Angular Displacement () displacement expressed in radians,

degrees or revolutions

Angular Speed () change in angular displacement over time of

an object with a fixed axis of rotation

Angular Acceleration () the rate at which angular speed

changes with time
 Circumferential distance l = r
Tangential speed v = r
Tangential acceleration aT = r
 Centripetal Acceleration acceleration undergone by an object
with constant speed around a circle

Centripetal Force the force that must act on a mass m moving

around in a circular path to give it a centripetal acceleration
 Example
A spaceship orbits the Moon at a height of 20km. Assuming it to be
subject only to the gravitational pull of the Moon, find its speed and
the time it takes for one orbit. For the Moon, mm = 7.34 x 10^22 kg
and r = 1.738 x 10^6 m.

Solution Hint:
Gravitational Force (Fg) = Centripetal Force (Fc)

Ans. 110mins
 Example
As shown in the figure, a ball B is fastened to one end of a 24-cm
string, and the other end is held fixed at point Q. The ball whirls in
the horizontal circle shown. Find the speed of the ball in its circular
path if the string makes an angle of 30 deg to the vertical.

Solution Hint
Find mass of ball first then use formula for
centripetal force

Ans. v = 0.82 m/s

 Period (T) the time required for a cyclic system (vibrating or
rotating) to complete one cycle
Frequency (f) the number of vibrations or rotations made per
unit of time
Amplitude (Displacement) is the distance of the vibrating object
from its equilibrium position
Restoring Force the force that opposes the displacement of a
system
Simple Harmonic Motion the vibratory motion in which a system
oscillates at a single constant frequency
 Spring
m = mass suspended on the spring
k = spring constant
Force = k * displacement of spring
T = period

Simple Pendulum
L = length of pendulum
g = gravitational acceleration
 Example
A long, light piece of spring steel is clamped at its lower end and a
2.0-kg ball is fastened to its top end. A horizontal force of 8.0N is
required to displace the ball 20cm to one side. Assume the system
to undergo SHM when released. Find the period with which the ball
will vibrate back and forth.

Solution Hint
k = force/displacement

Ans. 1.4s
 Average Pressure - amount of force exerted over a surface area

Standard Atmospheric Pressure

 Hydrostatic Pressure - the pressure exerted by a column of fluid
with a certain height h over an area

= density of fluid

Pascals Principle when the pressure on any part of a confined

fluid is changed, the pressure on every other part of the fluid is
changed by the same amount
Archimedes Principle the buoyant force acting on an object
wholly or partly immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the
fluid it displaces
 Bernoullis Equation for a fluid in a steady flow or stream
= density of the fluid
P1, P2 = fluid pressure at two different points
v1, v2 = fluid speed at two different points

Toricellis Theorem in an open tank containing a liquid with an

orifice at a distance h below the top of the liquid, then the speed
of outflow from the orifice
v = 2
 Examples
As shown in the figure, a column of water 40cm high supports a 31-
cm column of an unknown fluid. What is the density of the unknown
fluid?
Solution Hint
1gh1 = 2gh2

` Ans. 1.3 x 103 kg/m3

 Examples
A foam plastic (p = 0.58g/cm3) is to be used as a life preserver.
What volume of plastic must be used if it is to keep 20% (by
volume) of an 80-kg man above water in alake? The average
density of the man is 1.04 g/cm3.

Solution Hint
Fb(man) + Fb(plastic) = Wman + Wplastic Weight = density x volume
Fb = buoyant force

Ans. V = 0.044m3
 Propagating wave a self sustaining disturbance of a medium
that travels from one point to another, carrying energy and
momentum.
Parameters of a wave period, frequency, amplitude, wavelength and
velocity of propagation
Speed of a Transverse Wave in a string or wire the velocity of a
transverse wave is defined as
 Standing waves occurs when a vibrating or oscillating system
undergo resonance
Condition of resonance the wavelength of the vibration must be such
that a whole number of wave segments exactly fit on the string

n any integer
 Example
A glass tube that is 70.0cm long is open at both ends. Find the
frequencies at which it will resonate to sound waves that have a
speed of 340m/s.

Solution Hint
Find from the formula
Then find frequency using

Ans. f = 243n Hz
 Law of Reflection
The angle of incidence and
the angle of reflection is
equal
= r
 Spherical Mirrors

Concave mirrors form inverted real images of objects placed beyond the
principal focus. If the object is between the principal focus and the mirror,
the image is virtual, erect and enlarged.
Convex mirrors produce only erect virtual images of objects placed in front
of them
 Mirror Equation
so object distance from the
mirror
si image distance from the
mirror
R radius of curvature of the
mirror
f focal length of the mirror
Note
so is positive when the object is
in front of the mirror
si is positive when the image is
real ( in front of the mirror )
si is negative when the image is
virtual ( behind the mirror )
R and f are positive for concave
mirror and negative for a convex
mirror
 Example
An object is 25 cm from a concave spherical mirror of radius 80cm.
Determine the position and relative size of its image.

Solution Hint
Use mirror Equation and linear magnification formula. Take note
of the signs based on the position

Ans. Si = -67cm magnification = 2.7

 Index of Refraction

Snells Law
 Total Internal Reflection occurs when the ray of light passes from a
material of higher index of refraction to one of lower index
 Example
As shown in the figure, a small luminous body, at the bottom of a pool of
water (n = 1.333) 2.00m deep, emits rays upward in all directions. A
circular area of light is formed at the surface of the water. Determine the
radius R of the circle of light.

Solution Hint
Find critical angle from total internal
reflection the use trigonometric
functions

Ans. R = 2.26m
 Thin Lenses
so object distance from the lens
si image distance from the lens
f focal length of the lens
so is positive for a real object,
negative for virtual object
si is positive for real image, and
negative for a virtual image
f are positive for a converging
lens, and negative for a diverging
lens
 Lensmakers Equation
f focus of the lens
positive converging
negative - diverging
N refractive index of the material
r1 and r2 radii of curvature of the two lens surfaces
Note: r1 and r2 is positive when the center of curvaturs lies to the right of the
surface and vice versa

Lens Power measured in diopters (m-1) equal to 1/f.

When two lenses are in close contact having focal lengths f1 and
f2 respectively, the combined focal length is given by:
 Example
An object 4.0 cm high, is 20cm in front of a thin convex lens of focal
length +12cm. Determine the position and height of its image.

Solution Hint
Use formula for thin lenses and lens magnification

Ans. Si = 30cm hi = 6cm

 Example
A lens has a convex surface of radius 20cm and a concave surface
of radius 40cm and is made of glass of refractive index 1.54.
Compute the focal length of the lens and state if it is converging or
diverging lens

Solution Hint
Use Lensmakers Equation r1 and r2 is positive

Ans. f = +74cm, converging