Using Thevenin Equivalents on Wheatstone Bridge

by Harold Hallikainen

SAN LUIS OBISPO, Calif. Last month, we used Thevenin equivalents to analyze a
simple resistive T network. One of the more common applications of Thevenin
equivalents is in the analysis of an unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge.

The Wheatstone bridge is named after Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875), an

English physicist and inventor. The Wheatstone bridge was first described by Samuel
Hunter Christie (1784-1865) in his paper Experimental Determination of the Laws of
Magneto-electric Induction (1833). The circuit was brought into general use by
Wheatstone in 1843. Samuel Christie was the son of James Christie, founder of the
well-known auction galleries (see Dictionary of Scientific Biography; Charles
Coulston Gillispie, editor). The bridge was (and is) used chiefly to measure resistance.
Substituting resistances and reactances for the reference resistance in the bridge, and
driving the bridge with AC, allows it to be used to measure impedance.

Figure 1 shows a simple balanced Wheatstone bridge with a voltmeter as a null

detector. Let's determine the voltage indicated by the voltmeter.

The voltage on the left side of the voltmeter (marked R for the red or positive lead)
with respect to ground can be determined using the voltage divider formula as

VR = (R2/(R1+R2))*10V = (2K/3K)*10V = +6.667 volts

The voltage on the right side of the voltmeter (marked B for the black, negative, or
reference lead) with respect to ground can also be determined using the voltage
divider formula as

VB = (R4/(R3+R4))*10V = (4K/6K)*10V = +6.667 volts

VRB is the voltage a point R with respect to point B. Further, VRB = VR - VB. So, in
this case, VRB = 0 volts. We say the bridge is balanced.

We can see that the bridge is balanced if VR = VB. We can generalize this as

VR = VB

(R2/(R1+R2))*VS = (R4/(R3+R4))*VS

R2/(R1+R2) = R4/(R3+R4)

R2*(R3+R4) = R4*(R1+R2)

R2*R3 + R2*R4 = R4*R1 + R4*R2

R2*R3 = R4*R1
R2/R1 = R4/R3

We now see that the ratio of the resistances in each "arm" of the bridge determines
whether the bridge is balanced. Further, if the bridge is balanced, we can substitute an
ammeter (ideally zero resistance) for the voltmeter and read zero current. If we have
the same voltage at two points in a circuit and connect them together (through the
ammeter), no current will flow.

An Unbalanced Bridge
Consider the circuit of figure 2. We can see right away that the bridge is not balanced,
based on the resistance ratios (as derived above). What will the voltmeter read?

VR = (1K/(1K+1K))*10V = +5 volts

VB = (4K/(2K+4K))*10V = +6.667 volts

VRB = +5 volts - 6.667 volts = -1.667 volts

Note that the voltage is negative. If we were to reverse the voltmeter leads, the
voltage would be positive. However, as long as we specify the voltage as VRB, the
voltage is negative, and polarity is important.

The Loaded Unbalanced Bridge

Figure 3 shows a loaded unbalanced bridge. We can still use the resistance ratios
derived above to determine that the bridge is indeed unbalanced (current will flow
through R5), but we cannot determine how much current flows through R5 without
using a technique beyond simple voltage dividers. The "voltage divider formula"
works only in a simple series circuit, where all the current flowing in one resistor
flows in all the resistors. In figure 3, the current through R1 will equal the current
through R2 only if there is no current through R5 (Kirchoff's current law), and we
have determined there is current through R5, since the bridge is unbalanced. We'll use
Thevenin equivalents to determine the current through R5, along with all the other
circuit parameters (We'll "analyze it to death").

Although it is quite possible (and appears standard) to bring the bridge down to a
single Thevenin equivalent, I prefer to make two equivalent circuits, one for the left
half of the bridge and one for the right half. This approach allows us to determine all
the circuit node voltages from the equivalent circuit while the typical "single
equivalent" approach only yields the "load current" (the current through R5).

In figure 4, we've split VS into two equivalent sources. At this point, we could
determine the circuit parameters (VA and VB would be most useful) using
superposition. Give it a try! Apply the voltage sources one at a time, substituting a
short for the voltage source that is out of circuit. Determine VA and VB when each of
the sources is present (VA due to the left source and due to the right source), then add
the results to yield the total VA and total VB. It should match what we come up with.
Figure 5 shows a the circuit of figure 4 with Thevenin equivalents for each "half" of
the circuit. V12 is the Thevenin voltage formed by the left 10 volt source, R2, and R1.
It is the voltage measured at the junction of R1 and R2 (point A) with R5
disconnected. Since this then becomes a simple voltage divider, V12 is (R2/
(R1+R2))*10V, or 5 volts.

