Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
CALLED
available today on the subject of women’s roles in the church. Created
specifically to help facilitate group discussions, the nine sessions move
&
participants through a systematic study of the various positions on this im-
&GIFTED
portant subject in an even-handed way, while still being clearly egalitarian.
Simple, readable, yet thorough, it provides a first look at the issues involved,
and provokes readers to rethink issues they may have thought were settled.
Whether you are contemplating individual or group study of this subject,
the Called and Gifted Study Guide is an ideal starting point for those who
want to study the subject but don’t know where to begin.
G I F T E D
ber of Christ Community Covenant Church in Arvada, Colorado, she has
served on the boards of a variety of ECC institutions, and is currently a
member of the ECC’s Commission on Biblical Gender Equality.
CP Study Guide
Covenant Publications CP
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS FOR STUDENTS
CALLED & GIFTED
S haron C airns M ann
C A L L E D
&
G I F T E D
Study Guide
FOR STUDENTS
CP
Covenant Publications
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
Covenant Publications
5101 North Francisco Avenue
Chicago, Illinois 60625
(773) 907-3328
www.covchurch.org
Scripture quotations unless otherwise noted are from the New Revised Standard Version Bible, copyright
© 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in
the U.S.A., and are used by permission. All rights reserved.
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
C O N T E N TS
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Unit Two: History of Men and Women in the Bible and in the Church
Session Three
Starting at the Beginning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Session Four
Women in the Bible: Separating Fact from Myth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
v
Contents
Session Six
Paul’s Instructions for the Church in Corinth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Session Seven
Paul’s Instructions for the Church in Ephesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Recommended Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
vi
P R E FAC E
vii
Preface
irenic starting point for calm group study and discussion, without being
overbearing or strident.
Additionally, these sessions were written for a broad audience, not for
any particular denomination. While the commission hopes that members
of the Evangelical Covenant Church will find this study guide useful, our
vision goes far beyond the confines of our denomination.
So many people have been involved with this project that it is difficult
to thank everyone by name. This project would not have come to life at all if
it were not for the bold leadership of the Evangelical Covenant Church and
for the dedicated members of the Commission on Biblical Gender Equality,
all of whom staunchly advocated for this type of study aid.
In addition, this material has benefited greatly from the scholarly input
from Dr. Klyne Snodgrass, the Paul W. Brandel Professor of New Testament
Studies at North Park Theological Seminary; from the expertise from Doreen
Olson and Debbie Blue of the ECC’s Department of Christian Formation;
and from Jeff Norman’s (of Modesto Covenant Church) thoughtful analysis
and suggestions for activities. Judith Diehl kindly assisted with the mean-
ings of words in Hebrew, and Carol Lawson of the ECC’s Department of
the Ordered Ministry wisely shepherded this piece through all of its stages
of development. I express my thanks to each one of you!
I also thank the participants of the various groups who “piloted” this
material for your willingness to spend your valuable time on this project
and provide feedback.
May God greatly bless each one of you and may the name of Jesus be
glorified through this work.
viii
UNIT ONE
Building Community
SESSION ONE
Asking Honest Questions
3
Building Communit y
there is a debate. Some are simply intimidated by the subject, hate debate,
and are afraid to examine it. Still others seem to cherish and deliberately
stir up debate!
As people who desire to follow Christ, we need to take an intense inter-
est in any subject that affects people. As believers, we are part of the body
of Christ—the church—and we must recognize that many other members
of the body of Christ are asking serious and honest questions about the
roles of women in the church. And, as part of the body, we must take those
questions seriously and respond to the challenge to engage in rethinking this
issue. Our views on this issue influence the lives and ministries of women
around the world. In addition, the views we hold on this subject have direct
outcomes in our own lives, such as influencing where we worship and how
we use the spiritual gifts we have been given. There are practical outcomes
that result from the views we hold—we must be absolutely certain that our
views align themselves as closely as possible with biblical teaching.
4
Ask ing Honest Q uestions
5
Building Communit y
Personal Convictions
Sometimes people come to an issue like this believing that they have
a purely objective opinion, and that others don’t. It is important to under-
stand that all of our convictions about this issue—or any other issue—are
deeply influenced by the experiences and teaching we’ve received. We each
need to recognize that our experiences have influenced our thinking, and
that our experiences are not the final authority for understanding a bibli-
cal issue.
6
Ask ing Honest Q uestions
from someone else in this area, we have more in common than not, and
what we have in common is important.
Conclusion
Most believers sincerely want to do what God tells them to do and
to be obedient to his teachings. Unfortunately, as we will see as we move
through this study, there are honest disagreements about how to translate
certain passages in the Bible, and genuine differences of opinion about
how to interpret what it is that God is teaching. It is important to always
affirm in others their desire to be faithful to doctrine, while examining how
our personal backgrounds and worldviews influence the stands they—and
we—take.
Discussion Questions
1) Why should believers study this subject?
2) What are some of the practical outcomes of our views on the roles of
women in the church?
7
Building Communit y
4) How did you develop this view? List the familial, cultural, and biblical
influences that contributed to the formation of your view.
For Reflection
Reflect on the following verse. Take time to study it in its larger context.
Ask yourself, “What did Paul really mean?”
“For in Christ Jesus you are all children of God through faith. As many
of you as were baptized into Christ have clothed yourselves with Christ.
There is no longer Jew or Greek, there is no longer slave or free, there is no
longer male and female; for all of you are one in Christ Jesus” (Galatians
3:26-28).
Endnotes
1. See “Complementarianism—What’s in a Name” by Rebecca Merrill Groothuis for a
more fully developed discussion of the label “complementarian,” available at http://www.
cbeinternational.org/new/free_articles/complementarianism.shtml.
2. A few people claim to be “complementarian egalitarians.” Given the general under-
standing of who and what the term “complementerian” refers to, it is a misappropriation
and contradiction of terms. A complementarian position is a hierarchical position. It is
simply a modification of a traditional view, which is why the term “neotraditional” is prob-
ably more appropriate. Again, see the article by Groothuis mentioned in endnote 1 for a
full development of this concept.
