Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Examiner's Expectation: (a) state the properties of magnets.

What is a magnet?

Is a material that produces a force that attracts materials made up iron, cobalt & nickel. And can
also attract & repel other magnets.

Magnets are found naturally and they can be produced artifically. Naturally occuring magnet is
made up of iron, Cobalt & nickel.

Properties of magnet

0. A magnet has two poles: North & South.

1. Magnets attract objects of iron, cobalt and nickel.

2. The force of attraction of a magnet is greater at its poles than in the middle.
3. Like poles of two magnets repel each other.
4. Opposite poles of two magnets attracts each other.

points 3 & 4 are illustrated in following fig

 5. If a bar magnet is suspended by a thread and if it is free to rotate, its South Pole will move
towards the North Pole of the earth and vice versa.

How do you test a magnet?

Suppose you have three iron rods A,B & C. Two of them are magnets and the third one is not.
So how do you find out which one is not a magnet?

The technique is that magnets could attract and repel each other because like pole repel and
unlike poles repel. While two iron rods cannot either attract or repel each other. On the other
hand, a rod & magnet would only be attracted in all ways. For example,

First, bring A & B close to each other & if they are attracting then still both
could be magnets or one is non-magnetised iron.

second, turn one of them around and check if they are still attracting. Even now
they are attracting it means one of them is not a magnet.

third, put one of them aside (say B) and bring 'C' in. Repeat the procedure, if
they are attracting even after one of them is turned around then 'A' is non-magnetised iron rod.

fourth, now bring the 'B' and the 'C' together, if they are attracting then turn
one of them around-- they would repel. This would prove that both of them are magnets.

Conclusion: Attraction is not a sure Test of Magnetism But "Repulsion is the sure test of
Magnetism."

Examiner's Expectation: (b) describe induced magnetism.

Definition:

"Magnetic Induction is the process of inducing magnetism in an unmagnetise magnetic material

without any contact with the magnet."

Explanation:
When a piece of unmagnetised magnetic material touches or is brought near to the pole of a
permanent magnet, it becomes a magnet itself. The magnetism is induced.

For example, two safety pins are repelling each other after being attracted to a magnet as shown
in fig below-- as magnetism has been induced in them in them. Both of th pins are now behaving
as magnets with their head acting as same poles; so they repel.

Which side of the pins would become South and which side would become North?

Since pins are behaving as magnets then their sides which are close to the magnet will behave as
South (South is attracted to North). While their heads which are away from the magnet will
become North as shown in above figure.

Examiner's Expectation: (c) state the differences between

magnetic, non-magnetic and magnetised materials.

1- Substances/Materials which can be attracted towards magnets are called Magnetic Materials.
For example: Iron, Cobalt & Nickle

2- Substances/Materials which can not be influenced by magnets are called Non-Magnetic

Materials. For example: wood, cloth,glass, copper, gold etc.
3- Substances/Materials which have become magnets themselves are called Magnetised
Materials ie magnetism is induced. They attract and repel other magnetic materials. For
example, steel nail or office pin once attracted to magnet can attract other pins and nails.

Examiner's Expectation: (d) describe electrical methods of

magnetisation and demagnetisation.
For Magnetization:

When a wire is wrapped around a magnetic material (for example, Iron nail) and is then
connected to a DC (Direct Current) battery. The nail would become a magnet and will start to
attract magnetic materials.
The magetised nail would form two poles just like all magnets. If you will bring any magnet
close to it then you can observe attraction/repullsions depending on the poles, if like poles are
brought closer they will repel and unlike poles would attract.

Demagnetization:

This is exactly same as magnetization by electrical method except this time the wrapped wire is
connected to AC (Alternating Current) than DC (Direct Current).

Examiner's Expectation: (e) describe the plotting of magnetic field lines with a compass.

Magnetic Field Lines:

A magnet cannot affect another magnet or magnetic substance at infinite distance. Therefore, the
region around a magnet where it can infulence other magnets or magnetic substances is called
magnetic field.

Magnetic field is represented by Lines with an arrow, which are also called flux lines.

Magnetic field lines always start from North Pole and ends on South Pole.

The region where lines are closer has stronger magnetic strength and vice versa.

Iron filings can also be used to show the shape of magnetic fields as shown below.
Place a sheet of paper over a bar magnet. Sprinkle a thin layer of Iron filings over the paper and
then tap the paper gently. The iron filings act like thousands of tiny compasses and point
themselves along the lines of flux.

At the centre or middle, both poles attract objects towards themselve-- just like a tug of war
game. Therefore, at that point the object feel zero force and does not move towards any side.
Hence, the centre point is also called neutral point.

Neutral point is a region where there is a null effect of the magnetic field.

If a piece of iron is placed at that point it won't move anywhere.

Method to plot Magnetic Field Lines or Lines of Flux by compass:

Apparatus: compass, bar magnet, paper and pencil.

procedure:

1. Place the bar magnet at the centre of the piece of paper so that its north pole is aligned as
shown.

2. Place the compass near one pole of the magnet, and mark the positions of the ends N and
S, of the compass needle by pencil dots. Then, move the compass until the end of the
compass is over the second dot, and mark the new position of the other with a third dot.

3. Repeat the above until reaching the other pole. Join the series of dots and this will give a
field line of the magnetic field. Use this method to plot other field lines on both sides of
this magnet.
must watch following animation

http://lgfl.skoool.co.uk/content/keystage3/Physics/pc/learningsteps/PAFLC/launch.html

Magnetic Field Pattern Between Two Poles of Magnets:

How to produce a Permenant Magnetic Field

What does uniform magnetic field pattern means?

It means when the field lines are exactly parallel to each other.
By keeping the opposite poles face each other. The region between the poles would establish
magnetic field that would be uniform.

(f) Examiner's Expectation: state the differences between

the properties of temporary magnets (e.g. iron) and
permanent magnets (e.g. steel).
Magnets which are purely made up of Iron are called Magnetically Soft and Magnets which are
made up of steel or ceramic etc are Magnetically hard.

Magnetically Soft: They can easily or quickly be magnetized and demagnetized.

Magnets which are made up of pure iron can not retain there magnetic properties for a longer
period of time--they demagnetized. Similarly, if a pure iron bar is placed next to a magnet it
becomes a magnet quite quickly. Because of this reason, soft iron (pure iron) is used for
electromagnetic purpose as it can easily switch into a magnet and can quickly demagnetised.

Magnetically Hard: They are difficult to magnetize and once magnetized difficult to
demagnetize.

(g) Examiner's Expectation: describe uses of permanent

magnets and electromagnets.

Permanent magnets: Magnets which can retain their magnetism without anything are called
Permanent Magnets. So all magnets which do not need electricity for their creation are called
permanent magnets.
Uses:

1- They are extensively used as Door Catcher. Magnetic Strips are fitted to the doors of freezers
and refrigerators to keep the doors closed. It is also used in several cupboards.

2- Permanent magnets are esstential in the operation of numerous electrical machines such as dc
motors and ac motors.

3- Some computers use small ring magnets as a magnetic memory.

4- Loud-speakers

5- Electric Guitar

6- Compass: It is used for navigational purpose. It is in reality a small magnet placed on a pivot
through which it can rotate towards North and South poles.