R12 is the Thevenin resistance of the left half of the circuit. This is determined by
shorting out all voltage sources and measuring the resistance between point A and
ground, with R5 removed. The shorted voltage source results in R1 being in parallel
with R2, so the Thevenin resistance is 1K//1K or 500 ohms.

Similarly, V34 is the Thevenin voltage formed by the right 10 volt source, R4, and
R3. It is the voltage measured at the junction of R3 and R4 (point B) with R5
disconnected. Since this also becomes a simple voltage divider, V34 is (R4/
(R3+R4))*10V, or 6.667 volts.

In figure 5, these Thevenin equivalents are substituted for the original voltage sources
and R1, R2, R3, and R4. R5 is carried to the equivalent circuit. The unbalanced
loaded bridge has become a simple series circuit that can be analyzed using
"differential Ohm's law". The current through the resistors is (Vtail-Vtip)/R, or
(6.667V-5V)/4.833K = 344.8uA. This current can then be multiplied by the resistance
of each resistor to get the voltage across that resistor. Note the marked voltage
polarities and the current direction. I think these are very important! With
conventional current, the current flows downhill (from higher voltage to lower), so
that is the way the arrow was drawn. If the arrow had been drawn the other way, we
would get a negative current. A negative current going to the right is equivalent to a
positive current going to the left. Further, with a positive conventional current, the
voltage across a resistor will be positive on the end the current enters and negative on
the end the current leaves.

We can verify our calculations by using Kirchoff's Voltage Law (the sum of the
voltage rises or drops around any closed loop is zero). If we add the voltage rises,
starting at the bottom of the left battery, we find we have 5V + 172.4mV + 1.035V +
459.8mV - 6.667V = 200uV, which is close to zero. The only reason it's not exactly
zero volts is due to rounding errors in our calculations. Close enough!

To determine the voltage at any point in the circuit, we can start at a point where we
know the voltage (with respect to ground) and "wind" our way through the circuit
accumulating voltage rises and drops. For example, to determine the voltage a point
A, we can start at ground on the left side of figure 5. Ground is zero volts. We "go up"
5 volts as we go through V12, since we are "coming out" the positive side of V12 as
we work our way towards point A. We go up an additional 172.4 mV as we go
through R12, since we are also coming out the positive side of R12. This makes VA
5.1724 volts.

We could have determined VA starting below the right voltage source. In that case, we
start at zero volts below the source, go up 6.667 volts going through V34, go down
459.8mV as we go through R34 (since we are coming out the negative end), then go
down an additional 1.035 volts as we go through R5. In this case, VA = 6.667V -
459.8mV - 1.035V = 5.1722 volts. The minor difference is, again, due to rounding.
We have a couple ways of finding VB. Let's just say it's 1.035 volts above VA or
6.207 volts. These voltages are substituted back in the original circuit in figure 6.
Once these voltages are known, all node voltages in the circuit are known. Differential
voltages can be easily determined by subtracting (VAB=VA-VB). Current through any
component can be determined by "differential Ohm's law". By making these
calculations, we can "analyze the circuit to death". As practice, try showing that the
sum of the currents into the node at the junction of R1, R2, and R5 is zero (Kirchoff's
current law). I get 4.828mA + (-5.172mA) + 345uA = 1uA. Pretty close!

Next time we'll look at Norton equivalents, followed by Millman's Theorem. Ten
extra points to anyone who sends me biographical information on Norton or Millman.

http://www.broadcast.net/hallikainen/theory6.html

Bridge circuits

No text on electrical metering could be called complete without a section on bridge

circuits. These ingenious circuits make use of a null-balance meter to compare two
voltages, just like the laboratory balance scale compares two weights and indicates
when they're equal. Unlike the "potentiometer" circuit used to simply measure an
unknown voltage, bridge circuits can be used to measure all kinds of electrical values,
not the least of which being resistance.

When the voltage between point 1 and the negative side of the battery is equal to the
voltage between point 2 and the negative side of the battery, the null detector will
indicate zero and the bridge is said to be "balanced." The bridge's state of balance is
solely dependent on the ratios of Ra/Rb and R1/R2, and is quite independent of the
supply voltage (battery). To measure resistance with a Wheatstone bridge, an
unknown resistance is connected in the place of Ra or Rb, while the other three
resistors are precision devices of known value. Either of the other three resistors can
be replaced or adjusted until the bridge is balanced, and when balance has been
reached the unknown resistor value can be determined from the ratios of the known
resistances.