8
S E S S I O N T WO
How Do We Interpret the Bible?
9
Building Communit y
or she began. Where one ends up in these debates is frequently the result
of one’s personal biases plus an inclination to put more weight on certain
passages than others.
It is important to note that these contradictions have emerged because
of our faulty understandings, not because Scripture is at fault. The Bible is
one consistent story and our interpretation of it must involve the habits of
1) allowing Scripture to interpret Scripture, and 2) balancing all the texts
in a way that does justice to all that God has said. In addition to the key
hermeneutical principles of looking at the cultural, historical, and textual
context in which a passage was written, we must deal with the whole text in
order to understand specific texts: in other words, look at the passage in the
context of the totality of the teaching of all Scripture. This principle should
be central in how we approach the subject of biblical gender equality as well.
In a Bible study, believers should seek to be honest and humble in how they
approach the study, to set aside their personal biases to the greatest extent
possible, and to recognize that God’s story is a consistent story. We must,
in humility, try to discern God’s story, not impose our own on it.
Being biblical people is not always easy: some texts on this subject (and
others) are difficult to understand and require intense study and much prayer.
Others texts are too patently clear, and our problem isn’t understanding
them—it’s obeying them.
Basics of Interpretation
God was trying to say something through the human writers of the Bible
to both the first hearers and readers of any particular passage, as well as to
10
How D o We I nter pret the Bibl e ?
Problems
We all want to hear what God says to us, and we rely on translators to
render the Bible accurately. And yet, translators bring to the endeavor their
own biases and assumptions. That’s why teams and committees are assembled
11
Building Communit y
12
How D o We I nter pret the Bibl e ?
This paradigm is rooted in a belief that the consequence of Adam and Eve’s
sin (Adam ruling over Eve) is prescriptive for all men and women—that is,
it is God’s punishment for all time. This hierarchical paradigm consists of
ideas about power, dominance, authority, and submission. The result is the
belief that one of the qualifications for leadership is biological (i.e., male-
ness), not just gifts and calling.
The egalitarian view grows out of a paradigm of redemption. The re-
demption paradigm interprets the overarching story of the Bible as being
the restoration of God’s original intent for community: oneness, equality,
mutuality, and service. The redemption paradigm views the gospel message
as liberating us from old divisions. In addition, authority is seen as residing
in God or God’s word; leadership is not viewed as having authority but as
being a servant; the result of Adam and Eve’s sin is seen as being descriptive,
rather than prescriptive. In this paradigm, leadership is based on gifts not
biological sex.
Conclusion
In this session, we have examined some of the challenges of translations
and interpretations. We have also looked at how one’s operating paradigm
can influence one’s position on the issue of women in ministry.
Discussion Questions
1) Do you believe the Bible is really the word of God?
13
Building Communit y
3) Many sincere believers are bewildered by the fact that different people
can read the same text and believe different things about what it really
says. How can we account for the fact that different people interpret
the same passage in different ways?
5) Can you give an example of the suggestion above that theological debates
are circular?
14
How D o We I nter pret the Bibl e ?
Endnotes
1. Andrew Perriman, Speaking of Women (London: Apollos, 1998), 68-70.
2. Ibid.
15
U N I T T WO
T he goal for this session is to take a fresh look at the creation story
and to try to discern God’s original intent for the relationship
between men and women.
19
H istor y of M en and Women in the Bible and i n t h e C h u rc h
sea and the birds of the air and over every living creature that
moves on the ground.”
29. Then God said, “I give you every seed-bearing plant on the face
of the whole earth and every tree that has fruit with seed in it.
They will be yours for food.
30. And to all the beasts of the earth and all the birds of the air and
all the creatures that move on the ground—everything that has
the breath of life in it—I give every green plant for food.” And
it was so.
31. God saw all that he had made, and it was very good. And there
was evening, and there was morning—the sixth day.
20
Star ting at the B eginning
First, let us address some confusion about the word adam, a Hebrew
word with a semantic range that can mean any person or human being,
or male humans, or it can refer specifically to Adam, the individual. Note
that adama is also the word for “earth” or “ground.” Various versions of the
Bible translate adam in the Genesis passages differently: as “man,” “human
beings,” “humankind,” and “humans.”1 As noted above, for example, the
NIV translates Genesis 1:26 as, “Let us make man (adam) in our image. . .
and let them rule.” Nonetheless, it is clear that grammatically adam is plural,
so a better rendition of this word would be “humankind” or “human be-
ings,” because today “man” is no longer considered a generic term for both
men and women. (See sidebar below.)
Verse 27 neatly repeats what was just said in verse 26 and both verses
reveal a key point: both males and females were created in God’s image—
equally. There is no hint in these verses that there is any status difference
between the two sexes, nothing that hints that women were created as a
damaged or inferior image of God, or that men were created in a more
perfect image of God. The word of God clearly states that both male and
female were created in the image of God, and together reflect the image of
God.
Verse 28 goes on to reveal that God blessed them. God blessed both
sexes, and there is no indication otherwise. In the same verse, God gives
21
H istor y of M en and Women in the Bible and i n t h e C h u rc h
“MANY PEOPLE look to the order of creation (man created before wom-
an) as the model or standard by which we are to determine the functions
of women within the church and home. The difficulty is that there is con-
fusion about what the creation story actually tells us regarding God’s
intended plan for male and female relationships. The confusion results
from our tendency to read into Scripture what we have been taught it
says rather than approach Scripture free of bias and let it speak to us.”
Marilyn B. Smith, Gender or Giftedness (World Evangelical Fellowship Commission on Women’s Concerns,
2000), 2.
And finally, in verse 31, God’s word reveals that God was pleased with
what he had created. This certainly implies that the equality between the
two kinds of humans pleased God and had been blessed by God. In order
to please God, the quality of the creation had to have been excellent.
22
Star ting at the B eginning
English speakers use these words, they communicate their intended mean-
ing with little or no difficulty.) Insisting that adam be translated “man”
when it is clearly not the intended meaning compromises the integrity of
the text for readers.