7- Magnetic recording media: VHS tapes contain a reel of magnetic tape. The information that
makes up the video and sound is encoded on the magnetic coating on the tape. Common audio
cassettes also rely on magnetic tape. Similarly, in computers, floppy disks and hard disks record
data on a thin magnetic coating

8- Credit, debit, and ATM cards: All of these cards have a magnetic strip on one side. This strip
encodes the information to contact an individual's financial institution and connect with their
accounts

Electromagnets: Magnets which are made due to the passage of electrcity. If electrcity is
flowing they will remain magnet and once electricity is switched off they will lose their
magnetism. So electromagnets are temporary magnets.

Uses:

1- Electric Bell.

2- Simple Magnetic Relay.

3- Reed Switch.

4- Circuit Breaker.

5- Dynamo.

6- Cranes to lift heavy objects.

7- Microphones.

Construction of Electromagnets:
Look at the word electro-magnet. It is made from two words; electro which is taken from
electricity and magnet. An electromagnet is an artifical magnet that is made up by passing
current through an object.

Now recall the previous section 6.8,which says whenever there is current or moving electrons,
there would be magnetic field around that conductor which carries current.

Electromagnets can be made up of any metals, unlike natural magnets which are made up of only
few metals like iron, nickel and cobalt.

Construction:

Material required: A wire and a current source or cell.

Procedure: Connect them and you will get your simple electromagnet as shown in diagram in
previous section.

However, this electromagnetic is impractical-- it is too weak. For stronger electromagnet you
need pass larger amount of current.

Like natural magnet electromagnets have two poles: north and south. Like natural magnets,
electromagnets create magnetic field starting from North Pole to South Pole.

Shapes of electromagnets could be different but the strongest electromagnet is called Solenoide
which is of coiled shaped as shown below.
Solenoid can be made even stronger by: passing more current, by placing an iron core inside it,
keeping turns closer and tighter. The shape of the magnetic field of the solenoid is exactly like a
bar magnet-- butterfly.

(h) Examiner's Expectation: explain the choice of material

for, and use of, magnetic screening.

There are many situations, particularly in experimental physics, where it is desirable to shield a
certain region from magnetic fields. This can be achieved by surrounding the region in question
by a material of high permeability (which can easily become magnets) . It is vitally important
that a material used as a magnetic shield does not develop a permanent magnetization in the
presence of external fields, otherwise the material itself may become a source of magnetic fields.
The most effective commercially available magnetic shielding material is called Mumetal, and is
an alloy of 5% Copper, 2% Chromium, 77% Nickel, and 16% Iron.

Extra:

All devices or appliances which make use of magnets (permanent or electromagnetic) can be
effected by magnetic fields which are present due to number of sources. For example, earth's
magnetic field can affect compass all the time and if we want to find out the magnetic field of a
weak permenant magnet then the Earth's magnetic field will not allow compass to act
independently and infulence the whole result.

If we are placing mobile phone next to TV or Computer Monitor screen then it will be affected
when phone rings. These are not so severe effect but sometimes at high end applications there is
a definite need to use magnetic sheilding.

(i) Examiner's Expectation: describe the use of magnetic

materials in audio/video tapes.
Before the advant of DVDs, CDs and other mass storage magnetic tapes were used for
audio/video recordings.

The Process:
Particles on a magnetic tape are magnetized and oriented as they pass by a fluctuating magnetic
field produced by a recording head. This magnetic field changes in response to the audio or video
information, creating a representation of the material on tape. To retrieve the information stored
on tape, the tape is pulled past a playback head, where the magnetized particles create a magnetic
field read by the head.

Cassette Tapes:

http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/gadgets/audio-music/cassette1.htm

Magnetic Disks: There are two types of magnetic disk - the hard disks and the floppy disks

The main factors that affect the stability of carriers and the retrieval of information can be
summarised as:

Humidity and temperature.

Mechanical deformation.
Dust and dirt of all kinds.
Magnetic stray fields.

Humidity is the most dangerous environmental factor. Water is the agent of the main chemical
deterioration process of polymers: hydrolysis. Additionally, high humidity values (above 65%
RH) encourage fungus growth, which literally eats up the pigment layer of magnetic tapes and
floppy disks and also disturbs, if not prevents, proper reading of information.

Temperature is responsible for dimensional changes of carriers, which is a particular problem for
high density tape formats. Temperature also determines the speed of chemical processes: the
higher the temperature, the faster a chemical reaction (eg hydrolysis) takes place; the lower the
temperature, the slower the chemical reaction.

Mechanical integrity is a much underrated factor in the retrievability of data recorded on

magnetic media: even slight deformations may cause severe deficiencies in the play back
process. Most careful handling has, therefore, to be exercised, along with regular professional
maintenance of replay equipment, which, if it malfunctions, can destroy delicate carriers such as
R-DAT very quickly. With all tape formats, it is most important to obtain an absolutely flat
surface of the tape wind to prevent damage to the tape edges which serve as mechanical
references in the replay of many high density formats. All forms of tape - open reel, cassettes and
cartridges - and floppy disks should be stored upright.

Dust and dirt prevents the intimate contact of replay heads to media which is essential for the
retrieval of information, especially with high density carriers. The higher the data density, the
more cleanliness has to be observed. Even particles of cigarette smoke are big enough to hide
information on modern magnetic formats. Dust may also be responsible for "head crashes" of
computer hard disks and of rotary head formats, which inevitably leads to irretrievable loss of
data. It goes without saying that in addition to the mechanical problems caused by dust,
fingerprints and smoke, chemical pollution caused by industrial smog can accelerate chemical
deterioration. The effective prevention of dust and other kinds of dirt and pollution is, therefore,
an indispensable measure for the proper preservation of magnetic media.

Stray magnetic fields, finally, are the natural enemy of magnetically recorded information.
Sources of dangerous fields are dynamic microphones, loudspeakers and head sets. Also magnets
used for magnetic notice boards etc, possess magnetic fields of dangerous magnitudes. By their
nature, analogue audio recordings, including audio tracks on video tapes, are the most sensitive
to magnetic stray fields. Analogue video and all digital recordings are less sensitive. For the
safeguarding of analogue audio recordings is necessary to keep to the following maximum
magnetic stray fields:

AC fields: 5 Oe (Oersted) = 400 A/m (Ampere per metre)

DC fields 25 Oe = 2000 A/m.

(j) describe the pattern of the magnetic field due to currents

in straight wires and in solenoids and state the effect on the
magnetic field of changing the magnitude and direction of
the current.

"Whenever there is a current or moving charges, there will always be a magnetic field around
them"

Two situations will be given in exams

i- Magnetic field Pattern of Straight Wire

ii- Magnetic ield pattern of solenoid

Magnetic Field Pattern of Straight Wire:

Following figure shows a side view of straight wire in a vertical direction. The wire is carrying
current in upwards direction while a circular magnetic field is shown around it.

Following figure shows top view of a straight wire; dot represents flow of current out of page
and cross represents flow of current into the page.

Shape of magnetic field of straight wire:

As you can see above the magnetic field pattern of a straight current carrying wire will always be
circular in shape.

Direction of magnetic field:

The direction of magnetic field of a straight current carrying wire could be clock-wise or anti-
clock-wise depending on the direction of current. This can be found by using Right Hand Grip
Rule as mentioned below.

Right Hand Grip Rule For straight wire

Grip the wire with right hand while pointing thumb in the direction of current. The direction of
fingers would be the direction of magnetic field.
Note: For Right Hand Grip Rule the flow of current is considered as conventional i.e. from +ve
to -ve of cell/battery .

Magnetic Field Pattern Around A Circular Wire & Number of Coils (Solenoid):

Magnetic field pattern around a flat circular Wire & a Solenoid.

In above figure, carefully look at the direction of magnetic field and the direction of current
(shown by arrow at the top of the coil).

