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In these kilns clinker formation is related to raw mix composition and to operating
conditions. The clinker formation may start already in the calcining zone, where a certain
agglomeration of the fine, solid particles may take place aided perhaps by the presence of
low melting alkali salts. However, the final result depends on what happens in the
burning zone.
Here the formation of liquid phase begins at a temperature slightly below 1300C, and
the quantity of liquid increases with the temperature up to a certain final value (Fig. 2).
The amount of liquid does not increase gradually with the temperature, but in steps on
reaching certain temperatures. Only by applying extreme temperatures can this final
amount of liquid be further increased which, however, usually has disastrous effects on
coating and lining.
The quantity of liquid phase at normal burning temperature amounts to 20-25% of the
clinker, depending on the content of alumina, iron, magnesia, and alkalis. If the quantity
of liquid phase is too small, good clinker formation will not take place. Conditions may
then be improved by changing the raw mix composition, which in practice is usually
done by adding iron ore, thus reducing the silica ratio.
In some cases it will also be possible to improve the clinker formation by burning harder,
even harder than required for bringing down free lime, the reason, of course, being an
increase in liquid phase. But it is often seen that if the burning temperature is raised even
further, the result will be dust clinker, probably due to a too low viscosity of the liquid. At
several plants we have also found a rather sharp limit to the lime saturation factor, if good
clinker grading is to be obtained; by exceeding this limit the clinker becomes dusty.
The clinker granulometry is important for the satisfactory operation of any cooler. There
must not be too much dust. Less than 15% minus 0.5 mm is good.
Too much clinker plus 25 mm increases the clinker temperature after the cooler because
of the too slow cooling of this fraction. Less than 10% plus 25 mm is good.
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The clinker dust in the cooler tends to blow back into the kiln, thus establishing a dust
circulation between kiln and cooler. The dust can disturb the radiation from the flame in
the kiln, and often it spoils the clinker formation so that the dust circulation tends to
accelerate.
Dust circulation means that the amount of heat contained in the clinker entering the
cooler increases, which will lower the efficiency of the cooler.
If we look at the possibilities of bringing down the heat consumption, then about 25
kcal/kg can be saved in the exit gas by adding a 5th cyclone stage to the preheater, but in
some plants the full amount of heat in the exit gas is used for drying the coal and raw
materials, so this heat is not wasted.
Using a type of insulating bricks in part of the kiln can bring down the surface loss from
the kiln shell, but these bricks have generally a poor lifetime.
A better insulation in the preheater will partly result in a higher exit gas temperature
instead of saved heat input to the system.
Regarding the cooler, it is so that if we could establish a perfect counter flow in the heat
exchange between clinker and air, then nearly all the heat in the clinker could be
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transferred to the combustion air. Therefore, the largest potential for bringing down the
heat consumption rests with the cooler.
3. COOLER TYPES
In the following the three types of coolers, considered by the industry for modern cement
kilns, are discussed, i.e. planetary coolers, rotary coolers and grate coolers.
Each cooler tube is attached to the kiln with a fixed and a movable support, welded to
heavy kiln sections. (Fig. 4)
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The inlet to the cooler has a special design, which prevents clinker from falling back into
the kiln when a tube is in top position.
At the cooler outlet the fine clinker falls through a grizzly to the clinker transport, while
coarse clinker and lumps are discharged at the side to a hammer mill clinker crusher.
The cooling is based upon cascading the clinker through the airflow.
This is not as simple as it seems, as fine clinker falling down from the lifters through the
air is carried the wrong way by the air, and an excessive number of lifters has proved to
lead to overfilling the coolers, back spilling into the kiln and high exit clinker
temperatures.
The shape and number of the lifters in the various temperature zones have to be carefully
determined by means of a mathematical model, the input being an anticipated grading of
the clinker. (Fig. 5)
In principle, coarse clinker requires more cascading and fine clinker less in the hot end of
the cooler in order to avoid excessive circulation between cooler and kiln, which conveys
more heat to the coolers.
The inlet part with a special shape is lined with castables. In recent years special, dense
castables have been developed for such a purpose, fulfilling all requirements regarding
abrasion resistance, shock resistance, chemical resistance against alkali attack etc., and
the practical experience with these modern castables has been very good.
In the cylindrical part of the coolers there is first a section of corrugated brick lining,
followed by cast heat resistant steel lifters of special design, either lined with steel plates,
as shown, or for the hot part with a ceramic lining, either bricks or castables.
In the cold end of the coolers mild steel lifters with a high lifting capacity, increasing
towards the outlet, are used, and no lining is used here.