4. These are the generations of the heavens and the earth when they
were created. In the day that the Lord God made the earth and
the heavens,
5. when no plant of the field was yet in the earth and no herb of
the field had yet sprung up—for the Lord God had not caused
it to rain upon the earth, and there was no one [adam, generic
human] to till the ground;
6. but a stream would rise from the earth, and water the whole face
of the ground—
7. then the Lord God formed man [here adam refers to male,
singular] from the dust of the ground, and breathed into his
nostrils the breath of life; and the man [adam, male singular]
became a living being.
8. And the Lord God planted a garden in Eden, in the east; and
there he put the man [adam, male singular] whom he had
formed.
9. Out of the ground the Lord God made to grow every tree that
is pleasant to the sight and good for food, the tree of life also in
the midst of the garden, and the tree of the knowledge of good
and evil.
10. A river flows out of Eden to water the garden, and from there
it divides and becomes four branches.
11. The name of the first is Pishon; it is the one that flows around
the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold;
12. and the gold of that land is good; bdellium and onyx stone are
there.
13. The name of the second river is Gihon; it is the one that flows
around the whole land of Cush.
14. The name of the third river is Tigris, which flows east of Assyria.
23
H istor y of M en and Women in the Bible and i n t h e C h u rc h
24
Star ting at the B eginning
Man [ish, notice a different word for man is used here] this one
was taken.”
24. Therefore a man leaves his father and his mother and clings to
his wife [issha, notice that issha is translated woman in verse
22, and wife in this verse and the next], and they become one
flesh.
25. And the man [adam, generic human or person] and his wife
[issha] were both naked, and were not ashamed.
1. Now the serpent was more crafty than any other wild animal
that the Lord God had made. He said to the woman, “Did God
say, ‘You shall not eat from any tree in the garden’?”
25
H istor y of M en and Women in the Bible and i n t h e C h u rc h
2. The woman said to the serpent, “We may eat of the fruit of the
trees in the garden;
3. but God said, ‘You shall not eat of the fruit of the tree that is
in the middle of the garden, nor shall you touch it, or you shall
die.’”
4. But the serpent said to the woman, “You will not die;
5. for God knows that when you eat of it your eyes will be opened,
and you will be like God, knowing good and evil.”
6. So when the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and
that it was a delight to the eyes, and that the tree was to be
desired to make one wise, she took of its fruit and ate; and she
also gave some to her husband, who was with her, and he ate.
7. Then the eyes of both were opened, and they knew that they were
naked; and they sewed fig leaves together and made loincloths
for themselves.
8. They heard the sound of the Lord God walking in the garden
at the time of the evening breeze, and the man and his wife hid
themselves from the presence of the Lord God among the trees
of the garden.
9. But the Lord God called to the man, and said to him, “Where
are you?”
10. He said, “I heard the sound of you in the garden, and I was
afraid, because I was naked; and I hid myself.”
11. He said, “Who told you that you were naked? Have you eaten
from the tree of which I commanded you not to eat?”
12. The man said, “The woman whom you gave to be with me, she
gave me fruit from the tree, and I ate.”
13. Then the Lord God said to the woman, “What is this that you
have done?” The woman said, “The serpent tricked me, and I
ate.”
14. The Lord God said to the serpent, “Because you have done this,
cursed are you among all animals and among all wild creatures;
upon your belly you shall go, and dust you shall eat all the days
of your life.
26
Star ting at the B eginning
15. I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between
your offspring and hers; he will strike your head, and you will
strike his heel.”
16. To the woman he said, “I will greatly increase your pangs in
childbearing; in pain you shall bring forth children, yet your
desire shall be for your husband, and he shall rule over you.”
17. And to the man he said, “Because you have listened to the voice of
your wife, and have eaten of the tree about which I commanded
you, ‘You shall not eat of it,’ cursed is the ground because of
you; in toil you shall eat of it all the days of your life;
18. thorns and thistles it shall bring forth for you; and you shall eat
the plants of the field.
19. By the sweat of your face you shall eat bread until you return to
the ground, for out of it you were taken; you are dust, and to
dust you shall return.”
27
H istor y of M en and Women in the Bible and i n t h e C h u rc h
Conclusion
In this session, we’ve taken a fresh look at the creation story. For those
who have been taught that certain verses in the Genesis account imply
dominance and subordination between male and female, this kind of fresh
study can be startling. Tradition and cultural biases have led to a traditional-
ist view being taught as normative—that is, how things should be. But we
have seen that God’s original intent was for equality, mutuality, and respect
between men and women. This plan was damaged by sin, corrupting the
symmetrical relationship that Adam and Eve had and turning it into some-
thing that God had not planned for humans.
Discussion Questions
1) Is there anything that surprises you about the creation account given
in Genesis 1?
2) As you study the account now, does it differ from what you’ve been
taught in any way?
28
Star ting at the B eginning
5) What does it mean when Adam declares that Eve was “bone of my
bones and flesh of my flesh”?
7) Is there anything in the Genesis 2:4-25 text that shows that because God
created Eve to be a “helper” for Adam, that God intended hierarchy for
these two created beings?
8) When God addressed Eve in Genesis 3:16, do you think God was
describing what would happen or prescribing what would happen?
29
H istor y of M en and Women in the Bible and i n t h e C h u rc h
Endnotes
1. See http://www.bibletexts.com/terms/heb-adam.htm for more details about all the
various ways adam can be and has been translated, including an easy-to-read chart that lists
how different Bible versions have translated the word in different verses.
2. The word'ezer is used twenty-one times in the Old Testament, and it refers to God
fifteen of those times (Exodus 15:2; 18:4; Deuteronomy 33:7, 26, 29; 1 Kings 7:12;
2 Samuel 22:42; Psalm 9:10; 33:20; 69:6; 89:19, 20; 115:9-11). Because the word 'ezer
so frequently refers to God, it could be interpreted as implying a superior status, except
that its modifier knegdo seems to point to equivalency—not superiority or inferiority. Or,
as Andrew Perriman points out, “What the word defines is not essentially the status of the
helper (the helper may be either superior or inferior), but the condition of the one in need
of help. This is of considerable importance. We cannot conclude from the position of Eve
as helper that she was placed under the authority of man.” Andrew C. Perriman (Speaking
of Women[London: Apollos, 1998], 179.)
