viscous dissipation in
boundary-layer equations for flow on a nonrotat- the fluid are in balance. In turbomachine blade
ing, flat (or slightly curved) surface are given: rows, this condition of equilibrium is generally
not achieved, and hence the secondary flow is a
function of the turning. Although theoretical
U
_--_+ v bu ' bu b2 u OU bU - , bU studies of viscous flows of this type are of great
interest in their own right, further discussion of
(389a)
these studies will not be undertaken in the present
chapter.
NONVISCOUS-SECONDARY-FLOW THEORY
u _+v _+wbW bz
=vow _+ub2W.
+ _ff_z+V___+
bW WbW
-bW
The study of secondary flows through applica-
(389b) tion of incompressible nonviscous-flow theory has
been principally restricted to investigations of
where x, y, and z are rectangular coordinates with flows in pipes or rectangular channels such as
x and z parallel to the bounding surface and y formed by airfoils in cascades. The fairly large
normal to the surface; u, v, and w are boundary- number of reports dealing with this topic make a
layer velocity components in the x, y, and z direc- complete review of the theoretical literature pro-
tions, respectively; and U, V, and }V are the hibitive. Consequently, the review is restricted
velocity components of the nonviscous region of to four reports (refs. 326 to 329) that are closely
the flow in the x, y, and z directions, respectively. associated with flow through cascades and that
These velocity components of the nonviscous incorporate basic notions common to most non-
region are assumed known. The third equation viscous-flow analyses.
necessary for solution (the continuity equation) Flows in channels and two-dimensional cas-
has the same form as equation (388). cades.--Two reports (refs. 326 and 327) have
Although equations (389) indicate that the become classical references in nonviscous-second-
Navier-Stokes equations have been greatly simpli- ary-flow research. Both papers consider, in gen-
fied, solutions for the system of equations (388) eral, secondary flow in a guiding passage (pipe,
an(] (389) are difficult to obtain for even relatively channel, blade row, etc.) that results from a non-
simple three-dimensional configurations. In fact, uniform total-pressure distribution upstreanl of
691-564 0-65--27
Channel wall
the passage inlet. Mathematically, the analyses
are based upon three governing equations for flow
of a steady, incompressible, inviscid fluid. These
equations are the equation of motion,
curl (VX _) ----0 (390)
the conservation of vorticity,
div _=0 (391)

U Umeon
and the continuity equation, 2 .4 .6 .8

)
div V= 0 (392)
where V and _ are, respectively, the velocity and

vorticity vectors of the flow.
From equations (390) to (392), reference 326
derives an expression for the vorticity component
in the through-flow direction downstream of a
two-dimensional cascade. When the magnitude
of this vorticity component is known, obtaining an
approximation to the secondary-flow velocities is FXGURE298.--Velocity variation at inlet to channel
then possible. This derivation is based upon a (ref. 326).
perturbation analysis that considers the two-
dimensional potential flow through the cascade as section. The flow in the experimental tests had
a first approximation to the actual flow. Conse- an induced inlet velocity variation of the type
quently, the applicability of the analysis is re- required in the analysis--that is, small velocity
stricted to a class of flows for which the perturba- gradient. For the velocity profile shown in figure
tion assumptions are reasonable. 298, agreement between theory and experiment
The expression for the vorticity component in was fairly good.
the through-flow direction was actually evaluated Reference 327 differs from reference 326 in that
for flow in a circular-arc channel in which the basic the former analysis begins with equations (390)
flow was given as that of a free vortex. Before the to (392) and develops a general expression for the
calculations were completed, however, a further change in "secondary circulation" along a stream-
assumption was made that is physically equivalent line in aperfect, incompressible fluid. The second-
to assuming the channel to be very narrow. This ary circulation is proportional to G/q, where _ is
leads to the following expression for the vorticity the component of vorticity in the direction of
component: fluid flow and q is the magnitude of the flow
5U velocity vector.
The expression for the change in secondary
where circulation along a streamline is obtained from
equations (390) to (392) by applying certain well
_ magnitude of vorticity component in through- known results from vector analysis and differential
flow direction at cascade exit (_=0 at inlet) geometry. The final form of the expression is
total turning of channel given by
U inlet flow velocity
z distance measured normal to base of channel
R q_ (393)
From the expression for _, the secondary-flow
velocity components were obtained and a plot of where
secondary-flow streamlines calculated (ref. 326).
These theoretical results were compared with ex- s streamline arc length
perimental data taken in a circular-arc turning p0 total pressure
p density which considers secondary flow in a 90 bend of

angle between direction of principal normal to rectangular cross section. The secondary flow is
streamline and normal to Bernoulli surface first calculated by means of a perturbation anal-
(surface of constant total pressure) on which ysis and then compared with a "simplified solu-
streamline lies tion." Theoretical results are finally compared
R radius of curvature of streamline with experimental data.
In carrying out the perturbation analysis in
and the subscripts 1 and 2 indicate arbitrary reference 328, the stagnation pressure is assumed
points on the streamline. It follows at once to vary in a direction perpendicular to the plane
that, if _=0(R_0), then (_/q)2=($/q)l; that is, of the bend, and the secondary-flow velocities are
there is no change in secondary circulation along assumed small compared with the main-flow ve-
the streamline. Furthermore, from differential- locities. The basic flow is defined, as in reference
geometric considerations, 1/R0----sin _/R, where 326, to be the flow in a free vortex. The per-
1/R o is thegeodesic curvature of the streamline turbation velocities are then shown to be deter-
on the Bernoulli surface. Therefore, _=0(R_0) ruinable from the solution of a Poisson equation.
implies that 1/Ra=0. Reference 327 summarizes Tbis solution is expressed as an infinite series in-
these results by stating, "Hence streamlines along volving Bessel functions. The series, however,
which the secondary circulation remains un- converges slowly, and a great deal of calculation
changed are geodesics on the Bernoulli surface." is required to obtain answers of reasonable
It is pointed out that the simplest examples accuracy.
to which the general theory may be applied are The simplified analysis presented incorporates
those in which the initial flow has a uniform further assumptions than those made in the pertur-
static pressure and a velocity varying in one bation analysis, and the problem is finally made
direction only. Such flows may exist in the comparable to the one considered in reference 326.
boundary layer of a large straight duct or in an A particular solution to the problem is then cal-
open channel whose width is large compared with culated by assuming a linear variation in stagna-
its depth. tion pressure at the entrance of a bend having the
From a physical standpoint, when a stream geometry of the author's test apparatus. The
enters a bend whose plane is parallel to the Ber- velocities obtained by the simplified method are
noulli surfaces, a secondary circulation is created compared with the more exact perturbation solu-
and the ensuing secondary flow will eventually tion mentioned earlier, and the agreement is found
distort the Bernoulli surfaces so that all semblance to be good for this particular case.
to the original velocity and total-pressure distri- The theoretical results are then compared with
bution may be lost. However, if the distortion experimental results in a 90 bend (ref. 328). For
of the Bernoulli surfaces is assumed small, ]grad a turning angle in the bend comparable to that
(Po/p)l and _ in equation (393) can be considered found in compressor cascades, a comparison of the
constant and a first-order solution obtained for theoretical and experimental radial velocities falls
the secondary circulation. As an illustration, the within the limits of experimental accuracy.
method (with these assumptions) is applied to the Therefore, for the types of nonviscous-flow analysis
problem posed in reference 326. The resulting under consideration, the extra labor involved in
equation for change in the vorticity component in improving the solutions to secondary flow in a
the through-flow direction is identical to that channel by the more exact calculations would ap-
obtained in reference 326. pear to be unwarranted so long as the secondary-
Even though nonviscous-flow analyses repre- flow velocities are assumed small.
sent a simplified approach to secondary-flow prob- A few attempts have been made to develop
lems, solutions of the governing equations still methods that are extensions of the type of analysis
are difficult to obtain. A question always exists initiated in references 326 and 327 and that poten-
as to the meaningfulness of results obtained by tially are capable of yielding more exact solutions
introducing further simplifying assumptions in to secondary-flow problems. One such method
the flow model to obtain solutions. A partial is outlined in reference 329. In this report the
answer to this question is found in reference 328, secondary flow in channels and cascades of airfoils
404 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OFAXIAL-FLOW
COMPRESSORS
is consideredcalculableby a successive-approxi-relation for the change in secondary circulation.

mationtechnique.Tile flowis assumed to become This follows from the fact that the velocity q is
asymptoticallyparallel and nonuniformat up- affected by f, and hence the integrand is in turn
streaminfinity. A velocityfieldis postulatedfor a function of _. Consequently, equation (393) is
the regionto beinvestigatedthat haszeronormal actually an integral equation for the secondary
velocitiesontheflowboundaries andthat assumes circulation or the vorticity component _. The
the givenasymptoticvaluesat upstreaminfinity. cases where the formula for a change in secondary
This velocityfield is chosento satisfy the con- circulation can 1)e readily simplified are those in
tinuity equation though not necessarilythe which it. is assume(1 that the Bernoulli surfaces
momentum equations. Fromtheprescribed veloci- remain flat. The formula then becomes
ties,a vortexfield is calculatedby meansof the
Cauchyvorticity equations. The vortexfield is -_'] -(-_']
q/= \q/_
=--2 grad p _" (1._'
PlJ*, q21t
then integratedto give a newvelocityfield, and
the processis repeateduntil discrepancies
between Experimental studies have shown, however,
successivelycalculatedvelocityfieldsaresmall. that this assumption (without further modifica-
Reference329points out, however,that the tions) will be inwdid for many problems of prac-
computationallabor involvedin the approxima- tical interest (see experimental section of tile
tion schememakesmorethan onestepunlikely. present chapter). This fact is recognized by the
A realisticchoiceof the initial velocityfield is author of reference 327 in a discussion of flow in
required,andusuallyenoughis knownaboutthe bent circular pipes. In this case, simplification
desiredsolutionto makethis possible. was achieved by considering only the path of a
Evaluation and eonclusions,--The various particle of maximum total pressure near the out-
analyses discussed outline approximate methods side wall of the pipe and assuming that the velocity
for predicting secondary flows in channels and and Igrad(po/p)l remain constant on a streamline.
two-dimensional cascades. The principal restric- References 328 and 329 emphasize the mathe-
tion applying to these analyses is that they assume matical difficulties involved when more exact
a variation in inlet velocity that extends well into methods are used in calculating secondary flows
the flow passage (see fig. 298). In most two- by use of nonviscous-fiow theory. However, the
dimensional-cascade investigations, the variation reports also indicate that the simplified solutions
is likely to be confined to a thin boundary layer. give fairly adequate results for the type of problem
Tests in such cascades indicate a pronounced cross- under consideration.
channel flow and a concentration of vorticity near
THREE-DIMENSIONAL BOUNDARY-LAYER FLOWS
the suction-surface side of the passage. As would
be expected, none of the examples worked out by One of the early theoretical papers on three-
nonviscous-flow methods predict such a phenom- dimensional boundary layers is reference 330,
enon. There are indications, however, that this which points out two effects in three-dimensional
type of approach may be a first step in treating boundary-layer flows that are not present in the
secondary flow in the final stages of a compressor two-dimensional case. The first effect is the
where variations in velocity are of the type re- result of lateral expansion or convergence of
quired and viscous effects on the primary flow streamlines in the "potential-flow region" that
pattern are of secondary importance. A complete are parallel to the bounding wall. This con-
analysis, of course, would have to include the vergence causes changes in boundary-layer thick-
effects of tip clearance and radial pressure gradi- ness and profile shape. The second effect is the
ents. It might also be possible to combine non- displacement of the boundary layer toward the
viscous-flow theory and boundary-layer theory in concave side of the potential stream as a result
a manner that would allow for calculation of of lateral curvature of that stream. This results
secondary flows in the inlet stages of a compressor. in boundary-layer crossflows such as shown in
Reference 327 is of particular interest, in that figure 277. As indicated in reference 330, theo-
retical calculation of such flows entails difficulties
the equations derived are general in form. How-
ever, it should be noted that the formula for sec- not present in two-dimensional boundary-layer
ondary circulation (eq. (393)) is not an explicit studies.
SECONDARY
FLOWS
BOUNDARY-LAYER
EFFECTS 405
Thetheoreticalinvestigationof secondary flows istics. Some of the basic repor[s of this type that
in bladepassages throughapplicationofboundary- can be considered ultimately apl)licable to second-
layer theoryhas,in the past,beenrestrictedin ary-flow analysis in turbomachines are summarized
scope. Ahnostallanalyses bearingoncompressor briefly.
secondary-flow problemshavebeenconfinedto The equations in reference 332 arc derived for
the study of boundary-layercross-flowsof the incompressible boundary-layer flow in a general
type notedin the experimental section. Because orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system, and the
of the assumptions generallymadein classical influence of curvature of lhe main flow on
boundary-layertheory, investigation of such boundary-htyer behavior is discussed. (_onlpres-
phenomenaas vortex rollup and tip-clearance sible boundary-layer equations in orthogonal
flowsis, of necessity,
severelylimited. curvilinear coordinates are dcvcloI)cd in reference
In the followingsections,reportsdealingwith 333, along with the energy equation. The results
basicboundary-layer theoryand the application of reference 333 are therefore more widely appli-
of this theoryto secondary-flow problemsaredis- cable than tllose of reference 332. Following the
cussed.Althoughreportsthat employmomen- general development, the 1)oundary-layer equa-
tum-integralconceptsplay an importantpart ill tions are derived for various special cases and the
the study of boundarylayersin turbomachines, nature of tlw equalions is discussed. The special
this classof reportsis excludedfrom the discus- cases include flow over a body of revolution,
sion. This restrictionis madebecausemomen- cylindrical flow, and conical flow. For treatmen!
tum-integralmethodsrequirea priori assumptions of more general cases, the equations are derived
concerning the character of the velocity profiles for an orthogonal coordinate syslcm determined
in the boundary layer, and at present some im- by the external flow streamlines, lhe orthogonal
portant questions remain as to how to make these trajectories of those streamlines, and a line
assumptions realistically for three-dimensional mutually perpendicular to the streamlines and
flows (ref. 331). Consequently, reports that their trajectories.
evolve basic concepts and determine fundamental In the discussion of the boundary-layer equa-
flow characteristics are considered principally. tions in the system designated, reference 333
All the reports that give solutions to specific shows that, in the absenee of a lateral body
secondary-flow problems assume that the bound- force, external stream curvature is needed to
ary layer under investigation is laminar, as a produce crossflow. Therefore, if the curvature
result of general inability to apply current mathe- is small and the flow unset)arated, the crossflow
matical techniques to the vastly more complicated velocity will probably be small. This then
problems of turbulent viscous-flow phenomena. suggests that it. might be possible to simplify the
However, as boundary layers in turbomachines boundary equations by considering a "small-
are not likely to be laminar but rather turbulent, erossflow" approximation. In such an approxima-
the question may arise as to the significance of tion, the terms of higher order than unity in the
lanfinar-flow studies in relation to turbomachines. erossflow velocity or lateral derivatives would
In this regard, past experience indicates that the be neglected. This approximation is carried out,
factors having an important influence on laminar- and it is shown that the equations for the flow
boundary-layer flow behavior are qualitatively the velocity in the streamline direction (the "principal
same for turbulent flow. velocity") can be put into the precise form of the
Investigations of three-dimensional boundary- two-dimensional boundary-layer equations and
layer equations.--Because of the complexity of independently solved. Once such a solution has
the boundary-layer equations, it has been profit- been achieved, it is possible to solve for the
able to examine the nature of the equations crossflow component. Solving for this compo-
without actually carrying out solutions of specific nent, however, is difficult, and it is suggested that
problems. Several reports, for example, give the boundary layer be considered as divided
derivations of the boundary-layer equations in into two parts. One part would consist of the
various curvilinear coordinate systems followed outer region of the boundary layer where viscous
by detailed examination of the equations in these forces are not large. By setting the viscous
systems to determine their important character- terms in the governing equation equal to zero, a
"stripwise" solution for this region can be obtained blade rows in a turbomachine on the boundary
along a given external streamline. The other part layer are qualitatively discussed. In reference
of the boundary layer, termed the "boundary 336 the boundary-layer equations are derived for
sublayer" would consist of the region adjacent to an orthogonal coordinate system rotating with a
the surface where viscous forces are large. By constant angular velocity. Both the laminar and
assuming that the principal velocity component is the turbulent forms are given. These equations
linear in this region, an approximate solution for are then used to develop generalized momentum-
the crossflow component can be obtained that is integral equations.
valid in the region close to the wall. This sub- Boundary-layer crossflow over flat plate with
layer solution can then be joined to the solution leading edge.---Initial research on boundary-layer
obtained for the upper region of the boundary crossflow on flat or slightly curved surfaces was
layer to give a result valid for the entire boundary principally concerned with calculations of two
layer. special types of boundary-layer flow over an
The equations for steady, compressible three- infinite fiat plate. The first was the result of
dimensional boundary-layer flow in Cartesian rotating the plate about an axis normal to its
coordinates and in an "implicit" orthogonal co- surface in a uniform stream (ref. 169). The
ordinate system applicable to flow over bodies second was the result of imposing a flow having
of revolution and conical bodies are derived in circular streamline (e.g., a free-vortex type flow)
reference 334. A discussion of the energy equa- on the plate surface (ref. 337). In neither of these
tion, along with a simplification of the energy cases, however, is there any variation of boundary-
equation for a Prandtl number of 1, is then pre- layer properties with mainstream turning, nor is
sented. By introducing a vector potential, the there any concept that allows boundary-layer
number of dependent variables in the boundary- development in the direction of the mainstream
layer equation can be reduced by one. This is flow relative to the plate. The results obtained,
accomplished by properly defining the boundary- therefore, do not directly apply to the type of
layer velocity components in terms of the compo- crossflow observed in two-dimensional cascades
nents of the vector potential. The boundary- and channels (fig. 277). As a first approximation
layer equations and the energy equation are then to the latter type of secondary flow, several investi-
transformed to a system of equations including gators have calculated boundary-layer crossflows
the components of the vector potential as de- over fiat plates having a leading edge. In this
pendent variables. In incompressible flows, these type of problem, both the variation of the bound-
components are the only two dependent variables. ary layer with mainstream turning and the
Various applications of the equations to specific development of the boundary layer in the main-
types of problems are also discussed in reference stream direction can be studied.
334. Among the conclusions reached are the fol- One of the early papers dealing with this prob-
lowing: (1) For flow with plane or axisymmetric lem is reference 338. This analysis considers
boundary conditions, the three-dimensional equa- laminar-boundary-layer development over a semi-
tions reduce to two-dimensional form by Mangler's infinite fiat plate placed in a flow with concentric
transformation; and (2) for flow over flat plates circular streamlines. Both incompressible flow
at zero angle of attack, when the leading edge is and a compressible flow with Prandtl number of
some arbitrary curve, the flow viewed in planes 1 are investigated. The method of solution for
parallel to the stream and perpendicular to the the incompressible case is similar to that employed
plate is given by the plane Blasius solution. in two-dimensional boundary-layer theory. The
The effect of angular rotation of the coordinate boundary-layer equations are first expressed in a
system on the boundary-layer equations is con- curvilinear system of the type outlined in reference
sidered in references 335 and 336. The boundary- 336. A "similarity parameter" _ is then defined;
layer equations are obtained in reference 335 for and, with suitable definitions for the boundary-
a Cartesian coordinate system rotating with a layer velocity components in terms of unknown
constant angular velocity about a fixed axis in functions F(_) and G(_), the boundary-layer
space. In this report the additional forces caused equations are simplified to two simultaneous total
by rotation of the system and the influence of differential equations for F and G. However,
certain terms in these equations have as a coeffi-

cient the square of the total turning of the main
flow from the plate leading edge. The analysis
is then restricted to apply to the region of the
flow where the total turning is small, and all
terms containing the square of the total turning
are discarded. This approximation simplifies 2
greatly the equations for the unknown functions
E
F and (7, and solutions are obtained for the special
case of a mainstream
The results show that
flow of the free-vortex
the velocity component
type.
u
J
/
c
o
in the direction of the main flow and the compo-
'7
nent w nor[hal to the main flow direction and par-
allel to the plate surface can be expressed by
u= U,F'(_)
and i ()
(b)
w=e U, G' (,) [ l
0 2 4 6 8 I0 0 .2 4 6 8
where U_ is the mainstream velocity and 8 is the u/U I w/U_
total turning of the flow.
Typical velocity profiles are shown in figure 299. (a) Mainstream direction. (b) Cross-channel direction.
The analysis of reference 338 also discloses that FxGvR_299.--Typical boundary-layer velocity profiles
there is a limiting deflection of the boundary layer (ref. 338).
at the plate surface, which for the particular case

discussed is a function of the total mainstream pattern can be obtained by simply translating a
turning. Limiting deflection has also been noted given streamline in a direction parallel to the plane
in visualization studies of crossflows. leading edge (fig. 300).
Further progress in the investigation of cross- The solutions of the boundary-layer equations
flow phenomena is made in references 339 and 340. in this problem are obtained in the usual way of
Both analyses treat a flow over a flat plate which defining a similarity variable and reducing the
is of a type that makes possible the exact solution boundary-layer equations to ordinary differential
of the boundary-layer equations. Their solutions, equations. In both reference 169 and reference
therefore, are not subject to the restrictions in- 340, solutions are obtained for the case where the
herent in reference 338 because of the assumption mainstream flow has 0 inclination to a line per-
of small mainstream turning made in that refer- pendicular to the plate leading edge. Reference
ence. The special two-dimensional mainstream 339 also considers two other cases where the in-
flow considered in references 339 and 340 is clinations are 60 and --60 . The streamline pat-
defined by terns for these flows are obtained by merely shift-
U=constant
ing the parabolas in figure 300 to tim left or to
the right.
W=a+bx
In the three cases discussed in reference 339,
where
regions exist in the flow field for which the total
U mainstream component normal to plate leading pressure in the boundary layer exceeds that in the
edge mainstream. The reason that particles in the
W mainstream component parallel to leading edge boundary layer can have a larger total pressure
a, b constants than those in the mainstream follows the postu-
x distance from leading edge measured along plate lation of a total-pressure gradient for the main
surface flow parallel to the leading edge of the plate.
Consequently, boundary-layer streamlines (which
This rotational flow has streamlines that are para- curve more sharply than those in the main stream,
bolic in form. Furthermore, the entire streamline fig. 300) may transport particles of high total
408 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLO_7 COMPRESSORS
has small curwtture in the lateral direction are

/ analyzed. The velocity components of the main-
stream are characterized by
/
/ U= Uo+ U*(.c, z)
/ W= W*(x, z)
/
where U is the velocity component in the direc-
/
tion normal to the leading edge of the plate (the
/ x-direction), and W is the velocity component
/ parallel to the leading edge of the plate (the
z-direction, fig. 301). It is also assumed that
Uo:constant
w*< < Uo
Plate
leading
u*< < U0
edge - _-"
By a perturbation method, the velocity profiles of
the crossflow in the x- and z-directions are calcu-
lated for a variety of incompressible mainstream
flows for which U* and W* are expressible as
and
Streamlines In this analysis, the boundary-layer velocities u,

Mainstream w, and v in the x-, z-, and y-directions, respectively,
Boundary layer are then considered to be of the form
FIGURE 300.--Parabolic mainstream flow over flat plate

with erossflow in boundary layer (refs. 339 and 340).
pressure underneath main-flow streamlines of

lower total pressure. where u0 and v0 are the boundary-layer velocity
Reference 339 also discusses the problem of components in the well-known Blasius solution for
"three-dimensional separation" (i.e., separation of a uniform flow of velocity U0 over a flat plate.
the actual flow profile as distinguished from sep- The quantities u*, w*, and v* are the perturbation
aration of a single velocity-component profile that velocities on this basic boundary-layer flow.
may not indicate separation of the total flow) It can be seen that one of the flows considered
The reference shows that such three-dimensional in references 339 and 340 is a special case of the
separation does not occur, because the crossflow family of flows investigated here; for example,
prevents separation (in tile example presented) U*=0, W*=ax. This special case is worked out
by transporting fluid with high energy to the with the use of the perturbation analysis; and,
"critical" regions. in this instance, the perturbation analysis is
In addition to the research mentioned, there is equivalent to the type of analysis employed in
one other publication known to the authors that references 339 and 340.
includes detailed treatment of crossflow over fiat. By eonsi(lering a range of values of the exponents
plates, namely, reference 331. In this report a m, i, n, and k, the effect of various flow patterns
group of problems for which the mainstream flow on velocity profiles and boundary-layer displace-
Y
Vo+V_
layer growth on secondary-flow behavior. The
problem analyzed is that of a tlfick boundary-
layer flow over a fiat plate where the boundary
--_u 0 * u*, U0 +U* layer is subjected to a sudden lateral perturbation
caused either by a pressure gradient or a sudden
w*, W*
movement, of a part of the plate surface over which
the flow develops.
The analysis presented is a small-crossflow
perturbation analysis of the type employed in
x
reference 331. In obtaining solutions for bound-
ary-layer velocities, an approximate but rapid
edge i - method of solution is employed. This method is
Leoding
based on the assumption that the flow can be
considered to be composed of a nonviscous outer
region and a viscous inner region adjacent to the
FInURE 301.--Coordinate system for flow along semi- wall. In view of this assmnption, separate
infinite flat plate (ref. 331). solutions arc ot)tained for these two regions.
These solutions are then joined at a distance from
ment thickness is investigated at some length. the wall that is determined from the analysis.
As in references 339 and 340, certain rotational As most of the report is devoted to the develop-
flows give rise to boundary-layer velocities that ment of methods, only two simple applications
exceed mainstream values. The effects of angular are given. In the first, a boundary layer flowing
rotation of tile coordinate system and compressi- two-dimensionally front the leading edge of a
bility on crossflow velocities are briefly analyzed. plate encounters at some fixed distance from the
The results of the analysis of angular rotation are edge a surface moving laterally with a constant
applied to flow on surfaces of compressor blades. velocity. At a given distance front the edge of
It is concluded that, if the main flow deflects the moving surface, the crossflow velocity is a
toward the blade tip near the suction-surface side function of the Blasius similarity variable ,7.
and toward the hub near the pressure-surface side, Near the leading edge of the moving plate, these
then the effect of angular rotation is to increase functions have a steep slope, which indicates
the crossflow on the suction surface and decrease rapid rise of velocity front the plate surface to the
the crossflow on the pressure surface. main stream. Farther downstream, they ap-
The effect of compressibility is discussed for proach the well-known Blasius solution for flow
the flow defined by W*=ax and U*=bx. The over a flat plate with zero pressure gradient.
conclusion reached is that compressibility has the The second example given is the case of a thick
over-all effect of increasing the boundary-layer boundary layer which, at. a given reference line
perturbation velocities. parallel to the leading edge, encounters a pressure
Flow over flat plate with thick boundary layer.- field arising from a "parabolic" mainstream flow;
In the previous discussion of boundary-layer flow for example, a flow having a lateral velocity com-
over a fiat. plate, the boundary layer developed ponent that varies as the n th power of the distance
from a definite leading edge and was immediately front the fixed reference line. Solutions are
subjected to lateral pressure gradients that gave carried out for various values of these powers and
rise to secondary flows. For flow in turbomachine for various distances from the reference line.
configurations, this is usually not the case. Gen- Near the point where the pressure perturbation is
erally, the boundary layer develops for a distance first felt, the solutions indicate that the thick
in the absence of lateral pressure gradients before boundary layer develops greater crossflow veloci-
secondary flows develop. This is true, for ex- ties than in the case where the boundary develops
ample, in flow through the inlet of a channel or from the leading edge. It is possible in tiffs analy-
cascade or along the casing of a compressor sis to compare the sohltions obtained for flow
between blade rows. Reference 341 attempts to at a great distance from the reference line with
gain some insight into the effect of this boundary- the more exact solutions worked out in reference
331, for here the two theoretically must agree. also causes a strong crossflow from the corner
Progressively better agreement, results from taking region up onto the side of the wall.
larger values of the powers defining the main- Evaluation and conclusions.--Application of
stream lateral velocity. boundary-layer theory to the analysis of secondary
Boundary-layer flow in corners.--One of the flow in turbomachines has the advantage of
important problems mentioned earlier was that accounting for viscosity in the fluid and thereby
of analyzing secondary flows in the corner formed allowing the computation of secondary flows that
by the side of a channel or blade row and the end are principally the result of viscous action, for
wall of the flow passage. As outlined in the example, cross-channel flows. However, the ap-
experimental section of this report, a fair amount plication of the boundary-layer studies outlined
of information on boundary-layer behavior in in this chapter to compressor flows is severely
comers has been obtained in visualization studies. limited. For example, the theories in general have
Theoretically, however, the analysis of boundary- assumed steady, incompressible, laminar-bound-
layer behavior in corner re_ons is still in a very ary-layer flow. In compressor blade rows, such
preliminary stage of development. flows will be primarily unsteady, compressible,
Early analyses of flow in corner regions (e.g., and turbulent. (To date, of course, it has not
refs. 342 and 343) are generally confined to special been possible to give an adequate mathematical
cases in which there is no pressure gradient in tile treatment of flows of this type.) Furthermore,
main flow and the corner region is formed by the the present state of boundary-layer theory does
intersection of plane walls. Reference 331 con- not allow the ready computation of flows in the
siders flows over surfaces with very sharply presence of blade rows. Although some progress
varying lateral curvature (equivalent to a corner has been made in this direction (ref. 331), the
with a fillet). Perturbation assumptions of the computations of secondary flows arising from
type employed in the analysis of flow over a flat lateral pressure variations in the main stream are
plate in the same reference are employed in this principally confined to flows over surfaces that
case. In particular, the mainstream velocity is are essentially fiat.
considered to be the resultant of a constant In spite of these restrictions, several advantages
"axial" velocity and superimposed perturbation can be gained from present boundary-layer anal-
velocities of very small magnitude in the axial yses. As mentioned earlier, they can serve as the
and lateral directions. first step in a more comprehensive study of second-
The boundary-layer equations in reference 331 ary flows and can possibly be combined with
are solved numerically for two choices of main- analyses treating other aspects of the flow.
stream flow in a corner having a hyperbolic cross Secondly, they can be used in their present form
section. For the first flow analyzed, the axial to explain and interpret experimental findings in
perturbation velocity is assumed zero and the relatively simple flow configurations. (The "limit-
lateral perturbation velocity is assumed constant. ing crossflow" phenomenon found in both experi-
In the second case, the axial perturbation velocity mental and theoretical studies is an example.)
is again assumed zero, but tile lateral perturba- Finally, calculations of velocity-profile shapes and
tion velocity is assumed to vary as the first power basic parameters are useful in the application of
of the axial distance. Plots of velocity profiles more general theoretical treatments that presently
and deflections of the crossflow from the main- exist (such as the momentum-integral methods).
stream direction are presented. The results The determination of profile shapes, in fact, was
indicate that, for tile case of constant lateral one of the principal motivations for the analysis
perturbation velocity, the corner establishes a presented in reference 331.
crosswise pressure gradient that causes boundary-
CONCLUDING REMARKS
layer air to flow from the upper part of the wall
into the corner region. For the second example, The survey of experimental and theoretical
the results indicate that the external flow possesses research on secondary flows and three-dimensional
a crosswise pressure gradient before it reaches boundary-layer effects indicates in broad outline
tile corner and that this pressure gradient not the present, state of knowledge in this field. It is
only opposes the one established in the corner but evident from the work discussed that, at best,
only an elementary understanding of the basic In the past, for example, shrouding of blade rows
flow behavior has been achieved. has at times been advocated for the reduction of
The experimental work indicates how such losses in blade end regions (ref. 344). The tests
phenomena as flow disturbances caused by relative concerning relative motion between blade ends
motion between blade ends and annulus walls, and annulus wall, however, indicate that smaller
cross-channel and radial flows, and vortex forma- flow disturbances and better performance are
tion in blade passages may occur in simple com- likely to occur in unshrouded blade passages
pressor configurations. In a multistage unit, (with due regard for clearance, of course) than in
however, the pattern of flow is greatly complicated shrouded passages.
by the interaction of these effects and the influence Theoretical research on secondary flows and
of other compressor phenomena (e.g., rotating three-dimensional boundary-layer effects has been
stall) that have not been considered in conjunction severely handicapped by the mathematical com-
with these studies. The experimental studies, plexity associated with even the simplest types of
therefore, are best used as a guide for interpreting problems. It is probably sufficient to hope that
experimental findings in multistage compressors present theories can be used to predict "orders of
and as a basis for constructing more comprehensive magnitude" of various quantitative aspects of the
models of the actual flow behavior. With proper flow and to provide a better physical understand-
caution, however, the results can be used in their ing of the mechanisms that give rise to observable
present form to guide certain design considerations. flow patterns.
CHAPTER XVI
EFFECTS OF DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT ERRORS ON

COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE
By ROBERT J. JACKSON and PEC, GY L. YOHNER
Effects of de,_ign errors on compres._'or performance A means for estimating the error in a perform-
parameters and o] measuremez_t errors on calculated ance parameter due to an assumed error in a
values of performance parameters are analyzed. blade-element design variable or to an error in the
Formulas and charts are presented from which the inlet flow conditions is useful both to the com-
changes in blade-element performance and calcu- pressor designer and to the research worker.
lated parameters due to the design and measurement Therefore, an analysis of this problem was made,
errors can be determined. the results of which are presented in this chapter.
The z_e of the design-error charts during the From the available equations relating blade-
design calculations and in the analysis and interpre- element performance parameters to the design
tation of data is discw_sed. The charts can be w_ed variables, differential formulas were calculated
to evaluate the sensitivity of a given velocity diagram that relate a small change in a design variable to
to design errors and to determine whether iterations the consequent change in the performance pa-
of design calculations are warranted. To a limited rameter. Tim formulas are presented in this
extent, the uncertainty intervals in blade-element chapter in the form of carpet plots, and the
performance can be calculated from the charts. significant trends are discussed.
The mea,_urement-error charv can be employed An analysis of this type may be expected to
along with the procedure debriefed at the Gas Turbine indicate the degree of design control required for
Laboratory of the Massachwvetts In_titute of Tech- a given velocity diagram as evidenced by its
nology for the estimation of uncertainty intervals sensitivity to design errors. Among a group of
in calculated performance and can also be of assist- suitable design velocity diagrams, the analysis
ance in the e_,aluation of data and in the planning may show that one diagram is relatively insensitive
of instrumentation for research or development. to design errors, thus indicating that it would bc
INTRODUCTION the best choice for the design. The charts can
also be employed to determine, in certain cases,
The attainment of design rotor pressure ratio whether an iteration of the design calculations is
for an axial-flow-compressor stage depends upon warranted.
the correct prediction of blade-element turning The interpretation of experimental data re-
angle and loss, upon an accurate design distribu- quires some consideration of measurement errors.
tion radially of the local specific mass flow down- This problem is particularly relevant to the work
stream of the rotor, and upon the agreement of the researcher and also to the compressor
between the actual and design rotor-inlet flow designer, since correlations of design variables are
distribution. Rotor blade-element design errors based on experimental data, and compressor
can result from the approximate nature of available
developinent prograins depend Oil the interpreta-
design-data correlations, from blade manufacturing
tion and application of experimental data. Differ-
tolerances, and from the necessary simplifications
ential formulas were calculated that give the error
in the design equations. Discrepancies between
in a performance parameter caused by a measure-
the actual and design rotor-inlet flow distribution
ment error in one of the flow properties. These
can result from the foregoing types of design
errors in preceding blade rows. (The design vari- formulas are presented in this chapter in the form
ables and their sources of error are identified and of carpet plots. A method for combining the
discussed in the section ANALYTICAL APPROACH.) effects of several measurenient errors is outlined.
413
SYMBOLS set of small changes in x,, x_, . . . x, is given

The following symbols are used in this chapter: approximately by the following formula (ref. 345,
ell. IV) :
a speed of sound
D diffusion factor
H total or stagnation enthalpy A/=_/l_,,-_-_-_F 2A,2_... _----_A,. (394)
HM total enthalpy calculated from change
of moment, of momentum The n 'h term of formula (394),
h static enthalpy
M Mach number
P total or stagnation pressure A!.=_- AX. (395)
p static or stream pressure

R gas constant can be directlycalculated (foran assumed value
r radius of _,) and plotted as a function of the parameters
T total or stagnation temperature that fix the value of b!/bx,. This procedure is
U rotor speed used in the present chapter.
V air velocity The degree of approximation of formula (395)
/_ air angle, angle between air velocity depends upon the way ! varies with x, and upon
and axial direction, deg the magnitude of Ax,. The accuracy of the for-
ratio of specific heats mulas presented in this chapter for reasonable
_o deviation angle, angle between outlet- magnitudes of design errors was spot-checked by
air direction and tangent to blade means of sample calculations and plots. The
mean camber line at trailing edge, resultsof these calculationsare given in appendix
deg A of this chapter. These checks do not con-
_ adiabatic efficiency stitute a general proof of the accuracy of the
p density formulas, hut do verify their applicabilityfor
a solidity, ratio of chord to spacing certainconditions of flow and velocity diagram.
p, 2,1"d DESIGN ERRORS
_--1
fl quantity p_
A brief outline of the blade-element approach
total-pressure-loss coefficient to single-stage-compressor design follows in order
to clarify the application of formula (394) to the
Subscripts: analysis of design errors.
d design value For given design values of pressure ratio, mass
h hub flow, rotational speed, and tip diameter, the hub
/d ideal profile and the preliminary velocity diagrams are
l lower limit of uncertainty interval calculated by methods discussed in chapter VIII.
sys denotes systematic error These preliminary velocity diagrams determine
t tip approximate values of diffusion factor and other
u upper limit of uncertainty interval blade-loading and blade-configuration parameters.
g axial direction This information permits the estimation of the
0 station ahead of guide vanes or stators radial distribution of the relative total-pressure-
1 station at rotor inlet or stator exit loss coefficient _ (or _') for each blade row as
2 station at rotor exit discussed in chapter VII. The velocity-diagram
i . . . viii denotes variable in error calculations (including the radial-equilibrium cal-
culation) are then repeated in order to incorporate
Superscript: the effects of the loss estimation. Finally, the
indicates quantity relative to rotor methods of chapter VII can be employed for the
selection of blade-section cambers, incidence
ANALYTICAL APPROACH
angles, and deviation angles.
Consider a function of several variables ! (x,, The employment of blade elements in this
x2, . . . z,). The change in / caused by a given design procedure (as discussed in ch. III) requires
EFFECTS OF DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT ERRORS ON COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE 415
the estimation or calculation of the radii to each and it is denoted by parentheses around its identi-
blade element at the axial stations upstream and fying number.
downstream of the rotor. Thus, since rl is Some sources of errors in the variables are as
assigned by the designer, r2 is identified as a follows:
design variable. For a rotor, the design method
outlined in the preceding paragraph requires Design variable Some sources of error
predictions of relative stagnation-pressure loss

_' .............. (1) Accuracy of loss parameter and incidence-angle
(in terms of _') and of deviation angle. The correlation system (ch. VII)
radial-equilibrium calculation and the condition B_ .............. (2) Accuracy of deviation-angle correlation system
(3) Blade-fabrication tolera_nces
of continuity determine the values of axial
(pV.)_ ............ (4) Degree of simplification of radial-equilibrium
velocity or local specific mass flow downstream of equation
(it) Effects of errors in _' and B_ on radial-equilib-
the rotor for each blade element. Therefore, rium calculation
(6) Inaccurate allowance for wall boundary-layer
three additional design variables are _, _, and development
(pV_)_. (The local specific mass flow (pV_)_ was r2 .............. (7) Same as (4), (5), and (6) if r2 is calculated
(8) If r2 is assumed, error depends on degree of radial
found to be more convenient to use in this analysis shift in flow as gas crosses rotor
than the axial velocity Vz._.)

Errors in the design rotor-inlet flow distribution
The foregoing types of design errors in blade rows
can be caused by design or blade manufacturing
upstream of a given rotor contribute to discrep-
tolerances or errors in any of the upstream blade ancies between actual and design values of PI,
rows. At the design mass flow, these errors can _1, (pVz)_, and //1. For the inlet stage of a com-
lead to off-design values of rotor-inlet stagnation pressor, an additional source of such errors lies in
pressure P1, absolute air angle 81, local specific
the performance of the inlet diffuser section.
mass flow (pV,)1, and stagnation enthalpy HI.
A basic source of disagreement between actual
In summa .ry, then, the design variables for rotor
and design performance is contained in certain
blade elements are identified as P1, .81, (pV_)I, H1,
simplifications to the equations of motion as ap-
-5', _'2, (pV_)2, and r2. Instead of the general
plied to the blade-element design method (e.g.,
design variable P1, the loss parameter _ for the
the assumptions of axial symmetry and steady
adjacent upstream stationary blade row can be
flow). This source of error is not, amenable to
used. The agreement between the actual and
analytical investigation and is not, considered in
design values of a performance parameter (such
this chapter.
as P_) depends, within the limitations of the design
The design variables P_, t3_, (pV_)_, H1, _', B_',
system, on the agreement between the actual and
(pV,)_, and r2, in conjunction with known inlet
design values of these design variables.
conditions, determine the value of a compressor
In the following discussion, the foregoing design
blade-element performance parameter. For the
variables are identified by the lower-case Roman
purposes of this investigation, then, any of the
numerals i to viii as follows:
blade-element performance parameters can be
designated as a function of these eight design
variables:
I-V- t [ :[[P,, t_l, (pV,)_, 111, "_', fJ_, (pV_)2, r2] (396)
Formula (394) (the total differential of/) is

The symbol denoting the error in a performance
particularized as follows for application to the
parameter due to a design error in any one variable
analysis of design errors:
(assuming for the moment that all other variables
are correct) is identified by the appropriate lower- . ,
case Roman numeral subscript. For instance,
(,_H2/H2)I denotes the error in//2 due to an error
solely in P_. The stator (or guide-vane) loss
parameter _ is not an independent design variable;
an error in _ is one of many sources of error in P1, (394a)
416 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OFAXIAL-FLOW
COMPRESSORS
The partial-derivative coefficients of formula Formula (394b) can be written as follows:

(394a) can be calculated from the available blade-
element performance equations. Each individual
term ('\such as _ AP1) represents the contribution

Each term of formula (394c) represents the con-
to the total error in [ caused by a design error in
tribution to the relative error in I of an error in
one variable only (AP,, e.g.), with all other design
variables assumed correct. the particular design variable identified by the
subscript.
For the calculations and the plotting of the
Formula (394c) gives a value of relative error
results, it is convenient to make all terms of
formula (394a) dimensionless in order to reduce in 1 caused by a given set of errors in the design
variables. The only case for which a set of errors
the number of parameters determining the value
in design variables is known is the case of analysis
of each error term. Formula (394a) is modified
of experimental data. For this case, formuld
as follows:
(394c) can be applied to determine, at least ap-
A[ p_ i_[ Ap_ 1 i_[ (pV_)_ _)1 A(pVz)t proximately, what design errors may have caused
a measured discrepancy between the actual and
I [ _)P' P' F_ AB,+ [ _(oV,), (pV,),
design values of a performance parameter. This
use of the design-error charts is outlined in a later
section.
The estimation of a probable discrepancy
between the actual and design values of a per-
__ (pV,)2 O/ h(pV,): r2 i_[ Ar2 (394b) formance parameter requires that the design
l (pvz); (pvz) ,'5 errors be identified as either random errors or as
systematic errors. For the purposes of this inves-
For cases where a performance parameter is
tigation, random errors are defined as errors that
associated with axial station 2 ([_), any one of the
are unpredictably positive or negative. System-
first four terms might contain as many as eight
atic errors are predictable in sign, and in some
design variables. A degree of further simplifica-
cases an approximate estimate of their magnitudes
tion in the plotting of some of these formulas is
can be made. An example of a systematic design
achieved by the use of certain performance-
error is the error in local specific mass flow (or
parameter error terms as intermediate variables.
axial velocity) caused by neglect of the entropy
In certain cases the formula for one term of (394b)
gradient during the radial-equilibrium calculation.
takes the following form:
This type of design error depends on the design
flow distribution and the radial distribution of
blade losses.
/, / = Y[_ , 02, (oV .),, r21Z[P,, 0,, (pV .),, H, ] _J_1)1
The approximate nature of the available corre-
(397)
lations of design data (deviation angle and loss)
leads to random design errors. The actual causes
A formula for error in a performance parameter
of such discrepancies are not known; their influ-
associated with axiM station 1 might be
ence cannot, at present, be correlated with
the various combinations of velocity-diagram
parameters.
=Z[P,, ,, (oV.),, H,I (398)
For the analysis of random errors, an uncer-
tainty interval in a design variable can be esti-
In this ease, formula (397) can be expressed in
mated on the basis of past experience. An
terms of the intermediate variable _ as follows:
uncertainty interval in _, for instance, can be
defined as a finite interval in/31, such as B,. ,,--B1. z,
for which a definite statistical probability exists that
the value of 3, will lie. For example, if, for a design
value of B1----30 , 80 percent

of 31 for different
from
interval corresponding
of the actual values
design cases fall in the interval
31----29 to ilL=31 , then the uncertainty
to odds of 4 to 1 is 2 .
, (,)v
1.
The term _
t
zXBI=
11
represents the cor- 1_)2 I
+ \ //,,,,Jl
._(A/_2 (400)
responding uncertainty interwfl in/ due to that The second term of formula (400) constitutes the
in fll only. For the uncertainty interval in/ due
estimated corrections to the design value of/for
to the uncertainty intervals corresponding to the
the systematic design errors, and the last term
same odds in all the design variables, the second-
represents half the uncertainty interwfl in/due
power formula of reference 346 can be employed:
to the uncertainty intervals in each of the design
variables.
The eight terms of formula (394b) were calcu-
lated (where applicable) for each of the following
blade-element performance parameters: axial ve-
The uncertainty interwfl in/due to the uncer-
locities V_, 1 and V_. 2, relative stagnation enthalpies
tainty intervals in all of the design variables for
H'_ and II'2, stagnation enthalpy 112: stagnation
a given probability can be calculated approxi-
pressures P_ and P2, relative air angle fl'_, absolute
mately for a mean-radius condition only. The
reasons for this linfitation are given in the section air angle B_, and diffusion factor D. The stagna-
entitled USE OF DESIGN-ERROR CHARTS. As an tion pressure PI, which is one of the rotor design
variables, is a performance parameter only in the
example of the use of formula (399), uncertainty
intervals in _' and _ would be combined as fol- specialized sense that is affected by design errors
in stationary-blade-row loss parameter _. The
lows to give the correspon(ling interval in the
resulting formulas are presented in this report in
performance parameter/"
the form of carpet and lattice plots. For the
purpose of preparing the charts, unit errors were
assigned to the design variables (1 percent, 0.01,
or 1 , as applicable). The technique of preparing
plots of two or more independent parameters
If all the uncertainty intervals of the design (carpet and lattice plots) is discussed in reference
variables are estimated on the basis of the best 347.
available information so that the same odds (say The analysis was made for a rotor of any stage
b to 1) can be quoted that the value of each vari- of a compressor. The results are given for blade-
able will lie within its interval, then, according element performance parameters only; the esti-
to reference 348, statistical analysis shows that mation of uncertainty intervals in the radially
the odds will be b to 1 that the actual value of the averaged over-all performance of a stage is not
performance parameter / will fall within the discussed in this chapter. This problem in-
uncertainty interval given by formula (399). volves considerations of statistical and probability
The errors in axial velocity caused by neglect theory that are beyond the scope of the present
of the entropy gradient in the radial-equilibrium investigation.
calculation can be interpreted not as uncertainty MEASUREMENT ERRORS
intervals but as estimated corrections to the
For the analysis of measurement errors, formula
design values. An investigation of these errors
(394) assumes the following form:
(wherein the error is discussed in terms of axial
velocity rather than the local specific mass flow)
and a method of making the corrections are re-
ported in reference 49. These estimated correc-
tions and uncertainty intervals can be combined
as follows: +51 , i_[ D/ A32+_ AT2 (394d)
691-564 0-65--28
Formula (394d) can be applied directly only in

cases where, for a specific experiment, each of the
+ ]b_2Afl2 + On T2] (401)
error terms is known. This situation, of course,
is never realized. When the best methods of
Formula (401) is wdid only for the estimation
calibration are used, measurement errors are con- of uncertainty intervals due to random errors.
sidered as random errors and can only be estimated; That is, as the number of observations of each
thus, tile statistical approach outlined in the pre- variable appro'whes infinity, the mean of all obser-
ceding section was applied also to the analysis of vations should approach tile true value of the
measurement errors. The terms of formula (394d) variable.
are interpreted as uncertainty intervals for the
The error terms of forlnula (401) were calcu-
function I due to uncertainty intervals for the lated, and the results are presented in chart form
same prescribed odds in each variable. The unfor the following performance paranleters: pV,,
certainty interval in [ due to all the estiniated _', _, _', _,_, IIM. _, and D.
errors can be calculated from tile following formula
CALCULATION AND PRESENTATION OF
(in dimensionless form):
FORMULAS
In the following presentation, all formulas are
\II \I + designated by a lower-case

and a lower-case Roman
letter,
numeral.
a capital letter,
Tile letters
/1 \' /r, ,r,y d and m denote, respectively, the analysis of design

and measurement errors. The capital letter iden-
tifies the performance parameter under analysis,
and the lower-case Roman numeral identifies the
variable in error. The following tables provide
this identification:
Performance
parameter
Pl V,,t ll_ B_ I1_ V,., lh P2 is2
Formula A
Case d--Deslgn-error performance parameters
symbol
Case d--Design variables
Design 1 P_ or _ BI
(p V.)l ltl 7o' a_ (p V,)2 r_

_ _riable
Formula i i or (i) ii
numeral I -T- -T, - .
Case m--Measurement-error performance parameters The symbol for the error in the performance
parameter under consideration is given a sub-
Performance
parameter script to identify tile source of error. This sub-
(.0 V,) iS' _ "_' ,_o,_ llu .2 D
script is the lower case Roman numeral of the
Formula symbol
l -1-7--i-y I appropriate table.
D ESIGN-ERROR FORMULAS
Case m--Flow variables The design-error differential forinulas were

I calculated from tile following equations:
Flow variable
Pt Pt Tt iSt Pt P) TI $ t [
Formula
numeral
1 11 111 iv v vl vii viii
P 1 h0 _-_
I
V, 1----_,2
_ (Hi--hi) I/2 cos _81 (403)
(oV,),---- _/_'Y P' ( h, "_-:i-L (Hj--hl) "2 cos f_ (412)
-y-- 1 Ha \_)
H_=H, TU_--U,V,,I tan _1 (404)
1
, UI
tan O_=fy---tan _ (405) (H_--h2) 'n cos _; (413)
_/ Z, |
, 1 F(r2") 2 ll (406) _{H

H;=H'T2U_' L\_/-- d (414)
\P,/,,z \It,)
V,.2=4-_(H'_--h2) _/2 cos _ (407)
(Formula (411) was obtained from the form given
fr2_ 2 rT r2 V_ tan _'2-UIV_ i tan f_] in ref. 9 by rearranging terms.) Some of the
H2=H,+U; k_) -_' r-, '_
resulting differential formulas included terms that
(408) were considered sufficiently small that they couh|
be neglected. Two specific examples of the gen-
eral procedure used in deriving the differential
_=\_] ,,1--_'\P;]'d L --\_]] .if (409) formulas are presented in appendix B of this
chapter.
U1 -tan _ (410) The design-error formulas contain certain pa-
tan _2=r_ V_. 2
rameters that are presented in the form of carpet
and lattice plots. The formulas for these pa-
D--I+_--- sin f_: ( 1+-_-sinO'2) V_.2_cosO:
V,._cosO_' (411) rameters are as follows:
2t
(415)
"y--I (M,'.)' El ("Yl /_,), (fig. 302)
2 1+_ (M_') 2 k --\_/_] cs_ O;(tan O_+tan
_' 1-- 1+ (M;) _

{ [ _._ ] },.t__
"t 1
pl
I v _ (416)
P_
{ H_'v':-' -, --- (fig. 303)
k.N) --oo I-- I-{-_ (M;) _ "-'
The following differential formulas were obtained from the analysis of errors in design variables:
'_ I--(I+_-_ M_) "-'
_-_/_')-- 1--_ [I--(I +'Y2

--_I M_o) -T_-i-_] A_ (fig.(dA-(i))304)
AV, ,'_ 1 hp, (dB-i)

_/, 1--M_, P, (fig. 305(a))
(dB-ii)
AV, ,'_ _rM_ tan O, h/3,
T,_I],- 180(1--M_) (fig. 305(b))
(AV_ 1) 1 A(pV,), (dB-iii)

_,,,, 1-11t/,2 (pV,),
(fig. 305(a), substitute oV, for P, multiply result by -- I )
420 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOV COMPRESSORS
--;2 x (dB-iv)
(AVz l') 1 1M2 AH_
(fig. 305(c))
=--('r-- 1) 211_sin /_, cos B,(tan _,+tan B;) (,_V,.1"_ (dC-i, iii)
\ H1 It ,11 \ Ill
1-t-Z-_ M_ cos _ B, sec _/81 (fig. 306 (a))
z
AH_'_ _ _r(_,--1)M_(scc = _,--M_) cos = B,(tan B,+tan _'_) ABI (dC-ii)

H_],,-- 1S0(1--3I_) (1A-Y--_ M': cos 2/3, sec a/_;) (fig. 306(b))
AH['_ 1+Z_ M_
"_]"--(1+72--_1 M: cos' _t sec 2 _:)<I--M:)
Xrl--M: cos 2BL(1--tan BI tan _)

__ _ (dC-iv)
L I+_,__IM _ sin B, cos B,(tan /_,+tan /_) 5Hi
(fig. 306(c))
(dD-i, iii, iv)

180 (,SV. ,)
=---- cos 2 f_;(tan fl,+tan f,) \_/, u, ,v (fig. 307(a))
(dD-ii)
(ASs;),,-- cs2 _ 1 + sin 1_,cos B,(tan B,+tan _'_)] AO,
('OS 2 _ (fig. 307(b))
AH;'_ _H;/%H;'_ (dE-i-iv)

(No fig. necessary)
(AH_) _i,,= (7-- 1) (M_) _ cos 2 O's(tan _2+tan _,')2 Ar2 (dE-viii)
1+2_ _ (M,)2 r= (fig. 308)
(dF-i)
1 1+2 (M,), /,AH;_-_--I 1 zXP.
(fig. 309 (a))
"),--1 1--(M;) 2 \-_-_,/l 1--(M;) 2 P,
(dF-ii, iii)
('AV,.,_ = 1 l+T2---_l--(M;)' (AH;'_
/. V:a/,ciu y--1 1--(M') = _'. _, ]2 , ill (fig. 309(b))
! Jil
(dF-iv)
(fig. 309(c))
\_/,v=(-_--l)[1--(M_') _] H, (y--1)[I--(M'_) 21 _- l.
AV, _'_ f_ (dF-v)

_]_--_'[1--_M;)_] A_' (fig. 309(d))
_(M_)*
tan _,=
_A_' _,= (dF-vi)
180[1-- (M_)21
(fig. 305(b), substitute M_, 0_'for M_, B_, respectively)
AV_.2"_ _-- 1 A(pV_)2 (dF-vii)

Vz.2/vn 1--(M_') 2 (pV,)2
(fig. 305(a), substitute M_, (pVz)2 for M1, PI, respectively, multiply result by --1)
(AV_ 2"_ 1 (dF-viii)

_)v,,,--(_'--l/['2-(M_') 2] {7._[1+Z _ (21I_/[] } {A//2_
\ 2/_., (fig. 309 (e))
/aH_\ (a H'2"_ (av,.=') (dG-i, iv)

k--_-;),.,_=_ \-H;/,.,_+_ ,, v_._ ,,.,.
where
1+ (M_') 2
(417)
I+Z_ (M_)2 cos 2 _'2see 2 & (fig. 310(a))
and
(_.--1)(M_) _ sin fl'2cos fl'2(tan B2+tan fl_) (418)
_=
1+Z___ (M_)_ cos _t_; sec 2& (fig. 310(b))
all2) _ 1+7@ 1. (M_) 2 X[14 (M'2P sin f_2cos

, f2(tan 22+tan /_'2)"] (AH;'_
-_-
\ H2 ].. m
H2/. ,. 1q-_ (]I_r'_)
2 cos 2/32see 2 f12 1- (M'2)2
(dG-ii, iii)
(fig. 311)
(dG-v, vii)
-H-7_
]_.,,,= _ V_._/_. _,, (No fig. necessary)
7r(__l)(M;F[sec _ f12--(M2)
, , 2] cos 2 B'2(tan/_____tan fl_) aft'2 (dG-vi)
180[ 1-- (M'2)2][1+_-_ (M_)2 cos_ f: see' _2_
(fig. 306(b), substitute M_, _, _2 for M_, fh, fl'_, respectively)
(dG-viii)
"_ ),,m ='_ r_ \V,.2/,m
where
(v--1)(M'_) 2 cos 2 _'2(tan/_+tan B_)(2 tan &+tan fi'2) (419)
1q_t__ (_1I_)_cos _ _ see 2 & (fig. 3_0(c))
(dH-i)
(No fig. necessary)
(aP,'_ _ v [hn,_ (dH-ii, iii, vi-viii)

(No fig. necessary)
AP,_ v F{,_H2"_ all17 (dH-iv)

-G-_],,=_:-/L\-H-7],v--H-7, __
(No fig. necessary)
422 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL=FLOW COMPRESSORS
--(M2) 14 .(aV,.2") (dH-v)

Ill , 2 _(M'2) 2 sin 8_ cos 8_(tan 82+tan 8'2) ,,_-_. 2 _"v (fig. 312)
1+'t2_ (M;) _ _os_ _; sec 2 _2
.... 180 cos 2/_2(tan _2+tan /_) (_) (dJ-i-v, vii)
(fig. 307(a), substitute _2,/_, V_.2 for B_, t_,, V_. _, respectively)
(A&)v,= cs_[
cos_ (M_')2 2 sin _ cos/_(tal_
14 I_(M_) B2+tan B'2)] A_' (dJ-vi)
(fig. 307(b), substitute M, ....

2,/_2,/_2 for/11_, f_, B_, respectively)
(Ate2) rill--
----180
rr cos _ B_(tan f_2+tan/_') [ 1-_ 1_(214_)
(M_') 2 2 cos 2 B_(tan _+tan f_)2 ] Ar____2
r2 (dJ-viii)
(fig. 313)
(dK-i-iv)
(aD),_,v=h(at_,),_,v+r \V_,_'_ _/,-,v
where
A 1 r (420)
2a cos _,+_I--D) tan B'_ (fig. 314(a))
and
(421)
F=--[_+(1--D)] (fig. 314(b))
(dK-v, vii, viii)

(AV, 2)
(aD)v. ,,. v., = F "._" v, v.. v,. (No fig. necessary)
(dK-vi)
w77.,
V2 1 +-_- a 1 -- (M',.) 2 4- _2 (fig. 315)
MEASUREMENT-ERROR FORMULAS
convenience in writing, some of the functions are
Measured quantities include the rotational given in terms of absolute velocity V):
speed, the inlet pressure and temperature, and * I" v-t'l_
the following flow properties: static pressure p, V - [- 23, "3_
stagnation pressure P, absolute air angle _, and '--L('_--%RTJ p j cos,
stagnation temperature T. In the following (412a)
table, the calculated performance parameters

tan B' :={ 7-- 1 _ U tan t_ (405a)
are listed in the left colunm, and the flow prop- f= v-i'1
erties of which they are explicit functions are
listed in the right column:
Pc-- Pl (402a)
P0-- Pc
p, P, T,
SY" p, P, T,
Pe, Po, Pt P2
Pb Pb T_,B_, P), T_
)lad P_, T_, P_, T_
pl, P_, Tt, _t, p_, P_, T_, B_
1 P_
7
Pt, Pt, Tt,Bt, p_, P_, T_,B_
p, (T2"_ _-x
00 t--
The equations for the performance parameters

P_ { Hi
in the foregoing table, as explicit functions of the 1 p_ k,H_ + U_--U1V_ sin

measured flow properties, are as follows (for (409a)
,.4
9
O
I
5_
_5
(D O
-- -- 0 0 0 0
- ]_ ..... ......... III ...................................................................................................... _HH_;IIIIIHH_III1]I
Ta _................ _,.,- _H_m _H.,-,: _ _l:m:_q:n:_ ._._ LL,_- __j_ ...........

mrrH-H.5, _:_'_',,",.",',',',
'_:m _',!!!!iRfi_! !!!!H!!!!!,,T!iiiii H!!!!!! !HRijiHii {iiii ii iPir_Giiti:P_14i4__ _
-21TITFI_-!! !!!'!_ii_!!:!!! . il]i!!!!!!-h!!!!!!!!!!!iiii:'_iiii!!!!!!!!!i',',:'.:;'.i',',[ "_ ilh:'.',',',:_i_,mmm
" u _mH+ _ ," u',',',',:m',u,i_i_:',:',',',_:u',',u_il !;1 U+H+ H-H'_',u_, LL_ILL:_tlI1_II_H
Ittl [ II ',',I_ ',',HHIIII H ','.J',I,"_HI IIHIHHil i '.','.P.',',',','.I',',I H '.',H IH I_I II III H IH-H+H-H'HII Ill I H II ',',III ',I I_f H-flJI ...... H,,[ .......................
_ ,,,"A_,,,,,,":tt_th"_11_
............................................................................................................
,,_,,,tH,,,"_ "i J!l!t_,,m,,!_ttl:l_'_klH_l_Hii 1"- ___fi____'"""'"""":""";'""_:"l"":"'"'_"::"""""'"l"
....
liiiiiiiii!i i i_'.'iii iii ill i:'.'.'.
!!i_i i',::_:',,',_m ',iii,: :,t____!!,_ iillt iiii !!!!! !!.%m!,,,,..H_.fi_
'" "" ............. ......................... ',H' __.. _H_HI_ H IN.;,I',:........... _ . ',I',IIH

_- ' " HH+H+H ................... _i ...................... _ _PFH-H+H" F H IH_ 1
...... ,,,, ,H, ...... HHN'''''[ t . .
........................ HI" .' h',',' p4 _H;_'I_-lllll,',lllll,:L'llll,

I___._I_,N_.,"_'_t_'_,_t_'_
_Ir_|_,.-h,.,.,.._h,_+P_kh_-;.-r,_H,'H
ilH!ih:_!l-,,,,,,;:,,.,,..,,_,,_:,,
_._','.',',:',',',',:',::::',_',".',,iii',_',',',:',iiii!l!'!!!!!!!!!!,,,
"7 i._2_'"_''*_'h'.:r_, "
_, 4_+_
,',',',;.................................. ,,;,,,,:,,,,m:_,,_..,,.,,,.,.,;.'',:',: I',..... ::',_ ;" _f__
-. ltlt',V,'T;',I ','.',',',',; [',',?,_ """_i iii_._.`.'_`.'`'.`;_,_;'.'.'.'.'_:_:i':`_.'.'.':_.':.'v.:_._.:``.'_'_.'_.,_
H_H_Hth]'[LIE[ ',H[IIIliI',_IIIlI',IIHII
i',i li iiiiii ii!! !!i',iIHI!I_
Hill_iii_!_ _h::!riLliill i!!!iiiiii! !_Jii iilll !!!!!Hii ri'ii ',,_!__m !_t_4___
U I " ][lllll _ Illil II11'''] "111111 I [ill [] []1[I [' II I I I I ' [ I'I "I_[':TI'T'[] [ .........
t+PH-Ht I ] II f. I ...................... ....................................................... : ...................... "' '- - , ..........
-5
Fmu_E 304.--Effect of design error in stagnation-pressure-loss parameter on stagnalion pressure [eq. (dA-d))].
.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7
Absolute Moch number, M I
(a) Stagnation pressure (eq, (dB-i)).
Fmvas 305.--Effect of design errors on axial velocity upstream of rotor.

14
_i deg
I0
(b) Absolute air angle (eq. (dB-ii)).
FIGVR_. 305.--Continued. Effect of design errors on axial velocity upstream of rotor.