The outlet of the kiln to the coolers was previously made with steel casings, which
caused problems when exposed to high temperatures. The problems have been solved by
using a ceramic outlet made of the high quality, dense castables now available.
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The cooling effect depends, of course, on the size of the cooler. It can be expressed as the
clinker production in relation to surface and volume for the cooler tubes by the following
formula:
P t
Specific Load = 1.5 2.5
n x D x L m d
The average temperature of the clinker from a planetary cooler of an economical dry
process kiln will usually be 150C above ambient temperature. It can vary with the
clinker grading, and, of course, it increases by forced output. The temperature can be
reduced, if required, by addition of water to the coolers near the outlet.
The equipment required is very simple: Just a gutter around the coolers, from which the
water runs into the individual cooler tubes. The amount of water is controlled by the
clinker temperature, and it has been established that 1 % water on clinker basis reduces
the clinker temperature by about 15 - 20C, which is close to the theoretical maximum.
The effect on the heat consumption is therefore small, as long as the amount of water is
kept below 3% of the clinker weight.
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The heat losses from a planetary cooler consist of radiation loss and sensible heat in the
clinker leaving the cooler. A normal cooler loss would be: (20C ref. temp.).
Radiation 97 kcal/kg
Clinker (150C) 25 kcal/kg
Sum 122 kcal/kg
This compares very favorably with an old type grate cooler especially when also the
lower power consumption is taken into consideration.
Depending on the cost relation between fuel and power, 1 kWh/t will often correspond to
the cost of 7 kcal/kg clinker.
It would, of course, be possible to insulate the cooler much better, but that would lead to
an excessive clinker temperature - a certain amount of heat has to be wasted through
radiation. The length of the different types of lining has to be chosen so that the cooler
shell temperature does not become excessive at any point.
Another favorable feature is the low power consumption, only about 1.0-1.5 kWh/t
clinker added to the kiln drive and exhaust fan.
The Planetary cooler is unique in its simplicity, no excess air to handle, no motors or
fans, no instruments. In operation, there is nothing to control, it is self-adjusting.
One disadvantage is that the clinker temperature is somewhat higher than for grate
coolers, but normally that does not cause any problem. The higher noise level can also be
a problem in some cases.
The cooler shown (Fig. 6) is designed for a 2000 t/d kiln with precalciner and has the
dimensions 4.75 x 55 m (156" x l80), which means that it is bigger than the kiln.
As for the planetary cooler, the cooling is based upon cascading the clinker but with
specially designed lifters, avoiding that the clinker is hammering on the lining when
dropping in the big diameter. The mild steel section is divided into six compartments so
that efficient cascading can be permitted.
The rotary cooler necessitates two efficient seals. The cooler has a 4.5% inclination and a
max. rotation speed of 4.0 RPM. The power consumption for the cooler drive is 3.5
kWh/t.
As the specific surface is lower than for a planetary cooler, the surface heat losses are
also lower, and that gives a favorable thermal efficiency, but it also results in a higher
clinker temperature, 200-250C, which, however, can be reduced by spraying water into
the outlet.
The investments for a rotary cooler are higher than for a planetary cooler but may in
some cases be lower than for a grate cooler when efficient cleaning of excess air is
required.
The specific load on new type grate coolers expressed in t/d per m2 is normally 50-55
compared to 30-35, for grate coolers of the old days. This higher grate load is mainly
possibly due to a much better heat recuperation in the new type grate coolers, which
allow for a lower resident time and partly the result of the tendency to work with a
thicker clinker bed.
The width of the grate is reduced at the inlet in order to spread the clinker more evenly,
and having a high airflow and a thick layer of clinker, it is possibly to get not a perfect
but acceptable uniform clinker bed and a usable airflow over the width of the grate. This
is essential not only to avoid local overheating of the grate in the fine side of the clinker
but also to avoid snow-men, as the clinker is kept moving throughout the whole grate
until the surface solidifies.
The speed of the grate can be varied between 3 and 30 strokes/min. Normal operation
would be around 10-15 strokes/min. Efficient cooler operation requires automatic control.
A simple and reliable system as shown involves three main functions:
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If the clinker happens to become very coarse, the undergrate pressure does not correspond to the
bed depth, and in such cases the pressure control is overruled by the power consumption of the
grate.
Such a simple system functions without problems, and in automated plants it can be
supplemented with automatic control of the clinker temperature.
Handling and dedusting of the excess air present the main disadvantage of the grate cooler and is
also decisive for a comparison between the investment costs of different cooler types.