30
SESSION FOUR
Women in the Bible: Separating Fact from Myth
In Preparation Read
• Judges 4 and 5
• 2 Kings 22:1–23:25
• 2 Chronicles 34:1–35:19
31
H istor y of M en and Women in the Bible and i n t h e C h u rc h
in this session, God appears to have a different design. God seems to have
consistently turned the existing social order on its head.
Both Deborah and Huldah were respected leaders in Israel. They re-
ceived their authority from God through their godly characters and God-
given gifts. Note that Deborah was a judge. To be a judge was to hold the
highest-ranking office in Israel. Read Judges 2:16-18. God called (raised up)
judges to this leadership position and “whenever the Lord raised up judges
for them, the Lord was with the judge...” (v. 18).
It is interesting to note in these accounts that even the highest-ranking
people (generals, priests, and kings) consulted Deborah and Huldah. The
texts do not give any indication that there was anything unusual about this,
nor do they indicate that there were restrictions on women giving advice
to men in other circumstances. In the texts, the people clearly recognized
Deborah and Huldah as God’s spokespersons.
32
Women in the Bible: S eparating Fac t f ro m M y t h
33
H istor y of M en and Women in the Bible and i n t h e C h u rc h
34
Women in the Bible: S eparating Fac t f ro m M y t h
Conclusion
In conclusion, we see that men and women served side by side in the
early church. Women and men were persecuted together, they studied to-
35
H istor y of M en and Women in the Bible and i n t h e C h u rc h
gether, and they led together. This is the model, the “redemption paradigm”
that we talked about in an early session that Jesus came to restore and that
we should emulate today.
Discussion Questions
1) Can you think of other women who played important roles in the his-
tory of Israel?
3) How does studying women leaders in the Bible influence your thinking
about women leaders in the church today?
Endnotes
1. A. Berkeley Mickelsen and Alvera Mickelsen, Studies on Biblical Equality (Minneapolis:
Christians for Biblical Equality), 15.
2. Marilyn B. Smith, Gender or Giftedness (World Evangelical Fellowship Commission
on Women’s Concerns, 2000), 21.
36
UNIT THREE
39
What D oes Paul R eally Teach ?
The goal of this session is to introduce the complexities of the debate, not
to solve it for you.
In Preparation Read
• 1 Corinthians 11:2-16
• Ephesians 1:13-23; 4:11-16; 5:18-23
• Colossians 1:13-20; 2:8-19
40
The M eaning of Kephalē
At Issue
There are several key questions in the debate about kephalē, especially
as it is used in Ephesians 5:23.
1) What does kephalē mean in Greek? Simply stated, most traditionalists
contend that kephalē means authority (to rule over),1 while many
egalitarians contend it does not. On the other hand, some egalitar-
ians argue that it primarily means “source” or “origin,”2 while some
traditionalists contend that it does not.
2) What was Paul trying to say when he used kephalē? This question
sometimes gets ignored in the argument over what the actual uses
of the word were in the Greek literature of that time. When this
question is ignored, we lose sight of the fact that Paul was pointing
to a new understanding of marriage and a new model of leadership
for Christians.
3) What is the best English word for kephalē? Some egalitarians argue
that the English word “head” has connotations that the Greek word
doesn’t have and that Paul didn’t intend, most notably the idea of
“authority over.”3
Let’s try to wade through these questions. Many scholars note that the
literal meaning of kephalē is the physical “head,” a meaning that frequently
includes the idea of a “physical extremity.” But, translating kephalē as the
English word “head” often misleads people into thinking that it means
control. As Klyne Snodgrass says, “Many have assumed that kephalē means
‘boss,’ ‘person in charge,’ or ‘leader,’ since the word has those metaphori-
cal meanings in English.”4 We in the modern Western world understand
that the brain controls the body, so it is hard for us to separate the idea of
“control” from of the word “head.” But the Greeks did not have the same
understanding of physiology that we have. According to Faith Martin,
“They believed that the heart was the seat of the intellect and the head
was the source of life and life fluids....Accordingly, when Zeus gave birth
to [Athena, she] sprang from his head.”5
Difficulties in understanding this word arise because of Western con-
notations for the English word “head.” It is hard to avoid eisegesis here;
41
What D oes Paul R eally Teach ?
that is, reading back into the text our own interpretations based on our own
perspective or cultural understanding. So, while it isn’t wrong to render
kephalē as “head” in English, the result is that English readers are prone to
understand “head” as authority or dominant position, even though in Greek
texts, kephalē was not typically used to describe the relationships of individu-
als to one another, and especially not superior/subordinate relationships.
The challenge, therefore, is to let go of our own cultural understandings of
the word “head” so that we can open ourselves to the meaning of kephalē
as situated in this text.6
Beyond the more literal meaning of “head” mentioned above, kephalē,
at the time Paul wrote these passages, was used metaphorically in a variety
of other ways. Discerning Paul’s metaphorical meaning is the real challenge.
Kenneth Neller notes that, “In extra-biblical Greek literature, kephalē (head)
refers primarily to what is first or supreme, or to an extremity, end, or point.