Why the dierction of magnetic field lines at one side of the ring is opposite to the other?

This is becasue of the direction of current. At one side of the ring, current is coming up while in
other direction current is going down. So the direction of magnetic field produced by the current
which going up is different from the direction of current going down.

How do we find direction in this case? Same-- use Right Hand Grip Rule!

Before I jump to the explanation of Right Hand Grip Rule, let me first define what is Solenoid?

Solenoid:

A solenoid is a coil of wire. It becomes a powerful electromagnet when it is connected with a

cell/battery.

Since the strength of electromanget can be increased by increasing the number of turn, therefore,
a solenoid, which has more turns than a flat wire or straight wire, is highly preferred as
electromagnet for practical applications.
Right Hand Grip For Solenoid:

There is a slight switch in the Right-Hand Grip Rule for Solenoid. Thumb is no longer used for
the direction of current but for the direction of Magnetic North of solenoid. And fingers are used
for the direction of current in solenoid.

In above diagram, bluish arrows are the direction of current, so fingers are aligned accordingly.
While thumb represents the direction of magnetic north.

Extra Information on Solenoid:

A solenoid is a simply a coil of wire which can become a powerful electromagnet when
connected to a battery. One side of the solenoid becomes a North Pole and other would become
South Pole as shown in above figure. The poles can be figured out by using Right Hand Grip
Rule.

The magnetic field of a solenoid is exactly similar to the magnetic field of a bar magnet as shown
below-- both exhibit butterfly shape.
(k) Examiner's Expectation: describe applications of the
magnetic effect of a current in relays, circuit-breakers and
loudspeakers.
Relay:

A relay is a switching device which transfers the control of one circuit to another. It consists of
an electromagnet.

It has at least two circuits: One works with small current and other uses a large current. Small
current circuit is used to control the other without being in any direct contact with each other.

Only a very small current is needed to turn the relay. When the current reaches a fixed level, the
electromagnet attracts one end of the iron armature which is pivoted so that the other end acts as
a lever.

The lever opens or closes (depending on the desing) the contacts in the second, or output, circuit.
Thus the input circuit which works with a low current/voltage (that is safe) can control or
activate another circuit which works with a higher current/voltage (that is dangerous).

Application of Relay:
As you know that a relay has two circuits and one is a control circuit and other is transfer.

In above diagram, we have Horn Relay which is used to turn ON horn by a push button, Horn
button. You can see here two circuits, one in blue and one in red.

Remember that certain devices require considerable current (amps) and that, in turn, require
thicker wire. High current devices require big, heavy switches to handle the current.
Unfortunately, these would be ugly and expensive, so engineers use relays..c

Relay is an electromagnetic switch, used so that a small current can switch on a large
current.

So instead of directly activating horn, a high current device, we use horn button and a relay to
transfer control. Notice that battery voltage travels through a high current wire (red) through the
relay to the horn and also through a smaller wire (blue) through the ignition switch to the relay's
low-current coil.

That path is completed when you push in the horn button. When the button is pushed the ground
connection is made, energizing the relay's coil "A". The coil's iron core (in this particular design)
pulls down arm, connecting high-current contacts "B". High current then flows from the battery
to the horn (the horn is connected to ground because it's mounted to the chassis of the car).

Circuit Breaker:

A circuit breaker is desingned to switch off the current in a circuit when it becomes excessive.
The current flows along the springy copper strip, through the iron armature and solenoid. The
electromagnet will attract the iron armature if the current is large enough, thus breaking the
circuit.
Loudspeaker:

Loud speaker converts electrical energy into sound energy.

How loud speaker works:

The cone of the speaker moves backwards and forwards due the application of Alternating
Current. This forwards and backwards movement of the cone pushes and pulls air particles
producing sound. Hence Loud speaker changes electrical vibrations into vibrations of the air
molecules.

Construction & Working:

A conical shaped very thin paper or card board or anything made up of plastic called cone is
attacthed to the coil which is wrapped onto a cylinderical shaped magnet as shown above. When
current passes through the coil placed between the magnets a force is produced which pushes the
coil. As the cone is attached to the coil, therefore, when coil moves so does the cone.

Extra Topics

Electrical Bell:
When the switch is pressed, a current flows through the solenoids and the electromagnets attract
a soft-iron plate.
The striker hits the gong and a sound is produced.
The movement of the soft-iron plate breaks the contact and the circuit is cut off.
The electromagnet loses its magnetism and the striker springs back to original position.

Static Electricity
(a) describe experiments to show electrostatic charging by friction.

The word static electricity deals with "Static Charges" means charges which can not move.

Charges can only stay on insulators while on conductors charges can not remain stationary-- they
always flow. Therefore, static electricity concerns with Insulators mainly.

Friction comes when two things rub against each other.

When we rub two things together, we provide energy and electrons are moved from one object to
another. This creates imbalance of charges-- one object would have more -ve charges than others.

Static electricity is the imbalance of positive and negative charges.

When an object is neutral then number of positive charges are equal to number of negative
charges.

The object which has gained electrons would then have more negative charges than positive.
Therefore, it is called negatively charged object.

While, the object which would lose electrons would then have less negative charges. This
particular object would have more positive charges than negative charges, therefore called
positively charged.

Experiment:

When a piece of polythene is rubbed with a cloth, it becomes charged. Electrons are 'rubbed' off
the cloth and onto the polythene by friction. This makes the polythene negatively charged and
leaves the cloth positively charged.

The rod and the cloth now have opposite charges. We can hang the rod by a piece of thread and
will then see that rod and cloth attract each other. We have found that:

Perspex
Similarly, when a piece of Perspex is rubbed with a cloth it becomes positively charged.
Electrons have been rubbed from the Perspex onto the cloth. Again, the rod and the cloth have
opposite charges and will attract each other.

Repulsive
However, what happens if we bring up another piece of rubbed Perspex (which has a positive
charge)? Now the two rods repel each other.

The two pieces of Perspex have the same charge. We have found that:

http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/pparc/11-14/partch3pg3.html
(b) explain that charging of solids involves a movement of electrons.

Before the discovery of electrons, charges were the building blocks of static electricity. But now
we know that it is the presence and absence of electrons which is responsible for the build up of
charges.

When two insulators are rubbed with each other than due to friction electrons from one moves
onto the other. So both of the insultors are chargedone positive and one negative.

This happens because the one which has lost the electrons is left positive and the one which has
gained electrons now has excess electrons. Therefore, which has less electrons is positively
charged and one with more electrons is positively charged.
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/gcse/physics/static-and-current-electricity/revise-it/static-electricity

(c) state that there are positive and negative charges and that charge is measured in
coulombs.

Reference to Static Electricity : section (a)

Both positive and negative Charges are measured in Coulombs represented by 'C'.

We know electron carry negative charges & protons carry positive charges.

1 electron = 1 .67 x 10-19 coulombs.

(d) state that unlike charges attract and like charges repel.

Just like magnets which can attract and repel each other; static charges can also attract and repel
each other.

Two or more than two like charges (either + or -) will always repel each other. However, two or
more than two unlike charges would always attract each other.
(e) describe an electric field as a region in which an electric charge experiences a force.

(f) state the direction of lines of force and describe simple field patterns.

Like magnets, electric charges can not act to infinity. A particular +ve or -ve charge can affect
other charges up to a certain range or region.

The region around a charge in which it can influence other charges is called Electric Field.