The excess air varies with regard to quantity, temperature, and dust content, and the system for
handling, of course, has to be designed for the worst condition. FLS uses design figures
corresponding to 2.8 kg excess air/kg clinker and 400C.
Many ways to tackle this problem are viable and will not be discussed in detail in this paper.
Air cleaning with cyclones is in most cases not acceptable in a modern plant.
The trend today is to use electrostatic precipitators for excess air. They have proved reliable and
efficient with low operation costs. To reduce the size of the precipitator, a small quantity of
atomized water can be injected through nozzles in the cooler ceiling.
Bag filters combined with air to air heat exchangers are preferred in some parts of the world,
where demands for very low emission rates is required.
A study of the investment costs for grate coolers with these different ways of solving the
dedusting problem led to the surprising conclusion that the total costs only vary within +/- 5%.
The decisive factor for the choice between these solutions is therefore operation costs and
reliability, especially the ability to cope with upset conditions.
The advantage of the grate cooler is that it is independent of the kiln and very flexible
with regard to production. Also a low clinker temperature can be obtained, typically
80C.
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The cooler loss consists of a radiation loss, heat contained in the hot excess air, and
sensible heat in the clinker leaving the cooler. A typical heat loss would be:
In cases where low-temperature heat can be utilized for drying of raw materials or coal,
up to 50 kcal/kg clinker of the waste heat can be recuperated and then, of course, the
thermal efficiency becomes very favorable.
Another important feature is the high power consumption of the grate cooler, for old type
coolers 5-7 kWh/t, exclusive of power for dedusting. Depending on the cost relation
between fuel and power, 1 kWh/t will often correspond to the cost of 7 kcal/kg clinker.
The clinker segregates out of the kiln, with the coarse clinker in one side and the fine in
the other. Furthermore the air is not confined to the holes in the grate plates, but can also
go between the gaps between the grate plates. Investigations have shown, that as much of
60 % of the cooling air may go in the slots between the grate plates, thus decreasing the
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quality of the air distribution. As it is easier to blow air through the coarse clinker layer,
the system will use too much air in order to assure that sufficient air is applied at the fine
side. Fig. 8 shows how this phenomenon affects the air distribution in traditional coolers
and how it can be avoided in a modern cooler.
It is clear that the area on which attention should be focused is in the first section of the
cooler the so-called heat recuperation zone. If more heat can be recovered from the
clinker and be utilized in the process, we can save energy and obtain a more stable kiln
and cooler operation.
As indicated more air will pass through coarse side than through fine side. This is the
very opposite of what is desired from a heat exchange point of view. The air should be
forced to pass through the fine side and slow down a little through the coarse side.
The distribution of air in the clinker bed is best described by watching the pressure drop
through a cold layer of clinker.
In figure 9 the pressure drops of various clinker sizes are shown as a function of the free
air velocity. It is clearly seen how much influence the particle size distribution really has
on air distribution.
Let us look at an example, where the fine side mainly consists of 2 mm clinker and the
coarse side of 5 mm clinker. Here the relationship between air velocities will be 1/5,
meaning that only approx. 17% of the cooling air is blown up through the fine side and
the rest in the coarse side. In cases where the kiln is producing very dusty clinker, red
river will be an almost inevitable consequence.
Over the years many different systems have been developed, but common for all the
systems and the secret behind any type of the CFG grate coolers are a build in
resistance in the grate plate which is approx. 25 mbar at an air quantity of approx. 110 kg
air/m2/min. By having this initial resistance the air supply will evens out to the individual
plates within an aeration field.
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Grate layout
After the Controlled Impact System (CIS) the cooler inlet zone has a so-called Controlled
Flow Grate system (CFG) Fig. 12. The only difference between the two systems is, that
the CIS system consists of none movable rows and is inclined 15. After the CFG system
a combination of CFG and RFT (Reduced Fall Through grate system) will cover the rest
of grate one. The difference between the CFG and the RFT system is that the RFT system
gets air from the compartment below. This total area of the cooler covers more than the
amount of combustion air needed in the kiln system, which means that the recuperation
zone always is covered by first grate. The remaining area of the cooler, the after cooling
zone, has the RFT system.
If required the CFG system can cover the entire cooler grate area.
There are two cooling air systems for the cooler grates:
CFG/CIS system
The grate plates for the first part of the cooler are designed according to the CFG
(Controlled Flow Grate)-principle, which means optimized control and distribution of air
to individual subsections of the cooler grate.
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The cooling air is supplied directly to the grate plates through a system of hollow beams
and ducts instead of receiving all the air through an undergrate compartment as in
conventional coolers. Fig. 13.