As such, the term was used to designate not only the head of a person or
animal, but also the prow of a ship, head of a pillar, top of a wall, source or
mouth of a river, or start of a period of time. The word could also signify
what was prominent, outstanding, or determinative.”7 Other scholars agree
with Neller, preferring “preeminence.”8
Some traditionalists, such as Wayne Grudem, argue that “the evidence
42
The M eaning of Kephalē
to support the claim that kephalē means ‘source’ is surprisingly weak, and,
in fact, unpersuasive,”9 and “the evidence to support the claim that kephalē
can mean ‘authority over’ is substantial.”10 Egalitarians and other scholars,
however, strongly disagree and point out that the Liddell-Scott Lexicon
omits the meaning of “authority over” as one of the metaphorical meanings
of kephalē (see sidebar on previous page).11
The meaning of kephalē as “source of life” or “preeminence” can be most
clearly understood in the passages above that refer to Christ (Colossians
1:18; 2:19; Ephesians 4:15). Yet, in Colossians 2:10, it would be hard to
imagine that kephalē means that Christ is the “source” of the principalities
and powers.12
The Septuagint is another important source of information about how
kephalē was used. The Septuagint is the name of the Old Testament that
was translated from Hebrew into Greek. The Hebrew word ro'sh, which
usually means the physical head of a person or animal, is also used, like in
English, as a metaphor to indicate a leader or a person in authority. And yet,
the Hebrew-Greek scholars who translated the Old Testament into Greek
didn’t always use kephalē when the meaning was “commander,” “leader,” or
“ruler.” They frequently used the Greek work archon instead. This is not to
say they didn’t use kephalē at all. They used a variety of other Greek words
(at least twelve13) to translate ro'sh, including kephalē, especially when “head”
was a metaphor for “top” or “crown” or in a head-tail metaphor—but not
typically as ruler.
Several scholars develop the claim that the metaphorical sense of
kephalē in Ephesians 5:23 is best understood as referring to or underscor-
ing the unity of the head and body, and the resulting natural inclination
of an organic whole to work to preserve itself, and to provide nourishment
and care, even to the point of death (“as Christ loved the church and gave
himself up for her” v. 25).14 Similarly, others suggest that kephalē is best ren-
dered as “enabler” in this context, or “one who brings to completion.”15
Other scholars point out that understanding kephalē doesn’t ultimately
depend on looking at previous usage of the word or extra-biblical texts; rather
much of its meaning can be—and should be—understood by studying how
it is used in its context.16 As a result, both Neller and Snodgrass argue that
43
What D oes Paul R eally Teach ?
Conclusion
An examination of word meanings and origins can seem tedious and
difficult. The details of the preceding discussion may leave us a little con-
fused, but one thing should stand out clearly: there are definitely different
interpretations of what kephalē means and different ideas of how it should be
translated. So how do laypersons with no background in biblical languages
make a decision about which one is right? How can we arrive at some closure
for ourselves in this inconclusive debate?
Continued prayerful study is always a good course of action. In addi-
tion, when you are confronted with a case of ambiguous meaning, or more
than one meaning, remember this principle of interpretation: in the case
of more than one meaning for a word, it is always best to determine the
meaning from within the text, and not force a meaning on it from outside
of the text.
By applying this principle, one realizes that while kephalē may some-
times mean “authority over,” or “rule over,” it is probably not the best way to
understand or translate kephalē in Ephesians 5:23 because it is not consist-
ent with the profound truth that Paul is trying to teach in Ephesians 5:21
of mutual submission. In addition, we can probably also safely conclude
that the English word “head,” while literally accurate, may mislead with its
connotations of dominance.
44
The M eaning of Kephalē
Discussion Questions
1) Try reading Ephesians 5:23 substituting all the different meanings of
kephalē presented in this session. This will help you understand the
wide range of possibilities, and why there is debate. Now, reading it in
the context of Ephesians 5:21-33, what do you think was Paul’s intent
and what might be the best translation of the word?
2) What do you think was the impact of the message of Ephesians 5:21-33
on the men and women in the church in Ephesus?
Endnotes
1. See Wayne Grudem, “The Meaning of Kephalē (‘Head’): A Response to Recent Studies”
in Recovering Biblical Manhood and Womanhood, ed. W. Grudem and J. Piper (Wheaton, IL:
Crossway Books, 1991), 425-68, and James Hurley, Man and Woman in Biblical Perspective
(Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1981).
2. See, for example, the writings by Mickelsen and Mickelsen; Bilezikian; Kroeger; Fee;
and Besançon Spencer, as mentioned in the Recommended Reading section at the end of
this book.
45
What D oes Paul R eally Teach?
46
SESSION SIX
In Preparation Read
• Acts 2:17
• 1 Corinthians 11:2-16
• 1 Corinthians 14:26-40
Background
As always, it is important to examine the context of the passages in
question. Paul wrote these passages as a part of a letter to the Corinthians in
approximately ad 54-55. The Corinthians were the people in Corinth who
had converted to Christianity and were meeting together as a church.
Since Christianity was relatively new, its worship formats were not well
established. The Corinthians did not have hundreds of years of church his-
tory to draw from as far as what worked or didn’t work for congregational
worship.
47
What D oes Paul R eally Teach ?
“THE WORD phimoō indicates a forced silence, i.e., when Jesus stilled
the raging sea, quieted the unclean spirit, and silenced the Pharisees….
Hesuchia is used for silence when the women were to learn in quiet-
ness—with a quiet and receptive spirit (1 Timothy 2:11-12).…But in this
passage, Paul uses sigaō. It is the word used when the disciples decided
to remain silent about the transfiguration (Luke 9:36) and when Jesus
said that if the disciples were silent (sigaō) the very stones would cry
out. It is the word used for Jesus’ silence during his trial (Mark 14:61) and
the silence of the apostles and elders as they listened to a report by Paul
and Barnabas (Acts 15:12). It is a chosen response—or it can also be a
request for silence so that someone can speak (Acts 12:17). It is the kind
of silence called for in the midst of disorder and tumult.”
John Bristow, What Paul Really Said about Women (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1988), 62-63.
48
Paul ’s I nstruc tions for the Church in Co r i nt h
• Paul did not write the verses and they were inserted later. There is
some support for this argument, but most scholars conclude that
these verses are authentic Pauline texts.3
• Paul is quoting the Corinthian view in verses 34 and 35 in order
to refute it. In other words Paul is saying, “What? Women should
remain silent in the church!? May it never be—I didn’t teach you
that.” While this view is gaining popularity, some refute it.4
• Paul is referring to two different types of gatherings in 1 Corinthi-
ans 14 and 1 Corinthians 11. If the gathering was in the home, for
example, women could pray and prophesy (11:5), but not when
they are in church. This solution presents innumerable difficulties
since most of the early churches were public gatherings in homes,
and it is very likely that the gathering Paul referred to in 11:3-16
was indeed the public type.5
• Some believe that Paul’s injunction in 14:34-35 was only against
married women in the church, and that Paul considered unmarried
49
What D oes Paul R eally Teach ?