<-I::l_|_tu.__qJiiiiii] iiiiiiiiiiiiJJ!iiJ JJiiiii!iii!!iiJ! !JJ!!!i!HJiHiJiiiiJiiJiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiJiii'ii'Fi"iiiiil!i!Jiiii!liii!iJ!iJi!Jiii i Jiiiiiiiiiiiii'i'iiiii i iiiliii iiii!JiJiJ!i!J

hr f fit4_fH411!i ,'1_!I H H JH H I_II i H ;I H H H H ; H I I H H H I H H+i-N.t-_t H HH I ', ','.',H H H', H H H._ H H H H ',H I H P,H'.N H',[4-14d ; H H H H ',P, H H i H 1P, H H H _IH H P. H'.] I',III'.'.] H."
f7_
k_+i,
_T4 t_+f+_ K_D I_ ii HHffHt[i',iiiiiii',_i
JiiJiiiililll ill ifill illill iiii!!!! !!!!!!!!!!:!!!t;,ilJ]iiiiiiiiiilHililiFiill ill iiill i!!!!! !!!! !!!!!!!!!iii iiii ill if ill ill ill iiilll iiii ili
4 _, ' ' [] Fill i F_i i ',H+'r_IfH_t. N'_ H i',.
:I', ',l', H l',t I_', i tl',t U,II _ l ',',',U,',_ F,F,',',I',
= f _ + _ u_"'H 'HH''' : '"" H'-tfff ........... _H]HH',',I',',V, Ei',',IU,',',H',',H',',I[',',',[',II', |

,_i.! i!.-+ __Itt_if_,cmccictlc_mci__t: u__',m ',. ',',u,....,,m_ u..,_4H_4,._4_,
m u,!fill if ill ill ii iiiiiiiiiii!lil i:-:
E E
',, .' ................. t ft H t +H-H+fH++t 4+H-'H-H+f H+_ ..................................................................
liii;.t_.:_
Lt_:_-_
_ fH_f tfH+H l+f +HffH_t+Hf+t+tfl+f 'P_'''''H'''_['d_H_H_HH_H_HH_HH']VJ''_:''_'HH_dH_HHHH_LH-_
i :- , 'I ............ !,,,l,llHllll;_ll]lllllllililllill,lp, lllll;HHllHllHlll,dl,,l,,illp, llllllllI_ H- ...... ;li',HllHllllilli',lll_PJ,_j
09 '_ I-__ _fl_ Ht H_'H f++_f_ H HH4-Hq { U, ',_i H [ i ',] I I ',UJA ',U, ',', '," H I ', ',',', ',I 11 ',i I I I I I ',H H i IHllllltllill II Hi',IIIII II',I itill IIIII',HII tll ll H I',IIII H'_ H_
_ .............. ]I [IN I tH+ffi f[ I I] I [ H ] i llll I I i I I II i ] I ', ] _ 11 ] ] I, _ ] _ II I _ _I ', I _1 ] i II ', ', ', ', ] ', ', ', ', ] II II II _ 'I II ] 'l II II 'l II I, II II II 1[ 1, _ i ; I ] I i I I ] I 1, I II Ill ;III III ;III [It ] l lll'rll lll]lllll'dll HI _lll]_[it}_t
7 _ i I': .......... ;................................................................................................... U,H',H";',I',PJ,]:IF,;[P,',[',E;E','J,2?P,_:',;I]',;'.
,,0 .I .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
Absolute Moch number MI
(c)' Stagnation enthalpy (eq. (dB-iv)).
FIGvaE 305.--Concluded. Effect of design errors on axial velocity upstream of rotor.
-, (317)
T_
HM, 2=Ht+U2V_ sin #_--U_Vi sin _; (408a)
{U_+2 V =2-2U2V2 sin [_2_I/2__UI-UU_2-_-V2 sin fl2--V, sin _,

D:I-- \U_+V_I_2U,V ' sin ill/ _--2U_V,, s_ _,)'/_ (411a)
The analysis of measurement errors yielded the following formulas, which give the relative un-
certainty interval in a performance parameter due to the corresponding uncertainty interval in the
measurement of one flow property:
[A(pV_)7 1 (mA-i, v)
--_V_Zj,., =Tr (1-_) sp-p- (fig. 316(a))
(mA-ii, vi)
FA(oV,)] ___(1_+7--1) pAP (fig. 316(b))
A(pV_)-] 1 AT (mA-iii, vii)

_J,l,. ,,,=--2 T- (No fig. necessary)
(mA-iv, viii)
F A(pV')'] --------tan t_h3
L._J,,.. ,.,,, 180 (fig. 316(c))
180 cos _ O'(tan 0-f-tan fY) Ap (roB-i, v)

(AB'),.,=-_- vM _ _- (fig. 317(a))
180 cos _ tY(tan /3+tan 3') AP

(_fl'),,.,,= ---- (m B-ii, vi)
r 7M 2 P
(fig. 317(a), prefix minus sign to result, substitute P for p)
, 90 cos _ 3'(t, an 3+tan

(_3),,.,,=---- tY) AT (mB-iii, vii)
_r -T- (fig. 317(b))
C)
I *z/I ul _o_Ja %1 Jo_l ,I/_/ u_ JOJJa _ua3Jad

EFFECTS OF DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT ERRORS ON COMPRESSOR PERFORS, IANCE 429
o (xl (.D r'.- CO

i p n i i i i
I_ ul JoJ_a ol JoJ. ,1H u_ JoJ_a luaaJa d

_9
e,
a) ,'_
5 _
z_
-g
O
_5
r_
o G0 c,d
i i
J/.-/ ut JoJJa %1 Jo# IH u! JOJJ_ #uaoJ_ d

(a) Stagnation pressure, local specific mass flow, or stagnation enthalpy (eq. (dD-i,iii,ivl)
FIGURE 307.--Effect of design errors on relative air angle.
(Aft)l,.vnl----eos
!
2 fl'(1--tan fl tan fl')Afl (roB-iv, viii)
(fig. 317(c))
_1
(A_)li=--F _ _ p,
API (mC-ii)
[1--(1+_ M_) *-_ (fig. 318)
(A_').=_ API (m D-ii)

p_ (fig. 319)
(a_')m= 3' _' AT1 (mD-iii)

3"--1 _ T_
(fig. 319, multiply result by ___Z__, substitute T_ for P1)

_,--1
'4
B
f.
& =
I
_z
o CO
EFFECTS OF DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT ERRORS ON COMPRESSOI_ PERFORMANCE 433
.-L
>
I
ca
ca
>
ca
ca
_3
ca
e_
*d
I
o0
o
CM C) CO _ _ t'_
;_j ul _oJJa %1 JoJ _,H ul ,J0JJa lUa3_a d
691-564 0-65-29
ii ii II
ii ii
II
II
il II
II
ii:i!
ii_ii
ii
IIIII
IIIII
llill
IIIII
IIIII
llill
!!!!F
iii___
III
ill
IIIl[
lllll
III
III
II|ll
I1|
Ill
III
I1|
I1|11
!!!_f
[11
H4_
_IIi
l|
44
ii
(a) Stagnation pressure (eq. (dF-i)).
Fioua_. 309.--Effect of design errors on axial velocity downstream of rotor.

-2
.I .2 .5 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8
Relotive Moch number M;;
(b) Absolute air angle or local specific mass flow (eq. (dF-ii, iii)).
FXGURE 309.--Continued. Effect of design errors on axial velocity downstream of rotor.
_' hP2 (m D-vi)

(AS')" fl P2
(fig. 319, prefix minus sign to result, substitute P2 for P_)
(A_') _H:_'_ 1 _'_2AT21,2

(roD-vii)
, substitute T2 for P_)

(fig. 319, multiply result by
-y--1
(A_,a)11=-- "y--1 TM _]
3,--1
AP_ (m E-ii)
(P2"_-- 1 P_ (fig. 320(a))
\F,,] -
_ _ AT_ (mE-ill)
(A_)m=_ T, (fig. 320(b))
--_1
T,
(c) Stagnation enthalpy (eq. (dF-iv)).
FmuaE 309.--Continued. Effect of design errors on axial velocity downstream of rotor.

..--4
Z_ o
T_ ._
e-
0
CO
(e) Radius to blade element (eq. (dF-viii)).
FIGURE 309.--Concluded. Effect of design errors on axial velocity downstream of rotor.
(p,), (mE-vi)
,-1 P2
3" (p,'_--7-__ 1
\P1]
(fig. 320(a), multiply result by --1, substitute AP2/P, for APdP_)
T2
_ aT2
(A,/_).. = 7'2 T2 (mE-vii)
T,
(fig. 320(b), prefix minus sign to result, substitute AT2/T2 for ATJTt)
\-_],--(AHM'_'_ 3"--17 sin BlcosB,(tan_l+tanB'_)_.

1 Apl (mF-i)
1+_-_ A _ P_ (fig. 321(a))
AHM. 2"_ __ 3'--1 sin B1 cos f_l(tan Bl+tan f_',) API

H, ],,
3" 1 +3"--12_ M_ P' (mF-ii)
(fig. 321(a), prefix minus sign to result, substitute P_ for p_)

1.2
-.2
-.4
-.5
1.6
t.2
.8
.4
(a) Factor _b (eqs. (dG-i, iv) and (417)).
(b) Factor _b (eqs. (dG-i, iv) and (418)).
(c) Factor _ (eqs. (dG-viii) and (419)).
FIGURE 310.--Factors _b, _, and _ as functions of relative Mach number, relative air angle, and absolute air angle.
:3
I
G
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I.
CO (D tO ,_" t_ t"d 0
_/-/ u_ JoJJa %1 Jo_. _H u_ JoJJa #uaoJad

EFFECTS OF DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT ERRORS ON CO.MPRESSOR PERFORMANCE 441
,_I ....:i]
....!_: =*:_ iii iiili]l! ii!"'
!il ii! _: :_=
iil _1i:..... ::!

;:: T:
_: " 2 21
..... ]i
!:r- !7
'"_ 7, H!;!iHii:
]!i
]] !] I_: :i! I:: !=
: I{: ii; ::2 i:
i :i != !H x: !: o
. .. :x I1!
' ::: ii
T i! ,,
' !!i!11!i!I
]_ :]i i: 31 ": ti_ o
X =i !i]H ;iiii
2i ",
_i] v!!_ iii ]ii ii X

T;i
_ !il
!iTill
i;i
ii_ !il
, !iili!
1ii
:_
iZ
I!!'_ iii iii i!: ii_i

-- i=:
::t :;; ii[
!ii ili _, :i i!i 2
!!i I_:
":;T
il ii :.: !!i
li} ::ili i?i :!:
f]] i ....
_+. i,s i!! ,: _ii :i:
2
I
f_
]il '" ill ;_:
_I_
r, r_
]!! ;!i _ ;rt

M,
.... !il ill I:=i Hi :_I
I:; i_[ ;]i ;_ilIHI :

O o,.J _ 0
T --
_c/ u_ Jo;Ja luaDJ0 d

&
v
r_
_J u_ _o_Ja %1 Joj 'Sap '_' ud JoJJ3

..
v
c.,
Z_
..,
c_
C)
C)
I
4
o
EFFECTS
OFDESIGN
ANDMEASUREMENT
ERRORS
ONCOMPRESSOR
PERFORMANCE445
-g
=
o
I.
_,AI,IA x'_d uq Jo.IJa ol Jot (7 u! JoJJ 3

_'--1 M_ sin fll cos _l(tan Bl+tan t_',)] ATl

2 -- (mF-iii)
l+_t2_l M? J TI
(fig. 321(c), substitute subscript 1 for 2 and subtract from 1)
lr(_-- 1)M_ cos 2 BI (tail B1+ tan/_j) A_1 (mF-iv)
180 (l+_/I.I_) (fig. 32l (b))
(_HM. 2) _'--1 sin _2cos B2(tan _2+tan 8'2) Ap2 (InF-v)

HM, 2/_ _ 1 -k-Z_ M_ p2
(fig. 321(a), substitute subscript 2 for 1 and prefix minus sign)
AHM, 2"] _--1 sin 5, cOS _2(tan _2+tan 0'2) AP2 (mF-vi)
(fig. 321(a), substitute subscript 2 for 1, and P_ for P0
AHM..2"] =_'--1 M_ sin 02 cos B2(tan t_2+tan t_'_)_T2 (mF-vii)

HM. 2Jv. 2 1+___ T_ (fig. 321(c))
(5HM._) _Tr(_,--1)M_ cos 2 B_(tan 5,+tan/_)

H_.2/,,,, 180 (1 +Z_ 211_) A02 (n_-viii)
(fig. 321(b), substitute subseripl 2 for 1 and multiply result by -y_)
M12 (SaO), cs2O'*[9sl3_(tan_+tanO'l)--(_+l--D)(1--tanB'tan"")]

Ap_'Y 2a _ .(mG-i)
(fig.' 322 ($))
M,2(AD). cos_t_'l cos _(tan f_+tan 0'1) +I--D (1--tan 01 tan t_',) PI
_, 2a
(mO-ii_
(fig. 322(a), prefix minus sign to result, substitute P, for p0
(aD)., = -- es2
-- 2 _'_[es/_'(tan 2a_1-}-tan \ 2a
_'_)--(sin/_-k- 1--D ) (1--tan _1tan/_'1) ] AT_T1
(mO-iii)
(fig. 322(a), multiply result by --_/2, substitute T_ qor P0
(AD),v=--_ _r cos_f_'l [cos ffl(1--tan2a f_ tan/_) +(sin/_'1

_--a +I--D ) (tan O_+tan /_',) ] hO_
(raG-iv)
(fag. 322(b))
M]V'I_-_ (AD)_-- cos: _' _( 1+ sin (1--tan /_2 tan /_'_)----

V_ _ -Sg-__'_
/ cos2a_ (tan _:+tan _)
(mG--v)
f
0
c
_v -2 +lllilrl_rTTYTrf
tlflff +tDlf_t
FfIII/tlTP]TT]_T
-4
el. ?ftff_l_
c
ihgl_#i+II
f_!l+T!!!!!!_!t
c _.,IH H[r]r][r
<D
a_ -8
IO
_c 4
O9
!_,tlt:f 1_ !++IH'-
2
o3 .4 .5 .6 .7
Absolute Moch number,
I0 20 30 40 50 80
Absolute a_r angle, ,8, deg
(a) Static pressure (eq. (mA-i, v)).
(b) Stagnation pressure (eq. (mA-ii, vi)).
(c) Absolute air angle (eq. (mA-iv, viii)).
Fl_slt_ 316.--Effect of measurement errors on calculated value of local specific mass flow.
_9
.-4 >
g
M
I
b:
g
r_
_J
:3
:=_
"T .9
.d
_g
:2
691-564 0-65-30
c-
o
u_ Jo_aol Joj 'Sap ',_ u! JoJ_3

-.02
FIGURE 3lB.--Effect of measurement error in stagnation pressure on calculated value of absohlte stagnation-pressure-loss
parameter (eq. (mC-ii)).
M] V'I (AD)v,--
V_ cs2/_ 1+_ (1--tan 22 tan/3_) cos B_ (tan _2+tan f_') AP2
_' 2_ P2 (mG-vi)
(fig. 322(c), prefix minus sign to result, substitute P2 for Pz)
cs2 _ 1+ (1--tan/_ tan f_) cos _'2(tan _z+tan _'_)

2 2a 0nG-vii)
(fig. 322(c), multiply result by --'y/2, substitute T2 for pz)
V_z (AD)_"=IS0 _r cos_/_'2 [( 1+_--sin f_) (tan/_2+tan t_)+ cs2_B_' (1--tan f_2 tan _') ] A_2 (raG-viii)
(fig. 322 (d)
The measurement-error formulas give the effects same situation prevails for measurements of T2
of independent measurement errors. For in- that depend upon T_.
stance, formula (mE-ii) gives the error in calcu-
READING OF CARPET PLOTS
lated value of blade-element efficiency due to a
measurement error solely in P1. However, in As discussed in reference 347, carpet and lattice
many experimental compressors, the measured plots permit the charting of two or three inde-
value of P2 depends on the measured value of 1'1, pendent variables and provide a means for inter-
such as when P2 is obtained by adding a measured polation among these variables. A fourth variable
pressure rise to the value of PI. For such cases can also be charted b3_ the use of an ordinate scale
AP2=AP,, and the effects of AP_ on _' and n_d that is a function of the dependent variable and
become quite small because of the similarity, ex- the fourth independent w_riable. An example of a
cept for sign, of the -ii and -vi formulas. The four-variable chart is figure 302, the plot of the
.16
.-+_
.12
Q--
c
4-
8 .08
i3
C
L_J
-F
.O4
4-
4-
i
1
: i
FIGURE 319.--Effect of measurement error in stagnation pressure on calculated value of relative stagnation-pressure-loss
parameter (eq. (mD-ii)).
formula for relative stagnation enthalpy ratio of 82 and /_'2 as follows: It will be observed that
(formula (415)), for which the independent vari- each curve, in effect, has its own abscissa scale.
ables are 8_, 8'2, M'_, and r2/rl. The chart consists of On each of the cuiwes for constant ff_, the given
nine carpets in _2 and 8_, each of which corre- value of ;3_ can be located; a curve sketched
sponds to a given value of 111'2 and _2/r, The through these points will yield a curve for varying
carpets for different values of 51'5 are displaced 8_' at the given value of _, whereupon the desired
horizontally by distances proportional to the point on each carpet can be located. Appropri-
changes in M'2, thus forming three lattices for ate points on the nine carpets are then connected
three values of r2/r_. In order to provide a by curves so as to form three curves of varying
means for interpolation of r2/rl, these lattices are 11//_, each having its own constant value of r2/r_.
displaced horizontally by distances proportional The three points corresponding to the given 31'.,
to the changes in r2/_. It is then necessary, for are then located. This is done by marking off a
clear reading of the charts, to displace the lattices proportional horizontal distance along each curve
vertically and to incorporate r2/r_ into the ordinate from a known reference point. The three points
function. A value of H'_/HI for given values of thus obtained determine a curve of given 82, _.',,
p p
82, f12, 1_12, and r_/rl is obtained in principle from __I_, and wtrying r2/r_. It will be noted that the
the chart as follows (in practice, many of the carpets are staggered horizontally two major
steps illustrated here can be omitted) : grid divisions for a change of 0.2 in r2/r_; there-
The first step is to locate on each of the nine fore, the point corresponding to the given r2/r_
carpets a point corresponding to the given values can be located and the value of the ordinate scale
(a) Stagnation pressure (eq. (mE-ii)).
(b) Stagnation temperature (eq. (mE-iii)).
FXGUaE 320.--Effect of measurement errors on calculated value of blade-element efficiency.

I.
c) (:0 c',J
i i
Ig u* JoJJa ol _o_ (IH

_o % so) z'_H u_ JoJJ3
" ,2
.-g
I.

D f-q o9 0
rr) 0d od (%J -- -- 0 0
Ul JOJJa %1 JO_ Z "_/-/ Ul ._OJ_a lUa::)Ja d

;>
{9
I.
o*J
P
-u
_9
2_
9
E
-5
I
_q
5"q
O o (xI
o 0 0 0
Id Ul J0J,_a ol J0_ (g_'O-g)9LO- (UV)

O
..4
:_
;> t >
_ _
&'-" N
e_
_._ _
o
o o o
o o 0
obtained. Tile final step is to equate this value read froln tile charts. For each case, an ar-
to the ordinate function (II'2/tI_)+[(r2/rl)--0.9] bitrary assumption of 1-percent error in independ-
and solve for H_/It_. ent variable was made (except that the assumed
The foregoing procedure appears to be laborious, error in flow angle was 1 o and t}lat in 5 or _' was
but in practice not all tile various points need
0.01). Design errors in V_.,, fi',, V_.2, H2, P_, f_2,
actually to be joined by curves; the interpola-
and D, and measurement errors in pV_, _', _', v_d,
tions can be made by an appropriate placing of
ttM, and D were obtained as follows:
French curves or splines on the charts and the
desired points located directly. The work in-
I)esign errors, case number
volved is, of course, much greater for tile four- Error term
variable charts than for tile three- or two-variable l(a) 1(b) 2(a) 2(b)
charts. For some formulas (formula (dG-i, iv),

(A V,,d V,,l)i --0.0150 --0.0133 -0.0150 --0.0133
e.g.), two charts are employed, and the values ii 0 0 0 0
iii .0150 .0133 .0150 .0133
obtained from each chart are combined to obtain iv .0125 .0118 .0125 .0118
the desired value of the dependent variable. (_')i O. 38 O. 33 O. 44 O. 39

ii .25 .25 .60 .00
iii --. 38 --. 33 --, 44 --. 39
DISCUSSION OF FORMULAS AND CHARTS
iv --.31 --.30 --.36 --.34
In order to facilitate discussion of the formulas (A V,,l/V,,l)l -0. 0520 -0. 0220 --0. 0150 -0.0140
ii .0460 .0166 .0079 .0052
iii 0 0 0 0
and charts, values of design and measurement iv .0550 .0240 .0150 .0140
errors were obtained from the charts for four v .0310 .0110 .0050 .0037
vi .0885 .0270 .0028 .0015
vii .0525 .0230 .0155 .0133
velocity diagrams. These velocity diagrams are viii --. 0447 --. 0140 --. 0049 --. 0037
representative of inlet-stage rotor tip and hub op- (Alfi/Ifi)i O. 0124 O. 0038 O. 0006 O. 0004
li --. 0143 --. 0056 --. 0021 --. 0016
eration at two Mach number levels. The velocity iii 0 0 0 0
iv --. 0041 .0051 .0085 .0088
diagram specifications are as follows: v --. 0074 --. 0019 --, 0002 --. O001
vl --,0303 --.0112 --,0025 --.0018
vii --. 0125 --. 0040 --. 0006 --. 0004
Case I (tip condition) Case 2 (hub condition) viii ,0150 .0059 .0026 .0020
(A P_/P_)i O, 0534 0. 0233 0. 0119 0.0113

Design (a) Design (b) Design (a) Design (b) ii --. 0500 --. 0196 --. 0074 --. 0056
iii 0 0 0 0
iv -.0494 --.0171 -. (X)58 --.0039
v --.0326 --.0117 --.0039 --.0031
M_ 1.15 1.00 0.81 0.70
vi --.1060 --.0392 --.0088 --. 0063
.58 .50 .58 .50
60 60 _ 45 45 vii --. 0437 --, 0140 --. 0020 --. 0013
0_ 0o 0o 0o viii .0525 .0206 .0091 .0070
.90 .75 .60 .50
.64 .55 .73 .63 (AB_)i 4.05 1.09 0. 56 0, 52
50 50 15 15 ii -3.59 --1.26 -.29 --. 19
24.6 28.2 _ 38.3 40.1 iii 0 0 0 0
.080 .080 .050 .050 iv --4.29 --1.84 --. 56 --. 52
v --3. 42 --. 84 --. 20 --. 14
.80 .80 1,5 1.5
vl --8.90 --3.90 --. 70 --. 70
D .34 .43 .41 .44
vii --4. 10 --1.76 --. 57 --. 49
r_/rl 1 .CO 1.00 1.1 1.1
P1/ PI 1.35 1.30 1.42 1.32 viii 4.60 2. O0 .63 .52
T2/Ti 1.10 1.09 1.11 1.09
(AD)I 0. 0583 0, 0244 0. 0078 0. 0045
yad ,86 .87 .95 .95
ii --. 0410 --. 0078 .0045 .0067
ill .O0O5 .OO04 .OO42 .O028
iv --. 0618 --. 0268 --. 0085 --. 0079
SAMPLE DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT ERRORS v --. 0350 --.0124 --.0040 --.0030
( V,'l v,') (_,D) vl --. 1790 --.0815 --.0130 --. 0120
(AD)vil --. 0594 --. 0260 --. 0124 --. OlOfl
Values of design errors and measurement errors viii 0.505 .0158 .0049 .0030
for the foregoing velocity-diagram cases were

flow. In actual compressor operation, the condi-

tions of radial equilibrium and continuity impose
Error term Measurement errors, ca_ nu__mber
a dependence between local specific mass flow and
deviation angle and loss. Therefore, sweeping
l(a) lib) 2(a) 2(b) ]
a(pv,) conclusions cannot be drawn from any one chart

_#:-jt
ii
o= 01= Z - .0050
= t
-- .0050
(one chart represents only one term of formula
lii --.0050 - .0050
iv O 0 0 0 (400)).
--.0110 - .0170 -- .0070 -- .0115
v
vi .0210 .0270 .0100 .0210 An example of the dependence of local specific
-- .0050 -- .0050
vii --.0050 - .0050
-- .0130 -- .0140
mass flow on deviation angle occurs for 3//' 2-
viii --.0036 - .0090
0.90. At this Mach number, the local specific
(aff)t 0._ 0.71 0.67 0.82
- .71
ii
- .13 -- .15 -- .15
mass flow is very near its maximum value. A
iii --.13
iv --.25 - .25 -- .50 -- .50
y .73 1.16 .74 1.13 quite small increase in B'_can cause a choking-flow
--.73 -1.16 -- .74 --1.13
vi
--.26 -.20 --
-- .67
.30 ---- .82
.30
condition, and any additional increase in _ will
vii
--.19 - .15 -- .76 -- .72 [
viii necessarily he _Lccompanied by a decrease in the
0.030 0.036
(A_')ii 0.01_ o .02o5
- .105 -- .126
value of (pV_)2. The tabulated values of error
lii --.0_5 - .0717
vl --0.0170 -- .0265 - .030 -- .036 terms show that the effects of an increase in _'2
vii .0595 .0717 -- .105 -- .126
-0.034 -0.028 --0.038

and decrease in (p_)2 are opposite in sign and
(__)ii --0._0
.106 .096 .118
lii .094
.0_ .034 .028 .038 therefore tend to nullify each other to some extent.
vi
_.0_ -. 106 -- ,096 -- .118
vii If the value of B'2 is smaller than expected, the
0 0 0
(AH_,t/HOi 0
0
choking-flow condition will not arise, but even in
ii 0
.0100 .0100 .0100
lit .0100
- .0029 -- .0020 -- .0016
this ease the value of (pV,)_ will probably change
o,o
iv --.0038
v -- .0016 -- .0019 -- .0014 -- .0015 because of the effect of the error in B'2 on the
vi .0016 .002019 .0014 .0015
.0005 .0005 .0005
vii .0007
.00_ .0028 .0037 .0016 radial-equilibrium condition. No method is avail-
viii
able for estimating this effect without recomputing
--0._10 --0.0010 --0,0017 --0.0017
),1_ (AD)i
ii .0010 .0010 .0017 .0017 the entire flow field for a specified set of errors
(_,D) ill .(007 .0007 .0012 .0012
iv - .0105 -- .0105 -- .0136 -- .0136 at all radii.
v; .0039 .0039 The foregoing discussion indicates that, to en-
.0017 .0017
MI V_ (AD)v
vi - .0017 -- .0017 - ,0039 -- .0039 sure the achievement of design mass flow, devia-
v; -- .0012 -- .0027 -- .0027 tion angles near the upper limit of their uncertainty
- .0012
(&D)vii
viii .o138 .0138 .0127 .0127 intervals should be employed for high Mach
number designs.
The foregoing sample values of error ternls Trends exhibited by sample design errors.-
provide data for the discussions of the following The trend [host apparent from an examination of
sections. the tabulated values of design error is that, for
Interpretation of numerical values.--The nu- case 1 (the tip operating condition), a Mach
merical values of error ternls obtained from the number level of M'2=0.90 is accompanied by
design-error charts must be carefully interpreted. error ternls nluch greater in nlagnitude than those
Their main utility is in an evahiation of the for M'2_0.75. This difference in nlagnitude is a
sensitivity to design errors of one velocity diagram consequence of the term 1/[1--(M'2)'2], wtfich ap-
as compared with another. Secondarily, for a pears in nlany formulas. It is possible that the
mean-radius condition where the local specific various errors would tend to cancel out; but it
mass flow (pV,)2 can reasonably be assumed con- would appareiitly be advantageous, in the design
stant at a given annular mass flow, the values of transonic rotors, to llold the value of M'2 as low
obtained from the charts can be combined to yield as is consistent with reasonable wdues of (tiffusion
uncertainty intervals in blade-elenlent perfornl- factor D and, of course, to employ the tfighest
ance. possible degree of design control in the choice of
The precautions concerning the interpretation the design w_riables. It would probably be war-
of numerical values of error terms, such as those ranted to employ the continuity condition in the
listed in the table, are partly involved with the design calculations for the choice of r2 because of
fact that some of the design variables can be the large effects indicated in the table for an
considered independent only for blade-element assumed error in r: of 1 percent. The results also
indicate no error in performance parameters at (such as the inclusion of blade-element losses

station 2 due to error in inlet local specific mass in the radial-equilibrium calculation) may ap-
flow (pI'_), for _=0, except for a very small effect preciably change the values of D. These new dif-
on diffusion factor D. However, errors in (pV_), fusion factors will lead to changes in the design
do cause errors in fl'1 and hence in incidence angle. values of _', and again the charts can be consulted
For high Math numbers where tile low-loss range to determine whether an iteration is warranted
of incidence angle might be narrow, this effect can with the new values of _'.
lead to design errors in _' and deviation angle. For any general blade element, the formulas
Trends exhibited by sample measurement and charts can be employed as a test of the
errors. For many of the parameters, the effects sensitivity of a particular velocity diagram to
of measurement errors are greatest at low Mach design errors and manufacturing tolerances. Thus,
numbers. This trend is especially evident for the the appropriate degree of design control can be
loss parameter _' and is caused by terms like 1/M 2 applied to the problem, and in some cases, the
1 sensitivity to design errors and manufacturing
and- in the measurement-error formulas.
tolerances can be employed as one of the criteria
1 P'
p', by which choice among several otherwise suitable
velocity diagrams can be made.
Case 2(h), for an inlet Mach number ]I_ of 0.70,
The charts can be employed by the research
shows an error in "_' of --0.036 due to an assumed
worker in the analysis of data. Discrepancies
error of 1 percent in the measurement of stagnation
between actual and design performance of an
pressure P2. This trend shows that the accurate
experimental compressor that cannot reasonably
determination of _' from low-speed data requires
be accounted for by measurement errors are
very precise measurement of sl_agnation pressure
caused mainly by design errors of the type herein
(and temperature).
analyzed. (Some of these discrepancies are un-
USE OF DESIGN-ERROR CHARTS
doubtedly caused by simplifications introduced
Suggested uses of the formulas and charts that into the equations of motion on which the design
were obtained from the analyses of design and system is based, such as the assumption of axial
measurement errors are outlined in this section. symmetry.) The approximate contribution of
For the preliminary velocity-diagram calcula- the design error in each design variable to the
tions, a common practice is to assign r2 at the same measured discrepancy in a performance parameter
proportion of the passage depth as the correspond- can be obtained from the charts. The sum of
ing r,; or perhaps r2 is located so that the saIne these terms (formula (394b)) can be compared
proportion of flow area is contained between r2 with the measured discrepancy between actual
and the hub as between the corresponding r_ and and design values of a performance parameter.
the hub. After the calculations are made, r: can Such comparisons may serve as an additional
easily be determined as a function of rl by applica- means of evaluating measurement errors and may
tion of the continuity condition. The charts of indicate just which phase of the design problem
the formulas for design errors in r2 can then be requires the highest degree of design control.
employed to determine whether an iteration with Within certain limitations, the design-error
the new values of r_ is warranted. charts can be employed by the compressor designer
Similarly, the preliminary radial-equilibrium to estimate an interval about the design point
calculations Inay neglect the effects of entropy within which the performace of a given blade
gradient on the radial distribution of axial ve- element should lie. The limitations on this
locity. The order of magnitude of the conse- procedure are involved with the estimation of
quent design errors in axial velocity can be esti- uncertainty intervals in local specific mass flow.
mated from the results of the investigation Estimation of uncertainty intervals.--Local
reported in reference 49. The design-error charts specific mass flow: The uncertainty intervals in
can then be consulted to determine whether local specific mass flow are cause(| by blade-
the blade-element losses should be included in element design errors. As evidenced by the
the radial-equilibrium calculation. radial-equilibrium equation, the radial distribu-
Certain refinements in the design calculations tion of flow is a function of flow angles and blade
462 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OFAXIAL-FLOW
COMPRESSORS
.5
-.04 .02_ 0 .02 .04 .06
Measured design error _n relative stagnation pressure-loss parameter, _,'-,_o,
FIOVRE 323.--Approximate frequency distribution for set of measured design errors in relative stagnation-pressure-loss
parameter.
losses at all blade elements. Therefore, discrep- and the quantities (_'-_) were calculated. Fre-
ancies between actual and design values of these quency ratios for increments in _'-_) of 0.02
were calculated and are plotted in figure 323 as
quantities lead to discrepancies between actual
an approximate frequency-distribution curve.
and design values of local specific mass flow.
The frequency ratio plotted in figure 323 is the
Unfortunately, no method is known for relating
ratio of the number of observations within an
uncertainty intervals in local specific mass flow
increment in (_'-5_) of 0.02 to the total number
to uncertainty intervals in blade-element design
of observations. For instance, the value of 0.132
data. This fact restricts the applicability of
formula (400). However, at the design mass plotted at (_0-o_) equal to --0.02 denotes that
13.2 percent of the values of (_0-_0_)
-'-' fall within
flow, the actual and design wdues of local specific
limits of from --0.03 to --0.01. The total number
mass flow must necessarily agree for at least one
of obserw_tions for this set of mean-radius loss
blade element. It would appear reasonable to
assume that this blade element would be near the data was 68.
mean radius. The curve of figure 323 indicates that the
Loss parameter: A set of mean-radius loss data discrepancies between the design and measured
reported in chapter VII was employed in an in- values of _' plot in a rough approximation of a
vestigation of the uncertainty intervals in loss random distribution, although there is some bias
parameter _'. The design values of loss para- in the direction of positive errors. These mean-
meter _ for each observation were obtained by the radius data indicate that an interval of from
use of the loss-correlation method of chapter VII, --0.03 to 0.03 in (_'-_) (an uncertainty interval
.4
+l
o I
>
c
O
A:2