From the fans air will enter a stationary channel system in the under-grate compartment
and be distributed to individual grates via columns to the stationary beams or via a
flexible connections to the moving beams. Fig. 14.
Below grate level, the casing is divided into two or more-sealing air compartments
receiving air from one or two common fans. This air acts as sealing (and cooling) air
when it passes up through the narrow gaps between the movable and fixed grate rows.
See Fig. 15.
The grate is divided into a number of sectors, and each sector is supplied with air from a
separate fan. Each of these sectors is divided into a number of smaller segments which
have their own adjustable damper for the air supply system, in order to compensate for
different pressure loss in the air channel system. These manual controlled dampers are set
during commissioning and will normally not need to be adjusted later on.
Each compartment receives air from a separate fan and the air will pass up through the
slots in the grate plates as well as through the narrow gaps between the movable and
fixed grate rows.
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Grate plates
The Controlled Flow Grate plate is designed with a high flow resistance. This together
with the special ducting system will result in an even and well controlled air distribution
and thereby, reduce the risk of red rivers. Blow through is avoided which will reduce the
dust circulation significantly. All this will ensure an improved heat recuperation and
much better cooler operation. Fig. 1 6.
The internal flow pattern in the grate plate ensures an optimum cooling of the grate plate
and an excellent heat resistance, which will result in improved lifetime and therefore
lower maintenance cost.
The grate plates have labyrinth slots, which let the air pass into the pockets, but
counteract and prevent the clinker from failing through the plates. The cooling air enters
the clinker bed through a number of such pockets across the surface of each grate plate.
See Fig. 17.
The Coolax cooler is a highly efficient grate cooler where the heat recuperation is greatly
improved compared to coolers of conventional design.
A grate cooler can be characterized by its cooler loss, which is the amount of clinker heat
not utilized in the process. The cooler loss for a Coolax type is 90-100 Kcal/Kg clinker.
The overall result of the Coolax cooler compared to traditional/conventional coolers is:
- 30-40 Kcal/Kg clinker reduced heat consumption
- Reduced size of Cooler, approx. 30%
- 30-40% reduction in size of Cooler ventilation system
- Improved Kiln and Cooler operation
- Lower maintenance cost
- Reduced tendency to Snowman and red river formation
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The standard Coolax programme and Cooler auxiliary equipment is enclosed. Fig. 18
Not only new coolers can be supplied with CFG system. An existing grate cooler can be
modified to include these features. With the CFG system, the grate cooler can be
modified to include these features. With CFG system, the grate load can be increased and
together with an improved heat recuperation the clinker production can be increased.
For a retrofit normally only the first cooler grate is modified. The remainder of the
grate(s) and cooling system is left untouched.
By retrofitting the complete first grate, you will have maximum benefits since this grate
in most cases will cover the complete heat recuperation zone.
However, the system can also be offered for less than the complete first grate, i.e.
installing a CIS system only.
With the CFG system and reduced maintenance requirements, our CFG system offers
some evident Operational benefits, including:
- Heat savings of 30-83 kcal/kg clinker
- Reduced dust circulation
- Reduced wear on grate plates
- Reduced air consumption
- Reduced tendency to "snowman" and "red river formation
- More stable kiln and cooler operation
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On the graph Fig. 19 and 20, it is possible to make an estimate of the heat saving after a
retrofit to first grate. As you will notice the saving is proportional to the amount of CFG
air. In other words, the number of installed CFG grates rows, but also the present
mechanical maintenance of the cooler is important.
Carrying out a retrofit, it is preferable to change the complete inlet zone (the
recuperation zone) to the CFG system. The only thing remaining of the previous
equipment is the frame.
With careful planning retrofits can be undertaken very efficiently. The erection can be
done in less than 3 weeks during a planned kiln stop.
Clinker Crushers are employed to reduce clinker lumps to typically less than 25 mm.
This is done either by means of a conventional clinker breaker (Fig. 21) at the discharge
of the cooler or by means of a modem roll crusher (Fig. 22) at either a mid-cooler or end-
cooler position.
Though roller breakers are sometimes used to replace conventional clinker breakers, they
were primarily designed to create more uniform size reduction for better cooling
obtained by mounting between the drives of the cooler. The roll breaker provides distinct
advantages over the conventional hammer mill type: It runs slower, creates less dust, and
receives less wear.
1) Maintenance Benefit - Causes less wear than conventional hammer breaker due to
lower speeds.
2) Process Benefit - Improved cooling results from increased surface area.