Conclusion
These verses pose a great number of difficulties with which scholars
continue to wrestle. As we try to discern the intent of Paul’s instructions,
the conclusion that seems most consistent with the rest of his teaching is
that this prohibition was against talking during the service, and specifically
addressed a problem in the Corinthian church. To make the claim that it
literally prohibits women from making any audible sounds in the church
raises more difficulties and is inconsistent with the rest of Paul’s teaching.
Discussion Questions
1) Which of the three options posed by Marilyn Smith on page 49 do you
think best explains the difficulties of Paul’s instructions? Why?
50
Paul ’s I nstruc tions for the Church in Co r i nt h
4) Next, what instructions did he give to those who speak in tongues? Did
his instruction apply to both men and women?
5) What instructions did he give to those who prophesy? Did his instruc-
tion apply to both men and women?
51
What D oes Paul R eally Teach ?
7) It is not evident from the English translations, but Paul used the same
Greek word (sigaō) in the instructions to all three groups. Sigaō signi-
fies a voluntary silence. (See the sidebar on page 48 for more details.)
Is there anything significant about the fact that the word signifies a
voluntary silence?
Endnotes
1. Marilyn B. Smith, Gender or Giftedness (World Evangelical Fellowship Commission
on Women’s Concerns, 2000), 33.
2. Sandford D. Hull, “Appendix II: Exegetical Difficulties in the ‘Hard Passages’ ” in
Equal to Serve by Gretchen Gaebelein Hull (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998), 251-266.
3. For a review of these arguments, see Hull, 266, referencing C.K. Barrett The First
Epistle to Corinthians, Hendrickson Publishers, 1993. See also Andrew Perriman, Speaking
of Women (London: Apollos, 1998), 104-105.
4. D. A. Carson, “ ‘Silent in the Churches’: On the Role of Women in 1 Corinthians
14:33b-36,” in Recovering Biblical Manhood and Womanhood, J. Piper and W. Grudem eds.
(Wheaton: Crossway), 151.
52
Paul ’s I nstruc tions for the Church in Co r i nt h
5. Perriman, 109.
6. Ibid, 110-111.
7. Smith, 35.
53
S E S S I O N S EV E N
In Preparation Read
• 1 Timothy 2:8-15
• Look up the passage in different translations. Write verses 11 and 12
down from as many translations as you have available.
Background
As always, we need to begin by examining the context of these verses.
Timothy was a young pastor in the church at Ephesus, a church that Paul
had started. Paul was his mentor and called Timothy “my true son in the
faith” (1 Timothy 1:2). Paul, traveling in Macedonia, sent letters of instruc-
55
What D oes Paul R eally Teach ?
At Issue
Similar to the passage in 1 Corinthians 14:34-35 that we studied in
the previous session, the words in English translations of 1 Timothy 2:8-
15 seem unambiguous: Paul does not allow women to teach, to exercise
authority over men, and that they must remain silent. However, reading
it that way creates many problems and presupposes conclusions to which
the text may not point.
First, as with the 1 Corinthians passage, to read 1 Timothy 2:8-15 as
56
Paul ’s I nstruc tions for the Church in E p h e s u s
57
What D oes Paul R eally Teach ?
authentein appears nowhere else in the Bible, and is also rare in secular Greek
literature,3 which means there is no agreement on its actual meaning. (The
Greek word used elsewhere in the New Testament for “authority” is exousia.)
Consequently, it is highly debated as to what it really does mean, although
many suggest that “to domineer” may be the best way of understanding it.
But even that brings up other questions: for example, is it always thoroughly
negative, or only when women do it?
Learn to Learn
One of the easiest points to agree on is that this passage teaches that
women should learn. As Marilyn Smith says, “The message is that women
need to learn because lack of learning leads to deception. Anyone who has
58
Paul ’s I nstruc tions for the Church in E p h e s u s
not been taught can be deceived and anyone who is easily deceived certainly
should not teach.”4 While Paul’s assertion that “women should learn” hardly
seems notable to us, it is striking when considered in light of the cultural
context. Remember, Paul was writing at a time when women were not
usually educated at all. Ancient Mediterranean (Jewish and Greek) customs
separating women from the public sphere made it difficult for women to
learn.5 As John Temple Bristow explains, Paul’s teaching here was “both
radical in thought and difficult in execution.”6 It appears that Paul wanted
women to learn to learn—that is, because women weren’t accustomed to
learning, they needed to learn to be quiet and submissive while receiving
instruction rather than being argumentative or disruptive. It appears that
the primary problem with which Paul was concerned was the false teach-
ing that had crept into the church. As a consequence of this concern, Paul
didn’t want women to teach until they had learned first.7
Aida Besançon Spencer makes the point that “Paul’s exhortations con-
tradicted the first-century Jewish practices which did not encourage women
to become educated because then their homemaking would take a lower
priority. Rather, Paul was equalizing the relationship between men and
women. The women, as the men, were to learn. The men, as the women,
were to be concerned for their children (1 Timothy 3:4-5, 12; 5:14; Titus
1:6; 2:4).”8
Understanding Authentein
In the sentence, “I permit no woman to teach or to have authority over
a man” (1 Timothy 2:12), Paul didn’t use exousia, the Greek word that is
usually used in the New Testament to mean “authority.” He used authentein
instead. This makes understanding the text problematic, because, as men-
tioned above, the word is very unusual in Greek and not used anywhere else
in the Bible. This fact indicates that it had a meaning different from exousia
and that Paul was focusing attention on that unique usage.
While there is no universal consensus on the meaning of authentein,
many scholars believe that translating it as “to domineer,” may be the closest
match in meaning,9 and there is indication that the word has strongly nega-
tive connotations. In other words, it didn’t merely mean “to have authority
59
What D oes Paul R eally Teach ?