A requirement for this to be a measurement system is to have a set of variable

resistors available whose resistances are precisely known, to serve as reference
standards. For example, if we connect a bridge circuit to measure an unknown
resistance Rx, we will have to know the exact values of the other three resistors at
balance to determine the value of Rx:

Each of the four resistances in a bridge circuit are referred to as arms. The resistor in
series with the unknown resistance Rx (this would be Ra in the above schematic) is
commonly called the rheostat of the bridge, while the other two resistors are called the
ratio arms of the bridge.

Accurate and stable resistance standards, thankfully, are not that difficult to construct.
In fact, they were some of the first electrical "standard" devices made for scientific
purposes. Here is a photograph of an antique resistance standard unit:
This resistance standard shown here is variable in discrete steps: the amount of
resistance between the connection terminals could be varied with the number and
pattern of removable copper plugs inserted into sockets.

Wheatstone bridges are considered a superior means of resistance measurement to the

series battery-movement-resistor meter circuit discussed in the last section. Unlike
that circuit, with all its nonlinearities (logarithmic scale) and associated inaccuracies,
the bridge circuit is linear (the mathematics describing its operation are based on
simple ratios and proportions) and quite accurate.

Given standard resistances of sufficient precision and a null detector device of

sufficient sensitivity, resistance measurement accuracies of at least +/- 0.05% are
attainable with a Wheatstone bridge. It is the preferred method of resistance
measurement in calibration laboratories due to its high accuracy.

There are many variations of the basic Wheatstone bridge circuit. Most DC bridges
are used to measure resistance, while bridges powered by alternating current (AC)
may be used to measure different electrical quantities like inductance, capacitance,
and frequency.

An interesting variation of the Wheatstone bridge is the Kelvin Double bridge, used
for measuring very low resistances (typically less than 1/10 of an ohm). Its schematic
diagram is as such:

The low-value resistors are represented by thick-line symbols, and the wires
connecting them to the voltage source (carrying high current) are likewise drawn
thickly in the schematic. This oddly-configured bridge is perhaps best understood by
beginning with a standard Wheatstone bridge set up for measuring low resistance, and
evolving it step-by-step into its final form in an effort to overcome certain problems
encountered in the standard Wheatstone configuration.

When the null detector indicates zero voltage, we know that the bridge is balanced
and that the ratios Ra/Rx and RM/RN are mathematically equal to each other.
Knowing the values of Ra, RM, and RN therefore provides us with the necessary data
to solve for Rx . . . almost.

We have a problem, in that the connections and connecting wires between Ra and Rx
possess resistance as well, and this stray resistance may be substantial compared to
the low resistances of Ra and Rx. These stray resistances will drop substantial voltage,
given the high current through them, and thus will affect the null detector's indication
and thus the balance of the bridge:

Since we don't want to measure these stray wire and connection resistances, but only
measure Rx, we must find some way to connect the null detector so that it won't be
influenced by voltage dropped across them. If we connect the null detector and
RM/RN ratio arms directly across the ends of Ra and Rx, this gets us closer to a
practical solution:

Now the top two Ewire voltage drops are of no effect to the null detector, and do not
influence the accuracy of Rx's resistance measurement. However, the two remaining
Ewire voltage drops will cause problems, as the wire connecting the lower end of Ra
with the top end of Rx is now shunting across those two voltage drops, and will
conduct substantial current, introducing stray voltage drops along its own length as
well.

Knowing that the left side of the null detector must connect to the two near ends of Ra
and Rx in order to avoid introducing those Ewire voltage drops into the null detector's
loop, and that any direct wire connecting those ends of Ra and Rx will itself carry
substantial current and create more stray voltage drops, the only way out of this
predicament is to make the connecting path between the lower end of Ra and the
upper end of Rx substantially resistive:

We can manage the stray voltage drops between Ra and Rx by sizing the two new
resistors so that their ratio from upper to lower is the same ratio as the two ratio arms
on the other side of the null detector. This is why these resistors were labeled Rm and
Rn in the original Kelvin Double bridge schematic: to signify their proportionality
with RM and RN:

With ratio Rm/Rn set equal to ratio RM/RN, rheostat arm resistor Ra is adjusted until
the null detector indicates balance, and then we can say that Ra/Rx is equal to
RM/RN, or simply find Rx by the following equation:

The actual balance equation of the Kelvin Double bridge is as follows (Rwire is the
resistance of the thick, connecting wire between the low-resistance standard Ra and
the test resistance Rx):

So long as the ratio between RM and RN is equal to the ratio between Rm and Rn, the
balance equation is no more complex than that of a regular Wheatstone bridge, with
Rx/Ra equal to RN/RM, because the last term in the equation will be zero, canceling
the effects of all resistances except Rx, Ra, RM, and RN.