Similar to magnetic field, electric fields are represented by lines of force or flux lines. The
direction of flux lines are different for positve & negative charges.
Note the direction of fields, for +ve charge it is outwards (lines are emitting out) and for -ve
charge it is inwards (coming into). In above diagram, +ve and -ve charges are placed far apart
from each other (isolated).

However, when they are closed to each other then it would look like as follows

Electric Field between Positive & Negative Charge

Notice flux lines or field lines are going towards -ve charge from +ve charge.

Electric Field between Two Positive Charges

Notice flux lines or field lines are repelling each other-- away from each other.

Electric Field between Two Negative Charges

Notice field lines are repelling each other while being inwards-- negative charges.

(g) describe the separation of charges by induction.

Objects can be charged by friction or rubbing but can also be charged by Induction.

Induction is a method of charging an object with actually touching it with any other charged
object.

Consider the following case

The diagram below shows a process called "charging by induction" in which a neutral metal
sphere is supported on an insulating stand so that no charges flow to ground (Charges love to
flow to ground if they are provided a conducting path from the charged object to the ground.)

When a negatively charged rod is placed close to the neutral metal sphere the (negatively)
charged electrons in the sphere are repelled to the far side of the sphere (electrons can move
inside a conductor), leaving the atoms on the near side positively charged owing to their missing
electrons. If we then connect a copper wire to the negative side of the sphere and an electrical
ground some of the free electrons will flow into the ground. When we then remove the copper
wire and the negatively charged rod what remains is a metal sphere with a uniform distributed
positively charge.

for Further study

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/estatics/u8l2b.cfm

(h) discuss the differences between electrical conductors and insulators and state examples
of each.
Electrical Conductors:

Materials which can conduct electricity are called electrical conductors or Charges/electrons can
flow through them. These include gold, copper, iron etc. Nearly, all metals are conductors but
some are better than others.

For example, gold is a very good conductor but copper is preferred over gold in wires and other
practical application. This is because gold is expensive.

Another example is of preference of brass over copper in electrical contacts. As copper is ductile
and easily wears off therefore brass is a better choice for wire contacts and other electrical
contact over copper.

Electrical Insulators:

Materials which can not conduct electricity are called electrical insulators. For example, wood,
glass, perspex etc.

Conductor Insulator
Gold perspex
Copper Polythene
Aluminum wood

(i) state what is meant by earthing a charged object.

A charged object has either excess positive charges or negative charges.

Earthing:

Earthing is the process of removing the excess charge on an object by means of the transfer of
electrons between it and another object of substantial size. When a charged object is grounded,
the excess charge is balanced by the transfer of electrons between the charged object and a
ground/Earth. A ground/Earth is simply an object that serves as a seemingly infinite reservoir of
electrons; the ground is capable of transferring electrons to or receiving electrons from a charged
object in order to neutralize that object.

It is very important to discharge a charged object because it is hazardous.

The way to do it is
i- Take a very thin wire/conductor.

ii- Connect one end of the wire with the charged object and other with the ground.

Hazards of electrostatic charges

The main danger of static electricity is in situations where a spark can cause a fire or an
explosion.

When oil or petrol is pumped along pipes a static charge can build up on the pipe which could
result in a spark.

This could cause an explosion when the fuel vapour reacts with oxygen in the air.

More applications

Antistatic Floors

In operating theatres it is important that the doctors to do not become statically charged when
walking around.

This is because some of the anaesthetic gases used are explosive.

Antistatic material is used for the floor surface so that any charge is conducted to earth.

To discharge a charged object we use a technique called earthing.

(j) describe examples where charging could be a problem e.g. lightning.

Clouds become negatively charged as ice crystals inside the clouds rub up against each other.
Meanwhile, on the ground, the positive charge increases. The clouds get so highly charged that
the electrons jump from the ground to the cloud, or from one cloud to another cloud. This causes
a huge spark of static electricity in the sky that we call lightning.

http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapter03.html

Reference to Static Electricity (i)

How can you avoid lightning?

By Earthing! Connect a metal from the top of the building down to ground.
image stolen from wikipedia

(k) describe examples where charging is helpful e.g. photocopier and electrostatic
precipitator.

Electrostatic paint spraying

The spray nozzle is connected is connected to the positive terminal of an electrostatic generator.
As the paint droplets leave they repel each other and spread out to form a fine cloud of paint.
The metal panel to be painted is connected to the negative terminal.
The negatively charged metal panel attracts the positively charged paint.
Ink-jet printer

Spots of ink are given an electric charge as they leave the ink nozzle.
The deflecting plates cause the drops to hit the right part of the paper.
The charges on the deflecting plates change many times per second so that each drop hits the
paper in a different position.

Photocopier
Smoke Percipitator

An electrostatic precipitator is used to prevent the dust and ash produced by coal fired power
stations from entering the atmosphere.
The ash and dust becomes charged as it passes through the charged grid of wires.
The ash and dust is then attracted to the oppositely charged metal plates.
When the plates are shaken the accumulated ash and dust falls down to be collected and
removed.
Current Electricity
(a) state that a current is a flow of charge and that current is
measured in amperes.
Current means "flow". There is water current, air current and electric current.

Water current is the flow of water, movement of air is air current. While "flow of charges" is
called electric current.

We can also define current as "flow of electrons" because 1 electron = 1 .67 x 10-19 coulombs.

Animation: http://www.patana.ac.th/secondary/science/anrophysics/unit2/commentary.htm

(b) do calculations using the equation charge = current

time.

(c) describe the use of an ammeter with different ranges.

What is ammeter?

Ammeter is an instrument used measure the amount of current in a circuit.

In lab we use two types of Ammeters

i- Digital ii- Analogue

Analogue (a needle) Digital (shows digits)

How ammeter should be connect in a circuit to measure current?

Ammeter is always connected in series.

If we want to measure current in the whole circuit then ammeter is connected near to battery in
series.

If we want to measure current in a resistor then ammeter is connected in series with the resistor
at the end or begining.

Do not connect ammeter directly to battery, as too high current would flow from the battery
could heat up the ammeter leads. Direction condition with the battery is called SHORT
CIRCUIT, a huge amount of curent flows in this situation.

Note: Ammeter leads should be connected in such a way then positive (red wire) is connected
with the positive side of the cell or battery and negative (black at COM) is connected to the
negative side of the cell or battery otherwise you would get -ve sign in your readings.
Symbolic representation of Ammeter connection:
Different Ranges On Ammeter:

Part of the correct use of an ammeter is the proper use of the range selection switch. If the
current to be measured is larger than the scale of the meter selected, the meter movement will
have excessive current and will be damaged. Therefore, it is important to always start with the
highest range when you use an ammeter. If the current can be measured on several ranges, use
the range that results in a reading near the middle of the scale. Figure shown below illustrates
these points.

Figure (A) shows the initial reading of a circuit. The highest range (250 milliamperes) has been
selected and the meter indication is very small. It would be difficult to properly interpret this
reading with any degree of accuracy. Figure (B) shows the second reading, with the next largest
range (50 milliamperes). The meter deflection is a little greater. It is possible to interpret this
reading as 5 milliamperes. Since this approximation of the current is less than the next range, the
meter is switched asshown in Figure (C).

The range of the meter is now 10 milliamperes and it is possible to read the meter indication of 5
milliamperes with the greatest degree of accuracy. Since the current indicated is equal to (or
greater than) the next range of the ammeter (5 milliamperes), the meter should NOT be switched
to the next range.
(d) explain that electromotive force (e.m.f.) is measured by
the energy dissipated by a source in driving a unit charge
around a complete circuit.
A battery is a source of electrical energy.

