CE152P: CONSTRUCTION

MATERIALS AND TESTING

Lamberto B. Marcial Jr., M.S.C.E.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS,
METHODS AND EQUIPMENT
study of construction methods focusing on
equipment-intensive activities; operations
of various construction equipment including
production and cost estimating; and
sampling, testing, inspection and method
of production of selected construction
materials.
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS:
SAMPLING AND TESTING
For engineers to design buildings or
machinery efficiently, they had to
understand the properties of the materials
with which they worked. Ways had to be
developed to test these materials.
REASONS FOR MATERIAL TESTING
RESEARCH

- Research on materials is done to determine the

properties of materials. When a new material is
developed, engineers must know the properties of
the material before they can use it in design
work.
REASONS FOR MATERIAL TESTING
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY
CONTROL

- Quality assurance comprises tests performed by

a company receiving new supplies to make certain
that the shipment meets the standards called for
in the order. Quality control involves tests done
by a company on their own products prior to
shipment to ensure that the product meets the
manufacturers standard.
REASONS FOR MATERIAL TESTING
FRACTURE OR FAILURE ANALYSIS

- Fracture or failure analysis involves test

performed on parts that have failed, or on new
parts which are similar to parts that have failed
to determine why the failure occurred.
REASONS FOR MATERIAL TESTING
ENGINEERING DESIGN ANALYSIS

- There are always many ways to design and

manufacture an item. The engineers job is to
determine the best design and the best
manufacturing techniques. In engineering design
analysis, either models or full-scale replicas of
new products are tested, often to failure, to
determine their performance characteristics.
QUALITIES OF GOOD TEST
reliable and valid

objective, not subjective

precision and accuracy

QUALITIES OF GOOD TEST
reliable and valid

A test is said to have reliability when it

gives the same results for the same
material on repeated tests. It has validity if
it measures exactly what it claims to
measure and not some other, often
unknown property of the material.
QUALITIES OF GOOD TEST
objective, not subjective

Objective tests are those that give the

same results regardless of who performs
the test. Subjective tests are often
affected by the judgment of the person
conducting the test. Multiple-choice tests,
which can be graded by a machine, are
much more objective than essay test which
must be read and evaluated by a person.
QUALITIES OF GOOD TEST
precision and accuracy

Precision is a measure of how close to

the true value a measurement falls.
Weighing a part on a miscalibrated scale
may give precise results but entirely
inaccurate. Precision is how closely
repeated measurements match each other.
QUALITIES OF GOOD TEST
precision and accuracy

Precision is how closely repeated

measurements match each other.

Accuracy is how closely a measurement

matches the correct or expected value
CEMENT
Cement in its broadest term means any
substance which acts as a binding agent for
materials natural cement (Roman Cement)
is obtained by burning and crushing the
stones containing clay, carbonates of lime
and some amount of carbonate of
magnesia.
CEMENT
is a hydraulic binder, a finely ground
inorganic material which, when mixed with
water forms a paste which sets and hardens
by means of hydration reactions and
processes and which, after hardening,
retains its strength and stability even under
water.
HISTORY OF CEMENT
Ancient Egypt
Mud, Gypsum Mortar

Ancient Greece and Rome

Lime Mortar
Pozzolan Cement = Lime + Pozzolana
HISTORY OF CEMENT
1756 - John Smeaton research Project to
rebuild Eddystone Rock lighthouse. Burnt
limestone with clay impurity made the best
mortars.

1824 - Joseph Aspdin patents the first

Portland cement
MAKING OF CEMENT
High CaO material + High SiO2 material CXS clinker
(limestone) (silica sand) (1450C)

INGREDIENTS OF CEMENT
Lime (CaO) Iron Oxide (Fe2O3)
Silica (SiO2) Magnesia (MgO)
Alumina (Al2O3) Sulphur
Calcium Sulphate Alkalies
(CaSO4)
INGREDIENTS OF CEMENT
Lime - is the important ingredient of
cement and its proportion is to be
maintained carefully. Lime in excess makes
the cement unsound and causes the cement
to expand and disintegrate. On the other
hand, if lime is in deficiency the strength of
the cement is decreased and it causes
cement to set quickly
INGREDIENTS OF CEMENT
Silica - an important ingredient of cement
and it gives quick setting property to
imparts strength to cement.

Alumina - gives quick setting properly to

cement. Excess alumina weakens the
cement.
INGREDIENTS OF CEMENT
Calcium Sulphate - is in the form of
gypsum and its function is to increase the
initial setting time of cement.