FmVEZ 324i--Approximate frequency distribution for set of measured design errors in deviation angle.
of 0.06) contains 82.4 percent of the observations; uncertainty interval for random errors in r2 is
the corresponding odds for this interval are 4.7 negligible compared with the other errors
to 1.0. introduced.
The data of figure 323 represent a combination Calculation of uncertainty intervals in perform-
of measurement errors and design errors; thus, ance.--For the estimation of the limits in blade-
the uncertainty interval for design errors only element performance near the mean radius,
corresponding to odds of 4.7 to 1.0 would be formula (400) is employed.
less than the value of 0.06 obtained from these
USE OF MEASUREMENT-ERROR CHARTS
data.
Deviation angle: An approximate frequency- The charts for the analysis of measurement
distribution curve for mean-radius design errors errors can be employed in several ways: (1) for
in deviation angle was prepared in the same way the calculatlion of uncertainty intervals in per-
as the corresponding curve for loss parameter. formance parameters corresponding to estimated
The resulting curve, which was prepared for uncertainty intervals in the measured data,
intervals of 1 , is plotted in figure 324. For these (2) for the evaluation of measured data based on
data, 89.1 percent of the observations were within the consistency evidenced by plots of performance
an interval in (_o__]) of 3 (--1.5 to 1.5), which parameters, and (3) as an aid in planning
corresponds to odds of 8.2 to 1.0. As was the instrumentation.
case for design error in loss parameter, this in- Uncertainty intervals in performance ,--For
terval for the quoted odds in design error only measurement errors of the random type, the
would be smaller than 3 . procedure outlined in reference 346 can be
Radius to blade element: Design errors in the followed. Intervals are estimated for each
choice of r2 as a function of r_ are involved with measured datum within which the same odds
the radial-equilibrium condition and are mainly (b) can be quoted that the true value will lie.
systematic errors that depend on the design flow The uncertainty intervals in a performance
distribution and the compressor configuration. parameter due to errors in each measured variable
It can probably be assumed, therefore, that the are then obtained from the charts and are com-
464 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
Instrumentation.--The charts can be used as a

bined by meansof formula (399). The final
result will be an interval in the performance guide in choosing instrumentation of sufficient
parameter for which the odds are b that the accuracy for the expected test conditions and
value of the performance parameter will lie. combinations of flow parameters. The relative
air angle /_'_ or _ is an important parameter in
Evaluation of data.--Plots of performance
the correlation of data, since these flow angles
parameters against mass flow or incidence angle
can sometimes be employed, along with the charts, determine incidence, deviation, and turning angles.
to evaluate the accuracy of measured data. Figures 317(a) and (c) show that measurement
For instance, figure 319 shows that the calculated 6rrors in static pressure (or stagnation pressure)
values of _' are very sensitive to errors in P can cause greater error in the calculated value
and T. Therefore, if a plot of rotor _' against of/_' than would a reasonable error in the measure-
ment of absolute air angle /3, especially at low
incidence angle shows only a slight scatter from
a smooth curve, the measured values of P and Mach numbers. Thus, the necessity for careful
T can be considered very consistent. Also, design and calibration of static-pressure probes
figure 321(b) shows that the calculated values is emphasized.
of stagnation enthalpy (or stagnation temperature) CONCLUDING REM ARKS
by change of moment of momentum are sensitive
The effects of design errors on compressor
at high Mach numbers to measurement errors
performance parameters and of measurement
in flow angle /_. Even if a discrepancy of 2
errors on calculated values of performance param-
F were observed between the measured stagnation
eters were analyzed. The following results were
temperature and the value obtained by change of
obtained:
moment of momentum, this could be accounted for
1. Formulas and charts were prepared and
by a measurement error of less than 1 in flow angle
presented from which the changes in blade-
(for the conditions M2----0.64, _=25 , B_----50).
element performance parameters caused by design
This example illustrates the difficulty of checking
errors and the errors in calculated performance
the measurement of temperature at high Mach
parameters due to measurement errors can be
numbers by the temperature calculated from the
determined.
change of moment of momentum across a rotor.
2. The use of the design-error charts during
At a Maeh number of 0.5, the effects of errors
the design calculations and in the analysis and
in flow angle and static pressure on change of
interpretation of data was discussed. The charts
moment of momentum would be approximately
can be used to evaluate the sensitivity of a given
the same; at lower Mach numbers, the static-
velocity diagram to design errors, to determine
pressure errors wouhi have the greater effect
whether iterations of design calculations are
(figs. 321(a) and (b)). For many conditions of
warranted, al_d, to a limited extent, to calculate
velocity diagram, an error of 1 percent in static
the uncertainty intervals in blade-element per-
pressure would cause an error in change of moment
form an ce.
of momentum equivalent to approximately 1 F 3. The measurement-error charts can be em-
in temperature rise. Since 1 F is also a reasonable ployed along with the procedure devised at the
error to be expected in the direct measurement Gas Turbine Laboratory of the Massachusetts
of temperature, no advantage in accuracy is Institute of Technology for the estimation of
indicated either for the direct measurement of uncertainty intervals in calculated performance
temperature or for the calculation of change of and can also be of assistance in the evaluation
moment of momentum at low Mach numbers. of data and in the planning of instrumentation.
APPENDIX A
ACCURACY OF FORMULAS
The accuracy of the design-error and measure- (4) H2--H1 varied linearly from 300,000 ft-lb/
ment-error formulas for reasonable magnitudes of slug at hub to 400,000 ft-lb/slug at tip.
errors was spot-checked by means of sample cal-
An approximate calculation of density ratio was
culations for various combinations of Mach
made to determine the annular-area ratio for no
number and absolute and relative flow angles.
change in average axial velocity. This calcula-
DESIGN-ERROR FORMULAS
tion yielded a value for (r2/rt)h of 0.6.
A sample calculation of the actual effects (within The radial-equilibrium calculation was based on
the limitations of the design system) of certain simplified radial equilibrium including entropy
assumed design errors was made as follows: A gradient (ref. 49). An arbitrary assumption of
transonic-inlet-stage rotor design was calculated. _' was made, varying from 0.040 at the hub to
The rotor-outlet air angles _2 were then increased 0.100 at the tip (nonlinearly).
1 and a direct-problem calculation of the rotor The following table lists values of performance
performance was made. The consequent changes parameters obtained; the range given is the varia-
in various performance parameters were then tion from hub to tip:
compared with the corresponding results obtained
from the charts. Similarly, the design values of
40.04-34.10
13.61-48.52
rotor _' were increased 25 percent, the rotor I' 0.512-0.752
Mj 0.659--0.603
performance was again calculated, and appropriate Hd H_ 1.096-1.128
P_/PI 1.363-1.445
comparisons were made between the changes in
performance and the predictions of the charts.
The direct-problem calculation, employing
It should be pointed out that, in a direct- values of /_ increased 1 at all radii, resulted in
problem calculation of this type, the specified small changes in the local specific mass flow at the
error in _ is propagated through the radial- different radii of from -- 1.2 to 0.8 percent because
equilibrium calculation and causes changes in local of the propagation of the assumed error in /_
specific mass flow. Thus, the calculation yields through the radial-equilibrium calculation.
the combined effects of errors in t_2 and (pV_)2 on
The changes in blade-element stagnation-
the performance parameters. These combined
pressure ratio were analyzed. The pressure ratio
effects cannot be obtained from the charts alone;
was reduced by the assumed decrease in turning
the charts provide no means for obtaining A(pVz)_
angle, together with the consequent changes in
as a function of Aft2, because in blade-element
(pVz)2, and the net decrement in pressure ratio
flow f_ and (pVz)_. are treated as if they were
obtained from the charts agreed very closely with
independent. The values of A(pVz)_ obtained
the calculated values, as follows:
from the calculation were therefore employed
along with the specified error of 1 in f_ to obtain Net A(P, IPD due to ttOl'=l
the chart predictions of changes in performance. and to consequent A(p V,) 2
Radius ratio,
The values obtained from the charts for effects of rl/rf
Calculated From charts
errors in _'_ and from the charts for effects of errors
0.5 --0.0104 --0.0103
in (pV,)_ were added algebraically, as specified by .6 -- .0145 -- .0141
-- .0186 -- .0185
formula (394c). .7
.8 -- .0236 -- .0233
.0 -- .0278 -- .0278
The design assumptions were as follows: 1.0 -- .0316 -- .0318
(1) M'_ = 1.10 at rotor tip.

(2) _;=60 at rotor tip, /_1----0 at all radii. The assumed increase in _' for the second phase
(3) (rJr,)h----0.5. of the check calculation also caused small changes
465
691-564 0--65-31
in local values of (pVz)2 of from --1.6 to 1.2 per- Formula (mA-iii, vii), which gives the effect on
cent. The net effect of these changes was a pVz of a measurement error in T, contains the
general decrease in pressure ratio, and good agree- approximation that
ment between the calculated values and those
1 1 AT
obtained from the charts was observed: 1,._
AT \z12 2 T
Net A(Pt]P,) due to _'/_'=0.25 l+--f)

and to consequent A(p V,)2
Radius ratio,
rl/rj
Substitution of AT/T=O.O1 into the left side
yields a value of --0.00496. Thus, for AT/T:
0.5 --0.0061 -0.0065 0.01, formula (mA-iii, vii) yields a result only
.6 - .0093 - .0096
.7 - .0118 - .0125 1.009 times the correct value.
.8 -- .0146 -- .0137
.9 -- .0168 - .0159
1.0 -- .0181 --.0180 Similarly, formula (mA-iv, viii), which gives
the error in pV, due to a measurement error in
It is believed that the foregoing calculation _, contains the following approximation:
verifies the applicability of the design-error formu-
las, for the given range of Mach numbers and flow (tan _)A_--_cos _--cos (_+_8)
cos
angles, to the uses suggested in the text.
A limitation of the design-error formulas con-
For the range 0_</__<60 , the degree of approxi-
taining the term 1--M s in their denominators is
that they are inaccurate for Mach numbers in the mation decreases as /_ increases. For the worst
neighborhood of 1.0. Sample calculations indicate case (8----0), where formula (mA-iv, viii) indi-
that the accuracy of such formulas is good for cates no error in pV,, a measurement error of
Mach numbers up to at least 0.75. AB----1 would actually cause an error of 0.015
MEASUREMENT-ERROR FORMULAS percent in pV_. This discrepancy is clearly
The measurement-error formulas were checked negligible. For _--60 , the discrepancy between
by means of sample calculations and in a few the values of A(pV,) obtained from formula
cases by comparison with the exact formula. (mA-iv, viii) and from the exact calculation is
Local specific mass fiow.--Calculations were only 0.0013 percent of pV,.
made to compare the actual and chart values of Relative air angle.--The following table presents
A(pVz) caused by changes in static or stagnation
a sample comparison of calculated magnitudes
pressure of 1 percent. The following values were
of changes in _' with the corresponding values
obtained:
obtained from the charts (formulas (roB-i, v)
Percent change in pV. for to (mB-iv, viii)) for the specified assumed meas-
Ap/p--O.O1
M urement errors:
0.5 -2.63 -2.14 ]_$'l' deg

.7 -- .83 -- .74
M Ap AP AT 55.1 o
----0.002
Percent change in p V. for (fl-aO , _- or T-0.01 T
_'.,lO o)
AP/P-O.OI
M
Actual From Actual From Actual From
Calculated From charts charts charts charts
0.5 2.88 3.15 0.5 1.33 1,36 0 ._2 0.31

.7 1.67 1.74 .7 .69 .71 0.05 0.06
APPENDIX B
DERIVATION OF FORMULAS
DESIGN-ERROR FORMULAS
4-2 (H_--h2) '/2 cos B'2
The derivation of formula (dF-v) is presented 1
here as an example 'of the general procedure.

._ "r P'2 ( h2,'_ 42 (H,2_h2)_,/_ ( bh_'_
The error in axial velocity Vz._ due to an error 7--1 H_ \_] -2- \--__-_ /
in the rotor loss parameter must be found for the Xcos _ (B2)
condition of unchanging local specific mass flow.
Rearrangement of (B2) yields
A formula for V,.2 is as follows:
V,.2---,(_(H'2--h2) '/2 cos 0_ (407) 1 bP'_, 1 1 Oh2 (pVz)2 _h2

o=(pv,)2_-_+_-:-_ (pV,)2h2 _, (V,)2 _,
The relative stagnation enthalpy H'2 is not
affected by an error in _'; and, for this derivation,
1 bP;+rl
6_ La2 1 2] _'
(V') b_ (B3)
if2 is held constant:
bV,,2 4_ The relative stagnation pressure P'2 is a function

(H;-h2)-"2 cos_' (-_h2,_
i_' --2 \ b7] (B1) of P't, _', the relative enthalpy ratio H'2/It'_, and
p,/P', (or M/):
The condition of constant (pV,)2 provides a
means for evaluation
'
of
_:'-1
1
(bh2/5_'):
2----1, ,[
k,H_,l 1 --_'
(U,'_7:]-_
\-H_2J ( )]
1 --
p_ (B4)
.... * P2 [ h2 '_v- _'H' h _'/2cos_'

i_P; (1--_) (B5)
Differentiation of formula (413) with respect to

Substitution of (BS) into (B3) and rearrange-
_' yields the following:
ment yield
1
0-- 3' 1 bP'2{h2,'_i-t . _ m(H;_h2)l/2cosfl;.

,-1 H-__'- _//-_] bh2 _ P_ (B6)
i_' --(V;)* 1--(M_) 2
"r--IH_'y--I\H2] H'_OS' Finally, (B6), (B4), and (B1) yield the following:
1 Pl
ilV,._ cos 0: P;
_, - _V2 (V,') 2
\ P']-J [1--(M'_)2]
-" l,. --
Therefore,
_' (dF-v)
_/,=_'[ 1 -- (M;) 2]
467
where
c
_' {[ 1-- 1+_-_ (M'_) 2 _-'
O-- 2, _d (416)
l
1--
/H_\_ -1 -,
_,--_,) --_ 1-- 1-F?-_ (M;) 2 -,-1
For some of the subsequent formulas of series Therefore,

d, V,.2 was used as an intermediate variable. The 1 Pi
derivation of the formula for error in P2 is pre-
sented as an example: p,
(B8)
(B7)
P2=P1 /'H2"_-'
\H,] [1--_' P_ PI].J
The term (A/-/2/H2)v is obtained as follows:
'y--1 1
H2=H,+U**--U2V,,2 tan O'_--U,V,., tan 0, (B9)
p', 5H2 5V,. 2

_,-- U2 tan B2 i_'
X[I--_' (_-_,),d (i--_)] +P' {H2_'-'\_]
Therefore,
P; p,
( aH2"_ U2V,, 2 ( AV, 2"_

--_-2],= /-/2 tan O; \_] (B10)
p_"_
1 bH2
,p,,)
(, pl"f]
-- _----_P2_ H2 i_' ---PT-2 L\_/,, V-FW.J Combination of (B10), (B8), and (dF-v) yields
P_ the following:
,aP2) "r
-_--1 UW;//2sin _ ,, AV,
z,22_,,
--[1-- . (aV, 2'_
M; sin 0_' cos _(tan

-- fl2+tan/_;) (_)v_[l_ (M_)2 ] (AV,
x.Tz_2-/v 2)
=--v 1q--_ M]2 '
(dtt-v)
=_ _[[i_(M;)2]_f _,(M;)2 sin B:(M;)2
cos O;(tan
cos 2 _2, B2+tan
sec_ _2 t_;) t (AV,.2)
1+mT---_l ,, V,,2/,
MEASUREMENT-ERROR FORMULAS F -_-lGl/1 1 P v-l'l -I/2
The derivation of formula (mA-i) is presented

to illustrate the calculation of the series m for-
mulas. Formula (mA-i) gives the error in pV_
caused by a measurement error in p_:
1 V "r-17 l/_
(;?L (;?-J 1 (pV,) 1 pV,

pV,=_-___I 1-- cos 3 (Bll)
_P "_P 2
-_---1
-_ -- 1
]
b(_V,)=,q_v P cos _ _I
_p "_-- 1 /-p/2 l p A(pV,) l
-WT, j, = \ I
1 {, 1 "_hp,
) -iT, (mA-i)
CHAPTER XVII
COMPRESSOR AND TURBINE MATCHING
By JAMEs F. DUGAN, JR.
In order that compressor operation can be found INTRODUCTION

for specified flight conditions and a mode of engine An axial-flow compressor is designed so that at
operation, methods are presented for relating the com- a specific rotative speed and weight flow the
pressor to the other components o/four types of gas- desired value of total-pressure ratio is achieved
turbine engines--the simple turbojet, the after- at a high level of efficiency. As a component of
burning turbojet, the turboprop with coupled power a gas-turbine engine, the compressor is required
turbine, and the turboprop with .free-wheeling power to operate over a range of pressure ratios, weight
turbine. flows, and rotational speeds during steady-state
The method of superposing component matching and transient engine operation. To illustrate this
maps to obtain one- and two-spool gas-generator per- point, engine operation is related to the compressor
.formance is discussed, as well as simplified methods performance map of pressure ratio plotted against
.for obtaining gas-generator performance. The sim- equivalent weight flow with equivalent rotational
plification results from assuming constant turbine- speed as a parameter. During engine acceleration
inlet equivalent weight flow and an approximate prior to takeoff when the compressor speed increases
relation for turbine efficiency. Compressor opera- from zero to the takeoff value, the compressor
tion can be found from the gas-generator performance may operate in a region characterized by severe
alone for a range of flight conditions when the mode blade vibrations caused by rotating stall. Accel-
of engine operation is specified by assigning values eration may even be prevented by compressor
o.f mechanical speed and turbine-inlet temperature. operation outside the stable operating region
bounded by the compressor surge- or stall-limit
Procedures are also discussed .for (1) combining
line. For subsonic flight in the stratosphere, the
the gas generator with the other components of gas-
compressor may operate in a low-efficiency
turbine engines so that compressor operation can be
region at high values of compressor equivalent
found for a range of flight conditions when the operat-
speed. At supersonic flight speeds, the compres-
ing mode is specified by assigning values of mechani- sor surge- or stall-limit line may be encountered
cal speed and exhaust-nozzle area; (2) locating a or operation may be required in a region charac-
constant-exhaust-nozzle-area equilibrium operating terized by low compressor efficiency or dangerous
line on the compressor performance map of a one- blade vibrations.
spool nonaflerburning turbojet engine operated at The purpose of this chapter is to present match-
static sea-level conditions; (3) matching the com- ing procedures so that compressor operation can
ponents of a one-spool simple turbojet engine during be found for specified flight conditions and a mode
transient operation for a specified flight condition, of engine operation. (The matching procedures
also yield the operating points of all the other
a specified transient path on the compressor map,
engine components and data from which engine
and a fixed exhaust-nozzle area; (_) finding the
performance can be calculated.) Such methods
compressor paths during a transient .for a nonafler-
are useful in selecting engine design values for
burning two-spool turbojet .for which the exhaust- compressor pressure ratio and weight flow. After
nozzle area and inner-turbine-inlet temperature are the compressor performance map is estimated
maintained constant; and (5) calculating the time (see ch. X), it may be evaluated by employing
required to accelerate to a higher engine speed for matching procedures to find the region over
both one- and two-spool turbojet engines. which the compressor will be required to operate
469
for the desired mode of operation and range of can be found from the combined performance of
flight conditions. Besides permitting an evalua- the compressor, combustor, and turbine, inde-
tion of compressor performance maps, the match- pendent of the inlet, tailpipe, or exhaust-nozzle
ing methods presented herein permit calculation performance. The idea of superposition of com-
of the effects of compressor changes on engine ponent maps to achieve matching is used in refer-
performance. The methods of chapter X may ences 350 to 352 for one-spool gas-turbine engines
be used to estimate the effect on compressor per- and in references 25 and 353 for two-spool gas-
formance of changes involving interstage bleed, turbine engines.
passage flow area, or blade-setting angles. With Procedures for matching the components of one-
the new compressor performance map and the and two-spool turbojet engines during transients
matching procedures, the effect of the compressor are presented in references 22 and 27, respectively.
change on engine performance may be found. The equations and procedures in reference 354
In order to find where on its performance map facilitate the computation of part-load and off-
a compressor will operate as part of an engine design-point internal performance by the use of
for a specified flight condition and mode of automatic computing machinery.
engine operation, the engine components must Much of the material in this chapter is derived
be matched. The following three approaches from references 22, 25, 27, 349, and 352. General
may be used to accomplish component matching. and simplified methods are given for matching
Regardless of the approach, four relations in- compressor and turbine components of one- and
volving continuity of flow, power balance, speed two-spool jet engines for equilibrium operation
of rotation, and pressure ratio are available. (refs. 25 and 352). Procedures for combining the
In one approach, the conventional compressor performances of the compressor, combustor, and
and turbine performance maps are employed. turbine components to yield gas-generator per-
For an operating point assigned to one of the com- formance are explained, as well as the way com-
ponent maps, the corresponding points on the pressor operation can be found from the gas-gen-
other component maps are found by satisfying the erator performance for a range of flight conditions
four matching relations. Such an approach is when the mode of engine operation is specified by
discussed in reference 12 for the turbojet engine assigning values of mechanical speed and turbine
and in reference 13 for the turboprop engine. temperature. In order that compressor operation
In a second approach, the performances of the can be found when the exhaust-nozzle area is spec-
turbine, tailpipe, and exhaust nozzle are combined. ified, procedures are discussed for combining the
The conventional compressor performance map is gas-generator performance with that of other com-
retained; and, for an operating point on this map, ponents such as an inlet, a propeller, an after-
the corresponding operating points of the other burner, a free-wheeling power turbine, and an
components are found through the use of the com- exhaust nozzle. A simplified method for locating
bined performance of the turbine, tailpipe, and a constant-exhaust-nozzle-area equilibrium oper-
exhaust nozzle. This approach is used in refer- ating line on the compressor performance map of
ence 348 for the one-spool turboprop with coupled a one-spool turbojet engine operated at static sea-
power turbine and in reference 349 for the one- level conditions is discussed (ref. 349). The com-
spool turbojet without afterburning. bined performance of the turbine, tailpipe, and
In a third approach, the combined performance exhaust nozzle is related to compressor pressure
of the compressor, combustor, and turbine is ratio and weight flow in several charts. Desired
found. In place of the conventional compressor operating lines can be located on specific com-
and turbine performance maps, matching maps are pressor performance maps through the use of the
used. All possible match points are determined charts. A method is discussed whereby the com-
by the superposition of these matching maps. pressor and turbine of a one-spool turbojet engine
When the operating mode is such that the me- may be matched for a specified flight condition,
chanical speed and turbine-inlet temperature are a specified transient path on the compressor map,
specified, this approach is especially useful. For and a fixed exhaust-nozzle area (ref. 22). For a
this type of problem, the compressor operation two-spool turbojet engine (ref. 27), procedures are
COMPRESSOR AND TURBINE MATCHING 471
discussed for finding the compressor paths during density, lb/cu ft

a transient for which the exhaust-nozzle area and time, sec
inner-turbine-inlet temperature are held constant. turbine pressure coefficient, (V sin _)/U
SYMBOLS
Subscripts :
C compressor
A area, sq ft i inner spool
o outer spool
area parameter equal to _As (w*) w4
w 4 w8
PT power turbine
B ratio of bleed weight flow to weight flow at T turbine
compressor inlet
Cp specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/ Station numbers shown in figs. 325 and 326:
(lb) (R)
Two-spool notation One-spool notation
F, jet thrust, lb
0 ambient conditions
J fuel-air ratio at combustor inlet
1 outer-compressor inlet. compressor inlet
2 outer-compressor exit,
H total or stagnation enthalpy, Btu/lb
inner-compressor inlet
I moment of inertia, (lb) (ft) (sec 2)
3 inner-compressor exit, compressor exit:,
J mechanical equivalent of heat, 778.2 ft-
combustor inlet combustor inlet
lb/Btu
4 combustor exit, inner- combustor exit.,
K constant
turbine inlet turbine inlet
M Mach number
5 inner-turbine exit, outer-
N rotational speed, rps
turbine inlet
P total or stagnation pressure, lb/sq ft
6 outer-turbine exit turbine exit
P3 P_ P1 P0
pressure-ratio parameter equal to -- -- -- 6a uncoupled power-turbine
P1 P3 P0 Ps exit
9_ power for propeller and/or accessories, Btu/ 7 exhaust-nozzle inlet
see 8 exhaust-nozzle exit exhaust-nozzle exit
P static or stream pressure, lb/sq ft
Qz_ excess torque, lb-ft
Superscript:
T total or stagnation temperature, R * critical flow conditions
T temperature parameter equal to (1--B3)
T, GENERAL DISCUSSION
The four types of gas-turbine engines discussed

U rotor speed, ft/sec in this report are the simple turbojet, the after-
V air velocity, ft/sec burning turbojet, the turboprop with coupled
W weight flow, lb/sec power turbine, and the turboprop with free-
weight-flow parameter equal to wheeling power turbine (fig. 325). Common to all
four engines is the gas generator, which may be
_j(1--Bs)(l+J) Ws
'7_.c'1_. r w4 A,
As w,'_l
$1A1 either the one- or two-spool type (fig. 326). This
air angle, angle between air velocity and chapter is chiefly concerned with the compressor of
axial direction, deg a one-spool gas generator and the outer and inner
5' ratio of specific heats compressors of a two-spool gas generator when
ratio of total pressure to NASA standard operated as components of any of the four gas-
sea-level pressure of 2116 lb/sq ft turbine engines.
_ad adiabatic efficiency In the section GENERAL METHODS FOR EQUi-
0 ratio of total temperature to NASA stand- LIBRIUM OPERATION, a matching technique for
ard sea-level temperature of 518.7 R the superposition of component maps is employed.
Exhaust for obtaining the performance of one- and two-

Inlet Gas generator Toilpipe nozzle
spool gas generators are discussed.
A matching technique involving the use of the
Axial _ 1
combined performance of the turbine, tailpipe,
stationo I 6 7 8
and exhaust nozzle is used in the section EQUILIB-
(a)
RIUM OPERATING LINE OF ONE-SPOOL TURBOJET.
Afterburner
An approximate method is discussed for locating a
constant-exhaust-nozzle-area equilibrium operat-
ing line on the performance map of a compressor
0 I 6 7 8
that is part of a one-spool turbojet engine operated
(b) at static sea-level conditions. The charts of
Propeller reference 349, which are needed to accomplish
this, are included.
In tile section _ETHODS FOR TRANSIENT
OPERATION, conventional compressor and turbine
0 I 6 7 8 maps are used, and matching is achieved by
(c) satisfying the thermodynamic relations and the
imposed conditions. A method is discussed where-
by the compressor and turbine of a one-spool
turbojet engine may be matched for a specified
P___[ne
flight condition, a specified transient path on the
0 I 6 60 7 8 compressor map, and a fixed exhaust-nozzle area.
(d) For a two-spool turbojet engine, procedures are
discussed for finding the compressor paths during
(a) Simple turbojet a transient for which the exhaust-nozzle area and
(b) Afterburning turbojet inner-turbine-inlet temperature are held constant.
(c) Turboprop with coupled power turbine.
(d) Turboprop with free-wheeling power turbine. GENERAL METHODS FOR EQUILIBRIUM
OPERATION
FIGURE 325.--Gas-turbine engines.
In this and the following main section, which
A procedure for obtaining the performance of a discusses silnplified methods for equilibrium oper-
one-spool gas generator is followed by an explana- ation, it is convenient to think of a gas-turbine
tion of the way compressor operating points for engine as composed of a gas generator and other
various flight conditions may be found from the components. Sketches of one- and two-spool gas
gas-generator performance alone when engine generators are shown in figure 326. The addition
operation is defined by setting values of mechanical of other components such as an inlet, a propeller,
speed and turbine-inlet temperature. The dis- an afterburner, a free-wheeling power turbine,
cussion of the two-spool gas generator parallels and an exhaust nozzle results in either a turboprop
that for the one-spool. In order that compressor or a turbojet engine (fig. 325).
operation may be determined when engine opera- In the discussion of the one-spool gas generator,
tion is defined by setting values of exhaust-nozzle the component performances are plotted in such
area and rotative speed, methods are discussed for a way that the maps may be superposed to satisfy
matching the gas generator with the other com- the matching relations of continuity, power bal-
ponents for each of the four engine types shown ance, and rotational speed. A similar discussion
in figure 325. appears in references 350 to 352. In the discus-
In the SIMPLIFIED METHODS FOR EQUILIBRIUM sion of the two-spool gas generator, two procedures
OPERATION, turbine-inlet equivalent weight flow are presented for matching the inner spool with
is assumed to be constant for all operating condi- the outer compressor and turbine, the inner-spool
tions and turbine efficiency is assumed to be a performance having been found by the procedures
function only of the ratio of the rotative speed to for the one-spool gas generator. Two-spool
the square root of the enthalpy drop. Methods matching methods are discussed in references 25
COMPRESSOR AND TURBINE MATCI-IING 473
Axial 3 4 6
Compressor ] Combustor :1 Turbine
uuu ooooooooo.
(o)
2 5 4 5 6
I Oufer
turbine-\ turbine-;-
//
Inner \\
I z
Outer Inner /
'\\
/
compressor compressor Combustor ! ", /
I ./
I !
(b)
(a) One-spool.
(b) Two-spool.
FmURE 326.--Schematic diagrams of gas generators.
and 353. The sections on compressor operation as discussed in the section Matching Gas Gen-
from gas-generator performance discuss the pro- erator with Other Engine Components.
cedure for finding compressor operating point_ ONE-SPOOLGAS GENERATOR
when engine operation is specified by assigning
values of mechanical speed and turbine-inlet In order to match the compressor and turbine of
temperature. When exhaust-nozzle area and me- a particular gas generator, the performance of the
chanical speed are assigned, compressor operation compressor, combustor, and turbine must be
can be found for turbojet and turboprop engines known. Typical compressor and turbine per-
474 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OFAXIAL-FLOW
COMPRESSORS
ratios are calculated, combustor efficiency is also

taken to be a constant.
Q- / it_/ r "rlad, C
M'atehing relations.iIn matching the compres-
s,o,l-,,mi,
,in..../..\. sor and turbine, three of the four matching
o" relations are available.
(1) The air weight flow into the compressor
.I /
minus the air weight flow bled from the com-
pressor exit plus the fuel weight flow added in
O. the combustor equal the gas weight flow into the
120 turbine.
o
(2) The power output of the turbine is absorbed
_-_0 60 NIv/'_l, rps by the compressor and the accessories.
(o) (3) The mechanical speeds of the compressor
Equivolent weight flow, ltJ-d'_l/81 and its driving turbine are the same.
For simplicity, the three matching relations are
expressed in terms of equivalent performance
parameters as follows:
Continuity:
4o (1--B3)(1T])w,N w,N (422)
I
_o
Y'F._T ",d P3 Pi
P_ Ps a_
_i
_r
Power:
8 H,--H, _7_ H,--H,