A battery has two sides: Positive (+) & Negative (-)

When both sides of the battery is connected with the wire, Positive charges are pused to the
Negative side. But who is pushing them to move around? The so-called Electromotive force!

The Electromotive Force uses energy in driving the charges around. So energy is consumed.

Definition:

Energy trasnferred in a cell or battery per unit charge.

(e) state that e.m.f. is work done/charge.

As mentioned electromotive force is energy transferred to single charge within the battery or cell.

Mathematically, we can write this in an equation as

Electromotive Force = Energy Transferred / Charge

Since Energy Transferred is equal to work done; Work Done = Energy Transferred
Therefore, Electromotive force can also be written as

Electromotive Force = Work Done / Charge

(f) state that the volt is given by J/C.

The unit of Electromotive force is Volt. But we can find the unit from the formula as well.

Since, Electromotive Force = Work Done / Charge

Work done has a unit of Joules-- J

Charge has a unit of Coulombs-- C

Therefore,

Electromotive Force = work done / Charge = Joules / coulombs or J/C

(g) calculate the total e.m.f. where several sources are

arranged in series and discuss how this is used in the design
of batteries.
When cell are joined together the new product is called battery.

Following figures shows cells connected in series with symbolic representation.

In this case emf of individual cells add up.

Such connections are made when positive is connected with negative and so on as shown below.
(h) discuss the advantage of making a battery from several
equal voltage sources of e.m.f. arranged in parallel.
Following figures shows cells connected in parallel with symbolic representation.

In this situation, EMF stays the same but now the battery can provide higher current or
Strength of battery is increased in terms of current. Such batteries can live longer if the
number of appliances kept the same.

Such connection is made when positive is connected with positive and negative is connected
with negative as shown in fig.
Extra Information on Series and Parallel:
Not only cells but batteries can also be connected in series and parallel to maximize voltage and
current respectively.

When you connect batteries in Series, this will double the voltage and leave the amp-hour rating
the same.

When you connect batteries The other is connecting them in Parallel, which will double the amp-
hour rating and leave the voltage the same.
(i) state that the potential difference (p.d.) across a circuit
component is measured in volts.

(j) state that the p.d. across a component in a circuit is given

by the work done in the component/charge passed through
the component.

Electric Potential Difference is also called Voltage.

"Electrical potential difference is the difference in electrical potential energy per unit charge
between two points or across resistor".

The unit of potential difference is the volt (V).

There is fundamentally no difference between Electromotive Force and Potential Difference.
Electromotive Force is the energy lost while moving charges inside the cell. On the other hand
Potential Difference is the energy lost in moving charges across a Resistor.

Therefore, the formula for the calculation of Potential Difference is same as that of
Electromotive Force.

Potential Difference or Voltage = Work Done / Charge

(k) describe the use of a voltmeter with different ranges.

Voltmeter is an instrument used to measure Potential Difference or Emf across components.

Voltmeter is always placed parallel to the component or components across which Voltage is
measured.

There are two types of voltmeters i- Analogue & ii- Digital

Analogue:

It has a needle which moves around numbers to show voltage.

Digital:
It shows voltage in the form of digits.

Voltmeter With Different Ranges:

Voltmeters can be constructed with several ranges. Abover figure shows a voltmeter with 5
ranges of voltage. The knob (pointer) can switch to any particular range and in this way a
voltmeter can be used to measure several different ranges of voltage.

In the above figure (A) the meter is in the 1000-volt range. The pointer is barely above the 0
position. It is not possible to accurately read this voltage. In above figure (B) the meter is
switched to the 250 volt range. From the pointer position it is possible to approximate the voltage
as 20 volts. Since this is well below the next range, the meter is switched, as in the figure (C).
With the meter in the 50-volt range, it is possible to read the voltage as 22 volts. Since this is
more than the next range of the meter (10 volts), the meter would not be switched to the next
(lower) scale.

(l) state that resistance = p.d./current and use the equation

resistance = voltage/current in calculations.
Some conductors are good in allowing current to pass through them but some are not.

When 2 Amperes of current is allowed to pass through Iron it would either become too hot or
would melt than if the same current is allowed to pass through Copper of same thickness. It
simply means that iron cannot allow large current to flow through it than copper. This means Iron
is not as good conductor of electricity than copper. The thing that is not allowing large current to
flow through it and instead producing heat is called Resistance.

Resistance is opposite to Conduction. If something is not conducting then it must have higher
resistance.

(m) describe an experiment to measure the resistance of a

metallic conductor using a voltmeter and an ammeter and
make the necessary calculations.
Resistance can be calculated accurately and roughly. Accurate method is done by drawing graph
and then calculate quantity by finding the gradient; but a rough and quick method is by directly
connecting battery, wire and ammeter in series along with voltage in parallel as shown below.
Use formula to calculate resistance

Resistance = Voltage / Current

plug in values and calculate resistance.

Apparatus

A wire of certain length of any material.

Constant Voltage supply.
one ammeter and one voltmeter
Procedure

Safety: When handling the wires avoid stretching them or deforming by kinking. This affect the
results.

1- Take one of the pieces of a wire and record its diameter at three places using the micrometer
screw gauge.
2- Calculate the average of diameters.
3- Set up circuit as shown in the diagram. The Resistance R is the resistance of the wire that you
are trying to calculate.
4- Set the power supply to 1V. This limits the current through the wire in order to reduce any
heating effect which may change the resistivity.
5- Record the readings on the ammeter and voltmeter for 8 different lengths on a suitable table.
6- Calculate the resistance of the wire for each length.

Analysis

For each wire plot a graph of resistance (y-axis) against length.

The resistance of a wire is given by the equation: R = x l/A

Where "R" is resistance, "" (pronounced 'rho') is the resistivity of the wire, "l" is length and "A"
is its cross-sectional area.

The gradient of each graph will give you the quantity /A

Therefore if you multiply the gradient by the cross-sectional area, this will give you the
resistivity of the wire. (you can use the measured diameter to calculate the wires cross-sectional
area)

Use the above method of analysis to calculate the resistivities for each wire.

(n) discuss the temperature limitation on Ohms Law.

Ohm's Law Statement:

Voltage is directly proportional to the current in a conductor provided tempertature stays

constant.

Mathematically, Voltage (directly proportional) Current

voltage = Resistance x Current

Where "Resistance" is the constant of proportionality.

The current through a resistor is varied, while the p.d. across it is measured. The graph of V
against I is a straight line through the origin.

The gradient (slope) of the graph would give you Resistance.

Being striaght line means that Resistance stays constant but this is only possible when
conductors are at constant temperature.

We can calculate gradient as

Gradient (Resistance) = (V2 - V1) / (I2 - I1)

Being at constant temperature is the prime conduction for the validity of the Ohm's Law.

use following animation

http://www.electricalfacts.com/Neca/Exp/Exp2/ohm1.shtml

(o) *use quantitatively the proportionality between

resistance and the length and the cross-sectional area of a
wire.
Resistance of the conductor or wire increases if The length of wire is increased and vice versa.

Also, the Resistance of the conductor is decreased if the cross-sectional area of the wire is
increased.

According to following concept we can arrive at the following formula

Resistance (directly proportional) Length of wire / Cross sectional area of wire

R=L/A

Here we need to talk about ""-- rho, a greek letter used to represent the resistivity of the
material.

Resistivity is the property of the material which tells us how much resistive a material is or how
much resistance the material would put against current. Larger the resistivity greater would be
resistance.