Magnesia - the small amount of this

ingredient imparts hardness and color to
cement.
INGREDIENTS OF CEMENT
Sulphur - a very small amount of sulphur is
useful in making sound cement. If it is in
excess, it causes the cement to become
unsound.

Alkalies - most of the alkalies present in

raw material are carried away by the flue
gases during heating and only small
quantity will be left. If they are in excess in
cement, efflorescence is caused.
TYPES OF CEMENT PROCESSES
Dry Process
Quarrying Cooling and grinding
Crushing of Clinker
Storage Addition of Retarder
(gypsum)
Drying
Storage and
Grinding
Packaging
Proportioning
Final Grinding
Burning the raw
materials
TYPES OF CEMENT PROCESSES
Wet Process

The materials handled by the wet process

are physically soft such as mart with clay or
shale, which in their natural state contains
high percentage of moisture. Mart and clay,
or limestone and clay are mixed in proper
proportions.
TYPES OF CEMENT PROCESSES
Wet Process

The mixture called slurry, contains 30% to

50% water. It is placed in a storage tanks
and hold there for final analysis and
corrected to the desired composition. Then
the slurry is pumped into rotary kilns and
burned in the usual manner. The succeeding
steps in the manufacture are similar to the
Dry process.
CEMENT IS THE MOST EXPENSIVE
CONRETE COMPONENT
Water Concrete Volume

Chemical
Admixture
33%
Portland Cement 38%

12% 17%
Sand Concrete Cost Sand

Stone Stone
0%
68%
Water
7%
18% 7% Chemical
0% Admixture

portland
cement
CEMENT CLASSIFICATION
HYRDAULIC CEMENT cement which does not
only harden by reacting with water but also for a
water-resistant product.

NON-HYDRAULIC CEMENT cement which

does not harden in themselves when mixed with
water but, when finely ground and in the
presence of water, they react at normal ambient
temperature with dissolved hydroxide to form
strength-developing calcium silicate and calcium
aluminate compounds which are similar to those
which formed in the hardening of hydraulic
cements; e.g. pozzolanic materials.
TYPES OF CEMENT (ASTM150)
TYPE I used when the special properties
specified for any other type are not
required. No limits are imposed in any of
the four principal compounds.

TYPE IA air-entraining type I cement,

where air entraining is desired.

TYPE II for general use, more specially

when moderately sulfate resistance or
moderate heat of hydration is desired.
TYPES OF CEMENT (ASTM150)
TYPE IIA air-entraining type II, where air
entraining is desired.

TYPE III used when high early strength is

desired.

TYPE IIIA air-entraining type III, where air

entraining is desired.
TYPES OF CEMENT (ASTM150)
TYPE IV used when a low heat of
hydration is desired.

TYPE V used when high sulfate resistance

is desired.
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
FINENESS

The fineness of cement affects its

reactivity with water. Generally, the finer
cement, the more rapidly it will react. For
quality control purposes in the cement
industry, the fineness is easily determined
as residue on sieve No. 200 mesh (75um). It
is generally agreed that cement particles
larger 75 um may never hydrate
completely.
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
FINENESS

Finer Cement hydrate more quickly (gain

strength faster) but have lower ultimate
strength.
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
NORMAL CONSISTENCY

This implies to the amount of mixing water

requirement of cement in order for the
latter to be build of plastic.
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
SETTING TIME

It is a necessary property of cements that

they exhibit setting when mixed with a
limited quantity of water. Two setting times
are described in the standard for a cement
paste of standard consistence, an initial
and a final set.
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
SETTING TIME

INITIAL SET marks the point in time when

the paste has become unworkable. The
paste does not solidify suddenly; it requires
considerable time to become fully rigid.
This time taken to solidify completely
marks the FINAL SET.
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
SETTING TIME

INITIAL SET marks the point in time when

the paste has become unworkable. The
paste does not solidify suddenly; it requires
considerable time to become fully rigid.
This time taken to solidify completely
marks the FINAL SET.
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
SETTING TIME

VICAT APARATUS the apparatus that is

almost universally use in determining the
time of setting of cement. It measures the
resistance of a cement paste of a standard
consistency to the penetration of a needle
under a total load g 300g.
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
SOUNDNESS

A test that manifests the resistance of

cement against deformation caused by
temperature change.