(I--Ba)(I+J)N' F (I--B3)(I+J)w,N'= N'
(423)
n
Spe ed:
E
D
o>
T,- / N / (424)
bJ
(b)
Equivolent-weight-flow
porometer w4,'v18
4 Matching maps and their superposition.--Com-
pressor and turbine matching is achieved by
(a) Compressor performance map.
graphically satisfying equations (422) to (424).
(b) Turbine performance map.
The performance of the compressor is plotted as
Fmvmv 327.--Performance maps. (Ha--H_)/N2(1--B3) (l+j) against w_N/_, for con-
stant values of N/_/O-_ (fig. 328(a)). The com-
formance maps are shown in figures 327 (a) and pressor variables are computed from
(b), respectively. In figure 327(a), compressor
total-pressure ratio is plotted against equivalent w,N (I--B,)(I+]) w,-v_ N
(425)
weight flow with equivalent speed and adiabatic tii -- P, Pi ai
efficiency as parameters. In figure 327(b), tur- Pi P,
bine equivalent specific work is plotted against a
flow
pressure
eters.
parameter
ratio,
The performance
with equivalent
and adiabatic efficiency
of a typical
speed, total-
as param-
combustor is
H,--H_ 518.7Cp.c [(J" 1
p, vc --1
nearly constant for a wide range of operation. In (1--Ba)(I+.f)N' ll., c(l _ B,) (l _t_f) (_ll)'
this chapter the combustor total-pressure ratio
PUP3 is taken equal to a constant. When fuel-air (426)
For the purpose of this conversion, it is usually

sufficient to assume constant values of fuel-air
ratio ], compressor-exit-bleed ratio Ba, specific
heat at constant pressure c_.c, combustor pressure
ratio PdP3, and _c. (The variation of cp.c and
vc with total temperature may be accounted for
i
by using charts such as those presented in ref.
od rps
355.)
The turbine performance is plotted as (H_--
H_)/N 2 against w4N/& for constant values of 120
N/-vf_ as in figure 328(b). The ordinate is
computed from
/t,-//, (a)
H_--H6 O,
(427)
o
c)
Q.
30 N/v_4 ,
40 rps
The components are matched by superposing 0
Q_ 50 6O
figures 328 (a) and (b) so as to satisfy the conti-
nuity and power relations (eqs. (422) and (423)).
The abscissas are superposed directly, while %
the ordinates are offset by the value of the acces-
sory power term in equation (423). In many
instances the accessory power term is so small that
it can be neglected. Sometimes the value of the
accessory power term computed for one engine
operating condition is assumed to prevail for all
other operating conditions. With the compressor
(b)
and turbine matching maps overlaid, each point
Weight-flow parameter, w4NI8 4
common to both maps is a possible match point
for the gas generator. At each such point, the
(a) Compressor.
turbine-inlet to compressor-inlet temperature ratio (b) Turbine.
T_/T1 may be calculated by using equation (424)
FIGURE 328.--Matching maps for one-spool gas generator.
and the values of equivalent speed read from the
overlaid maps.
Component parameters.--For each match point,
the pressure and temperature ratios across the The value of c_, r can be calculated from
compressor and turbine may be calculated or read
from appropriate component maps. The compressor _ ../ R (429)
cp--_ 1J
pressure ratio and temperature ratio could be read
from plots of these variables against w4N/_4 with
The value of _, is usually based on the design values
N/_ as a parameter. After the turbine equiv- of fuel-air ratio and the arithmetic average of the
alent specific work is calculated from the values turbine-inlet and -outlet temperatures. If more
of (H,--H,)/A n and N/_/-_4, the turbine pressure precise calculations are warranted, the charts of
ratio can be read from the conventional perform- reference 355 may be used to find values of TdT,.
ance map (fig. 327(b)). The turbine temperature For matching purposes, the value of J is usually
ratio may be calculated from assumed to be a constant (its design value).
Once the compressor and turbine are matched,
however, the equivalent fuel-air ratio f/O_ at each
Ts=l H,--H6 1 (428)
T_ 0_ cp. r 518.7 match point may be found by using the values of
T3/T, and T4/T,, an assumed fuel, a combustor inner-spool with the outer-spool components.
efficiency, and combustion charts such as those The inner-spool components are matched accord-
presented in reference 355. There is no need to ing to the procedures for matching the compo-
rematch the compressor and turbine, because the nents of a one-spool gas generator. Notice that
term (1-_f) changes only slightly. The compres- engine stations 1, 3, 4, and 6 for the one-spool
sor equivalent weight flow w,_,/_ may be calcu- gas generator are replaced by 2, 3, 4, and 5 for the
lated by using equation (425). The turbine-outlet inner spool of a two-spool gas generator (fig. 326).
The manner in which inner-spool performance is
equivalent weight flow may be calculated from
presented is determined by the method employed
to match the outer-spool components. Two
w6_/_=(l_B3)(l+]) w,_/O, T, T, (430) procedures are discussed for matching the outer-
_ _, P3 P4 P8 and inner-spool components. In the first pro-
P, P3 P_ cedure, an inner-spool operating point is assigned
and matching with the outer compressor and outer
The performance of the one-spool gas generator turbine is achieved directly. In the second
may be presented as plots of T4/T,, P_/P1, TJT,,
procedure, which involves a trial-and-error step,
.f/O,, P3/P,, and w,_,/_, against w6_I_/_6 with N/_, an outer-compressor operating point is assigned so
as a parameter (fig. 329). that the gas-generator performance for constant
Compressor operations from gas-generator per- values of outer-spool equivalent speed results.
formance.--Compressor operating points for vari- Direct method of matching outer and inner
ous flight conditions may be found from the gas- spools._--The two-spool matching problem becomes
generator performance alone if engine operation one of matching the outer spool with the inner
is defined by setting values of mechanical speed spool. Because of the aerodynamic coupling
Nand turbine-inlet temperature T4. For a partic- between the two spools, specifying two inde-
ular flight condition (altitude and Mach number), pendent conditions determines the operating
values of Tz and 0, can be found. From figure points of all the components. If an operating
329 and values of T,/TI and N/_/_I, a value of point is assigned to the inner spool, outer-spool
matching is achieved directly. For this approach
w8_/_/_6 is read. Then, fr(_m values of ws_/_
it is convenient to express the power and con-
and N/G, values of P3/P, and wls/-_l/_, are read.
tinuity relations with regard to the outer
Thus, for each flight condition the compressor
compressor and outer turbine, respectively, as
operating point can be located.
One-spool matching methods are applied to H2--H1 ]
specific equilibrium problems in references 356 to N_o (1--B2)(1--B3) (1+f)

360.
TWO-SPOOL GAS GENERATOR _Hb--H6
-+ (431)
w,(1--B2)(1--B3)(1-t-J)N_ N_
A schematic of a two-spool gas generator is
shown in figure 326(b). The outer compressor
and outer turbine are mounted on a common shaft. w._No
Hereafter, these components are called the outer 6_
spool. The inner compressor and the inner tur- (432)
bine are mounted on a second shaft that is not
coupled mechanically to the shaft of the outer Constant values of compressor bleed at stations
spool. In airplane engines, the outer-spool shaft 2 and 3 and fuel-air ratio may be chosen. The
is inside of and concentric with the hollow shaft matching map for the outer compressor is shown
of the inner spool. Between the inner compressor H2--H, is
and inner turbine is the combustor; taken to- in figure 330(a). Here N2o(I_B_)(I_B3)(I+f)
gether, these components comprise the inner spool. plotted against log (w, No/_2) for lines of constant
In matching the components of a two-spool gas equivalent speed No/_ and constant equivalent
generator, it is convenient to match the com- weight flow w_/_2/_2. For the matching map of
ponents of the inner spool and then match the the outer turbine, (Hh--H_)/N2o is plotted against
o)
O N / ./'_r , rps
E
12o
o)
,.,..
S_ I00 o" j oo
0a
2
o
8O
8O ?
o
D_
6O 6O
120
_20
o
0
B _00
IO0 2
2
u_
8O
8O
s_
6O
60 _-
Ld

C.D
_o- 120
k-
120
?
IO0
2 -_ 8O
Q. 8O c
E
60
6O

-_ L.....................................
Turbine-outlet equivolent weight flow,
FIOVR_- 329.--One-spool gas-generator performance.
log (w_o/$5) wiVh w_/_/_5 and N,/_ as pa- weight flow w_/_5 with N,/_ and PJP2 as
rameters (fig. 330(b)). In order to match the parameters. Inner-spool operation is, of course,
outer-spool components with the inner spool, limited by the equivalent flow that can be passed
the matching map of the inner spool is plotted by the outer turbine.
as in figure 330(c). Here, inlet equivalent weight With these three matching maps (fig. 330), the
flow w_/_/_2 is plotted against outlet equivalent match points of the two-spool gas generator can be
! w2_g_z/su,
:_ _= _ / " 1_'_"/ _"6_"___,8t8

I Ib/sec
-20 No/-fg_l,
_ 60 80 I00
(a)
log (wI No82)
6O
4o \ so ,oo No/J_5,
-./'..j -./
?
\ ;'l"
16
\ \\\_20
18 \
2
(b)
log (ws/Vo
IS5)
%mz
I / / //
/__L- ,, /, 12o
...-?/,i ,,,i O,'/
.1_ _oo N,/V_z,
/sSJii,
_/i III I
////_E---_ 60
/
(c)
Equivalent weight flow, w5v_5185
(a) Outer compressor.

(b) Outer turbine.
(c) Inner spool.
Fu]ua_ 330.--Matching maps ford irect method of matching outer and inner spools of two-spool gas generator.
found. An inner-spool operating point is assigned superposed so as to satisfy equations (431) and
on figure 330(c). The values of w2_2/a_, ws_/Ss, (432). The ordinates of figures 330(a) and (b)
P6 are offset by the value of the accessory power term
and P22are noted, and the value of log in equation (431), and the abscissas are offset by
the calculated value of the term
[(l--B,) PUP'(1-Bs)
(l+j')]
log [(1-- B2) (1PUP2-Bs)
(1-FJ)']
is calculated. The outer-compressor and outer-
turbine matching maps (figs. 330(a) and (b)) are The operating points of the outer compressor and
the outer turbine corresponding to the assigned (7) A value of TJT_, which depends on the inner-
inner-spool operating point are at tile intersection spool performance, is read from figure 331(c) for
of the appropriate lines of constant w2"v_/_ and the values of w_-v_/_ and w_f_/_.
w5"_/_5. In using ttfis procedure, it has been (8) A second value of TdT_, which depends on
found convenient to assign several values of the relation between the outer compressor and
w5"_5/85 for each selected value of w2-_/_/_ in figure outer turbine, is calculated from
330(c). Choosing pairs of values for w2"_2/_ and
w5-_5/_ in this way dictates the values of these
parameters to be used in plotting lines of constant T_ ]_|1
(434)
equivalent weight flow in figures 330(a) and (b).
Use of this direct method of matching outer and (_/_-_J T,
inner spools or of the iterative method, which is
described in the following paragraphs, is a matter If this does not equal the value from step (7),
of personal preference. steps (4) to (8) are repeated until agreement is
Iterative method of matching outer and inner reached. In using this procedure, it has been
spools. An alternative procedure for matching found convenient to assign outer-compressor
the outer-spool components with the inner spool operating points along lines of constant outer-
may be employed by assigning the outer-compres- spool speed and to calculate first the match points
sor operating point rather than that of the inner for the higher values of w_._/ii_. As lower values
spool. For this procedure, the matching maps of of w_/_/_ are assigned at a fixed speed No/-_,
figure 331 are used. Tile outer-compressor per- higher values of w_._/_ will result until the critical
formance is plotted as (H_--H_)/N_ against w2"v_2/_2 value is reached. From this point on, all lower
with No/-V_ as a parameter (fig. 331(a)); the per- selected values of w_-_/$_ will be accompanied by
formance of the outer turbine is plotted as (Hs--Hs) the critical value of w_-_/_.
/N_ against w_No/_ with No/-_5 as parameter (fig. Variable pressure losses in primary com-
331(b)); and inner-spool performance is plotted bustor.--The matching procedure for the two-
as w_/8_ against w_v_/Ss for constant values of spool gas generator may also be applied for either
Nd_ and TJT_ (fig. 331(c)). a one-spool generator or the inner spool or a two-
The inner- and outer-spool components may be spool generator when large, variable pressure
matched by employing an iterative procedure in losses occur in the primary burner. For these
conjunction with the matching maps of figure 331: conditions, curves analogous to figure 330(c)
(1) An operating point is assigned on the outer- would represent the combuster characteristics.
compressor map (fig. 331(a)) from which values of
Component parameters.--For each match point
w2"_2/_, No/_, and (H2--H1)/N_ are read.
of a two-spool gas generator, the pressure and
(2) The value of (H_--Hs)/N_ is calculated from
temperature ratios across the components may be
equation (431).
calculated or read from appropriate component
(3) The value of T_/T1 is calculated from
maps. If the iterative proc_edure is used for
matching the inner spool with the outer compo-
T, 1-_ H2--H, {No'_ _. 1 (433) nents, the following values are known for each
T, No 2 \_] 518.7c_. oc
match point:
(4) A trial value of No/-_ is assigned.

No/'_, wz_/_, (H_--H_)/N_, T_/T_,
Because assigning the outer-compressor opera-
ting point determines the operating points of all w_/_, TJT_, and NoN_.
the other components, assuming a value of No[-_5
is an overspecification and will lead to a contra- The outer-compressor pressure ratio may be
diction if an incorrect value is assumed. read from a plot of P_/P_ against w_._/_ with
(5) A value ofwdVo/_5 is read from figure 331 (b) No/_/_ as parameter. Inner-compressor equiv-
for the values of (H_-HB)/N_ and Nellie. alent speed N_/_/_ may be read from figure 331 (c).
(6) A value of w5_/_/_5 is calculated from the The values of Ps/P_, T_/T_, TJT_, and PJP_ may
values of wbNo/_ and No/__-_. be read from plots of these variables against
8O N o/.V/_l , rps
I00
120
(o)
Equivolent weight flow w2v/-_-2182
4O N o/v_'5, r ps
6O
8O
//'00
(b)
Weight-flow porometer, w5 No/_ 5
/ /
(C _/_L_ -_o
N,/"/_2, rps
(c)
Equivolent weight flow, w2.,/'_-2/82
(a) Outer compressor.

(b) Outer turbine.
(c) Inner spool.
Fioca_. 331.--Matching maps for iterative method of matching outer and inner spools of two-spool gas generator.
ws_/_lS,_ with NifiV% as a parameter. Tile outer- the two-spool gas generator, the following gas-
turbine pressure ratio may be read from a plot of turbine engine configurations are possible:
PJP6 against (Hs--Hs)/N2o with No/v/_ as a param- (1) Simple turbojet, where gas generator is
eter. Outer-turbine telnperature ratio may be preceded by inlet diffuser and followed by
calculated from tailpipe and exhaust nozzle (fig. 325(a))
(2) Afterburning turbojet., where afterburner
Ta_ 1 Hs--H8 (No_ 2 1 (435) replaces tailpipe of simple turbojet (fig.
51S.7c ,o 325(b))
(3) Turboprop with coupled power turbine,
The equivalent fuel-air ratio f/O_ at each ma_h where propeller is geared to gas-generator
point may be found by using the values of T4/T, shaft (fig. 325(c))
and T3/TI, an assumed fuel, a combustor efficiency, (4) Turboprop with free-wheeling power tur-
and combustion charts such as those presented in t)ine, where propeller is geared to shaft of
reference 355. free-wheeling power turbine (fig. 325(d))
The performance of the two-spool gas generator Methods for matching the gas generator with
may be presented as plots of T4/Tt, P6/PI, TJTI, the other engine components for each of these
fl0_, and against
WI_/_/_I w6_/_6 with No/v_ engine configurations are discussed. By using
as a parameter and a plot of NJ-_@ against T4/TI these methods, compressor operation can be deter-
with No/-V_ as a parameter (fig. 332). mined for various flight conditions when engine
operation is specified by assigning values of ex-
Compressor operation from gas-generator per-
haust-nozzle area and mechanical speed.
formance.--The outer- and inner-compressor oper-
ating points at an assigned flight condition may Simple turbojet.--The gas generator of a simple
be found from the gas-generator performance if turbojet may t)e matched with the other compo-
engine operation is specified by assigning values of nents by using three plots, one each for the inlet
outer- or inner-spool mechanical speed and inner- and the gas generator and a combined map for
turbine-inlet temperature. From the assigned the tailpipe and exhaust nozzle. The performanc:_
flight condition are found values of 0z and T_. of a fixed-geometry diffuser inlet is shown in
From the assigned engine operation, values of figure 333(a), where pressure ratio P_/po is
No/,,/_ or N_/_ and T4/TI are calculated. If plotted against equiwdent weight flow w_-vf_/_
No/_/_ and T,/TI are known, a value of w,_/_6 is with free-stream Mach number _llo as parameter.
read from figure 332(a). [f Ni/_,;_l and T4/TI are Gas-generator performance is plotted as log (Ps/P_)
known, a value of No/_ is read from figure against wav_/_a with No/_/_ as parameter (fig.
332(d); and then, using the values of No/_/_ and 3330))). The combined Inap for the tailpipe and
T4/T,, a value of w6_/_/_ is read from figure 332(a). exhaust nozzle is shown in figure 333(c), where
Values of P2/PI, w,_/_/_l, Pa/P2, and w21jr_2/_2 are log (P_/po) is plotted against w_V_/$_ for a fixed
exhaust-nozzle area.
read from plots of these variables against w6x/_/_s
with No/_/_ as a parameter. Thus, for each flight From figure 333(a), trial values of P_/po and
w,v_/8_ are read for the assigned flight Mach
condition, the outer- and inner-compressor operat-
ing points may be found. In reference 26, two- number. Figures 333 (b) and (c) are superposed:
spool matching methods are used to investigate the ordinates are offset by the value of log (PJpo),
the effect of design over-all compressor pressure while the abscissas are superposed directly. The
value of w_/(i_ is read from the overlaid maps at
ratio division on two-spool turbojet-engine per-
the intersection of the fixed-exhaust-nozzle-area
formance and geometry.
curve and the appropriate constant-speed line.
MATCHING GAS GENERATORS WITH OTHER ENGINE (The value of No/_ may be calculated from the
COMPONENTS
assigned value of M0, altitude, and No.) A gas-
To determine coinpressor operation when ex- generator plot of w,_/_/_f_ against ws_/_/_ with
haust-nozzle area and mechanical speed are as- No/v_ as a parameter yields a value of w_/$,.
signed, the gas generator must be matched with the ]f this value of w_/_/_ is not equal to the trial
other engine components. For either the one- or value, the process is repeated. When the two
691-564 0-65-32
o_ No/_,
"6 rps rps
t4
E 120
o"
120
o
I00
5 _.
E
8 LL 8O
o
8o _0
6O
(0) (b)
o"
o t2o _ ,s.
IO0 g
-_-
UJ
80
60
(c) (d)
120
o" o -I00
120
o
d
El,..
- 80
Q; "--.
IO0
8o c
m
6O
(e) (f)
Turbine-outlet equivolent weight flow, w6_6/_ 6
FI(_URE 332.--Two-spool g&s-generator performance.
values of w,_/_/$_ agree, the gas generator is Afterburning turbojet.--The procedures for the
matched with the other engine components for afterburning turbojet are the same as for the
tlle assigned flight condition and mode of engine simple turbojet. The combined map for the
operation. The outer- and inner-compressor oper- tailpipe and exhaust nozzle is replaced by the
ating points may now be found by reading values combined map for the afterburner and exhaust
of P=/P1, P_/P2, and w2,_/_/_2 from plots of these nozzle.
variables against w,_8/_8 with No/_/_ as a para- Turboprop with coupled power turbine.--When
meter. the propeller is geared to the compressor shaft of
% (423) or (431) before the gas-generator per-

formance is obtained. For each value of propeller
1.0
power, a distinct set of gas-generator performance
curves will be obtained. Compressor operation
.6 call be found by assigning values of flight Mach
number, algitude, mechanical speed, exhaust-
.2 nozzle area, and propeller power. The pro-
cedures for matching and for obtaining the
(o) compressor operating points are the same as
w I-J"OT/SI those for a simple turbojet. One-spool turbo-
prop problems are discussed in references 361
to 363.
Turboprop with free-wheeling power turbine.

For a turboprop with a free-wheeling power
turbine, a procedure is discussed for finding tile
compressor operating points when the following
are assigned: flight Mach number and altitude,
t20
propeller power/_), shaft speed of power turbine
Npr, and exhaust-nozzle area. The discussion is
for a turboprop having a two-spool gas generator;
8" the procedure is essentially the same for a turbo-
prop having a one-spool gas generator.
(1) Values of T1, 0z, and p0 are found for the
6O assigned M0 and altitude.
(b) (2) A trial point is assigned in figure 333(a)
w6 _ / 86 for the assigned -_I0, and values of P_/po and
w_/_l are read at this point.
(3) A value of w6.(_/86 is assumed. Over much
of its operating range, the power turbine operates
at a fixed value of Ws,_7Os/&.
(4) A value of No/_l is read from figure 332(f)
for the values of w6_/& and wl_/_/8l.
(5) Values of P6/PI and TdT1 are read froln
figures 332 (c) and (e) for the values of w6-_/_/6s
and No/_/_.
(6) The power-turbine equivalent speed Nt, r/
_/_ is calculated from
(436)
(c)
Equivalenf weight f ow w6._61_6

(7) The power-turbine equivalent specific work
(a) Fixed-geometry inlet. is calculated from
(b) Gas generator.
(c) Combined map for tailpipe and exhaust nozzlc. It8--H8, ,._
FICURE 333.--Matching maps for simple turbojet.
08 w,_U06P_ P, po )_/_ (437)
66 Pipo 2116 _
a one-spool gas generator or to the outer-spool
shaft of a two-spool engine, the propeller power (8) A value of wsArpr/86 is read from figure
must be added to the accessory power in equation 334(a) for the values of Npr/_/O6 and (tI6--H6,)/0,.
(12) A value of Psdpo is calculated from

/VpT /vf_-6,rps
I'_ P, PePs,
80 100 120 (440)
60 ------F
--------I
--_-T- Pc Pc P1 P_
(13) A value of (w_/e/($)8, is calculated from
32 (441)
"5 \-_-16,=\_-18 P_,
P_
(1)
(14) A value of (w_/'0/($)e_ is read from figure
-5
334(b) for the calculated value of Psdpo (step
g
03 (12)). If this does not equal the value from step
{o)
(13), steps (2) to (14) are repeated until agreement
Weight- flow porometer wB/VpT/86
is reached.
(15) The compressor operating points can be
found by reading values of PdPl, PdP2, and w2_
from gas-generator plots of these variables against
w8_/_/($8 for constant values of No/._.
Turbojet- and turboprop-engine performance.-
After the gas generator has been matched with
the other turbojet-engine components, the airflow,
the pressure, and the temperature at the exhaust
9
nozzle are known. The jet thrust F_ can be
found from the following equations (ref. 364),
which relate F/w to Pdpo:
(3-
(b)
(442)
w
Equivolent weighl flow, w6o,.,/-_-60/860
g
(a) Power-turbine performance.
(b) Combined performance of tailpipe and exhaust For a complete-expansion nozzle,
nozzle.
FIGURe. 334.--Matching maps for turboprop with free-

wheeling power turbine.
i 1 ( p'_ __%1 (443)
(9) A value of w6_/_/($6 is calculated from

and for the convergent nozzle at supercritical
ws"v_6 wsN_,r 1 pressures,
-- (438)
$8 ($8 Npr
f _ _'+1 _
If this does not equal the assumed value of
we_/_6/($6 (step (3)), steps (3) to (9) are repeated
until the two values do agree.
(10) A value of PUPs, is read from figure 334(a)
for the values of Npr/_/_6 and (H_--Hs,)/Oe. _ jj (444)
(11) A value of TsdT8 is calculated from
A graph relating K= to the nozzle pressure ratio is

T____,=1 (Hs--Hs,) 1 (439)
T6 08 518.7cp. Pr given in figure 11 of reference 364. Net thrust is
found by deducting the momentum of the inlet obtained, the matching with the other engine
air from the jet thrust. components is achieved as described in tim
Fuel flow can be computed by nmltiplying air- preceding section.
flow by fuel-air ratio. The fuel economy expressed ONE-SPOOL GAS GENERATOR
as thrust specific fuel consumption is simply the

ratio of fuel flow to thrust. Design point.--From a given compressor per-
formance map, the compressor operating point is
After the gas generator has been matched with
selected for the engine design conditions of the
the other turboprop-engine components, the shaft
one-spool gas generator. The design value of
power, jet thrust, and specific fuel consumption
turbine efficiency is specified as well as the design
can be calculated from the equations derived in
value of turbine to compressor temperature ratio
appendix D of reference 348.
T_/T1. Design values of w4_/_ and N/_/H_,--H_
SIMPLIFIED METHODS FOR EQUILIBRIUM are calculated from
OPERATION
In this section, simplified methods are presented

w4_'__w,_/g, (1-B_)(I+/) T, (446)
for obtaining the performance of one- and two- _4 _iz P3 P4
spool gas generators. The simplification consists P_ P3
in making several assumptions regarding turbine N
performance. The equivalent weight flow at the
N V_ _/(1--B3) (1 _-f)
turbine inlet is assumed constant for all operating (447)
conditions. This implies that the turbine nozzles
_/ c,.c 518.7 k,Tl
//T3-- J
1"_
are choked. Most one-stage turbines operate at
nearly constant equivalent weight flow for all
Constant values of B3, f, and P4/P3 are usually
turbine pressure ratios greater than 2.0, while
adequate. The w4_/_/_4 value from equation (446)
many multistage turbines operate at nearly con-
is assumed to be constant for all operating condi-
stant equivalent weight flow for all turbine
tions. TheN/_/H-4-H6 value from equation (447)
pressure ratios greater than 2.5. Only during
is equal to the constant c in equation (445).
starting conditions are turbines normally required
to operate at pressure ratios less than 2.0 or 2.5. 0ff-design points.--For each compressor operat-
The accessory power is assumed to be zero. Nor- ing point, the corresponding turbine operating
mally it is so small that negligible error is intro- point may be found by the following steps:
duced by considering it to be zero. The turbine (1) A value of T4/T_ is calculated from equation
efficiency is assumed to vary according to the (446).
following equation: (2) The turbine temperature ratio is calculated
from
N 2
_=a+b(_-_--c) (445)
cp.c ( T3_l'_
T1 }
where T'----1 (448)
T.
T4 cp.r(l_-f)(1--B3)
design value of turbine efficiency
(3) A value of N/_ is calculated from

b --a/c 2
equation (447).
c des n valueof[ (4) A value of _ r is calculated from equation
(445).
(5) The turbine pressure ratio is calculated
This approximation is quite good over much of from
the turbine performance map. Near limiting 3"7"
loading, however, actual turbine efficiencies are

much lower than those calculated from equation
(445). Once the gas-generator performance is /)4 \ -_-_,r / (449)
The gas-generator parameters w6_/6_, PUP_, and each speed No/_. At each point, the outer-com-
TUT1 are calculated from pressor performance is known. The equiwdent
weight flow w2_'_/_2, which is common to the
outer compressor and inner spool, is calculated
(450) from
66 _ P0
P4
wi_t'f_li T_
w_ _i_ = (1 -- B2) (453)
62 6t P2
Po_P3 P_ Po (451)
P1 P, P3 P4 PI
T6 T_ To (452) From the inner-spool performance curves, values

_--_T,
of N_/_ and Ts/T2 are read.
The outer-turbine temperature ratio T_/T_ is
As discussed previously, the equivalent fuel-air
calculated from
ratio f/O_ may be found from values of Ta/T_ and
TdT1, an assumed fuel, a combustor efficiency, WiCv, oc -- 1
and combustion charts such as those presented T =I (454)

T_ ToT_
in reference 355. w_c_. or T_ T_
Thus, for a range of weight flow wl_/Ot at each
compressor speed N/-_, the values of wa_:_/Oo, where w_=wl(1--B_)(1--Ba)(lq-f). From the
TUTI, TUT_, PUP1, PUP1, and f/01 may be found. design value of _/_a.or and the design value of
The gas-generator performance can be represented No/_H_--H_, which is calculated from
by plots of w_-_/_l/6_, T4/TI, TUTI, PUP1, P3/PI, and
.f/Ol against wo'v_U$o for constant vahies of N/_/_ No _/(1 --B2) (1 --B_)(1 q-J)
(fig. 329). No
(455)
TWO-SPOOL GAS GENERATOR
3Jc. oe518.7, I,,Ti('T-'I--

I'_J
For the two-spool gas generator, the outer- and
inner-compressor performance maps are given,
the constants of equation (445) can be evaluated
and the compressor operating points for the
for use with the outer turbine. Outer-turbine
engine design conditions are selected. The de-
sign value of turbine to compressor temperature efficiency may be calculated from equation (445)
after No/_H_H_H_--H_ is calculated from equation
ratio TJT_ is specified as well as the design values
(455). Outer-turbine pressure ratio is calculated
of outer- and inner-turbine efficiency.
from
Inner-spool matehing.--The performance of the
"rot
inner spool is obtained as described previously; 1 T_\nr-'

engine stations, 1, 3, 4, and 6 for the one-spool
gas generator are replaced by stations 2, 3, 4, and I_--\P(1 _T_) (456)
5 for the inner spool of the two-spool gas gen-
erator. The design value of w5_/_5 is read from From the component operating points, the two-
the inner-spool performance plot for the design spool gas-generator performance may be calcu-
value of Pa/P_ and NU'V_2. This value of w5_/65 lated and plotted as in figure 332.
is assumed to be constant for all operating con- If the assumption that outer-turbine-inlet
ditions. equivalent weight flow is constant for all engine
Because the inner-spool-outlet equiwdent weight operation does not appear to be wdid, an approxi-
flow wo_/65 is assumed constant, inner-spool per- mation such as that described in EQUILIBRIUM
formance may be presented as plots of w2__/62, OPERATING LINE OF ONE-SPOOL TURBO-
1)3/1)2, PUP2, TUT2, and TUT_ against N_/_ for JET may be used. One of the curves representing
the design value of ws'_U_s. the variation of turbine-inlet flow with turbine
0uter-spool raatehing.--The outer-spool com- total-pressure ratio is selected. The value of
ponents are matched with the inner-spool per- equivalent weight flow at the outer-turbine inlet
formance by first assigning values of w_-_f_l/6_ at that is used in the matching procedures must
agree with the value read from the selected curve In order to establish the compressor equilibriunl
and the calculated turbine pressure ratio. If this operating line at pressure ratios less than design,
approximation is used for the outer turbine, then it is necessary to estimate the variation in (w/w*)4
the inner-spool performance must be presented as with turbine pressure ratio P4/P6. If actual tur-
plots of w2_'_/_2, Pz/P2, Ps/P2, TjT_, and TJT2 bine data are available, a good approximatioI_ to
against N_/_/_ for constant wtlues of w5_/_/_5. the variation in (w/w*)4 with turbine pressure
EQUILIBRIUM OPERATING LINE OF ONE-SPOOL ratio P4/P8 can be obtained by computing ttle
TURBOJET value of (w/w*)4 for each value of P4/P8 at the
best efficiency point. If turbine data are not
A method is given in reference 349 for locating
available, a reasonably good approximation can
a constant-exhaust-nozzle-area equilibrium oper-
be obtained from the curves of figure 338. The
ating line on the performance map of a compressor
multistage curve represents the equation.
that is part of a one-spool turbojet engine operated
at static sea-level conditions. In this method the
performance characteristics of the combustor, (458)
turbine, and exhaust nozzle are simplified in order
to obtain charts from which an equilibrium oper-
The two single-stage curves are theoretical varia-
ating line can be obtained for specified design tions computed for two values of the turbine
conditions and the compressor map. paraineter _bry_.r/Sin 2 /74 of 1.5 and 2.0. Oper-
The charts of reference 349 are shown in figures ating lines for two- or three-stage turbines would
335 to 338. In figure 335, turbine pressure ratio be between those for the single-stage turbine and
PJP6 is plotted against (Pz/P_)(PJP3)(P_/po) that for the multistage turbine.
(po/ps) with Ps/Ps and (As/A4)(w*/w)_(wJws) as
USE OF CHARTS FOR DESIGN POINTS
parameters. This represents the combined per-
formance of the turbine, tailpipe, and simple The following procedure may be used to find
convergent exhatist nozzle. For this chart a tur- the design values of AsA4 and As once the design
bine polytropic efficiency of 0.85 was assumed, and conditions are specified:
the total-pressure drop in the tailpipe was assumed (1) Design values are selected for Pa/P,,
to vary according to wl_/_, T4/T_, wJw_, _d. r, B3, andf.
(2) Compressor efficiency _,c is read from the
p__ps= K psV_ (457)
2g compressor map.
(3) The .design value of T=(1--Ba)(l+f)
The value of K was set by assigning P6/Ps= 1.05 (TJ T_) _d, C_, r is calculated.
for sonic velocity at the exhaust-nozzle exit. A (4) The design value of A=A_/A_(w*/w)_(w4/w_)
constant value of 4/3 was assigned to _,_ and _'s. is read from figure 336 for thc known values of T
In figure 336, which relates the compressor with and P3/P_.
the rest of the engine, (1--B3)(I+J)(TJT1) (5) The design value of
V,_.cV,d.r is plotted against compressor pressure
ratio P3/P_ with (As/A4)(w*/w)i(wJws), PJps, and _--_I( 1 -- B3) (1 +y)/ll._. cil:_, v (W8Iw4)
P,/Ps as parameters. The bearing losses and (A, IA,_) (w, _ _I _,A,)
accessory power are assunied to be negligible.
The pressure ratio P_/po was taken equal to unity, is read from figure 337 for the known values (if ._
and the combustor pressure ratio PJP3 was taken and PJPi.
equal to 0.97. (6) A value of I; is calculated assuming
The compressor weight flow is related to the Po/Ps = 1.0.
compressor pressure ratio and the performance of (7) If the point read __frm figure 335 for the
the combustor, turbine, tailpipe, and exhaust known values of A and P lies to the left of the
nozzle in figure 337, where P3/P_ is plotted against line F's/ps= 1.85, a value of I",/P6 is read at this
_/(1 -- Bs) (1 +J')/_lad. c_Taa,r(Ws/W4) (AJAs) (wj _f_/6IA,) point.
with (l--B3)(1 +f)(T4/T])_,d. erda. r, A8/A4(w*/w)4 If the point read from figure 335 for the known
(w4ws), P,/P,, and Ps/Ps as parameters. values of A and P lies to the right or on the line
0
e4 co _- 0 _ _ co _ 0 _ _ co
_ _ _o _ _ _ _ -- --
9d/V d 'o!loJ a_nssa_d au!q_n I

COMPHESSOR AND TUHBINE MATCHING 489
4:F
_L _T
Illi:ca!i ii!
I Tl "
_!:,ill_i!
:t, _ _
:t il _
Tt :: !'!
._i ii: 4?
L:: "
L_
?_1 r,!
._=
'_ T'.i:iil
hi)
i;; :': ,'Yi
ili _'4i!
;
i
': ;r P.
it
D 0
490 AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSOR8
0
4.0!
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
Weight flow ' (--_-")4

Choking weight flow through turbine
FIGua_, 338.--Effect of turbine pressure ratio on weight flow (ref. 349).