A good conductor for example Copper would have lower resistivity than Iron.

(p) calculate the net effect of a number of resistors in series

and in parallel.
When resistors are connected in parallel
their total resistance is given by

1 / R T = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3

In Parallel Circuit,

i- Current is split among branches

ii- Voltage remains same on each branc.

When resistors are connected in series

their total resistance is given by

RT = R 1 + R 2 + R 3
i- Voltage is split among individual components while

ii- Current remains the same through out the circuit.

(q) describe the effect of temperature increase on the

resistance of a resistor and a filament lamp and draw the
respective sketch graphs of current/voltage.

(r) describe the operation of a light-dependent resistor.

Light Dependent Resistor or LDR is a variable resistor whose resistance varies upon the
exposure of the light.

When light falls on the LDR its resistance increases and vice versa.

Symbolically, LDR is represented as

LDR is made up of a semi-conductor like Cadmium Sulphide (cds).

Applications:

smoke detection, automatic lighting control, batch counting and burglar alarm systems.

They are also used to operate the shutter of the camera if exposure of the light is more LDR
would have low resistance and shutter would be off and vice versa.

D.C. Circuits
(a) *draw circuit diagrams with power sources (cell, battery
or a.c. mains), switches (closed and open), resistors (fixed
and variable), light-dependent resistors, thermistors, lamps,
ammeters, voltmeters, magnetising coils, bells, fuses, relays,
light-emitting diodes and rectifying diodes.

(b) state that the current at every point in a series circuit is

the same, and use this in calculations.
Current in series circuit always stays the same throughout the whole circuit. No matter at which
point you check out the current it will remain the same.

If 5-Amperes of current is flowing in the circuit it would remain 5- Ampere throughout the
circuit as shown below

Suppose in above circuit the battery is of 50-volts, the resistance of each lamp is 5 and we
want to find out the voltage on the lamp on the lamp on the right side.

A very important note: For all circuti solutions OHM's law is the most important to be applied V
=IxR

Here to find the voltage on the lamp I would employ OHM's law equation

Voltage = Current x Resistance

 Voltage = 5 x 5 ; 5 -Amperes current and 5 ohms resistance

so voltage on each cell would be Voltage = 25 volts.

(c) state that the sum of the potential differences in a series

circuit is equal to the potential difference across the whole
circuit and use this in calculations.
In series circuit, potential difference or voltage is split up across components as shown in
example below

Like in above example if the voltage on one lamp is 25 volts then the voltage on the other lamp
would also be 25 volts if both lamps have same resistance becasue current stays the same. But
the battery voltage would become 50 volts that is sum of two.

It is the battery voltage is divided amongst the resistors.

As you can see in above example, the voltage on two resistors are 4 v and 8 v respectively. The
sum of these voltages is equal to 12 V ie equals the battery voltage.

(d) state that the current from the source is the sum of the
currents in the separate branches of a parallel circuit.
In parallel circuits, current coming out from the battery or cell is split among the branches.
As you can see in above diagram, 0.3 Amperes of current is coming out from the cell (Left hand
side) and is split in each resistor while in the end the current will recombine as 0.3 A.

Remember the total current goes out from the cell/battery would be same as total current that
goes into the cell/battery-- so current is always conserved.

In above figure, current in all three brances is same ie 0.1 A this is only possible if resistors are of
same value. However, if one resistor is bigger than the other then less current would flow in the
branch which has higher value resistor.

(e) do calculations on the whole circuit, recalling and using

formulae including R = V/ I and those for potential
differences in series, resistors in series and resistors in
parallel.
Practical Electricity
(a) describe the use of electricity in heating, lighting and
motors.
Basically, you need to know that electricity is all about electrical energy. When this energy is
passed through any device or appliance or resistor then that thing would consume the energy and
trasnform electrical energy into their useful form.

When a bulb is connected in the circuit then electrical energy in the current is converted into
light + heat.

When a heater is connected in the circuit then electrical energy in the current is converted into
Heat.

When a motor is connected in the circuit then electrical energy in current is converted into
Kinetic Energy.

(b) do calculations using the equations power = voltage

current, and energy = voltage current time.

(c) calculate the cost of using electrical appliances where the

energy unit is the kW h.
(d) state the hazards of damaged insulation, overheating of
cables and damp conditions.
The main hazard is arcing, fire and shock.

The bases of above hazards are two

1- our body behaves as a conductor, therefore, current can pass through it.
2- when current passes through any material it produces heating effect.

Frayed Cable:

In Frayed cables, insulation is removed and few strands are broken inside the cable.
Due to broken insulation, metal part of the wire is exposed. Therefore, if that part is touched
accidently then current can flow through your body and could be serious.

Frayed wiring sometimes occurs when a wire is attached to a machine that vibrates. This
frequently occurs on disposals and dryers.

Broken strands inside the insulation means that resistance is high, therefore, current would
produce more heating effect, which could melt the insulation and may cause arcing and burning.

Long cables: They may be hazardous for two reasons

1- could damage the equipment: How?

Cables are means to transfer energy or voltage from power source (battery or mains) to the
equipment (TV, Iron or anything.) Wires and cables in reality have resistance and energy is lost
due to this resistance. Therefore, total amount of voltages can never reach to the device from the
power source. Long cables have even higher resistance and therefore for this reason large amount
of voltage is dropped on the cables and could not reach to the device.

Suppose you have connected a TV, which operates on 220 v AC, with Mains (220 V AC). The
idea is that Mains would provide this 220 V to the TV. Suppose the cable that is connecting
Mains with TV is very long and due to the length of cable 20 V is dropped on to the cable and
200 V is left which is then trasferred to the TV. Now what would happen? TV would either be
broken or would not work at all as it needs 220 V not less.

2- Cause fire: When current passes through a material of high resistance then electrical energy is
quickly converted into heat energy. Due to heat energy,the cable becomes hot and insulation may
be removed due to burning. This may cause fire.

3-Long cables can easily tangle-up and if got broken during entanglement then may become the
cause of electrocution.

Damaged Plugs:

The insulator part is broken and metal part is exposed. Metals allow current to flow and if
touched accidentlly by someone electrocution.
Water around sockets: water is considered as conductor of electricity, therefore, if water is
around socket it may carry electric current and can be fatal. Never use electrical appliances near
water.

Pushing metal objects into sockets: metals are conductors so if they are pushed into sockets
they can carry current to the holder's body and will electrocute.
Too many devices connected to a single socket:

Every device requires certain current to work.

If we connect so many devices from a single socket then each device would draw its own share
of current from the socket. It means a large current is drawn from a single socket.
We know that current produces heating effect, large current may boil or burn the socket or wire.
See fig. given below.

Examiner's Expectation: 2.3 Students will be assessed

during examination on their ability to describe the uses of
insulation, double insulation, earthing, fuses and circuit
breakers in a range of domestic appliances

(e) explain the use of fuses and circuit breakers and fuse
ratings and circuit breaker settings.
(f) explain the need for earthing metal cases and for double
insulation.
(g) state the meaning of the terms live, neutral and earth.
(h) describe how to wire a mains plug safely. Candidates will
not be expected to show knowledge of the colours of the
wires used in a mains supply.
High current is dangerous not only for humans but for appliances as well because current
produces heating effect and may be damaging to appliance, if it gets too high.

Therefore, to protect devices and humans from the wrath of high current: insulation, double
insulation, earthing, fuses and circuit breakers are used.

Insulation: Cables and wires are insulated usually with PVC plastics, so that there conducting
part(metal, usually copper) does not remain exposed.