The rollers consist of transport and crushing rolls. The number of rolls is determined by
the capacity of the unit. The transport rolls turn at approximately 2 rpm; crushing rolls at
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about 4 rpm. By comparison, the operating speed of a conventional hammer mill is about
350 rpm. Normally roll breakers are hydraulically driven and the rolls automatically
reverse if material jams in the rolls.
A unique feature of the FLS Hydraulic roller Breaker (HRB) is the ability to reposition
the first crushing roll to compensate for wear and thereby maintain clinker product size.
The above section has identified the mechanical design features present in all modern
grate coolers and has described the maintenance and process benefits of each. In the
sections that follow, the impact of these mechanical components on process design will
be considered.
4. SF CROSS-BAR COOLER.
The new cooler was jointly developed by Fuller and FLS. The official name of the new
cooler is the (Smidth-Fuller) SF Cross-Bar Cooler. Fig. 23
Simplicity is the keyword for the new cooler design, but its reliability and thermal
efficiency are also superior to any other type of clinker cooler, including high efficiency
C.FG coolers.
Superior process efficiency and less maintenance are derived from the fact that Fuller
and FLS have successfully separated the two primary functions of the conventional grate
cooler:
Grate plates do exist, but not in the conventional sense. The grate-line is completely
stationary. There are no moving grates. There is no fall- through and there is no under-
grate clinker transport system. The air distribution plates are locked. The grate-line is
sealed. The under-grate chamber is air-tight. It is like having a fixed inlet section for the
entire cooler as the transport system is separated from the grate line.
Compared to modem CFG coolers, the new cooler introduces at least four (4) new and
innovative design features: 16
4. 1 Modular Design
The entire cooler is constructed in modular form. The air distribution plates are
comparable in size to traditional grate plates. Each module is four (4) plates wide and
fourteen (14) plates long e.g. 1.3 m wide and 4.2 m long. Fig. 24.
A single module could be a whole cooler or several modules could be assembled to form
a larger cooler. The modules are set side-by-side and end-to-end. For example, a 2400 tpd
cooler, is a 2 x 4 unit plus a fixed inlet. That is, the cooler being operated locally is two
modules (8 plates) wide and three modules (56 plate rows) long. It has just four cooling
fans.
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The modules consist of an under-grate chamber with a grate-line at the top. The air
distribution plates are supported on a stationary tray system. Each module, thus, forms a
4 x 14 plate matrix. None of the air distribution plates move.
A stationary inlet section is installed ahead of the first module at the inlet of the cooler.
Again, the concept of "modular design" is employed. Fig. 25. Each "Controlled Impact
Module" is composed of five rows of air distribution plates arranged in a stair-case
manner to form a 12 degree incline. A series of air blasters are used to prevent
"snowmen" formations. The high pressure air system is integrated into the back wall of
the cooler. The plates in the impact section are the same as those used in the rest of the
cooler. The-plates are significantly different from traditional grate plates and, in
themselves, represent one of the new and innovative design features of this cooler.
The "modular design" is demonstrated in that each module can be pre assembled prior to
installation, including its refractory. The modules are simply set side-by-side and end-to-
end. As a result, existing grate coolers can be completely replaced with a new SF Cross-
Bar cooler in as little as 3 to 4 weeks. Fig. 25a. Also, because all modules are duplicates
of one another, it is possible to significantly shorten delivery times.
Just as for a conventional grate cooler, the grate-line is on top the under-grate
compartment. However, because the sealed grate-line is completely stationary, the grate
plates can be locked together.
Each air distribution plate is 300 mm square, making them comparable in size to
conventional grate plates. The first and second air distribution plates in each longitudinal
row (or column) of every module have a small separation that enables a drive plate to
extend from the under-grate chamber to the above-grate (Cross-Bar) conveying system.
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Similarly, the third and fourth grate plates in each column have the same separation,
which allows the conveying system to penetrate the grate line. Each 4 x 14 plate matrix is
therefore arranged in a 1-2-1 configuration of columns across the width of the cooler.
The sealing system of the grate-line is so effective that no devices are provided for
removal of spillage from the under-grate chamber. The bottom of the under-grate
chamber has a steel floor without any openings. No spillage removal valves are provided
and no spillage conveyor is installed under any of the SF Cross-Bar coolers. This means
fewer items for maintenance. It also means lower headroom requirements. For new kiln
line installations, the lower headroom requirements may yield a savings of 2 - 4 meters in
height for the entire preheater tower and kiln which significantly contributes to lower
civil costs. For existing installations, it enables the SF Cross-Bar cooler to replace
existing coolers with low headroom (i.e. coolers with internal drag conveyors or disc gate
spillage removal systems).