A pat of neat cement shall remain firm and

hard and show no signs of distortion,
cracking, or disintegration in the steam test
for soundness.
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
SPECIFIC GRAVITY

The specific gravity of a given volume

material is the ratio of its mass to the mass
of an equal volume of water. The specific
gravity of cement shall not be less than 3.1
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
6. STRENGTH
The most important material parameter
used to characterize cement-based
products. The fracture of concrete consists
of three stages: crack initiation, slow crack
growth, and rapid crack propagations
leading to final rupture. Usually, strength
measurements mean the crushing strength
of concrete cubes, since the measurement
is easier to obtain than tensile or bend
strengths.
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
STRENGTH
The most important material parameter
used to characterize cement-based
products. The fracture of concrete consists
of three stages: crack initiation, slow crack
growth, and rapid crack propagations
leading to final rupture. Usually, strength
measurements mean the crushing strength
of concrete cubes, since the measurement
is easier to obtain than tensile or bend
strengths.
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
HEAT OF HYDRATION

is the result of the exothermic chemical

reaction between cement and water. The
chemical reactions between unhydrated
cement and water during setting and
hardening release heat which results in a
rise in temperature of the fresh concrete.
OTHER HYDRAULIC CEMENTS
NATURAL CEMENT

it is made by burning natural argillaceous

limestone at a low red heat. The limestone
contains 15-45% clay. It is quarried in its
natural form a not a combination of several
materials. The clinker is finely ground to
provide hydraulic properties.
OTHER HYDRAULIC CEMENTS
WHITE PORTLAND CEMENT

pure white cements of high strength is used

in ornamental work both interior and
exterior, in making building blocks, stucco,
etc. it is used as stainless mortar for laying
glazed and unglazed tiles for bath and
toilet rooms.
OTHER HYDRAULIC CEMENTS
HIGH-EARLY STRENTH PORTLAND CEMENT

it is made from high limed mixtures, burned

twice, and finely ground. Contains a high
proportion of tricalcium silicate than
ordinary Portland cement. Hardens more
quickly and gives more heat.
OTHER HYDRAULIC CEMENTS
HIGH-EARLY STRENGTH PORTLAND
CEMENT

it is made from high limed mixtures, burned

twice, and finely ground. Contains a high
proportion of tricalcium silicate than
ordinary Portland cement. Hardens more
quickly and gives more heat.
OTHER HYDRAULIC CEMENTS
BLENDED CEMENT

it is a kind of cement obtained by mixing

Portland cement with an admixture other
than gypsum.
OTHER HYDRAULIC CEMENTS
MASONRY CEMENT

utilized in brick and masonry. It is

composed of mixtures of various cementing
materials with different other materials.
Typical cementing materials are Portland
cement, natural cement, slag cement, and
hydraulic lime.
OTHER HYDRAULIC CEMENTS
ALUMINA CEMENT

has high alumina content. It is not quick

setting but often attains strength at 48
hours compared to 28 days strength of
Portland cement. Alumina cement resists
the disintegrating effect of sea water.
AGGREGATES
mineral particles which have rock as their
origins;

generally occupy 70-80% of concrete

provides concrete with dimensional

stability and weir resistance
USES OF AGGREGATES
As bases or cushions between the soil and
traffic wheels or between the soil and
pavement.
As ballast or base for railroad tracks
For bituminous pavement
For Portland cement concrete
As filter
As protection against bank erosion (riprap
or gabion)
CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES
COARSE AGGREGATES

- aggregate predominantly retained on the

No. 4 (4.75mm) sieve.

FINE AGGREGATES

- aggregate passing the 3/8 in. sieve and

almost entirely passing the No.4 (4.75mm)
sieve
TYPES OF AGGREGATES
SAND

the sand for mortar or concrete is usually

obtained from natural deposits. The
material must be clean and hard and the
particles should preferably be graded in
size from fine to coarse with the coarser
particles predominating.
TYPES OF AGGREGATES
CRUSHED STONE

the stone used as coarse aggregate is obtained by

crushing rock in a rock crusher or by hand. In
general differences in the hardness of sound
particles of stone will affect the resistance of
concrete to wear but will not have a great
influence on its compressive strength as such
particles of stone are considerably stronger than
the hardened cement mortar that binds them
together.
TYPES OF AGGREGATES
GRAVEL

consists of naturally rounded pebbles taken

from fresh water streams and rivers. They
are found at the banks and bottom of
streams mixed with sand. The maximum
size of aggregate in reinforced concrete is
governed by the requirement that it shall
easily into the forms and between the
reinforcing bars.
TYPES OF AGGREGATES
BLAST-FURNACE SLAG

slag is a material obtained in the separation

of iron from its ore in a blast-furnace. Slag
produces concrete that is as strong as some
of the stone concrete and is lighter than
stone or gravel concrete.
TYPES OF AGGREGATES
CINDERS

cinders are poor conductor of heat and

therefore can be advantageously employed
in concrete that is to be used mainly for
fire proofing structural steel members.
Cinders weigh considerably less than stone
or gravel and are suitably as a course
aggregate where a light weight concrete is
desired.
CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES
ACCORDING TO SIZE
FINE AGGREGATES aggregates most of
which pass through a 4.75mm IS
sieve.desired.