Double Insulation: in older times not too older, appliances does come with total outer metal
part. This has the danger of electrocution for the person because current can travel in the metal
part appliance if somehow cable got frayed and touching the outer body. This is now avoided by
covering the whole outer body with insulator like plastic, this is called double insulation.

Symbolic representation of double insulation is . So if any appliance has this symbol on

it then it means the appliance is doubly insulated. By the way, now nearly all appliances are
doubly insulated.

If the outer part of the body is of metal then double insulation is the solution but if the outer
metal part can not be insulated like in iron and oven. Then we need to provide other sort of
solutions e.g. Earthing.

Earthing:

Earthing is done for the safety purpose similar to double insulation. It is a cheaper and a very
effective method of safety.

Earthing is done by just taking a wire and connecting its one end with the metal part of the
appliance and other end to the ground/earth through a three pin plug. It is shown in following
figures
You must have seen two pin plugs and three pin plugs. In a three pin plug, two pins are for Live
and Neutral wires while the third pin- the big one, is called the Earth pin.

Earth wire connection with the metal casing is shown in following figures.

Earth wire is connected from the metal part of the appliance to the plug, which is then connected
to the ground. This is shown in following diagram.

As seen in above two figures, the green and yellowish wire which is the Earth wire is connected
to the metal part as well.
The other part of the earth wire is connected to real ground or Earth as shown below

continue on next page

Earthing is used to protect a person when a live wire (wire which carries current) is accidently
touching the metal part of the appliance. This produces the danger of electrocution.

Earth wire effectively short-circuits the current to the ground i.e. the current instead of flowing
through the metal part of the appliance goes down to earth.

The current chooses to go down to ground because current loves to follow path of minimum
resistance. And the path to ground offers minimum resistance to current than metal part of
appliance. Therefore, all current prefer rest in peace unlike us.

Fuses: Fuses are sacrificial electrical creatures.

Fuse is always placed on the live wire before any appliance or device, see three fuse placement
in three pin plug figure as follows
Fuses melt when a high current tries to flow into an appliance thus appliances remain protected.
They are cheap and non-renewable; once gone, gone forever.

Construction of fuse:

It consists of a thin wire of low melting point which melts when there is a flow of a certain
amount current through it. The wire is placed in a cartridge which is rated with the value of
maximum current that is allowed to pass through it as shown in diagram below.
Thickness of the wire inside the cartridge is used to make fuse of different current rating. 13 A
fuse would have a thicker wire than 3 A fuse.

In above picture, three different types of fuses are shown with different rating. Rating means how
much maximum current the thin wire inside this cartidge can allow and above this rated current,
the wire will melt. The wire inside 13A will be thicker than 3A.
Symbolic representation of fuse:

Problem with the fuse: fuses are not reusable products. The wire is once melted can not be used
again.
Some examples:
Circuit Breaker: The function of circuit breaker is exactly the same as fuses ie they protect
appliances from high current. But they are
reusable and that's why bit more expensive.
They work as an electrical switch, if high current flows they break the circuit thus protecting
appliance.

In every building circuit breaker panels is common like the one shown on the right. In this whole
panel there are several single circuit breakers are connected for the whole building.

Usually, each room is connected to a circuit breaker, therefore, in a panel is used for the whole
house. However, a single appliance may be individually connected to a circuit breaker.

(i) explain why switches, fuses and circuit breakers are wired
into the live conductor.
This is because currents comes from Live wire and goes back to neutral wire. That is why all
safety devices are placed in live wire.
Electromagnetism
(a) describe experiments to show the force on a current-
carrying conductor, and on a beam of charged particles, in a
magnetic field, including the effect of reversing (1) the
current, (2) the direction of the field.

(b) state the relative directions of force, field and current.

Whenever a current carrying conductor/wire is placed in a magnetic field there will always be a
force on the conductor/wire if the direction of the conductor/wire and magnetic field are 900 to
each other as shown in figure below.

As you can see clearly in the figure that a current carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field
(between two magnets). Their directions are shown by blue arrows and fingers while you can
also see the direction of force on the wire by thumb and a blue arrow going upwards.

In electromagnetism; force, field and current are inter-related.

The direction of force, field and current are 900 to each other --- Left-Hand-Rule is a rule used to
find the direction of force.

In Left Hand Rule, fingers are the most important things and they must able placed at right
angles (900) to each other.
Each finger to used to denote different thing as

Fore-finger shows the direction of magnetic field and points towards South of the magnet.

Middle-finger shows the direction of current.

Index finger shows the direction of force.

Force on a beam of charged particles

Current is the flow of charges.

So instead of saying "current carrying conductor will experience a force.........." we can also say
that "charges flowing through a magnetic field would experience a force if they their direction of
flow is at right angles to the direction of magnetic field"

(c) describe the field patterns between currents in parallel

conductors and relate these to the forces which exist between
the conductors (excluding the Earths field).

There are two possible conditions

i- When current in same direction

ii- When current in opposite direction
Explanation:

Electric currents interact with each other through their magnetic fields. Consider two parallel,
current-carrying conductors/wires.

The current through the right-hand conductor produces a magnetic field. The interaction of the
current in the left hand conductor with this field gives rise to a force on the left-hand conductor.S
imilarly the current through the left-hand conductor also produces a magnetic field. The
interaction of the current through the right-hand conductor with this field gives rise to an equal
and opposite force on the right-hand conductor.
This can be summarised as follows.

Parallel currents attract. Opposed currents repel.

Top view of the conductors carrying current with magnetic field and forces:
note: Dot (.) means current is coming out of the page while Cross (x) current is going into the
page

Example 1: What is the force between two parallel current carrying wires each 3.00 m long and
10.0 cm apart, carrying currents of 10.0 A and 15.0 A in the same direction?

Since currents are in the same direction, the force is towards each other.

Example 2: Two high current lines are 0.500 cm apart and carry 1.5 x 102 A of current. What is
the force between the wires when the current is in opposite directions?
(d) explain how a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field
experiences a turning effect and that the effect is increased
by increasing (1) the number of turns on the coil, (2) the
current.
Again recall the fact that when electrons/charges move they produce magnetic field around
them. If we place a North pole infront of a South pole of a permanent magnet then there will a
magnetic field between them. Now if these electrons/charges with their own magnetic field move
through the magnetic field of a permanent magnet then these two magnetic fields would interact
with each other and a force is produced on the moving charges.

In first figure, a current carrying wire is shown which means the same as moving
charges/electrons. When a force is applied on current carrying wire or conductor then it moves in
the direction of force.
In second figure, cross-section of the wire is shown. The black dot inside a yellow dot represents
direction of current coming out of page.

Therefore, electrons will feel force when they move perpendicular to the direction of magnetic
field of external magnets.

This force may change the direction of moving electrons.

(e) discuss how this turning effect is used in the action of an electric motor.

Electric Motor:

The yellow rectangular part is the coil of the motor which is between the poles of a magnet.
When current from the battery will pass through the coil then it will experience a force. This
force would rotate the motor. The direction of this force can be found by using Fleming Left
Hand Rule.

Current flow from the positive side of the battery to the conducting loop. The direction of current
from A to B is upwards, the direction of magnetic field is from North to South as shown by blue
arrow, therefore, by place index finger in the direction of field and middle finger in the direction
of current the thumb would give the direction of force which is action downwards. as shown next
to the diagram.