Unlike CFG coolers, no sealing air is required because both the grate-line and the under-
grate chamber are effectively locked. By eliminating the need for inefficient cooling air
and by eliminating the possibility for under-grate spillage, significant gains in thermal
efficiency are obtained.
Unlike the movable frame used in a conventional grate cooler, the frame does not support
any grate plates or their support beams. Quite simply, there are no movable grate plate
supports. As a result, a much more simple design of movable frame is employed. This
allows a simple system of linear bearings to be used. The bearings do not require
continuous lubrication. In fact, the bearings are lubricated annually.
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The cross bars are attached to the drive plate by a retainer bracket that attaches to ears
extending from the drive plate. The retainer bracket and Cross-Bars are locked by wedges
driven in by hammer. Fig. 27. Replacement of the Cross-Bar is simply made by knocking
the wedges out with a hammer and removing the retainer bracket.
Spillage is prevented from entering the plenum chamber by a series of sealing profiles.
The sealing profiles combine to form a labyrinth type seal that prevents under-grate
spillage. Since the grate plates do not move, it is possible to make a very effective seal
between the stationary air distribution system and the moving drive plate.
Each module has a hydraulic cylinder located in the under-grate chamber that imparts a
reciprocating motion to the movable frame that is parallel to the grate-line. When
modules are installed end-to end, the movable frames of each module are connected in
such a way that they move in unison. Modules installed side-by-side do not have their
movable frames connected. In other words, a module positioned alongside of another
module may be stroking rearward while the other module is stroking forward. In addition,
their speeds could be different.
The modules are installed on a three to five degree slope which represents a favorable
compromise between clinker transport efficiency and the speed of the reciprocating
Cross-Bars.
the resistance of the material layer above it, the regulator opens to compensate for an
increase in the "measured" resistance or closes to compensate for a decrease in the
"measured" resistance. The MFR, thus, controls the amount of cooling air that flows from
the under-grate chamber into each individual air distribution plate. Fig 28.
The regulators are specially designed to maintain a constant airflow through the air plate
and the clinker layer, irrespective of the clinker bed height, particle size distribution,
temperature, etc. In his way, every air plate in the cooler is provided with the quantity of
cooling air that it needs. Fig 29.
The MFR consists of a special orifice plate, which hangs from the tower. The hanging
plate acts as a variable orifice that moves relative to the difference in pressure on either
side of the plate. The regulator, therefore, only introduces a pressure drop through it self
in the event that the resistance of the clinker layer is below normal. This is in contrast to
CFG grate plates which introduce a constant pressure loss for a given air volume.
Normally a pressure loss of at least 200 mm WG is required to normalize differences in
the clinker layer in order to ensure uniform distribution of cooling air.
With the self-regulating mechanical flow device, it is possible to obtain constant air-flow
through the clinker layer without paying for the required pressure loss of 200 mm WG.
This, coupled with higher thermal efficiency, results in a power savings compared to
modem CFG coolers.
Cooling air is supplied to the under-grate chamber of each module by fans equipped with
piezometers. The mechanical flow regulators are so effective that the required number of
fans is only determined by the number of modules set end-to-end. That is, modules set
side-by-side have their under-grate chambers joined so that only one fan supplies air to
both the right and the left. For example, the a 3x5 F Cooler for 3600 tpd is equipped with
a total of only 6 cooling fans even though it is a triple-wide cooler. It has one fan for the
"Controlled Impact Module" plus one fan for each of the five Cross-Bar modules in
length.
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The regulator used in each module is designed for a specific airflow rate. The design of
the mechanical flow regulators is varied between each of the modules set end-to-end. The
regulator design is varied (along the coolers length) to compensate for changes in the
resistance of the clinker layer as the clinker temperature decreases.
It is possible to employ a higher specific airflow to the air plates at the inlet to the cooler
simply by using one regulator design over another. It is also possible to vary the regulator
design across the width of the cooler. For example, "Zero Flow" regulators may be used
along both sides of the cooler within the "Stationary Impact Module" as a means to
compensate for non-uniform distribution of clinker, across the coolers width. Normally,
this would be done by installing tapered refractory on the fixed inlet section. However,
the mechanical regulators are so effective that they may be used as an alternative to
refractory curbing.
It is also difficult to take out a representative sample of clinker into a bucket and to
measure the temperature outside the kiln.
What is important for the heat consumption in the kiln is the heat recuperation from the
moment the clinker leaves the burning zone. The burning zone temperature is also
difficult to measure, but 1450 oC is often taken as a standard value.