In many Kelvin Double bridge circuits, RM=Rm and RN=Rn. However, the lower the
resistances of Rm and Rn, the more sensitive the null detector will be, because there is
less resistance in series with it. Increased detector sensitivity is good, because it
allows smaller imbalances to be detected, and thus a finer degree of bridge balance to
be attained. Therefore, some high-precision Kelvin Double bridges use Rm and Rn
values as low as 1/100 of their ratio arm counterparts (RM and RN, respectively).
Unfortunately, though, the lower the values of Rm and Rn, the more current they will
carry, which will increase the effect of any junction resistances present where Rm and
Rn connect to the ends of Ra and Rx. As you can see, high instrument accuracy
demands that all error-producing factors be taken into account, and often the best that
can be achieved is a compromise minimizing two or more different kinds of errors.
REVIEW:
Bridge circuits rely on sensitive null-voltage meters to compare two voltages for
equality.
A Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure resistance by comparing unknown
resistor against precision resistors of known value, much like a laboratory scale
measures an unknown weight by comparing it against known standard weights.
A Kelvin Double bridge is a variant of the Wheatstone bridge used for measuring very
low resistances. Its additional complexity over the basic Wheatstone design is
necessary for avoiding errors otherwise incurred by stray resistances along the current
path between the low-resistance standard and the resistance being measured.

http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_8/10.html

Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

Due to their outstanding sensitivity, Wheatstone Bridge Circuits are very

advantageous for the measurement of resistance, inductance, and capacitance.
Wheatstone briges are widely used for strain measurements. A Quarter Bridge
Wheatstone bridge is shown below:

It consists of 4 resistors arranged in a diamond orientation. An input DC voltage, or

excitation voltage, is applied between the top and bottom of the diamond and the
output voltage is measured across the middle. When the output voltage is zero, the
bridge is said to be balanced. One or more of the legs of the bridge may be a resistive
transducer, such as a strain gage. The other legs of the bridge are simply completion
resistors with resistance equal to that of the strain gage(s). As the resistance of one of
the legs changes, by a change in strain from a resistive strain gage for example, the
previously balanced bridge is now unbalanced. This unbalance causes a voltage to
appear across the middle of the bridge. This induced voltage may be measured with a
voltmeter or the resistor in the opposite leg may be adjusted to rebalance the bridge.
In either case the change in resistance that caused the induced voltage may be
measured and converted to obtain the engineering units of strain.

http://www.electronics2000.co.uk/calc/calcwstn.htm

Wheatstone Bridge

The Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit for the precise comparison of

resistances. Sir Charles Wheatstone is most famous for this device but never claimed
to have invented it - however, he did more than anyone else to invent uses for it,when
he 'found' the description of the device in 1843. The first description of the bridge was
by Samuel Hunter Christie (1784-1865) in 1833.

The Wheatstone bridge is an electrical bridge circuit used to measure resistance. It

consists of a common source of electrical current (such as a battery) and a
galvanometer that connects two parallel branches, conta ining four resistors, three of
which are known. One parallel branch contains one known resistance and an unknown
(R4 in the above example); the other parallel branch contains resistors of known
resistances. In order to determine the resistance of the unknown resistor, the
resistances of the other three are adjusted and balanced until the current passing
through the galvanometer decreases to zero.

The Wheatstone bridge is well suited also for the measurement of small changes of a
resistance and, therefore, is also suitable to measure the resistance change in a strain
gauge. It is commonly known that the strain gauge transforms strain applied to it into
a proportional change of resistance. It is widely used across industry even today.
http://www.electronics2000.co.uk/data/itemssz/wheatstn.htm

Wheatstone Bridge
Measure an unknown resistance
The Wheatstone bridge is used to determine an unknown resistance (Rx in our case)
by adjusting a known resistance so that the measured current is zero. To make it more
fun, you can measure voltage and current at any places in the circuit below. Just drag
the plus and minus connectors of the multimeter to any place on the wire. The
variable resistor at R2 can be changed either by dragging the green slider or by typing
a number in the text field below.

Tip: To determine the resistance put one connector each at the upper and lower corner
of the rhombus, put the meter to the most sensitive voltage setting and determine the
resistance R2 at which there flows no current through the multimeter. In this case the
formula for Rx is given by Rx=(R1/R2)*R4.

http://www.electronics2000.co.uk/data/itemssz/wheatstn.htm