“SO JESUS CALLED THEM and said to them, ‘You know that among the
Gentiles those whom they recognize as their rulers lord it over them, and
their great ones are tyrants over them. But it is not so among you; but
whoever wishes to become great among you must be your servant, and
whoever wants to be first among you must be slave of all. For the Son of
Man came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life a ransom for
many.’ ” —Mark 10:42-45
60
Paul ’s I nstruc tions for the Church in E p h e s u s
about false teachings, which led him to be concerned that a teacher, male
or female, learn first before becoming a teacher, and in order to do so they
had to learn to learn. To use these passages to prevent women from holding
any leadership positions in the church for all times is to apply these verses
literally, while selectively ignoring the passages that teach something differ-
ent.14 That is not an honest interpretive practice.
“FOR IN CHRIST JESUS you are all children of God through faith. As
many of you as were baptized into Christ have clothed yourselves with
Christ. There is no longer Jew or Greek, there is no longer slave or free,
there is no longer male and female; for all of you are one in Christ Jesus.”
—Galatians 3:26-28
Conclusion
Paul’s bold statement in Galatians 3:26-28 “held the record as the most
powerfully egalitarian proclamation in Christianity, Western literature and
(probably) world culture. In this verse, Paul directly countered the notion
that race, class, or gender had any meaning before God.”15 The gospel Paul
preached was a whole and consistent gospel; therefore, we must seek to
harmonize all of Paul’s teachings or we run the risk of corrupting the very
message Paul tried to preach.
Discussion Questions
1) If you could meet the Apostle Paul face to face, what questions would
you ask him?
61
What D oes Paul R eally Teach ?
3) If Paul were to write a letter to your church or your pastor, what issues
might he be concerned about? Would those issues be of concern for all
churches for all times, or just a concern for your particular church at
this particular time?
Endnotes
1. A. Berkeley Mickelsen and Alvera Mickelsen, Studies on Biblical Equality (Minneapolis:
Christians for Biblical Equality), 39.
2. Linda Belleville, Women Leaders and the Church (Grand Rapids: Baker House, 2000),
163-165. On these pages, Belleville also lists major interpretive decisions related to this
passage.
3. Mickelsen and Mickelsen, 40.
62
Paul ’s I nstruc tions for the Church in E p h e s u s
63
UNIT FOUR
In Preparation Read
• Matthew 19:29; 26:6-13; 27:55-56, 61; 28:16-20
• Mark 5:21-43; 10:11-12; 15:40-41, 47
• Luke 10:38-42; 11:27-28; 13:10-17; 22:24-30; 24:10-11
• John 4:7-42; 11:2-45; 12:1-8; 13:13-17; 19:25
• Acts 2:1-21
• 1 Corinthians 12; 14:31
• Galatians 5:13
• Ephesians 4:11-16
67
A New Vision for M inistr y
• Philippians 2:3-11
• 1 Peter 5:2-3
68
The New Testament M odel for M i n i s t r y
69
A New Vision for M inistr y
Mutuality
As we look at the New Testament model for the church, it is clear that
God intended us to live in community. This is a profound statement when
we contrast real community with the traits of individualism and indepen-
dence that dominate our culture. True community can only happen when
the individuals involved start eradicating the things that separate them
from each other.
Paul’s teaching, in Ephesians 5:21, “Be subject to one another out of
reverence for Christ,” is just one example of a revolutionary new under-
standing of what life in the Spirit means for Christians. As Klyne Snodgrass
points out,
It is important to note that this text does not ask some Christians
to submit to other Christians. It asks all Christians to submit to
each other. No privileged group is in view. Submission is a crucial
ingredient in Christian living (this theme is central in 1 Peter).
Christians in Corinth were asked to submit to workers who had
made themselves servants to the church (1 Corinthians 16:16)—
they were to submit to servants! Prophets were to submit to other
prophets to whom revelation came (14:32). Submission was so
important for New Testament writers because it described the self-
giving love, humility, and willingness to die that are demanded of all
Christians. For example, in Philippians 2:3, Paul rejects selfishness
and asks that in humility people consider others as “surpassing”
themselves. In the verses that follow he shows how Christ himself
modeled such a life (cf. Rom. 12:3; Gal. 5:13). . . . Christians are
called to live in mutual submission and without mutual submission
they cannot fulfill their destiny.2
70
The New Testament M odel for M i n i s t r y
Conclusion
Being called to mutual submission and being taught to live in com-
munity, to abandon divisions and status and hierarchy, is as radical today
as it was when first-century Christians were beginning to worship together
71
A New Vision for M inistr y
Discussion Questions
1) What are the qualities of a leader? What does “leadership” mean? What
does “servant leadership” mean?
3) Can you find any evidence in the Bible that the Holy Spirit gives gifts
according to our biological sex (i.e., that men get certain gifts and
women get other ones)?
4) Is there any evidence in the Bible that only men are supposed to carry
out the great commission?
72
The New Testament M odel for M i n i s t r y
5) Read 1 Peter 4:10-11. Are both men and women called to be faith-
ful managers of the gifts that have been freely given to them? Or just
men?
7) Read Acts 2:42-47. Is the church that is described in this passage dif-
ferent from your church? How?
9) Discuss mutual submission. What does it really mean? What does the
term “mutuality” mean?
73
A New Vision for M inistr y
10) Does mutual submission seem normal or foreign to you? Can you think
of examples in your own life where you live in mutual submission? Can
you think of examples in your own life where you should do it, but don’t?
Ask the group for help in discerning how you might apply it to real-life
situations with which you are having difficulty. Is mutuality possible?
What would it be like to voluntarily submit yourself to another church
member? What would it feel like to have someone say, “I submit to
you”?
11) The verses in Peter address the believers in the New Testament church,
as well as all subsequent believers. What does it mean that we are
“a chosen people, a royal priesthood”?
12) What does this mean for you personally? Have you ever thought of
yourself as a priest before?
13) How can you apply this concept in your own church?
74
The New Testament M odel for M i n i s t r y
14) Does understanding that we are all priests put the idea of mutual sub-
mission in a new light?