For the same cooler working with the same type of clinker, the heat recuperation will
depend on the amount of combustion air that goes from the cooler to the kiln. This
amount again depends on the heat combustion, excess air for the combustion, the amount
of primary air and the amount of false air through the kiln seals.
In Fig. 22 is shown the cooler loss and the heat recuperation in relation to the amount of
combustion air. The different lines represent coolers with different recuperation abilities.
As the grate cooler is not a cooler with a perfect counter heat exchanger, there is an
absolute maximum for the heat recuperation ability. The lines K = 1.00 represent such an
ideal cooler with maximum recuperation ability.
A dry process kiln using 750 kcal/kg clinker will only need half as much combustion air
as a wet process kiln using 1500 kcal/kg clinker. It is therefore obvious that the cooler
loss will be much less on the wet process kiln than on the dry process kiln, even when the
amount and temperature of the clinker from the kiln and of the cooling air blown into the
cooler is exactly the same in both cases.
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The only difference is that the amount and temperature of the excess air will be very
much different; clinker temperature and surface loss of the cooler will be the same in the
two cases.
Figures for cooler losses are therefore without meaning if the amount of combustion air
from the cooler to the kiln system is not known. The same cause applies to cooler
efficiency or recuperation percent, which is basically 100 minus the cooler loss expressed
as percent of the heat in the clinker leaving the kiln.
Usually the figure works out at about 1.41 - 1.42 kg air per 1 000 kcal lower (net) heat
value fired when the fuel is bituminous coal or fuel oil; for fuels with a high content of
water, the figure will typically be higher.
The combustion air actually used will in addition to the stoichiometric air also include the
air excess, which can be calculated from the O2 and CO2- content in the gas after the
combustion process.
The formula is :
1
Lambada
79.1 O2
1- -x
20.9 100 - CO 2 - O 2
Lambada = 1.20 for instance means that there was 20% air excess where the gas analysis
was made.
Lcom lambada x L min
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From the total combustion air it is necessary to subtract the various sources of false air,
including primary air, which do not come from the clinker cooler.
The most complicated case is when there are two combustion process in series, such as
ILC precalciner kilns.
Estimation of the secondary air requires a measurement of O2 and CO2 percent in the kiln
tube exit. From this the lambada value can be calculated and hense Lcom .
Not all of this air has come from the cooler. The primary air, including transport air for
coal meal (if any), must be measured and subtracted. Further, false air entering at the kiln
outlet seal between kiln tube and kiln hood and through gaps in the kiln hood, must be
subtracted.
If the probe sampling the gas after the kiln tube is not located inside the kiln tube, but
rather in the riser duct, false air entering through the kiln back end seal must also be
subtracted.
The tertiary air can be determined in a similar way. Lmin for the total amount of fuel
burned in kiln and calciner. O2 and CO2 after the calciner are measured, and the lambada
is calculated. The total amount of combustion air is calculated.
From this must now be subtracted secondary air from cooler to kiln, primary air to kiln
burner, false air at kiln hood/outlet seal, false air through back end seal, primary
air/transport air calciner, false air in calciner and false air in tertiary air dust trap. If O 2
and CO2 analysis are not made immediately after the calciner but after the top cyclone,
false air in the cyclone preheater including air from pneumatic kiln feed transport (if any)
must also be deducted.
Cooler losses are usually measured and calculated according rules laid down by the
German makers association VDZ, which use ambient temperature as the reference. When
calculating the recuperation efficiency. VDZ assumes a clinker temperature of 1450 oC
and nil dust circulation between kiln and cooler. The latter can have a huge influence on
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the actual cooler loss. VDZ further does not take into consideration that practically all
mechanical energy put into cooling fans has been converted into heat when the air leaves
the surface of the of clinker bed with zero pressure and velocity. The latter can be
eliminated if the temperature of cooling air is measured on the pressure side of the fans.
Fig. 35 shows how the cooler loss and percent heat recuperation vary as a function of the
amount of recuperated air; the more recuperated air, the lower the cooler loss and the
higher the recuperation efficiency.