METHODS FOR TRANSIENT OPERATION

Ps/ps= 1.85, a value of P4/P6 is read for the design
value of _" along the line Ps/Ps-----1.85. Two problems are treated in this section.
(8) The design value of (w/w*)4 is read from the A method is discussed whereby the compressor
proper curve in figure 338 for the design value and turbine of a one-spool turbojet engine may
of PJP_. be matched for a specified flight condition, a
(9) The design value of AsA4 is calculated from specified transient path on the compressor map,
known values of _, (w/w*)4, and w,/ws. and a fixed exhaust-nozzle area (ref. 22). For a
(10) The design value of A8 is calculated from two-spool turbojet engine, procedures arc discussed
known values of _, [(1--B3)(1-_-J)], n_.c_ad.r, for finding the compressor paths during a transient
(Ws/W4), and w, _/_,. for which the exhaust-nozzle area and inner-
USE OF CHARTS FOR OFF-DESIGN POINTS turbine-inlet temperature are held constant (ref.
The following procedure may be used to locate 27).

ONE-SPOOL TURBOJET
equilibrium operating points on the compressor
map for operation with tile design values of A8 Up until now, compressor operation has been
found for a specified flight condition and mode
and As/A4 at compressor pressure ratios higher or
of engine operation. For a given flight condition,
lower than design:
the compressor equilibrium operating point was
(1) A value of PJP, is selected.
fixed by assigning two quantities such as mechani-
(2) A trial value of'-A is chosen. Although the
cal speed and turbine-inlet temperature or me-
values of AsA, and w4/w_ are known, the value of
(w/w*)4 is not known. chanical speed and exhaust-nozzle area. Now,
(3) A value of "-P is calculated assuming compressor operation is scheduled. During a
transient, the power-balance relation no longer is
po/Ps = 1.0.
valid, so that three quantities must be assigned.
(4) If the pointread from figure 335 for the
values of _ and P lies to the left of the line For a given flight condition, the desired transient
Ps/Ps= 1.85, a value of P4/P6 is read at this point. path on the compressor map is specified by assign-
If the point read from figure 335 for the values ing values for mechanical speed and compressor
of "A and "fi lies to the right or on the line pressure ratio. The exhaust-nozzle area is as-
signed to be constant during the transient;
Ps/P_.2_ 1.85, a value of P4/P6 is read for the value
of A along the line Ps/Ps_-1.85. this accounts for the third quantity.
(5) A value of (w/w*), is read from figure 338 At each speed, the excess torque is calculated
for the value of PJPs. after the turbine operating point has been found
(6) A value of"A is calculated from the values__of for the assigned compressor operating point.
For known values of moment of inertia and excess
AsA4, w4/ws, and (w/w*)4. If the calculated A
does not equal the trial value of A from step (2), torque at each speed, the time required to accel-
steps (2) to (6) are repeated until agreement is erate (or decelerate) along the specified path
reached. may be calculated. Such calculations indicate
(7) The weight-flow parameter _ is read from whether the specified path on the compressor
figure 337 for the known values of PJP, and _. map is acceptable with respect to transient opera-
(8) A value of n_.c is estimated from the com- tion. If, for a given engine configuration, the
time to accelerate is found to be excessive, various
pressor map for the known value of PJP,.
(9) The compressor weight flow w,_OJ_, is cal- schemes may be tried to improve the engine
culated from values of _, [(l--B3)(1-_f)], accelerating characteristics. These schemes will
'1_. c,7_. r, (ws/w4), and A_. involve changes in component performance or
(10) A value of ,7_a.c is read from the compressor a rematching between the compressor and tur-
map for the values of P3/P, and w,_,. If this bine, or both. The effect of these changes on
does not equal the estimated wdue of n,n.c from the engine accelerating characteristics may be
step (8), steps (8) to (10) are repeated until calculated by rematching the compressor and
turbine.
agreement is reached.
(11) The desired equilibrium operating point Compressor operation.--The steady-state com-
can be located on the compressor map from the pressor and turbine maps are assumed to be valid
values of Pa/P, (step (1)) and w,-f_/_, (step (9)). during transient operation. The aerodynamic
Equilibrium path, The nozzle equivalent weight flow is calculated

ad from
Acceleration path, /'_c
-
}- //_ "/ _s _4 Ps (463)
_._o Stall-limit
,ioe--. / \ / P8
The values of Ts/T8 and Ps/P8 depend on the per-

formance characteristics of the tailpipe and ex-
haust nozzle. A simplification that is satisfactory
Equivalent weight flow, _'_1 / 8I for many applications results from taking 7"8/Ts= 1
and Ps/Ps=0.95.
FZGURE 339.--Equilibrium and acceleration paths on
The exhaust-nozzle pressure ratio is calculated
compressor map.
from
Ps_Po P, P3 P, P6 Ps
adjustments are assumed to occur much faster
P_--po P-_oP--_P-_ P--_4
_ (464)
than the mechanical adjustments. An accelera-
tion is considered such that the compressor oper- Tim value of Po/po is known from the specified
ates along the path abcd shown in figure 339. At flight Mach number. Inlet performance yields a
a given speed N/_/_,, the compressor operating value of Pt/Po. For all values of PJpo less than
point is known, so that the value of wdV/_4 may
be calculated from
w,_=w,_,f_ N (I+J)(1--B3)
or equal to the critical value [()( p*
_ =
_+1 7i-1 ,
(459) Ps Ps; and the effective area of the convergent

_4 _1 _ P3 P_ p0 ps
Pl Pa exhaust nozzle As is found as follows:
(1) Ms is found from
where the fuel-air ratio and combustor pressure "r
ratio are usually assumed constant. P_ _f-- 1 . 2\ _:l

Turbine operation.--At this point in the proce-
) (46 )
dure, one turbine parameter is known. The sec-
(2) (w_/$A)s is found from
ond turbine parameter required to define turbine
(v+l)
operation is found in an indirect manner. At the
known value of w_Nfif4, several values of turbine SA --2116 cos # _/R_.7 ,,,
pressure ratio PdP6 are selected from the turbine
performance map (fig. 340). For each PdP_ (466)
selection, values of N/_/_ and (H_--Hs)/O_ are
read. The following calculations are made:
_ -- _ Nl.,/-_-a, rps
i
H4--Ha
/'8=1
T4
O,
cp. r 518.7
(460) &/&
t)
w4g
"5
_4 N (461)
g
btJ
(462) Equivalent-weight-flow parameler, w 4 /VI 84
FIGURE 340.--Turbine performance map.

(3) Exhaust-nozzle area is calculated from equivalent speeds are assumed to be the equi-
librium values. These values of speed, together
with the assigned values of inner-turbine-inlet
\-VA (467)
temperature and exhaust-nozzle area, fix the opera-
tion of each of the components. The excess
\ TX /, torque acting on each spool can then be calculated.
The outer- and inner-spool speed increments
When Ps/po is greater than critical, the critical occurring during a small time interval are found
value of w_/_A is used in step (3). Nozzle area from the excess torque and moment of inertia for
is plotted against turbine pressure ratio, and the each spool. The new values of outer- and inner-
value of P4/P6 for the assigned As is read. Thus, spool speed, together with the constant values of
the turbine operating point can be found for each inner-turbine-inlet temperature and exhaust-noz-
compressor operating point along the assigned zle area, determine the operation of each of the
acceleration path. components at the new time. The process is re-
Time to aecelerate.--At each point along the peated until the desired end value of outer-spool
assigned acceleration path, the excess torque speed is attained. It is a step-by-step procedure,
available may be calculated from then, and iterations are part of each step.
Thus for a specified flight condition and assigned
values of inner-turbine-inlet temperature and ex-
Q 778.2w_ [(l+J) (1-B3)cp rT4
haust-nozzle area, the transient paths on the com-
T. (468) pressor maps and the time required to traverse
(i---_4)--cp.cTl(T31--i)_
these paths may be calculated. From such calcu-
lations one can estimate whether or not an accept-
The actual values of weight flow and speed are ob-
able compromise can be reached between surge-free
tained from the equivalent values and the values of
operation and time to accelerate for a given two-
0, and $_, which are known for the assigned flight
spool turbojet engine.
condition and inlet performance.
Compressor operation.--For a specified flight
The time to accelerate along the path b to c
condition, initial values of No/g_l, N_/_/_, T,, and
(fig. 339) is found from
As, and the specification that 7"4and As are main-
tained constant during an acceleration, the follow-
_-c--rb-----2_IL_C _ dN (469)
ing procedures may be used to find the outer- and
inner-compressor operating paths and the time
where the moment of inertia I is a physical con-
required to accelerate to a higher engine speed:
stant of the engine. The acceleration of a high- (1) Values of No/_, N,/-v_I, T4, and A_ are
pressure-ratio one-spool turbojet engine as de- specified.
termined from comPonent performance charac- (2) A trial value of w2_/_ is selected.
teristics is investigated in references 22, 23, and (3) h value of T2/T1 is read from a plot of T2/TI
365. against w2-v_/_ for constant values of No/_r_l.
TWO-SPOOL TURBOJET
(4) A value of N_/-v_2 is calculated from values
For a two-spool turbojet engine, procedures are of N,/_/_l and T2/T1.
discussed for finding the compressor paths during (5) A value of P3/P2 is read from a plot P._/P2
a transient for which the exhaust-nozzle area and
against, w2_O.z/52 for constant values of Nf/_.
inner-turbine-inlet temperature are held constant.
(6) A value of T4 is calculated from
The component performance maps for equilibrium
operation are assumed to be valid for transient P_P,J_'2 72
operation. For equilibrium operation of a two-
spool turbojet, the specification of two quantities
fixes its operation. For transient operation, four
quantities are required, as the power-balance con-
dition for each spool is no longer valid. At the The value of T_ is found from the specified flight
beginning of a transient, the outer- and inner-spool .condition. The assumption of constant values
for B3,f, and P4/P3 is usually adequate. Tile value value, steps (8) to (16) are repeated until agree-
of were,64 is assumed to be the design value. ment is reached. When the selection of P4/P8
(The validity of this assumption may be checked is found to be compatible with the specified
when the inner-turbine operating point is found.) exhaust-nozzle area, the operating point of each
If the value of T_ calculated from equation (470) of the two-spool components is known at the
does not equal the assigned T_ value (step (1)), initial time.
steps (2) to (6) are repeated until agreement is
Time to accelerate.--From the component
reached.
operating points, the excess torques available for
Turbine operation.-- accelerating the outer and inner spools can be
(7) A value of Nile@ is calculated from values calculated. The specified fight condition and
of N,/_ and T,/7"1. inlet performance yield values of 01 and 5_ that
(8) A trial value of P4/P6 is selected. If the can be used to convert equivalent-speed and equiv-
proper value is chosen, the value of exhaust- alent-weight-flow values to actual values. Outer-
nozzle area calculated later in the procedure will and inner-spool excess torque are calculated from
check with the specified value of As.
(9) A trial value of P4/P5 is selected.
Q 778.2w_ [(l+f)(1-B2)(1-B_)c_ ofT5
(10) A value of T,/T_ is read from a plot of
TdT5 against N_/_r_, for constant values of PdPs. T,
(1--_)--cP'_cT_
(5_1"
\T_
7
]A (474)
(11) A value of No/_._ is calculated from
Q 778.2w2
x_.,-- _ [(l+f)(1--B3)%,,rT4
T_
_ =_/c_1 _T_ (471) (1---_,)--e.,,cT2(_--I)] (475)
(12) A value of PJP6 is calculated from Speed increments in No and N_ for a specified
time interval are defined by
P4
P5 P8
(472)
P6 P4 aNo=(No)b--(No)_=2-_o f, lb Q.... dr (476)
P5
(13) A value of wsNo/65 is calculated from AN,=(N,)b--(N_),,=_---_, f"b Q.,,, dr (477)
wv/Vo w2"v_2 No (1--B3)(I+J') (473) Because the continuous variations of Q.... and
8, _2 __/T_2p, p4p, Q_,._ with time are not known, an approximation
YT1 P2 P3 P4 is introduced. Trial increments in No and N_ are
defined by
(14) A value of w.dVd$_ is read from a plot of
wdVo/_5 against No/v/_ for constant values of 2V Q.... Ar (478)
o-- 2_rlo
PJP6. If this does not equal the value of flow
parameter calculated from equation (473) in
_ _T Qzs.
step (13), steps (9) to (14) are repeated until . ,= _ Ar (479)
agreement is reached.
(15) A value of T6/T_ is read from a plot of The time increment A_ris selected so as to result
T6/T5 against No/_ for constant values of PdP6. in reasonable speed increments. If Ar is made too
(16) A value of exhaust-nozzle area is found large, the procedure becomes inaccurate, as
from the values of nozzle equivalent weight flow evidenced by large irregularities in the points
and nozzle equivalent specific weight flow as that define the transient paths on the compressor
discussed for the one-spool turbojet. If the cal- maps. If Ar is made too small, more points will
culated value of As does not equal the specified be calculated than are necessary to define the
8. Lieblein, Seymour, Lewis, George W., Jr., and Sander-

transient paths. In reference 27, time increments
cock, Donald M.: Experimental Investigation of
of 0.1 and 0.2 second were used. At the new an Axial-Flow Compressor Inlet Stage Operating at
time (the initial time plus the time increment), Transonic Relative Inlet Mach Numbers. I--Over-
trial values of No and N_ are defined to be equal to All Performance of Stage with Transonic Rotor and
the initial values of No and N_ plus the incremental Subsonic Stators Up to Rotor Relative Inlet *Iach
Number of 1.1. NACA RM E52A24, 1952.
values calculated from the initial values ofQx_ o and
9. Lieblein, Seymour, Schwenk, Frands C., and Brod-
Qx_._ and equations (478) and (479). For these erick, Rol)ert L.: Diffusion Factor for Estimating
trial values of No and N_ and the specified values Losses and Limiting Blade Loadings in Axial-Flow-
of T_ and As, the matching procedures are repeated Compressor Blade Elements. NACA RM E53D01,
1953.
to yield component operating points and excess-
10. Sibulkin, Merwin: Theoretical and Experimental
torque values. The actual increments in No and
Investigation of Additive Drag. NACA Rep.
N_ occurring during the time interval are approxi- 11._7, 1954. (Supersedes NACA RM E51B13).
mated by substituting in equations (478) and (479) 11. Esenwein, Fred T., and Valerino, Alfred S.: Force
average values of Q .... and Qx,. _, which are defined and Pressurc Characteristics for a Series of Nose
to be the arithmetic means of the values corre- Inlets at Mach Numbers from 1.59 to 1.99. I--
Conical Spike All-External Compression Inlet with
sponding to the initial and trial values of No and Subsonic Cowl Lip. NACA RM E50J26, 1951.
N,. The actual values of No and N_ at the new 12. Pinkel, Benjamin, and Karp, Irving M.: A Thermo-
time are equal to the initial values plus the actual dynamic Study of the Turbojet Engine. NACA
speed increments. Rep. g91, 1947. (Supersedes NACA WR E-241.)
The transient paths on the outer-and inner- 13. Pinkel, Benjamin, and Karp, Irving M.: A Thermo-
dynamic Study of the Turbine-Propeller Engine.
compressor performance maps are found by
NACA Rep. 1114, 1953. (Supersedes NACA
repeating the matching procedures until the end TN 2653.)
value of engine speed is attained. The time 14. English, Robert E., and Wachtl, William W.: Charts
required to reach this speed is found by summing of Thermodynamic Properties of Air and Com-
bustion Products from 300 to 3500 R. NACA
up the time increments considered. The com-
TN 2071, 1950.
ponent operating trends during acceleration and
15. Hauser, Cavour H., and Plohr, Henry W.: Two-
deceleration of two hypothetical t'wo-spool turbo- Dimensional Cascade Investigation of the Maxi-
jet engines are discussed in reference 27. mum Exit Tangential Velocity Component and
Other Flow Conditions at the Exit of Several
REFERENCES
Turbine-Blade Designs at Supercritical Pressure
1. Supplee, H. H.: The Gas Turbine. J.B. Lippincott Ratios. NACA RM E51F12, 1951.
Co., 1910. 16. Alpert, Sumner, and Litrenta, Rose M.: Construc-
2. Howell, A. R.: Fluid Dynamics of Axial Compressors. tion and Use of Charts in Design Studies of Gas
War Emergency Issue No. 12 pub. by Inst. Mech. Turbines. NACA TN 2402, 1951.
Eng. (London), 1945. (Reprinted in U.S. by 17. Cavicchi, Richard H., and English, Robert E.:
ASME, Jan. 1947, pp. 441-452.) Analysis on Limitations hnposed on One-Spool
3. Marks, L. S., and Weske, J. R.: The Design and Per- Turbojet-Engine Designs by Compressors and
formance of an Axial-Flow Fan. Trans. ASME, Turbines at Flight Mach Numbers of 0, 2.0, and
AER-56-13, vol. 56, no. 11, Nov. 1934, pp. 807-813. 2.8. NACA RM E54F21a, 1954.
4. Constant, Hayne: The Early History of thc Axial 18. Klapl)roth, Jolm F., Jacklitch, John J., Jr., and Tysl,
Edward R.: l)csign and Performance of a 1400-
Type of Gas Turbine. War Emergency Issue No.
Foot-per-Second-Tip-Speed Supersonic Compressor
12 pub. by Inst. Mech. Eng. (London), 1945.
Rotor. NACA RM E55A27, 1955.
(Reprinted in U.S. by ASME, Jan. 1947, pp. 411-
426.) 19. Huppert, ,Merle C., Calvert, Howard F., and Meyer,
Andr5 J.: ExI)erimental Investigation of Rotating
5. Ruden, P.: Investigation of Single Stage Axial Fans.
Stall and Blade Vibration in the Axial-Flow Com-
NACA TM 1062, 1944.
pressor of a Turbojet Engine. NACA RM
6. Sinnette, John T., Jr., Schey, ()scar W., and King, J.
Austin: Performance of NACA Eight-Stage Axial- E54A0,% 1954.
20. Lucas, James G., Finger, Harold B., and Filippi,
Flow Compressor Designed on the Basis of Airfoil
Richard E.: Effect of Inlet-Annulus Area Blockage
Theory. NACA Rep. 75g, 1943. (Supersedes
on Over-All Performance and Stall Characteristics
NACA WR E-1.)
of an Experimental 15-Stage Axial-Flow Com-
7. Howell, A. R.: Design of Axial Compressors. War
pressor. NACA RM E53L28, 1954.
Emergency Issue No. 12 pub. by Inst. Mech. Eng.
21. Stockman, Norbert O.: Application of Stream-Fila-
(London), 1945. (Reprinted in U.S. by ASME,
ment Techniques to Design of Diffuser between
Jan 1947, pp. 452-462.)
COMPRESSOR
ANDTURBINE
MATCHING 497
Compressor and Combustor in a Gas-Turbine 37. Stewart, Warner L.: Investigation of Compressible
Engine. NACA RM E55F06, 1955. Flow Mixing Losses Obtained Downstream of a
22. Rebeske, John J., Jr., and Rohlik, Harold E.: Accel- Blade Row. NACA RM E54120, 1954.
eration of High-Pressure-Ratio Single-Spool Turbo- 38. Savage, Melvyn: Analysis of Aerodynamic Blade-
jet Engine As Determined from Component Loading-Limit Parameters for NACA 65-(CzoAlc)
Performance Characteristics. I--Effect of Air 10 Compressor-Blade Sections at Low Speeds.
Bleed at Compressor Outlet. NACA RM E53A09, NACA RM L54L02a, 1955.
1953. 39. Herr|g, L. Joseph, Emery, James C., and Erwin,
23. Rcbeske, John J., Jr., and Dugan, James F., Jr.: John R.: Systematic Two-Dimensional Cascade
Acceleration of High-Pressure-Ratio Single-Spool Tests of NACA 65-Series Compressor Blades at
Turbojet Engine As Determined from Component Low Speeds. NACA TN 3916, 1957. (Supersedes
Performance Characteristics. II--Effcct of Com- NACA RM L51G31.)
pressor Interstage Air Bleed. NACA RM E53E06, 40. Andrews, S. J.: Tests Related to the Effect of Profile
1953.
Shape and Camber Line on Compressor Cascade
24. Wyatt, DeMarquis D.: An Analysis of Turbojet- Performance. R. & M. 2743, British ARC, 1949.
Engine-Inlet Matching. NACA TN 3012, 1953. 41. Klapproth, John F.: General Considerations of Mach
25. Dugan, James F., Jr.: Two-Spool Matching Pro- Number Effects on Compressor-Blade Design.
cedures and Equilibrium Characteristics of a NACA RM E53L23a, 1954.
Two-Spool Turbojet Engine. NACA RM E54F09, 42. Bcatty, Loren A., Savage, Melvyn, and Emery,
1954.
James C.: Experimental Investigation of Flow
26. Dugan, James F., Jr.: Effect of Design Over-All through Three Highly Loaded Inlet Guide Vanes
Compressor Pressure Ratio Division on Two-Spool Having Different Spanwise Circlation Gradients.
Turbojet-Engine Performance and Geometry. NACA RM L52D25a, 1952.
NACA RM E54F24a, 1954. 43. Lieblein, Seymour, and Ackley, Richard H.: Second-
27. Dugan, James F., Jr.: Component Operating Trends dary Flows in Annular Cascades and Effects on
During Acceleration and Deceleration of Two Flow in Inlet Guide Vanes. NACA RM E51G27,
Hypothetical Two-Spool Turbojet Engines. 1951.
NACA RM E54L28, 1955. 44. Mahoney, John J., Dugan, Paul D., Budinger,
28. Day|son, Elmer H.: Compressor and Turbine Match- Raymond E., and Goelzer, H. Fred: Investi-
ing Considerations in Turboprop Engines. Pre- gation of Blade-RowFlow Distributions inAxial-
print No. 695, SAE, 1956. Flow-Compressor Stage Consisting of Guide Vanes
29. Sorensen, Harry A.: Gas Tttrbines. Ronald Press and Rotor-Blade Row. NACA RM E50G12, 1950.
Co., 1951. 45. Westphal, Willard R., and Godwin, William R.:
30. Wislicenus, George F.: Fluid Mechanics of Turbo- Comparison of NACA 65-Series Compressor-Blade
machinery. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1947. Pressure Distributions and l)erformance in a Rotor
31. Howell, A. R.: The Present Basis of Axial Flow and in Cascade. NACA TN 3806, 1957. (Super-
Compressor Design. Pt. I--Cascade Theory and sedes NACA RM L51H20.)
Performance. R. & M. 2095, British ARC, June 46. Johnsen, Irving A.: Investigation of a 10-Stage
1942; Pt. II--Compressor Theory and Perform- Subsonic Axial-Flow Research Compressor. I--
ance. Rep. No. E. 3961, British RAE, Dec. 1942. Aerodynamic Design. NACA RM E52B18, 1952.
32. Bowen, John T., Sabersky, Rolf H., and Rannie, W. 47. Budinger, Ray E., and Thomson, Arthur R.: Inves-
Duncan: Theoretical and Experimental Investi- tigation of a 10-Stage Subsonic Axial-Flow Re-
gations of Axial Flow Compressors. Mech. Eng. search Compressor. II--Preliminary Analysis of
Lab., C.I.T., Jan. 1949. (Navy Contract Over-All Performance. NACA RM E52C04, 1952.
N6-ORI-102.) 48. Bndinger, Ray E.: Investigation of a 10-Stage Sub-
33. Zucrow, Maurice Joseph: Principles of Jet Propulsion sonic Axial-Flow Research Compressor. VI--
and Gas Turbines. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1948. Performance Evaluation and Flow Distributions
34. Stanitz, John D.: Effect of Blade-Thickness Taper in the First, Fifth, and Tenth Stages. NACA RM
on Axial-Velocity Distribution at the Leading Edge E54F28, 1954.
of an Entrance Rotor-Blade Row with Axial Inlet, 49. Hatch, James E., Giamati, Charles C., and Jackson,
and the Influence of This Distribution on Aline- Robert J.: Application of Radial-Equilibrium Con-
ment of the Rotor Blade for Zero Angle of Attack. dition to Axial-Flow Turbomachine Design Includ-
NACA TN 2986, 1953. ing Consideration of Change of Enthropy with
35. Sinnette, John T., Jr.: Analysis of Effect of Basic Radius Downstream of Blade Row. NACA RM
Design Variables on Subsonic Axial-Flow-Com- E54A20, 1954.
pressor Performance. NACA Rep. 901, 1948. 50. Sandercock, Donald M., Kovach, Karl, and Lieblein,
(Supersedes NACA RM E7D28.) Seymour: Experimental Investigation of a Five-
36. Stanitz, John D., and Ellis, Gaylord 0.: Flow Sur- Stage Axial-Flow Research Compressor with Tran-
faces in Rotating Axial-Flow Passages. NACA sonic Rotors in All Stages. I--Compressor
TN 2834, 1952. Design. NACA RM E54F24, 1954.
691-564 0-65-33
51. Kovach, Karl, and Sandercock, Donald M.: Experi- figuration with Four Nozzle Settings and One
mental Investigation of a Five-Stage Axial-Flow Nozzle Modification. NACA RM E53A20, 1953.
Research Compressor with Transonic Rotors in All 64. Stewart, Warner L., Whitney, Warren J., and
Stages. II--Compressor Over-All Performance. Heaton, Thomas R.: Effect of Certain Combi-
NACA RM E54G01, 1954. nations of Wall Contouring and Design Exit
52. Dugan, Paul D., Mahoney, John J., and Benser, Velocity Distribution on Prediction of Turbine-
William A.: Effect of Mach Number on Perform- Nozzle Mass Flow. NACA RM E53E14, 1953.
ance of an Axial-Flow Compressor Rotor-Blade 65. Stewart, Warner L., Wong, Robert Y., and Evans,
Row. NACA RM ESD29, 1948. David G.: Design and Experimental Investiga-
tion of Transonic Turbine with Slight Negative
53. Geye, Richard P., Budinger, Ray E., and Volt,
Charles H.: Investigation of a High-Pressure-Ratio Reaction Across Rotor Hub. NACA RM
Eight-Stage Axial-Flow Research Compressor with E53L29a, 1954.

Two Transonic Inlet Stages. II--Preliminary 66. Standahar, Raymond M.: Investigation of Three
Analysis of Over-All Performance. NACA RM Highly Loaded Subsonic-Inlet-Stage Axial-Flow

Compressors Employing Varying Radial Gradients
E53J06, 1953.
54. Felix, A. Richard: Summary of 65-Series Compressor- of Energy Addition. NACA RM E54G20, 1954.
Blade Low-Speed Cascade Data by Use of the 67. Giacomelli, R., and Pistolesi, E.: Historical Sketch.
Vol. I of Aerodynamic Theory, div. D, ch. III,
Carpet-Plotting Technique. NACA TN 3913,
W. F. Durand, ed., Durand Reprinting Comm.
1957. (Supersedes NACA RM L54H18a.)
55. Lewis, George W., Jr., Schwenk, Francis C., and (C.I.T.), 1943, pp. 336-394.
68. Munk, Max M.: General Theory of Thin Wing Sec-
Serovy, George K.: Experimental Investigation of
a Transonic Axial-Flow-Compressor Rotor with tions. NACA Rep. 142, 1922.
Double-Circular-Arc Airfoil Blade Sections. I-- 69. Glauert, H.: A Theory of Thin Aerofoils. R. & M.
Design, Over-All Performance, and Stall Charac- 910, British ARC, Feb. 1924.
teristics. NACA RM E53L21a, 1954. 70. Birnbaum, W.: Die Tragende Wirbeifliiche sis Hilfs-
mittel zur Behandlung des ebenen Problems der
56. Savage, Melvyn, Erwin, John R., and Whitley,
Robert P.: Investigation of an Axial-Flow Com- Tragfliigeltheorie. Z.A.M.M., Bd. 3, Heft 4,
pressor Rotor Having NACA High-Speed Blade 1923, pp. 290-297.
Sections ((A_Isb Series) at Mean Radius Relative 71. Glauert, H.: The Elements of Aerofoil and Air-
Inlet Mach Numbers Up to 1.13. NACA RM screw Theory. Univ. Press (Cambridge), 1926.
72. Allen, H. Julian: General Theory of Airfoil Sections
L53G02, 1953.
57. Montgomery, John C., and Glaser, Frederick W.: Having Arbitrary Shape or Pressure Distribution.
Experimental Investigation of a 0.4 Hub-Tip NACA Rep. 833, 1945. (Supersedes NACA ACR
Diameter Ratio Axial-Flow Compressor Inlet Stage 3G29.
at Transonic Inlet Relative Maeh Numbers. II-- 73. Theodorsen, Theodore: Theory of Wing Sections of
Stage and Blade-Element Performance. NACA Arbitrary Shape. NACA Rep. 411, 1931.
RM E54129, 1955. 74. Thcodorsen, T., and Garrick, I. E.: General Po-
58. Hamriek, Joseph T., Ginsburg, Ambrose, and tential Theory of Arbitrary Wing Sections. NACA
Osborn, Walter M.: Method of Analysis for Com- Rep. 452, 1933.
pressible Flow Through Mixed-Flow Centrifugal 75. Naiman, Irven: Numerical Evaluation of the _-
Impellers of Arbitrary Design. NACA Rep. 1082, Integral Occurring in the Theodorsen Arbitrary
Airfoil Potential Theory. NACA WR L-136,
1952. (Supersedes NACA TN 2165.)
59. Stodola, A.: Steam and Gas Turbines. Vols. I 1944. (Supersedes NACA ARR L4D27a.)
and II. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1927. 76. Naiman, Irven: Numerical Evaluation by Harmonic
(Reprinted by Peter Smith (New York), 1945.) Analysis of the _-Function of the Theodorsen Arbi-
60. Withee, Joseph R., Jr., and Beede, William L.: trary-Airfoil Potential Theory. NACA WR L-
Design and Test of Mixed-Flow Impellers. II-- 153, 1945. (Supersedes NACA ARR L5H18.)
Experimental Results, Impeller Model MFI-1A. 77. Warschawski, S. E.: On Theodorsen's Method of
NACA RM E52E22, 1952. Conformal Mapping of Nearly Circular Regions.
61. Smith, Kenneth J., and Osborn, Walter M.: Design Quart. Appl. Math., vol. III, no. l, Apr. 1945,
and Test of Mixed-Flow Impellers. VI--Per- pp. 12-28.
formance of Parabolic-Bladed Impeller with 78. Collar, A. R.: The Flow of a Perfect Fluid Through
Cascades of Aerofoils. Rep. 4589, British ARC,
Shroud Redesigned by Rapid Approximate
Method. NACA RM E55F23, 1955. July 4, 1940.
79. Merchant, W., and Collar, A. R.: Flow of an Ideal
62. Stewart, Warner L.: Analytical Investigation of
Flow Through High-Speed Mixed-Flow Turbine. Fluid Past a Cascade of Blades, pt. II. R. & M.
NACA RM E51H06, 1951. 1893, British ARC, May 26, 1941.