SAND has a lower size limit of about

0.07mm
CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES
ACCORDING TO SIZE
COARSE AGGREGATES aggregates most of
which are retained in 4.75mm IS sieve.
CRUSHED GRAVEL obtained by crushing
gravel or hard stone.
UNCRUSHED GRAVEL resulting from natural
disintegration of rock.
PARTIALLY CRUSHED GRAVEL product of
blending of the above two types.
CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES
ACCORDING TO SIZE
NATURAL SAND fine aggregates from natural
disintegration of rock and/or that which has been
deposited by stream and glacial agencies.

CRUSHED STONE SAND fine aggregates produces

by crushing hard stone.

CRUSHED GRAVEL SAND fine aggregates

produced by crushing natural gravel.
CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES
ACCORDING TO SIZE
FINE AGGREGATES
SILT material between 0.06mm and
0.002mm

CLAY still smaller part than silt

LOAM soft deposit consisting of sand,

silt and clay in about equal proportions
CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES
ACCORDING TO SIZE
ALL-IN AGGREGATES available in nature,
comprising particles falling essentially
within narrow limit of size fractions.

SINGLE-SIZE AGGREGATES aggregates

comprising particles falling essentially
within narrow limit of size fractions
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO
SHAPE
ROUNDED AGGREGATES (RIVER OR
SEASHORE GRAVEL) has minimum voids
ranging from 32 33%.

IRREGULAR AGGREGATES aggregate

having partly rounded particles and has
higher % of voids ranging from 35-38.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO
SHAPE
ANGULAR AGGREGATES suitable for high
strength concrete and pavements subjected
to tension. The higher the angularity no.,
the more the angular is the aggregates.

FLAKY AND ELONGATED AGGREGATES its

least dimension is less than 3/5 of its mean
dimension (the average of the sieves sizes
through which particle pass and retained,
respectively).
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO
SHAPE
FLAKY AND ELONGATED AGGREGATES

ELONGATION INDEX the percentage by

weight of particle present in it whose
greatest dimension (length) is greater
than 9/5 their mean dimension.

FLAKINESS INDEX particles having least

dimension (thickness) less than 3/5 their
mean dimension.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON UNIT
WEIGHT
NORMAL WEIGHT specific gravity range
from 2.5 to 2.7

HEAVY WEIGHT specific gravity range

from 2.8 to 2.9
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON UNIT
WEIGHT
LIGHTWEIGHT used to manufacture the
structural concrete and masonry blocks for
reduction of the self-weight of the
structure. Its bulk density is 1200 kg/m3

BLOATED CLAY AGGREGATES the particle

range from 5 to 26mm size.
UNIT WEIGHT OF AGGREGRATES

PORES minute holes or cavities formed in

a rock due to the presence of air bubbles
entrapped in it.

ABSORPTION OF AGGREGATES the

percentage of water absorbed by an
aggregate when immersed in water.
UNIT WEIGHT OF AGGREGRATES
SATURATED SURFACE DRY (SSD)
AGGREGATES aggregate saturated with
water but contains no surface free
moisture.

MOISTURE CONTENT the surface moisture

expressed as a percentage of the weight of
the SSD aggregate.
UNIT WEIGHT OF AGGREGRATES
BULKING the increase in volume of a
given mass of fine aggregates caused by the
presence of water.

MAXIMUM SIZE OF AGGREGATES in

general, the larger the maximum size of
aggregates, the smaller the amount
required for a particular water-cement
ratio.
KINDS OF VOLUME AND WEIGHT
OF AGGREGATE PARTICLES
CLASSIFICATIONS OF AGGREGATE
SHAPES
CLASSIFICATIONS OF AGGREGATE
SHAPES
INFLUENCE OF AGGREGATES ON
QUALITY OF CONCRETE
The strength, density and general quality of
concrete depend to a large extent on the
aggregates. Even when the most careful
attention is paid to the proportioning of the
materials and to the mixing and placing of
the concrete, good results cannot be
expected from poor aggregates.
INFLUENCE OF AGGREGATES ON
QUALITY OF CONCRETE
In general, the properties of the aggregates that
influence the quality of concrete are:
The grading or maximums comparative sizes of
the particles.
The amounts and kinds of impurities in the
aggregates
The compressive strength, or resistance to
crushing, of the aggregates;
The durability of the aggregates, or their
resistance to the fire exposure to weathering,
and to wear.