(f) describe the action of a split-ring commutator in a two-pole, single coil motor and the effect
of winding the coil onto a soft-iron cylinder.
Electromagnetic Induction
(a) describe an experiment which shows that a changing
magnetic field can induce an e.m.f. in a circuit.
It is very important to understand first about induction.

Induction means "an act of bringing forward". Electromagnetic induction means producing
magnetism by means of electricity(current and voltage) or producing electricity(current and
voltage) by magnetism.

This can be done by thinking back to Flemings Left Hand rule.

Remember three fingers means three variables, and from maths we know that in an equation of
three variable, X+Y+Z=0, if we know two variable we can find third one. Therefore, by Fleming
rule if we know two variables then we can find third one.

So if we know THUMB and FIRST FINGER we can find third one. This is exactly what section
6.15 is about.

1-Suppose a conductor is moving in a magnetic field then current will be induced in it.
According to Fleming: movement= THUMB, magnetic field = INDEX FINGER and the third
finger would automatically be the direction of current

Note: If the direction of magnetic field, movement or current is changed then the direction of
Induced Voltage would also change.

Example of this case is bicyle dynamo

How it works:

When tyre moves it will rotate the ridged knob which is connected to a magnet. When magnet
will move the copper coil placed next to it will experience a changing magnetic field and so the
current will induce in the coil. The is connected to the lamp induced current will so lights the
lamp.

2-If a current carrying cconductor is at rest in an external magnetic field then there will be a
force on the conductor and it would start moving according to Fleming's rule.

Now think what Generator doesproduce current and voltage. And yes generators do employ
same principleelectromagnetic induction.

Generation of Electricity:
In a generator you have a thick rod or wire surrounded by magnets. This rod or wire when
moves, current and voltage induces.
Examiner's Expectation: 2.19 Students will be assessed
during examination on their ability to recall that:
voltage is the energy transferred per unit charge passed
the volt is a joule per coulomb.

Basically, 2.19 is the definition of voltage. Mathematically,

Voltage = Energy transferred / Charge. Or V = E / Q

(b) state the factors affecting the magnitude of the induced

e.m.f.
i- Faster rotation of coil.

ii- Magnets having higher strengths.

iii- Rotating coil should be of higher number of turns.

iv- Rotating coil should be of a very good conductor.

(c) state that the direction of a current produced by an

induced e.m.f. opposes the change producing it (Lenzs Law)
and describe how this law may be demonstrated.

(d) describe a simple form of a.c. generator (rotating coil or

rotating magnet) and the use of slip rings where needed.

(e) *sketch a graph of voltage output against time for a

simple a.c. generator.

(f) describe the structure and principle of operation of a

simple iron-cored transformer.
Structure: An iron core in square shape and hollow from center as if looks like a window. On one
side of it a coil of wire is wrapped which is connected with the main supply, this is primary coil
this section is called input. Exactly, opposite to this another coil is wrapped, this is called
secondary coil; this section is called output.
Principle of Transformer: Transformer works on the principle of Electromagnetic Induction. It is
used to either increase or decrease voltage at the secondary side (output).The number of turns
determines the amount of voltage at output, more turns more voltage and vice versa.

Note: Transformers works only on AC not on DC. Wiggled R at the secondary is resistor or load.

In transformer, total amount of power at input is always equal to the total amount of power at
output.

If we look at the formula then it is Power = Voltage x Current

So, then Power at Primary side = Power at secondary side then according to this

Electrical companies produce constant power. They can keep power constant either by increasing
voltage and decreasing current or by increasing current and decreasing voltage as

If the power produced is 50 MegaWatts = 50 000000 watts then the company can transfer this
power either by voltage 50 000 v and current 1000 A = V x I = 50 000 x 1000 = 50 000 000
watts or

Voltage 100 000 v and current 500 A = V x I = 100 000 x 500 = 50 000 000
watts.

There are two types of Transformers

Step-up Transformer: When a transformer has more voltage at secondary than primary. However,
current is reduced.
Step-down Transformer: When a transformer has less voltage at secondary than primary.
However, current is increased.

In large scale electricity generation these two types of transformers are used as
Step-Up transformer is used right after power plant (here it is nulcear but it could be any;
coal,wind etc). This means voltage is increased (usually in thousands of volts) and current is
decreased, this is done because sending large amount of current over wire/cables will produce
large heating effect and loss of energy. In order to minimize the loss of energy current is
decreased and voltage is increased.

But before consumer distribution step-down transformer is used. This will decrease the voltage
(back to the requirement of consumers i.e. 220 v) and increase the current.

This is all done to save the energy that would have otherwise gone into heat.

This formula connects beautifully voltages with the number of turns. Try few examples.

input power = output power

V P IP = V s Is

for 100% efficiency

Transformer is 100% efficient device. Therefore, output power is always equal to input power
and hence no loss of energy. If power at primary is 50 w and then at secondary it would also
remains 50 w.

Power at primary (input) = Power at output (output)

Since, Power = Voltage x Current So P=VxI

Therefore,

Vp x Ip =Vs x Is

According to above equation

To manage a power of 50 watts, we can have 50 volts and 1 Amps of current; or 25 volts of
voltage and 2 Amps of current. So that

P = V x I = 50 x 1 = 25 x 2= 50 watts
From above example, we can conclude that in order to have higher voltage at output current
would be low and vice versa. Therefore we can say that

"Transformer compensate voltage with current"

In simple language,

In step-up transformer, we need to increase the voltage at secondary

Suppose we have 50 volts primary voltage and 2 Amps of current and we need 100 voltage at
secondary

Therefore, to keep power constant we can employ equation in this way.

50 x 2 = 100 x 1

Therefore, trasformer needs to reduce current to increase the voltage.

(g) state the advantages of high voltage transmission.

This can be understood by looking at the formula of Power Loss

Power Loss = (Current)2 x Resistance

According to above formula, Higher the current means higher Power Loss.

Therefore, to reduce power loss we need to lower the current. However, to transmit same amount
of power if current is reduced we must increase the voltage as Power formula suggests (Power =
voltage x Current)

So by increasing voltage at the cost of decreasing current would give us advantage of trasmitting
power more efficiently. This will also helps us to

1- allows the use of conductors of practicable size

2-economics (less volume of copper)
3- reduce voltage drop along line
4-reduce energy losses along line

(h) discuss the environmental and cost implications of

underground power transmission compared to overhead
lines.

The situation is different for distribution and transmission.

Underground distribution pros:

- esthetically preferable
- requires smaller right-of-way
- right-of-way can be shared
- fewer problems with vegetation, automobile accidents, lightning, or vandalism

Underground distribution cons:

- higher cost of construction
- higher repair cost
- potential risk from careless digging

In general, underground distribution is a practical option for new construction and in some
jurisdictions, is required (eg, all new construction in New York must be underground).

There are three major factors with underground transmission:

- the cost is FAR greater than overhead. Underground transmission is almost always reserved for
situations where right-of-way is extremely limited - eg, metropolitan areas - or for water
crossings.
- reactive control - this can be a big problem. The shunt capacitance is greater with underground
cables than it is with overhead, and at the same time, the series reactance is lower. That's a
consequence of the spatial physics. As a result, the use of underground cables for transmission
can result in significant reactive control problems at the transmission level. That in turn means
that additional equipment is required to address those reactive control problems, further
increasing the effective cost of underground compared with overhead.
- on the other hand, undgrounding transmission means that it is not visible. There is no evidence
that exposure to transmission has any demonstrable health effects, but there still people who are
fearful. If the transmission lines are underground, they won't see then and will therefore worry
less (or, more likely, find something else to worry about)