63. Stewart, Warner L., Whitney, Warren J., and Mon- 80. Weinig, F.: Die Str6mung und die $chaufeln yon
Turbomasehinen. Johann Ambrosius Barth (Leip-
roe, Daniel E.: Investigation of Turbines for
Driving Supersonic Compressors. III--First Con- zig), 1935.
COMPRESSOR
ANDTURBINE
MATCHING 499
81. Pistolesi, E.: On the Calculation of Flow Past an 97. Resnick, Robert, and Green, L. J.: Velocity Dis-
Infinite Screen of Thin Airfoils. NACA TM 968, tributions and Design Data for Ideal Incompress-
1941. ible Flow through Cascades of Airfoils. Jour.
82. Lieblein, V. (Wilhelm Bente, trans.): The Calcula- Appl..Mech., vol. 18, no. 3, Sept. 1951, pp. 253-
tion of the Lift Characteristics of an Aerofoil 259.
Section in a Cascade. Rep. and Trans. 442, 98. Katzoff, S., and Hannah, Margery E.: Further Com-
M.O.S. Volkenrode, Feb. 1947. parisons of Theoretical and Experimental Lift and
83. Erwin, John R., and Yacobi, Laura A.: Method of Pressure Distributions on Airfoils in Cascade at
Estimating the Incompressible-Flow Pressure Dis- Low-Subsonic Speed. NACA TN 2391, 1951.
tribution of Compressor Blade Sections at Design 99. Betz, Albert: Diagrams for Calculation of Airfoil
Angle of Attack. NACA RM L53F17, 1953. Lattices. NACA TM 1022, 1942.
84. Woolard, Henry W.: The Incompressible Flow about 100. Goldstein, Arthur W., and Jerison, Meyer: Isolated
a Cascade of Airfoils. Rep. AF-734-A-1, Cornell and Cascade Airfoils with Prescribed Velocity
Aero. Lab., Nov. 1950. Distribution. NACA Rep. 869, 1947. (Super-
85. Scholz, N.: On an Extension of Glauert's Theory of sedes NACA TN 1308.)
Thin Airfoils to Profiles in Cascade. Jour. Aero. 101. Betz, A.: Modification of Wing-Section Shape to
Sci., vol. 18, no. 9, Sept. 1951, pp. 637-638. Assure a Predetermined Change in Pressure Dis-
86. Katzoff, S., Finn, Robert S., and Laurence, James C.: tribution. NACA TM 767, 1935.
Interference Method for Obtaining the Potential 102. Theodorscn, Theodore: Airfoil-Contour Modifica-
Flow Past an Arbitrary Cascade of Airfoils. tions Based on _-Curve Method of Calculating
NACA Rep. 879, 1947. (Supersedes NACA TN Pressure Distribution. NACA WR L-135, 1944.
1252.) (SupersedesNACA ARR L4G05.)
87. Howell, A. R.: A Theory of Arbitrary Airfoils in 103. Gebelein, H.: Theory of Two-Dimensional Potential
Cascade. Phil. Mag., vol. 39, no. 299, Dec. 1948, Flow about Arbitrary Wing Sections. NACA TM
pp. 913-927. 886, 1939.
88. Carter, A. D. S., and Hughes, Hazel P.: A Theo- 104. Peebles, Glenn H.: A Method for Calculating Air-
retical Investigation into the Effect of Profile foil Sections from Specifications on the Pressure
Shape on the Performance of Aerofoils in Cascade. Distributions. Jour. Aero. Sci., vol. 14, no. 8,
R. & M. 2384, British ARC, Mar. 1946. Aug. 1947, pp. 451-456.
89. Vazsonyi, Andrew: On the Aerodynamic Design of 105. Hansen, Arthur G., and Yohner, Peggy L.: A Nu-
Axial-Flow Compressors and Turbines. Jour. merical Procedure for Designing Cascade Blades
Appl. Mech., vol. 15, no. l, Mar. 1948, pp. 53-64. with Prescribed Velocity Distributions in Incom-
90. Garrick, I. E.: On the Plane Potential Flow Past a pressible Potential Flow. NACA TN 2101, 1950.
Lattice of Arbitrary Airfoils. NACA Rep. 788, 106. Lighthill, M. J.: A Mathematical Method of Cascade
1944. (Supersedes NACA WR L-313.) Design. R. & M. 2104, British ARC, June 1945.
91. Kawada, S.: A Contribution to the Theory of Lat- 107. Southwell, R. V.: Relaxation Methods in Theoretical
ticed Wings. Proc. Third Int. Cong. Appl. Mech., Physics. Clarendon Press (Oxford), 1946.
vol. I, pt. I, Aug. 24-29, 1930. 108. Emmons, Howard W.: The Numerical Solution of
92. von K_rm_n, Th., and Burgers, J. M.: Flow Through Partial Differential Equations. Quart. Appl.
a Lattice Composed of Airfoils. Vol. II of Aero- Math., vol. II, no. 3, Oct. 1944, pp. 173-195.
dynamic Theory, div. E, ch. II, pt. B, sec. 23, 109. Shaw, F. S.: Introduction to Relaxation Methods.
W. F. Durand, ed., Julius Springer (Berlin), 1935, Dover Pub., 1953.
pp. 91-96. 110. Chaplygin, S.: Gas Jets. NACA TM 1063, 1944.
93. Traupel, W.: Die Berechnung der PotentialstrSmung 111. Garrick, I. E., and Kaplan, Carl: On the Flow of a
durch Schaufelgitter. Schweizer Archly f. Angc- Compressible Fluid by the Hodograph Method.
wandte Wiss. und Tech., Bd. 10, Heft 12, 1944. I--Unification and Extension of Present-Day
94. Calderwood, James: Some Researches on Internal Results. NACA Rep. 789, 1944. (Supersedes
Combustion Prime Movers. Trans. North East NACA ACR L4C24.)
Coast Inst. Eng. and Shipbuilders, vol. 62, 1945- 112. Demtchenko, B.: Quelques problbmes d'hydrody-
1946, pp. 283-310; Appendix by W. Traupel, pp. namique bidimensionelle des fluides compressibles.
311-328. Pub. Scientifique et Techniques du Minist_re de
95. Mutterperl, William: The Conformal Transformation l'Air (France), No. 144, 1939.
of an Airfoil into a Straight Line and Its Applica- 113. yon K_rm_n, Th.: Compressibility Effects in Aero-
tion to the Inverse Problem of Airfoil Theory. dynamics. Jour. Aero. Sci., vol. 8, no. 9, July
NACA WR L-113, 1944. (Supersedes NACA 1941, pp. 337-356.
ARR L4K22a.) 114. Tsien, Hsue-Shcn: Two-Dimensional Subsonic Flow
96. Mutterperl, William: A Solution of the Direct and of Compressible Fluids. Jour. Aero. Sci., vol. 6,
Inverse Potential Problems for Arbitrary Cascades no. 10, Aug. 1939, pp. 399-407.
of Airfoils. NACA WR L-81, 1944. (Supersedes 115. Costello, George R.: Method of Designing Cascade
NACA ARR L4K22b.) Blades with Prescribed Velocity Distributions in
50O AERODYNAMIC DESIGN OF
Application to Solution of Partial Differential

Compressible Potential Flows. NACA Rep. 978,
1950. (Supersedes NACA TN's 1913 and 1970.) Equations. NACA TN 2214, 1950.
116. Costello, George R., Cummings, Robert L., and 130. Wu, Chung-Hua: Matrix and Relaxation Solutions
that Determine Subsonic Through Flow in an
Sinnette, John T., Jr.: Detailed Computational
Axial-Flow Gas Turbine. NACA TN 2750, 1952.
Procedure for Design of Cascade Blades with Pre-
131. Stanitz, John D.: Design of Two-Dimensional
scribed Velocity Distributions in Compressible
Channels with Prescribed Velocity Distributions
Potential Flows. NACA Rep. 1060, 1952. (Su-
along the Channel Walls. NACA Rep. 1115, 1953.
persedes NACA TN 2281.)
(Supersedes NACA TN's 2593 and 2595.)
117. Clauser, Francis H.: Two-Dimensional Compressible
132. Stanitz John l)., and Sheldrake, Leonard J.: Appli-
Flows Having Arbitrarily Specified Pressure Distri-
butions for Gases with Gamma Equal to Minus cation of a Channel Design Method to High-
Solidity Cascades and Tests of an Impulse Cascade
One. Rep. NOLR 1132, Symposium on Theoreti-
with 90 of Turning. NACA Rep. 1116, 1953.
cal Compressible Flow, U.S. Naval Ord. Lab.,
June 28, 1949, pp. 1-33. (Supersedes NACA TN 2652.)
133. Ackeret, J. (V. P. Akimoff, trans.): The Design of
118. Lin. C.C.: On the Subsonic Flow through Circular
Closely Spaced Blade Grids. R.T.P. Trans.
and Straight Lattices of Airfoils. Jour. Math
and Phys., vol. XXXVIII, no. 2, July 1949, pp. No. 2007, British M.A.P.
134. Sawyer, William T.: Experimental Investigation of a
117-130.
Stationary Cascade of Aerodynamic Profiles.
119. Lin, C. C.: On an Extension of the yon K_rm_n-
Tsien Method to Two-Dimensional Subsonic Flows Mitt. aus d. Inst. f. Aero., Heft 17, Zurich, 1949.
with Circulation around Closed Profiles. Quart. 135. Alpert, Sumner: Design Method for Two-Dimen-
sional Channels for Compressible Flow with Appli-
Appl. Math., vol. IV, no. 3, Oct. 1946, pp. 291-297.
cation to High-Solidity Cascades. NACA TN
120. Sauer, Robert: Introduction to Theoretical Gas
Dynamics. J. W. Edwards (Ann Arbor), 1947. 1931, 1949.
136. Stanitz, John D.: Approximate Design Method for
121. Woolard, Henry W.: A Note on the Subsonic Com-
High-Solidity Blade Elements in Compressors and
pressible Flow about Airfoils in a Cascade. Jour.
Turbines. NACA TN 2408, 1951.
Aero. Sci., vol. 17, no. 6, June 1950, pp. 379-381.
137. Orlin, W. James. Lindner, Norman J., and Bitterly,
122. Briggs, William B.: Effect of Mach Number on the
Jack G., Application of the Analogy between Water
Flow and Application of Compressibility Correc-
Flow with a Free Surface and Two-Dimensional
tions in a Two-Dimensional Subsonic-Transonic
Compressible Gas Flow. NACA Rep. 875, 1947.
Compressor Cascade Having Varied Porous-Wall
Suction at the Blade Tips. NACA TN 2649, (Suoersedes NACA TN 1185.)
1952. 138. Portisky, H., Sells, B. E., and Danforth, C. E.:

Graphical, Mechanical, and Electrical Aids for
123. Erwin, John R., Savage, Melvyn, and Emery, James
C.: Two-Dimensional Low-Speed Cascade Investi- Compressible Fluid Flow. Jour. Appl. Mech._
vol. 17, no. 1, Mar. 1950, pp. 37-46.
gation of NACA Compressor Blade Sections
139. Westphal, Willard R., and Dunavant, James C.:
Having a Systematic Variation in Mean-Line Load-
A Compressible-Flow Plotting Device and Its
ing. NACA TN 3817. 1956. (Supersedes NACA
Application to Cascades Flows. NACA TN 2681,
RM L53130b.)
1952.
124. Huppert. M. C., and MacGregor, Charles: Com-
parison between Predicted and Observed Perfor- 140. Westphal, Willard R., and Dunavant James C.:
mance of Gas-Turbine Stator Blade Designed for Application of the Wire-Mesh Plotting Device to
Free-Vortex Flow. NACA TN 1810, 1949. Incompressible Cascade Flow. NACA TN 2095,
1950.
125. Stanitz, John D., and Prian, Vasily D.: A Rapid Ap-
proximate Method for Determining Velocity 141. Taylor, G. I., and Sharman, C. F.: A Mechanical
.Method for Solving Problems of Flow in Com-
Distribution on Impeller Blades of Centrifugal
Compressors. NACA TN 2421, 1951. pressible Fluids. R. & M. No. 1195, British ARC,
126. Wu, Chung-Hua, and Brown, Curtis A.: A Theory Aug. 1928.
of the Direct and Inverse Problems of Compressible 142. Malavard, L.: Use of Rheoelectrical Analogies.
Flow Past Cascade of Arbitrary Airfoils. Jour. Jour. Roy. Aero. Soc., vol. 51, no. 441, 1947.
143. Peres, J.: Les methodes d'analogie en mecanique
Aero. Sci., vol. 19, no. 3, Mar. 1952, pp. 183-196.
appliquee. Proc. Fifth Int. Cong. Appl. Mech.,
J27. Wu, Chung-Hua, and Brown, Curtis A.: Method of
Analysis for Compressible Flow Past Arbitrary 1938, pp. 9-19.
Turbomachine Blades on General Surface of Revo- 144. Preiswerk, Ernst: Application of the Methods of (]as
Dynamics to Water Flows with Free Surface.
lution. NACA TN 2407, 1951.
I--Flows with No Energy Dissipation. NACA
128. Milne, William Edmund: Numerical Calculus.
Princeton Univ. Press, 1949. TM 934, 1940.
129. Wu, Chung-Hua: Formulas and Tables of Coeffici- 145. Hargest, T..l.: The Theoretical Pressure Distribu-
tions around Some Related Aerofoils in Cascade.
ents for Numerical Differentiation with Function
Values Given at Unequally Spaced Points and Memo. M.68, British NGTE, Nov. 1949.
146. Hargest, T. J.: The Theoretical Pressure Distribu- Intensity and Scale of Wind-Tunnel Turbulence
tions around Some Conventional Turbine Blades and Their Relation to the Critical Reynolds
in Cascade. R. & M. 2765, British ARC, 1949. Number of Spheres. NACA Rep. 581, 1937.
147. deHaller, P.: Application of Electrical Analogy to the 165. Seiferth, R., ed.: Dr--Model Testing Technique.
Investigation of Cascades. Sulzer Tech. Rev., I--Test Installations. Measurement of the Tunnel
No. 3/4, 1947, pp. 11-17. Turbulence by Means of a Sphere and Its Relation
148. Vandrey, F.: Investigations of Plane Sut)sonic Flow to the Hot-Wire Measurement. Rep. and Trans.
with the Help of an Electrical Analogy. LFA No. 9!}4, M.A.P. Volkenrode, June 15, 1947.
V61kenrode Trans. No. 34, British M.O.S. 166. Bursnall, William J., and Loftin, Laurence K., Jr.:
149. Bieberbach, L.: Conformal Mapping. Chelsea Pub. Experimental Investigation of Localized Regions
Co. (New York), 1953. of Laminar-Boundary-Layer Separation. NACA
150. Schilhansl, Max J.: Survey of Information on Two- TN 2338, 1951.
Dimensional Cascades. Tech. Rep. 54-322, 167. Blight, F. G., and Howard, W.: Tests on Four
WADC, _Ear. 1955. Airfoil Cascadcs. Pt. I--Dcflcction, Drag, and
151. Schlichting, H.: Lecture Series "Boundary Layer Velocity Distribution. Pt. II--Boundary Layer
Theory." Pt. I--Laminar Flows. Pt. II--Turbu- Characteristics. Reps. E.74 and E.75, I)ept.
lent Flows. NACA TM's 1217 and 1218, 1949. Supply, Aero. Res. Labs., Melbourne (Australia),
152. Goldstein, Sydney, ed.: Modern Developments in July 1952.
Fluid Dynamics. Vols. I and II. Clarendon 168. Carter, A. D. S., Andrews, S. J., and Shaw, H.:
Press (Oxford), 1938. Some Fluid Dynamic Research Techniques. Proc.
153. Dryden, Hugh L.: Recent Advances in the Mechanics Inst. Mech. Eng. (London), vol. 163, 1950, pp.
of Boundary Layer Flow. Advances in Appl. 249-263.
Mech., vol. 1, 1948. 169. yon K_rm_n, Th.: On Laminar and Turbulent
154. Howarth, L., ed.: Modern Developments in Fluid Friction. NACA TM 1092, 1946.
Dynamics; High Speed Flow. Vols. I and II. 170. Loitsianskii, L. G.: Approximate Method of Integra-
Clarendon Press (Oxford), _1953. tion of Laminar Boundary Layer in Incompressible
155. Squire, H. B., and Young, A. D.: The Calculation Fluid. NACA TM 1293, 1951.
of the Profile Drag of Aerofoils. R. & M. 1838, 171. Thwaites, B.: Approximate Calculation of the
British ARC, Nov. 1937.
Laminar Boundary Layer. Aero. Quarterly, vol.
156. Lieblein, Seymour, and Roudebush, William H.: 1, Nov. 1949, pp. 245-280.
Theoretical Loss Relations for Low-Speed Two- 172. Owen, P. R., and Klanfer, L.: On the Laminar
Dimensional-Cascade Flow. NACA TN 3662,
Boundary Layer Separation from the LeadLng Edge
1956.
of a Thin Aerofoil. Rep. AERO. 2508, British
157. Pohlhausen, K.: Zur naherungsweisen Integration
RAE, Oct. 1953.
der Differentialgleichung der laminaren Grenz-
173. Crooks, P. V., and Howard, W.: Low Speed Tests on
schicht. Z.A.M.M., Bd. l, Heft 4, Aug. 1921
Three Aerofoil Cascades Designed for Prescribed
pp. 252-268.
Surface Velocity Distributions. Rep. ME.76,
158. Clauser, Francis H.: Turbulent Boundary Layers in
Res. & Dev. Branch, Aero. Res. Labs., Melbourne
Adverse Pressure Gradients. Jour. Aero. Sci.,
(Australia), June 1954.
vol. 21, no. 2, Feb. 1954, pp. 91-108.
174. von Doenhoff, Albert E., and Tetervin, Neal:
159. Ludwieg, H., and Tillmann, W.: Investigations of the
Determination of General Relations for the Be-
Wall-Shearing Stress in Turbulent Boundary
havior of Turbulent Boundary Layers. NACA
Layers. NACA TM 1285, 1950.
Rep. 772, 1943. (Supersedes NACA WR L-382.)
160. Maskell, E. C.: Approximate Calculation of the
175. Persh, Jerome: The Behavior of the Boundary Layer
Turbulent Boundary Layer in Two-Dimensional
in the Region of Transition from Laminar to
Incompressible Flow. Rep. AERO 2443, British
Turbulent Flow. Jour. Aero. Sci., vol. 22, no. 6,
RAE, Nov. 1951.
161. Schubauer, G. B., and Skramstad, H. K.: Laminar- June 1955, pp. 443-444.
Boundary-Layer Oscillations and Transition on a 176. Braslow, Albert L., and Visconti, Fioravante: In-
Flat Plate. NACA Rep. 909, 1948. (Supersedes vestigation of Boundary-Layer Reynolds Number
NACA WR W-8.) for Transition on an NACA 65(2,_)-114 Airfoil in
162. Bussmann, K., and Ulrich, A.: Systematic Investiga- the Langley Two-Dimensional Low-Turbulence
tions of the Influence of the Shape of the Profilc Pressure Tunnel. NACA TN 1704, 1948.
upon the Position of the Transition Point. NACA 177. Katzoff, S., Bogdonoff, Harriet E., and Boyet,
TM 1185, 1947. Howard: Comparisons of Theoretical and Experi-
163. Taylor, G. I.: Some Recent Developments in the mental Lift and Pressure Distributions on Airfoils
Study of Turbulence. Proc. Fifth Int. Cong. in Cascade. NACA TN 1376, 1947.
Appl. Mech., 1938, pp. 294-310. 178. Preston, J. H.: The Calculation of the Lift Taking
164. Dryden, Hugh L., Schubauer, G. B., Mock, W. C., Account of the Boundary Layer. R. & M. 2725,
Jr., and Skramstad, H. K.: Measurements of British ARC, 1949.
179. Loitsianskii, L. G.: Soprotivlenie Reshetki Profilei 195. Korbacher, G. K.: A Test on a Compressor Cascade
Obtekaemoi Viazl_oi Neszhimaemoi Zhidkost'iu. of Aerofoils Having Their Position of Maximum
Prik. Mate. i Mikh., vol. XI, no. 4, 1947. (Resist- Thickness 40% of the Chord from the Leading
ance of Cascade of Airfoils in Viscous Incompress- Edge and a Pitch/Chord Ratio of 0.75. Memo.
ible Fluid.) (Trans. available from NASA Head- M.89, British NGTE, June 1950.
quarters.) 196. Jeffs, R. A., Hounsell, A. F., and Adams, R. G.:

Further Performance Data for Aerofoils Having
180. Loitsianskii, L. G.: Resistance of Cascade of Airfoils
in Gas Stream at Subsonic Velocity. NACA TM C.1, C.2, or C.4 Base Profiles on Circular Are
1303, 1951. Camber Lines. Memo. M.139, British NGTE,
181. Schlichting, H., und Scholz, _. : _ber die theoretische Dee. 1951.
Berechnung der Stromungsverluste eines ebenen 197. Howell, A. R.: A Note on Compressor Base Aerofoils
Schaufelgitters. Ing.-Archiv., Bd. XIX, Heft 1, C.1, C.2, C.3, C.4, C.5, and Aerofoils Made Up of
1951, pp. 42-65. Circular Arcs. Memo. M.1011, Power Jets (Res.
182. Platt, Robert C.: Turbulence Factors of NACA and Dev.), Ltd., Sept. 1944.
Wind Tunnels as Determined by Sphere Tests. 198. Hughes, Hazel P.: Base Profiles C.7. Memo.
NACA Rep. 558, 1936. M.1210, British NGTE, May 1946.
183. Lawson, T. V.: An investigation into the Effect of 199. Felix, A. Richard, and Emery, James C.: A Com-
Reynolds Number on a Cascade of Blades With parison of Typical National Gas Turbine Estab-
Parabolic Are Camber Line. Memo. M.195, lishment and NACA Axial-Flow Compressor Blade
British NGTE, Nov. 1953. Sections in Cascade at Low Speed. NACA TN
184. Kantrowitz, Arthur, and Daum, Fred L.: Prelimi- 3937, 1957. (Supersedes NACA RM L53B26a.)
nary Experimental Investigation of Airfoils in 200. Andrews, S. J., Andrews, Patrieia M., and Baines,
Cascade. NACA WR L-231, 1942. (Supersedes Margaret: A Comparison Between Two Compres-
NACA CB.) sor Cascades Using C.4 Profile on Parabolic and

Circular Arc Camber Lines. Memo. M.6, British
185. Bogdonoff, Seymour M., and Bogdonoff, Harriet E.:
Blade Design Data for Axial-Flow Fans and Com- NGTE, Sept. 1946.
pressors. NACA WR L-635, 1945. (Supersedes 201. Carter, A. l). S.: Some Tests on Compressor Cascades
NACA ACR L5F07a.) of Related Aerofoils Having Different Positions of
Maximum Camber. Rep. R.47, British NGTE,
186. Constant, H.: Note on Performance of Cascades of
Aerofoils. Note E-3696, British RAE, 1939. Dee. 1948.
187. Davis, Hunt: A Method of Correlating Axial-Flow- 202. Herrig, L. Joseph, Emery, James C., and Erwin,
Compressor Cascade Data. ASME Trans., vol. John R.: Effect of Section Thickness and Trailing-
70, no. 8, Nov. 1948, pp. 951-955. Edge Radius on the Performance of NACA 65-
188. Howell, A. R., and Carter, A. D. S.: Fluid Flow Series Compressor Blades in Cascade at Low
Through Cascades of Aerofoils. Rep. R.6, British Speeds. NACA RM L51JI6, 1951.
NGTE, Sept. 1946. 203. Bailey, W., and Jefferson, J. L.: Compressibility Ef-
189. Carter, A. D. S., and Hounsell, A. F.: General Per- fects on Cascades of Low Cambered Compressor
formance Data for Aerofoils Having C.1, C.2, or Blades. Rep. E. 3972, British RAE, May 1943.
C.4 Base Profiles on Circular Arc Camber Lines. 204. Reeman, J., and Simonis, E. A.: The Effect of Trail-
Memo. M.62, British NGTE, Aug. 1949. ing Edge Thickness on Blade Loss. Tech. Note
190. Carter, A. D. S.: The Low Speed Performance of 116, British RAE, Mar. 1943.
Related Aerofoils in Cascade. Rep. R.55, British 205. Todd, K. W.: An Experimental Study of Three-Di-
NGTE, Sept. 1949. (See also C.P. 29, British mensional High-Speed Air Conditions in a Cascade
M.O.S., Sept. 1949.) of Axial-Flow Compressor Blades. R. & M. 2792,
191. Erwin, John R., and Emery, James C.: Effect of British ARC, Oct. 1949.
Tunnel Configuration and Testing Technique on 206. Bogdonoff, Seymour M.: NACA Cascade Data for
Cascade Performance. NACA Rep. 1016, 1951. the Blade 1)esigu of High-Performance Axial-Flow
(Supersedes NACA TN 2028.) Compressors. Jour. Aero. Sci., vol. 15, no. 2, Feb.
192. Fletcher, P. J.: Low Speed Tests on Compressor 1948, pp. 8(.}-95.
Cascades of Parabolic Cambered Aerofoils. Pt. 207. Savage, Melvyn, Felix, A. Richard, and Emery,
I--Pitch/Chord Ratio = 1.0. Ft. II--Pitch/Chord James C.: High-Speed Cascade Tests of a Blade
Ratio _ 0.75. Memos. M.81 and M.159, British Section Designed for Typical Hub Conditions
NGTE, Mar. 1950 and Nov. 1952. of High-Flow Transonic Rotors. NACA RM
193. Schlichting, Herman: Problems and Results of In- L55F07, 1955.
vestigations on Cascade Flow. Jour. Aero. Sci., 208. Carter, A. I). S., and Hughes, Hazel P.: A Note on
vol. 21, no. 3, Mar. 1954, pp. 163-178. the High Speed Performance of Compressor Cas-
194. Blight, F. G., Howard, W., and McCallum, H.: The cades. Memo. M.42, British NGTE, Dec. 1948.
Design and Performance of a Low-Speed Cascade 209. Staniforth, R.: A Note on Compressor Operation at
Tunnel. Eng. Note 133, Aero. Lab., Fishermcn's Transonic Relative Inlet Mach Numbers. Memo.
Bend, Melbourne (Australia), June 1949. M.224, British NGTE, July 1954.
COMPRESSOR
ANDTURBINE
MATCHING 503
210. Carter, A. D. S.: Throat Areas of Compressor Blade 223. Moses, Jason J., and Serovy, George K.: Effect of
Cascades Derived for the Base Aerofoil C.4. Blade-Surface Finish on Performance of a Single-
Memo. M.1025, Power Jets, Ltd., Oct. 1944. Stage Axial-Flow Compressor. NACA RM
211. Hughes, Hazel P.: Throat Areas for tile Parabolic E51C09, 1951.
Arc Cambered Aerofoil C.4 in Cascade. Memo. 224. Moses, J. J., and Serovy, G. K.: Some Effects of
M.157, British NGTE, Aug. 1952. Blade Trailing-Edge Thickness on Performance of
212. Wright, Linwood C., and Schwind, Richard: Throat- a Single-Stage Axial-Flow Compressor. NACA
Area Determination for a Cascade of Double- RM E51F28, 1951.
Circular-Arc Blades. NACA RM E55H25a, 1955. 225. Thurston, Sidney, and Brunk, Ralph E.: Performance
213. Dunavant, James C.: Cascade Invcstigation of a Re- of a Cascade in an Am_ular Vortex-Generating
lated Series of 6-Percent-Thick Guide-Vane Profiles Tunnel Over Range of Reynolds Numbers.
and Design Charts. NACA TN 3959. (Super- NACA RM E51G30, 1951.
sedes NACA RM L54102.)
226. Wallner, Lewis E., and Fleming, William A.: Rey-
214. Alsworth, Charles C., and Iura, Toru: Theoretical nolds Number Effect on Axial-Flow Compressor
and Experimental Investigations of Axial Flow Performance. NACA RM E9Gll, 1949.
Compressors. Pt. 3--Progress Report on Loss
227. Miihlemaun, E. (John Perl, trans.): Experimental
Measurements in Vortex Blading. Mech. Eng. Investigations on an Axial Blower Stage. Lock-
Lab., C.I.T., July 1951. (Navy Contract N6-.
heed Aircraft Corp., Burbank (Calif.).
ORI-102.)
228. Volt, Charles H., Guentert, Donald C., and Dugan,
215. Mankuta, Harry, and Guentert, Donald C.: Some
James F.: Effect of Mach Number on Over-All
Effect of Solidity on Turning through Constant-
Performance of Single-Stage Axial-Flow Com-
Thickness Circular-Arc Guide Vanes in Axial
pressor Designed for High Pressure Ratio. NACA
Annular Flow. NACA RM E51E07, 1951.
RM E50D26, 1950.
216. Korbacher, G. K.: A Test on a Compressor Cascade
229. Robbins, William H., and Glaser, Frederick W.:
of Aerofoils Having Their Position of Maximum
Investigation of an Axial-Flow-Compressor Rotor
Thickness 40% of the Chord and a Position of
with Circular-Arc Blades Operating Up to a Rotor-
Maximum Camber of 45% of the Chord from the
Inlet Relative Mach Number of 1.22. NACA RM
Leading Edge. Memo. M.80, British NGTE,
E53D24, 1953.
Mar. 1950.
230. Jackson, Robert J.: Effects on the Weight-Flow
217. Wilson, Robert E.: Turbulent Boundary-Layer Char-
Range and Efficiency of a Typical Axial-Flow
acteristics at Supersonic Speeds--Theory and Ex-
Compressor Inlet Stage That Result from the Use
periment. Jour. Aero. Sci., vol. 17, no. 9, Sept.
of a Decreased Blade Camber or Decreased Guide-
1950, pp. 585-594.
Vane Turning. NACA RM E52G02, 1952.
218. Schulze, Wallace M., Erwin, John R., and Ashby,
George C., Jr.: NACA 65-Series Compressor Rotor 231. Jackson, Robert J.: Analysis of Performance of Four
Performance with Varying Annulus-Area Ratio, Symmetrical-Diagram-Type Subsonic Inlet-Stage
Solidity, Blade Angle, and Reynolds Number and Axial-Flow Compressors. NACA RM E53K03,
Comparison with Cascade Results. NACA TN 1954.
4130, 1957. (Supersedes NACA RM L52L17.) 232. Standahar, Raymond M., and Serovy, George K.:
219. Ashby, George C., Jr.: Comparison of Low-Speed Some Effects of Changing Solidity by Varying the
Rotor and Cascade Performance for Medium- Number of Blades on Performance of an Axial-
Camber NACA 65-- (CloAl0) 10 Compressor-Blade flow Compressor Stage. NACA RM E52A31,
Sections Over a Wide Range of Rotor Blade- 1952.
Setting Angles at Solidities of 1.0 and 0.5. NACA 233. Serovy, George K., Robbins, William H., and Glaser,
RM L54113, 1954. Frederick W.: Experimental Investigation of a 0.4
220. Andrews, S. J., and Ogden, H.: A Detailed Experi- Hub-Tip Diameter Ratio Axial-Flow Compressor
mental Comparison of Blades Designed for Free Inlet Stage at Transonic Inlet Relative Mach
Vortex Flow and Equivalent Untwisted Constant Numbers. I--Rotor Design and Over-All Perform-
Section Blades. Rep. R.123, British NGTE, Aug. ance at Tip Speeds from 60 to 100 Percent of
1952. Design. NACA RM E53Ill, 1953.
221. Lieblein, Seymour: Review of ttigh-Performance 234. Tysl, Edward R., Sehwenk, Francis C., and Watkins,
Axial-Flow-Compressor Blade-Element Theory. Thomas B.: Experimental Investigation of a
NACA RM E53L22, 1954. Transonic Compressor Rotor with a 1.5-Inch Chord
222. Schwenk, Francis C., Lieblein, Seymour, and Lewis, Length and an Aspect Ratio of 3.0. I--Design,
George W., Jr.: Experimental Investigation of an Over-All Performance, and Rotating-Stall Charac-
Axial-Flow Compressor Inlet Stage Operating at teristics. NACA RM E54L31, 1955.
Transonic Relative Inlet Mach Numbers. III-- 235. Sandercock, Donald M., Lieblein, Seymour, and
Blade-Row Performance of Stage with Transonic Schwenk, Francis C.: Experimental Investigation
Rotor and Subsonic Stator at Corrected Tip Speeds of an Axial-Flow Compressor Inlet Stage Operat-
of 800 and 1000 Feet per Second. NACA RM ing at Transonic Relative Inlet Maeh Numbers.
E53G17, 1953. IV--Stage and Blade-Row Performance of Stage
with Axial-Discharge Stators. NACA RM 252. Bogdonoff, Seymour M.: The Performance of Axial-
E54C26, 1954. Flow Compressors As Affected by Single-Stage
236. Wu, Chung-Hua, and Wolfenstein, Lincoln: Appli- Characteristics. Jour. Aero. Sci., vol. 18, no. 5,
cation of Radial-Equilibrium Condition to Axial- May 1951, pp. 319-328.
Flow Compressor and Turbine Design. NACA 253. Medeiros, Arthur A., Benser, William A., and Hatch,
Rep. 955, 1950. (Supersedes NACA TN 1795.) James E.: Analysis of Off-Design Performance of
237. Eekert, and Korbacher: The Flow Through Axial a 16-Stage Axial-Flow Compressor With Various
Turbine Stages of Large Radial Blade Length. Blade Modifications. NACA RM E52L03, 1953.
NACA TM 1118, 1947. 254. Geye, Richard P., and Volt, Charles H.: Investigation
238. Marble, Frank E.: The Flow of a Perfect Fluid of a High-Pressure-Ratio Eight-Stage Axial-Flow
Through an Axial Turbomachine with Prescribed Research Compressor With Two Transonic Inlet
Blade Loading. Jour. Aero. Sci., vol. 15, no. 8, Stages. IV--Modification of Aerodynamic De-
Aug. 1948, pp. 473-485. sign and Prediction of Performance. NACA
239. Marble, Frank E., and Michelson, Irving: Analytical RM E55B28, 1955.
Investigation of Some Three Dimensional Flow 255. Standahar, Raymond M., and Geye, Richard P.:
Problems in Turbomachines. NACA TN 2614, Investigation of a High-Pressure-Ratio Eight-Stage
1952. Axial-Flow Research Compressor With Two Tran-
240. Eckert, B.: Axialkompressoren und Radialkompres- sonic Inlet Stages. V--Preliminary Analysis of
soren. Springer-Verlag (Berlin), 1953. Over-All Performance of Modified Compressor.
241. Wu, Chung-Hua: Subsonic Flow of Air Through a NACA RM E55A03, 1955.
Single-Stage and a Seven-Stage Compressor. 256. Howell, A. R., and Bonham, R. P.: Over-All and
NACA TN 2961, 1953. Stage Characteristics of Axial-Flow Compressors.
242. Wu, Chung-Hua: A General Theory of Three-Di- Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., vol. 163, 1950, pp. 235-248.
mensional Flow in Subsonic and Supersonic Turbo- 257. Budinger, Ray E., and Serovy, Geroge K.: Investi-
machines of Axial-, Radial-, and Mixed-Flow gation of a 10-Stage Subsonic Axial-Flow Research
Types. NACA TN 2604, 1952. Compressor. IV--Individual Stage Performance
243. Novak, R. A.: Notes on the Fundamentals of the Characteristics. NACA RM E53C11, 1953.
Design of Multi-Stage Axial Compressors. Lec- 258. Volt, Charles H., and Geye, Richard P.: Investi-
ture No. 6, Gas Turbine Lectures, Dept. Mech. gation of a High-Pressure-Ratio Eight-Stage
and Ind. Eng., Univ. Mich., June 29-July 10, 1953. Axial-Flow Research Compressor with Two Tran-
244. Smith, L. H., Jr., Traugott, S. C., and Wislicenus, sonic Inlet Stages. III--Individual Stage Per-
G.F.: A Practical Solution of a Three-Dimensional formance Characteristics. NACA RM E54tt17,
Flow Problem of Axial-Flow Turbomachinery. 1954.
Trans. ASME, vol. 75, no. 5, July 1953, pp. 259. Cheshire, L. J.: The Design and Development of
789-803. Centrifugal Compressors for Aircraft Gas Tur-
245. Holmquist, Carl O., and Rannie, W. Duncan: An bines. War Emergency Issue No. 12 pub. by
Approximate Method of Calculating Three-Di- Inst. Mech. Eng. (London), 1945. (Reprinted
mensional Flow in Axial Turbomachines. Paper in U.S. by ASME, Jan. 1947, p. 438.)
presented at meeting Inst. Aero. Sci., New York, 260. Schulze, Wallace M., Erwin, John R., and Westphal,
Jan. 24-28, 1955. Willard R.: Investigation of an Impulse Axial-Flow
246. Carter, A. D. S., Andrews, S. J., and Fielder, E. A.: Compressor Rotor Over a Range of Blade Angles.
The Design and Testing of an Axial Compressor NACA RM L50F27a, 1950.
Having a Mean Stage Temperature Rise of 30 C. 261. Grant, Howard P.: Hot Wire Measurements of Stall
Rep. R. 148, British NGTE, Nov. 1953. Propagation and Pulsating Flow in an Axial Flow
247. Briggs, William B., and Giamati, Charles C.: Inter- Inducer-Centrifugal Impeller System. Pratt and
stage Surveys and Analysis of Viscous Action in Whitney Res. Rep. No. 133, June 1951.
Latter Stages of a Multistage Axial-Flow Com- 262. Ossofsky, Eli: Constant Temperature Operation of
pressor. NACA RM E52112, 1953. the tIot-Wire Anemometer at High Frequency.
248. Finger, Harold B., and Dugan, James F., Jr.: Analy- Rev. Sci. Instr., vol. 19, no. 12, Dec. 1948, pp.
sis of Stage Matching and Off-Design Performance 881-889.
of Multistage Axial-Flow Compressors. NACA 263. Laurence, James C., and Landes, L. Gene: Auxiliary
RM E52DO7, 1952. Equipment and Techniques for Adapting the
249. Finger, Harold B.: Method of Experimentally De- Constant-Temperature Hot-Wire Anemometer to
termining Radial Distributions of Velocity Through Specific Problems in Air-Flow Measurements.
Axial Flow Compressor. NACA TN 2059, 1950. NACA TN 2843, 1952.
250. Ames Research Staff: Equations Tables, and Charts 264. Lowell, Herman H.: Design and Application of
for Compressible Flow. NACA Rep. 1135, 1953. ttot-Wire Anemometers for Steady-State Measure-
(Supersedes NACA TN 1428.) ments at Transonic and Supersonic Airspeeds.