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Fig. 12
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Fig. 19
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Fig. 20
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Fig. 23 SF Cooler
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Lower Higher
Valve P Valve P
Fig. 31
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Fig. 32
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Fig. 33
0.65 kg/kg 2.00 kg/kg
750 C 265 C
124 kcal/kg 130 kcal/kg
0.45 kg/kg
1070 C
126 kcal/kg
Conventional Design
Fig. 34 Typical Cooler Balance
Total Cooler Loss : 160 kcal/kg
Standard Cooler Loss : 130 kcal/kg
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Case Study :
A well working simple 4 - stage preheater kiln without calciner has a heat consumption of
780 kcal/kg. It runs with 10% of primary air and an amount of excess air in the kiln of
15%. It can then be calculated that the secondary air is 1.155 kg/kg of clinker. Often the
combustion air is lower, because there is more primary air. The false air at the kiln hood
seal and through other openings in that area can also reduce the total amount of
combustion air taken from the cooler. 0.85 to 1.00 kg/kg of combustion air is seen many
places.
With the curves in fig. 35 we can define a new value to characterize the heat recuperation
ability of a cooler and find a way to compare coolers in different kiln systems. If we have
a cooler with 0.95 kg/kg of combustion air from the cooler and a cooler loss of 145
kcal/kg, we can see that the standard amount of combustion air of 1.115 kg/kg, the
standard cooler loss would have been 118 kcal/kg, what we can call the standard cooler
loss
Another cooler is working with 1.25 kg/kg of combustion air from the cooler and has loss
of 127 kcal/kg. The standard cooler loss becomes 140 kcal/kg
We can see that even if the actual cooler loss of the latter cooler is less than that of the
former, its heat recuperation ability is less, and it should be possible to improve it in
relation to the first cooler.
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Fig. 34 defines the system boundaries for the cooler and shows the heat flows into and
out from the system.
From above we have just defined how to calculate the amount of secondary air and
tertiary air.
The dust circulation between kiln and cooler is very difficult to measure. Theoretically it
can be calculated from sieve analysis of clinker taken after the kiln and after the cooler,
but as the clinker are segregated when leaving the kiln it is extremely difficult to take a
representative clinker sample at this point. Normally, the dust circulation must be
estimated. From a kiln with a CFG cooler the dust circulation is app. 2 % and in a clear
kiln with a traditional cooler it is 4 - 8 % In a dusty kiln it can be as high as 25 - 35 %.
All temperature can be measured with reasonable accuracy except the secondary air
temperature. There is not temperature homogeneity in the kiln hood, and the radiation
from the clinker is very intense. The amount of heat in the secondary air and thereby the
temperature must be calculated as a difference in the heat balance for the cooler.
The specific heat for clinker and air can with good accuracy be calculated as temperature
functions according to the following general expression :
Table 1 gives the values for A,B and C for the most common elements known from the
cement factory.
Element A B C
1 CO2 0.196 118 -43
2 H2O Vapor 0.443 39 28
3 N2 0.244 22 0
4 O2 0.218 30 0
5 Air 0.237 23 0
6 Raw Meal 0.206 101 -37
7 Clinker 0.186 54 0
8 Coal (30% vol.) 0.262 390 0
9 Oil 0.420 0 0
Table 1
The electrical energy added to the cooling air fans will to a high degree be transformed
into heat in the cooling air. It will result in an increase of the cooling air temperature by 5
- 18 oC depending upon the fan pressures.
In table 2 is shown an example of a cooler heat balance after retrofit of total first grate to
the CFG system
Cooler Heat Balance
Reference temperature = oC
o
Heat Input Kg/kg C Kcal/kg* oC Kcal/kg
Clinker 1.000 1450 0.264 382.8
Dust (2%) 0.02 1450 0.264 7.7
Secondary air 0.370 20 0.237 1.8
Tertiary air 0.730 20 0.237 3.4
Excess air 1.700 20 0.237 8.1
Power consumption 4.9 * 0.86 * 0.85 407.4
o
Heat output Kg/kg C Kcal/kg* oC Kcal/kg
Secondary air 0.370 1245 0.265 122.5
Tertiary air 0.730 878 0.257 164.7
Dust 0.02 1200/750 0.254/0.227 4.7
Excess air 1.700 222 0.242 91.3
Clinker 1.000 85 0.191 16.2
Surface loss 8.0
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407.4
Kcal/kg
Clinker from cooler 16.2
Excess air out 91.3
Surface loss 8.0
115.5
The standard cooler loss can be found by use the table fig. 23
Standard cooler loss 98 kcal/kg
The cooler efficiency is according to VDZ defined as the heat absorption of the
combustion air divided by the maximum possible heat relased by the clinker. This
calculation must be made disregarding the dust circulation between kiln /calciner and
cooler.
Kcal/kg
Clinker from kiln 382.8
Clinker from cooler - 16.2
Power to fans 3.6
Excess air out - 91.3
Excess air in 8.1
Surface loss of cooler - 8.0
279.0