NACA TN 2117, 1950.
251. Hagen, H.: Compressor Characteristics and Starting
Powers of Jet Propulsion Power Plants. BuShips 265. Huppert, Merle C.: Preliminary Investigation of
338, vol. 8, pt. A, May 1946, pp. 1-20. Flow Fluctuations During Surge and Blade Row
Stall in Axial-Flow Compressors. NACA RM 280. Pearson, H.: The Aerodynamics of Compressor
E52E28, 1952. Blade Vibration. Fourth Anglo-American Aero.
266. Huppert, .Merle C., Costilow, Eleanor L., and Bud- Conf. (London), Sept. 15-17, 1953, pp. 127-162;
inger, Ray E.: Investigation of a 10-Stage Sub- discussion, pp. 162A-162J. (Publ. by Roy. Aero.
sonic Axial-Flow Research Compressor. III-- Soc. (London).) (Summarized in The Engineer,
Investigation of Rotating Stall, Blade Vibration, Oct. 9, 1953, pp. 473-476.)
and Surge at Low and Intermediate Compressor 281. Bollay, William, and Brown, Charles I).: Some
Speeds. NACA RM E53C19, 1953. Experimental Results on Wing Flutter. Jour.
267. Delio, G. J., and Stiglic, P. M.: Experimental In- Aero. Sci., vol. 8, no. 8, June 1941, pp. 313-318.
vestigation of Control Signals and the Nature of 282. Howell, A. R., and Carter, A. I). S.: Note on Stalling
Stall and Surge Behavior in a TurbojeV Engine. Flutter of Compressor Blades. Memo. 131,
NACA RM E54115, 1954. British NGTE, Oct. 1951-
268. Iura, T., and Rannie, W. D.: Observations of Prop- 283. Bellenot, C., and d'Epinay, J. Laline: Self-Induced
agating Stall in Axial-Flow Compressors. Rep. Vibrations of Turbo-Machine Blades. Brown-
4, Mech. Eng. Lab., C.I.T., Apr. 1953. (Navy Boveri Rev., vol. XXXVII, no. 10, Oct. 1950,
Contract N6-ORI-102.) pp. 368-376.
269. Johnson, Donald F., and Costilow, Eleanor L.: 284. Schnittger, Jan R.: Single Degree of Freedom Futter
Experimental Determination of Aerodynamic of Compressor Blades in Separated Flow. Jour.
Forces Normal to the Chord Due to Rotating Stall Aero. Sci., vol. 21, no. 1, Jan. 1954, pp. 27-36.
Acting on Compressor Blading. NACA RM 285. Sisto, F.: Stall-Futter in Cascades. Jour. Aero.
E54F14, 1954. Sci., vol. 20, no. 9, Sept. 1953, pp. 598-604.
270. Huppert, Merle C., Johnson, Donald F., and Costi- 286. Smith, A.G., and Fletcher, P. J.: Observations on
low, Eleanor L.: Preliminary Investigation of the Surging of Various Low-Speed Fans and Com-
Compressor Blade Vibration Excited by Rotating pressors. Memo. M.219, British NGTE, July
Stall. NACA RM E52J15, 1952. 1954.
271. Graham, Robert W., and Prian, Vasily D.: Rotating
287. Bullock, Robert O., Wilcox, Ward W., and Moses,
Stall Investigation of 0.72 Hub-Tip Ratio Single-
Jason J.: Experimental and Theoretical Studies of
Stage Compressor. NACA RM E53L17a, 1954. Surgingin Continuous-Flow Compressors. NACA
272. Emmons, H. W., Pearson, C. E., and Grant, It. P.: Rep. 861, 1946. (Supersedes NACA TN 1213.)
Compressor Surge and Stall Propagation. Trans.
288. Pearson, H., and Bower, T.: Surging of Axial Com-
ASME, vol. 77, no. 4, May 1955, pp. 455-467;
pressors. The Aero. Quarterly, vol. 1, pt. III,
discussion, pp. 467-469.
Nov. 1949. (Pub. by Roy. Aero. Soc. (London).)
273. Costilow, Eleanor L., and Huppert, Merle C.:
289. Doherty, Robert E., and Keller, Ernest G.: Mathe-
Rotating-Stall Characteristics of a Rotor with
matics of Modern Engineering. Vol. I. John
High Hub-Tip Radius Ratio. NACA TN 3518,
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1936.
1955.
290. Trimmer, John Dezendorf: Response of Physical
274. Stenning, Alan H., Kriebel, Anthony R., and Mont-
Systems. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1950.
gomery, Stephen R.: Stall Propagation in Axial-
291. Brainerd, J. G., Koehler, Glenn, Reich, Herbert J.,
Flow Compressors. NACA TN 3580, 1956.
275. Sears, W. R.: On Asymmetric Flow in an Axial-Flow and Woodruff, L. L.: Ultra High Frequency Tech-
niques. D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1942.
Compressor Stage. Jour. Appl. Mech., vol. 20,
no. 3, Sept. 1953, pp. 442-443. 292. Foster, D. V.: The Performance of the 108 Com-
276. Mendelson, Alexander: Effect of Aerodynamic Hys- pressor Fitted with Low Stagger Free Vortex
teresis on Critical Flutter Speed at Stall. NACA Blading. Rep. R.116, British NGTE, June 1952.
RM E8B04, 1948. (See also Jour. Aero. Sci., vol. 293. Lucas, James G., and Filippi, Richard E.: Multiple
16, no. ll, Nov. 1949, pp. 645-654.) Over-All Performance and Rotating-Stall Char-
277. Sears, W. R.: A Theory of "Rotating Stall" ill acteristics of a 15-Stage Experimental Axial-
Axial Flow Compressors. Graduate School Aero. Flow Compressor at an Intermediate Speed.
Eng., Cornell Univ., Ithaca (N.Y.). (Contract NACA RM E54C29, 1954.
AF 33(038)-21406.) 294. Benser, William A.: Analysis of Part-Speed Operation
278. Graham, Robert W., and Prian, Vasily D.: Experi- for High-Pressure-Ratio Multistage Axial-Flow
mental and Theoretical Investigation of Rotating- Compressors. NACA RM E53115, 1953.
Stall Characteristics of Single-Stage Axial-Flow 295. Huppert, Merle C., and Benser, William A.: Some
Compressor with Hub-Tip Ratio of 0.76. NACA Stall and Surge Phenomena in Axial-Flow Com-
RM E53109, 1953. pressors. Jour. Aero. Sci., vol. 20, no. 12, Dec.
279. Marble, Frank E.: Propagation of Stall in a Com- 1953, pp. 835-845.
pressor Blade Row. Tech. Rep. No. 4, GALCIT, 296. Budinger, Ray E., and Serovy, George K.: Investi-
Jan. 1954. (Office Sci. Res., Air Res. and Dev gation of a 10-Stage Subsonic Axial-Flow Research
Command Contract AF 18(600)-178.) (See also Compressor. V--Effect of Reducing Inlet-Guide-
Jour. Aero. Sci., vol. 22, no. 8, Aug. 1955, pp. Vane Turning on Over-All and Inlet-Stage Per-
541-554.) formance. NACA RM E53H10, 1954.
297. Budinger, Ray E., and Kaufman, Harold R.: In- 311. Rohlik, Harold E., Kofskey, Milton G., Allen,
vestigation of the Performance of a Turbojet Hubert W., and Herzig, Howard Z.: Secondary
Engine with Variable-Position Compressor Inlet Flows and Boundary-Layer Accumulations in
Guide Vanes. NACA RM E54L23a, 1955. Turbine Nozzles. NACA Rep. 1168, 1954. (Super-
298. Reissner, Hans: Blade Systems of Circular Arrange- sedes NACA TN's 2871, 2909, and 2989.)
ment in Steady, Compressible Flow. Studies and 312. Smith, Leroy H., Jr.: Three-Dimensional Flow in
Essays. Courant Anniversary Voi., Interscience Axial-Flow Turbo-machinery. Pt. I--Theoretical
Pub., Inc. (New York), 1948, pp. 307-327. Determination of Secondary Flow. Rep. 1-14,
299. Reissner, H. J., and Meyerhoff, L.: Analysis of an Mech. Eng. Dept. Internal Flow Res., The Johns
Axial Compressor Stage with hffinitesimal and Itopkins Univ., Nov. 1953. (Air Force Contract
Finite Blade Spacing. NACA TN 2493, 1951. AF-33(616) -152.)
300. Reissner, Hans J., Meyerhoff, L., and Bloom, 313. von K_rm_tn, Th., and Sears, W. R.: Airfoil Theory
Martin: Two-Dimensional Steady Nonviseous and for Non-Uniform Motion. Jour. Aero. Sci., vol.
Viscous Compressible Flow through a System of 5, no. 10, Aug. 1938, pp. 379-390.
Equidistant Blades. NACA TN 2718, 1952. 314. Sears, William R.: Some Aspects of Non-Stationary
301. Wu, Chung-Hua: A General Through-Flow Theory Airfoil Theory and Its Practical Application.
of Fluid Flow with Subsonic or Supersonic Jour. Aero. Sci., vol. 8, no. 3, Jan. 1941, pp. 104-
Velocity in Turbomachines of Arbitrary Hub and 108.
Casing Shapes. NACA TN 2302, 1951. 315. Kemp, Nelson H., and Sears, W. R.: Aerodynamic
30.2. Wu, Chung-Hua, and Costilow, Eleanor L.: A Method Interference between Moving Blade Rows. Jour.
of Solving the Direct and Inverse Problem of Aero. Sci., vol. 20, no. 9, Sept. 1953, pp. 585-597.
Supersonic Flo_ Along Arbitrary Stream Filaments
316. Kemp, Nelson H., and Sears, W. R.: Aerodynamic
of Revolution in Turbomachines. NACA TN
Interference between Moving Blade Rows. Grad.
2492, 1951.
School Aero. Eng., Corneli Univ., Dec. l, 1952.
303. Marble, Frank E.: Some Problems Concerning the
(Contract AF 33(038)-21406.)
Three-Dimensional Flow in Axial Turbomachines.
317. Keller, C. (C. Keller, Trans.): Kinetic Energy
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Losses Behind Blade Grids as a Result of Periodic
304. Torda, T. P., Hilton, H. H., and Hall, F. C.: Analysis
Variation in the Circulation. Rep. Inst. Aero.,
of Viscous Laminar Incompressible Flow Through
Tech. ttochschule (Zurich), 1934, pp. 167-187.
Axial-Flow Turbomachines with Infinitesimal
(Available as R.T.P. Trans. 1883, British M.A.P.)
Blade Spacing. Rep. C-TR-1, Eng. Exp. Sta-
318. Herzig, Itoward Z., ltansen, Arthur G., and Costello,
tion, Aero. Eng. Dept., Univ. Ill., Feb. 24, 1953.
(Contract AF 33 (616)-52.) George R.: A Visualization Study of Secondary
Flows in Cascades. NACA Rep. 1163, 1954.
305. Born, P. W., Hall, F. C., Hilton, H. H., and Torda,
(Supersedes NACA TN 2947.)
T. P.: Analysis of Viscous Laminar Incompressible
Flow Through Axial Flow Turbomachines with 319. Herzig, Howard Z., and Hansen, Arthur G.: A Survey
Finite Blade Spacing. Rep. C-TR-2, Eng. Exp. of Unclassified Axial-Flow-Compressor Literature.
Station, Aero. Eng. Dept., Univ. Ill., Mar. 18, NACA RM E55HI1, 1955.
1953. (Contract AF 33(616)-52.) 320. Kofskey, Milton G., and Allen, Hubert W.: Smoke
306. Torda, T. P.: Analysis of Viscous Laminar Incompres- Study of Nozzle Secondary Flows in a Low-Speed
sible Flow Through Axial Flow Turbomachines. Turbine. NACA TN 3260, 1954.
Annual Summary Rep. C-TR-3, Eng. Exp. Sta- 321. Michal, Aristotle D.: Matrix and Tensor Calculus.
tion, Aero. Eng. Dep., Univ. Ill., July 15, 1953. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1947.
(Contract AF 33(616)-52.)
322. Dean, W. R.: Note on the Motion of Fluid in a
307. Wu, Chung-Hua, Brown, Curtis A., and Prian,
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Vasily D.: An Approximate Method of Determin-
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323. Dean, W. R.: The Stream-Line Motion of Fluid in
Filament of Revolution Cut by Arbitrary Turbo-
a Curved Pipe. Phil. Mag., ser. 7, vol. 5, no.
machine Blades. NACA TN 2702, 1952.
XXX, April 1928, pp. 673-695.
308. Bragg, Stephen L., and Hawthorne, William R.:
Some Exact Solutions of the Flow through Annular 324. Kito, Fumiki: On the Secondary Vortex Generated
Cascade Actuator Discs. Jour. Aero. Sci., vol. 17 in a Bent-Pipe of Elliptical Cross-Section. Jour.
no. 4, Apr. 1950, pp. 243-249. Japan Soe. Appl. Mech., 1950, pp. 73-75.
309. Weske, John R.: Fluid Dynamic Aspects of Axial- 325. Ito, Hidesato: Theory of Laminar Flows through
Flow Compressors and Turbines. Jour. Aero. Curved Pipes of Elliptic and Rectangular Cross
Sci., vol. 14, no. iI, Nov. 1947, pp. 651-656. Sections. Inst. tligh Speed Mech., Tohoku
310. Carter, A. D. S.: Three-Dimensional-Flow Theories Univ., Sendal (Japan), vol. I, 1951, pp. 1-16.
for Axial Compressors and Turbines. War Emer- 326. Squire, It. B., and Winter, K. G.: The Secondary
gency Issue No. 41, pub. by Inst. Mech Eng. Flow in a Cascade of Airfoils in a Nonuniform
(London). (Reprinted in U.S. by ASME, Apr. Stream. Jour. Aero. Sci., vol. 18, no. 4, Apr.
1949, pp. 255-268.) 1951, pp. 271-277.
COMPRESSOR AND TURBINE MATCI-IING 507
327. Hawthorne, William R.: Secondary Circulation in in Axial Compressors. R. & M. 2383, British
Fluid Flow. Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), set. A, ARC, Apr. 1946.
vol. 206, no. A1086, May 7, 1951, pp. 374-387. 345. Wilson, Edwin Bidwell: Advanced Calculus. Ginn
328. Eichenberger, Hans P.: Shear Flow in Bends. Tech. and Co., 1912.
Rep. 2, Office Naval Res., Gas Turbine Lab., 346. Dean, Robert C., Jr.: Aerodynamic Measurements.
M.I.T., Apr. 15, 1952. (Contract N5ori07848.) Gas Turbine Lab., M.I.T., 1953.
329. Kronauer, Richard E.: Secondary Flows in Fluid 347. Yates, A. H.: 'Carpets' and 'Lattices.' Aircraft
Dynamics. Pratt and Whitney Res. Rep. 132, Eng., vol. XVIII, no. 203, Jan. 1946, pp. 8-9.
Gordon M(_Kay Lab., Harvard Univ., Apr. 1951. 348. Sutor, Alois T., and Zipkin, Morris A.: Method of
330. Prandtl, L.: On Boundary Layers in Three-Di- Matching components and predicting Performance
mensional Flow. Rep. and Trans. 64, British of a Turbine-Propeller Engine. NACA TN 2450,
RAE, May 1, 1946. 1951.
331. Mager, Artur: Laminar Boundary Layer Problems 349. Huppert, Merle C.: Approximate Method for Deter-
Associated with Flow through Turbomachines. mining Equilibrium Operation of Compressor Com-
Tech. Rep. 2, GALCIT, June 1953. (Contract ponent of Turbojet Engine. NACA TN 3517,
AF 18(600)-178.) 1955.
332. Howarth, L.: The Boundary Layer m Three- 350. Goldstein, Arthur W.: Analysis of Performance of a
Dimensional Flow. I--Derivation of the Equa- Jet Engine from Characteristics of Components.
tions for Flow along a General Curved Surface. I--Aerodynamic and Matching Characteristics of
Phil. Mag., ser. 7, vol. 42, no. 326, Mar. 1951, the Turbine Component Determined with Cold
pp. 239-243. Air. NACA Rep. 878, 1947. (Supersedes NACA
333. Hayes, Wallace D.: The Three-Dimensional Bound- TN 1459.)
ary Layer. NAVORD Rep. 1313, NOTS 384, 351. Goldstein, Arthur W., Alpert, Sumner, Bcede, Wil-
U.S. Naval Ord. Test Station (Inyokern), May 9, liaIn, and Kovach, Karl: Analysis of Performance
1951. (Bur Ord Task Assignment NOTS-36- of Jet Engine from Characteristics of Components.
Re3d-441-3.) II--Interaction of Components as Determined from
334. Moore, Franklin K.: Three-Dimensional Compres- Engine Operation. NACA Rep. 928, 1949. (Su-
sible Laminar Boundary-Layer Flow. NACA persedes NACA TN 1701.)
TN 2279, 1951. 352. Goldstein, Arthur W.: Interaction of Components of
335. Burgers, J. M.: Some Considerations on the Develop- Gas Turbines for Aircraft. Paper Presented at
ment of Boundary Layers in the Case of Flows ASME meeting, New London (Conn.), Apr. 28-
Having a Rotational Component. Nederl. Akad. May 5, 1949.
van Wetenschappen, vol. XLIV, nos. 1-5, 1941, 353. Woodworth, L. R.: Performance Analysis Methods
pp. 12-25. for the Twin-Spool, High Pressure Ratio, Turbojet
336. Mager: Artur: Generalization of Boundary-Layer Engine. RM 1039, U.S. Air Force Proj. RAND,
Momentum-Integral Equations to Three-Dimen- The RAND Corp., Oct. 15, 1952.
sional Flows Including Those of Rotating System. 354. Gist, W. B., and Woodworth, L. R.: Approximate
NACA Rep. 1067, 1952. (Supersedes NACA Methods for Determining the Performance of Gas
TN 2310.) Turbine Engines at Off-Design Conditions. RM
337. BSdewadt, U. T.: Die DrehstrSmung tiber festem 1205, U.S. Air Force Proj. RAND, The RAND
Grunde. Z.A.M.M., Bd. 20, Heft 5, Oct. 1940, Corp., Mar. 5, 1954.
pp. 241-253. 355. Esgar, Jack B., and Ziemer, Robert R.: Methods for
338. Mager, Artur, and ]tansen, Arthur G.: Laminar Rapid Graphical Evaluation of Cooled or Uncooled
Boundary Layer Over Flat Plate in a Flow Itaving Turbojet and Turboprop Engine or Component
Circular Streamlines. NACA TN 2658, 1952. Performance (Effects of Variable Specific Heat
339. Loos, H. G.: A Simple Laminar Boundary Layer Included). NACA TN 3335, 1955.
with Secondary Flow. Tech. Rep. 1, GALCIT, 356. Hensley, Reece V., Rom, Frank E., and Koutz,
June 1953. (Contract AF 18(600)-178.) Stanley L.: Effect of Heat and Power Extraction
340. Sowerby, L.: Secondary Flow in a Boundary Layer. of Turbojet-Engine Performance. I--Analytical
Rep. AERO. 2512, British RAE, Mar. 1954. Method of Performance Evaluation with Compres-
341. Mager, A.: Thick Laminar Boundary Layer Under sor-Outlet Air Bleed. NACA TN 2053, 1950.
Sudden Lateral Perturbation. Tech. Rep. 5, 357. Rom, Frank E., and Koutz, Stanley L.: Effect of
GALCIT, Apr. 1954. (Contract AF 18(600)-178.) Heat and Power Extraction on Turbojet-Engine
342. Carrier, G. F.: The Boundary Layer in a Corner. Performance. II--Effect of Compressor-Outlet
Quart. Appl. Math., vo]. IV, no. 4, Jan. 1947, Air Bleed for Specific Modes of Engine Operation.
pp. 367-370. NACA TN 2166, 1950.
343. l,nitsianskii, L. G., and Bolshakov, V. P.: On Motion 358. Koutz, Stanlcy L., Hensley, Reece V., and Rom,
of Fluid in Boundary Layer Near Line of Inter- Frank E.: Effect of Heat and Power Extraction on
section of Two Planes. NACA TM 1308, 1951. Turbojet-Engine Performance. III--Analytical
344. Ainley, D. G., and Jeffs, R. A.: Analysis of the Air Determination of Effects of Shaft-Power Extrac-
Flow through Four Stages of Half-Vortex Blading tion. NACA TN 2202, 1950.
508 AERODYNAMIC
DESIGN
OFAXIAL-FLOW
COMPRESSORS
359.Koutz,Stanley
L.:EffectofHeatandPower Extrac- CurrentCompressor
Pressure Ratio. NACARM
tion on Turbojet-Engine Performance. IV-- E54DI9,1955.
AnalyticalDetermination of Effectsof Hot-Gas 363.Davison,
ElmerH.,andStalla,MargaretC.:Turbo-
Bleed.NACATN 2304,1951. prop-Engine
DesignConsiderations. II--Design
360.Rebeske,JohnJ., Jr., andDugan, JamesF., Jr.: Requirementsand Performance of Turboprop
MatchedPerformance Characteristics
of a 16- Engineswitha Single-Spool
High-Pressure-Ratio
Stage Axial-FlowCompressor anda 3-Stage Tur- Compressor.NACARME55B18, 1955.
bine. NACARME52H18, 1953. 364.Sanders,
NewellD.,andBehun, Michael:Generaliza-
361.Davison,ElmerH.: TurbineDesign Considerations tionofTurbojet-Engine
Performancein Termsof
for Turbine-PropellerEngineOperating Overa Pumpi11_Characteristics.
NACATN 1927, 1949.
Range ofFlightConditions. NACARME53D16, 365.Rohlik,Harold E.,andRebeske,JohnJ.:Acceleration
1953. of High-Pressure-RatioSingle-Spool Turbojet
362.Davison,ElmerH.:Turboprop-Engine Design Con- EngineasDeterminedfromComponent Perform-
siderations.I--Effectof Modeof Engine Opera- ancc Characteristics.
III--Effect of Turbine
tion onPerformance of Turboprop Enginewith StatorAdjustment.NACARM E54F04, 1954.
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CASE Fi LE NASA SP-36

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Prepared by members of the staff of Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio.

Scientific and Technical In/ormation Division 1 9 6 5

This work is based substantially on a three-volume Confidential

I. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE ........................................... 1

II. COMPRESSOR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ............................. 9

III. COMPRESSOR DESIGN SYSTEM .................................... 53

IV. POTENTIAL FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES ............... 101

V. VISCOUS FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES .................. 151

VI. EXPERIMENTAL FLOW IN TWO.DIMENSIONAL CASCADES .......... 183

VII. BLADE-ELEMENT FLOW IN ANNULAR CASCADES .................... 227

VIII. DESIGN VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN MERIDIONAL PLANE .......... 255

CHARLES C. GIAMATI, JR., AND HAROLD B. FIN_EB

IX. CHART PROCEDURES FOR DESIGN VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION ....... 257

X. PREDICTION OF OFF-DESIGN PERFORMANCE OF MULTISTAGE

XI. COMPRESSOR STALL AND BLADE VIBRATION ....................... 311

XII. COMPRESSOR SURGE ............................................... 331

XIII. COMPRESSOR OPERATION WITH ONE OR MORE BLADE ROWS

STALLED .................................................... 341

XIV. THREE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSOR FLOW THEORY AND REAL

XY. SECONDARY FLOWS AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL BOUNDARY-

XVI. EFFECTS OF DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT ERRORS ON COMPRES-

XVIL COMPRESSOR AND TURBINE MATCHING ........................... 469

JAMES F. DUGAN, JR.

REFERENCES ............................................................. 496

I. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE .......................................... I

II. COMPRESSOR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ......................... 9

EFFECTS OF ENGINE CHARACTERISTICS ON AIRPLANE

EFFECTS OF COMPRESSOR PRESSURE RATIO, FLOW CAPAC-

COMPRESSOR REQUIREMENTS .............................. 41

II. COMPRESSOR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS--Continued

COMPRESSOR REQUI REMENTS--Continued

III. COMPRESSOR DESIGN SYSTEM ................................... 53

Equations of Thermodynamics ................................. 55

HI. COMPRESSOR DESIGN SYSTEM--Continued

SYSTEM ADOPTED FOR DESIGN AND RESEARCH--Continued

REQUIRED IMPROVEMENTS IN ANALYSES ................... 95

IV. POTENTIAL FLOW 1N TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES ............ 101

INTRODUCTION ............................................... 101

SYMBOLS ...................................................... 103

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ................................. 105

ANALOG TECHNIQUES ........................................ 135

APPENDICES .................................................. 144

V. VISCOUS FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES ................ 151

INTRODUCTION ............................................... 151

SYMBOLS ...................................................... 152

QUALITATIVE BOUNDARY-LAYER TIIEORY .................. 152

V. VISCOUS FLOW IN TWO.DIMENSIONAL CASCADES---Continued

QUALITATIVE BOUNDARY-LAYER THEORY--Continued

QUANTITATIVE BOUNDARY-LAYER THEORY ................ 167

CONCLUDING REMARKS ..................................... 180

VI. EXPERIMENTAL FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES ........ 183

INTRODUCTION ............................................... 183

SYMBOLS ...................................................... 184

PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS ............................. 185

VI. EXPERIMENTAL FLOW IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASCADES--Con.

LOSS ANALYSIS ................................................ 201

DEVIATION-ANGLE ANALYSIS ................................ 209

CONCLUDING REMARKS ....................................... 222

VII. BLADE-ELEMENT FLOW IN ANNULAR CASCADES .................. 227

INTRODUCTION ............................................... 227

SYMBOLS ...................................................... 228