For Reflection
How are you going to move forward in fulfilling the great commis-
sion now that you’ve learned more about how and why God gives gifts
to individual believers? How are you going to move forward in mutual
submission?
Endnotes
1. This theme is presented in greater depth in the other study guide in this suite called,
All God’s People, by John E. Phelan Jr.
2. Klyne Snodgrass, The NIV Application Commentary: Ephesians (Grand Rapids: Zonder-
van, 1996) 292.
3. Patricia Gundry, Heirs Together (Suitcase Books, 1993), 94-95.
4. Ibid, 95.
75
SESSION NINE
77
A New Vision for M inistr y
the biblical basis for service in the body of Christ is giftedness, a call from
God, and godly character—not gender.
78
Ap plying the Liberating M essage of the G ospel i n t h e Lo c a l C h u rc h
'ezer implies no inferiority; in fact, this word most frequently refers to God
in the Old Testament, meaning protector or rescuer.2
Its modifier, knegdo, means “suitable,” “face to face,” “equivalent to,”
or “visible,” and indicates that God created an equivalent human being to
be a good companion for man. This rules out authority and subordination
for either man or woman.
Some would argue that the fact that woman was formed from man creates
both preeminence and authority for the man. There is nothing in the text
that supports this interpretation. Rather, the text emphasizes that man was
incomplete, and God kindly created for him a suitable companion (Genesis
2:21-23). God’s loving act to alleviate man’s loneliness did not produce an
inferior being; rather God created an equivalent human, underscoring the
unity and equality of all human beings.
Finally, some point out that the Bible frequently refers to God as male.
Four points should be made concerning this matter.
• First, the Bible affirms that God is spirit (John 4:24) and has no
body or biological sex, as we do.
• Second, while the Bible often refers to God as male, this is the lan-
guage of comparison, employing simile and metaphor. We should
remember that Scripture refers to God as a rock and a fortress (Psalm
31:2-3); Jesus refers to himself as a mother hen (Luke 13:34); and
God refers to himself as rot and a festering sore (Hosea 5:12). These
are examples of God condescending to explain himself by comparison
to forms we can understand. Yet these descriptions do not alter the
basic teaching that God is spirit.
• Third, the limits of human language limit our understanding. Most
languages do not have a neutral-gender pronoun (e.g., “it”) that can
successfully refer to a higher-order animate being (e.g., a human) let
alone a deity, even if that deity is perceived to be without biologi-
cal sex or gender. The lack of appropriate terminology limits our
ability to apprehend phenomena that is normally outside the range
of human experience. Lacking appropriate pronouns for God, we
substitute male pronouns, with the result that they sometimes shape
79
A New Vision for M inistr y
Effects of Sin. Sin entered the world through both the man and the
woman. They were co-participants in the fall, and are equally culpable
(Genesis 3:6; Romans 5:12-21; 1 Corinthians 15:21-22).
One of the key results of sin was—and continues to be—the break in
unity and fellowship between humans and God, as well as between Adam
and Eve. As a result of sin, Adam began to rule over Eve (Genesis 3:16).
This hierarchy is an unwanted result of sin and is not God’s prescription. It
violates God’s original plan for unity, equality, fellowship, and community.
When in discussion with the authorities concerning the law of Moses, Jesus
laid down the principle that the standard is the original intention of God
found in Genesis 1 and 2 (Matthew 19:3-9).
Another unwelcome result of sin was the corruption of the ensuing
culture, which led to hostilities among people and culminated in the
oppression and exclusion of those considered to be weaker classes: the poor,
the sick, women, the unclean. The Old Testament records these customs, as
well as the longing for the day when all creation would be redeemed. The
redemption would include the elimination of barriers and reconciliation
between former enemies. Isaiah prophesies, “The wolf shall live with the
lamb, the leopard shall lie down with the kid, the calf and the lion and the
fatling together, and a little child shall lead them” (Isaiah 11:6). The Old
80
Ap plying the Liberating M essage of the G ospel i n t h e Lo c a l C h u rc h
Testament prophets foretold the Messiah as the one who would bring about
a feast for all people; would heal the blind, the deaf, and the lame; would
proclaim release to the captives and freedom for the oppressed (Isaiah 61).
It is significant that Luke 4:16-21 records Jesus quoting this very passage
before announcing that in him it is fulfilled.
Additionally, the prophets pointed to a time when “You shall be called
priests of the Lord, you shall be named ministers of our God” (Isaiah 61:6),
and to a time when God’s Spirit would be poured out on all believers (Joel
2:28-29), both young and old, men and women. This was later confirmed
when Peter wrote, “like living stones, let yourselves be built into a spiritual
house, to be a holy priesthood, to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to
God through Jesus Christ” (1 Peter 2:5), and “you are a chosen race, a
royal priesthood, a holy nation, God’s own people, in order that you may
proclaim the mighty acts of him who called you out of darkness into his
marvelous light” (1 Peter 2:9). This is confirmed again in Revelation, where
it is repeatedly declared that all those who believe in Christ will be priests:
“To him who. . . made us to be a kingdom, priests serving his God and
Father, to him be glory and dominion forever and ever” (Revelation 1:5-
6); “you have made them to be a kingdom and priests serving our God . . .”
(Revelation 5:10); and “ . . . they will be priests of God and of Christ . . .”
(Revelation 20:6).
The hierarchical, divisive, and patriarchal customs that developed
are not God’s ideal order. God’s ideal order, plainly stated through the
prophecies about the Messiah, is one of healing and reconciliation. God’s
ideal order eliminates the effects of sin, including class divisions, hierarchy,
and oppression. It restores the original unity, fellowship, and community
between God and humans, and between men and women. It re-establishes
the God-designed equality of women and men.
81
A New Vision for M inistr y
had arisen as the result of sin. Jesus saw women as persons of equal worth
to men and rejected existing practices that devalued women (see Matthew
19:29; 26:6-13; 27:55-56, 61; Mark 5:21-43; 10:11-12; 15:40-41, 47; Luke
10:38-42; 11:27-28; 13:10-17; 24:10-11; John 4:7-42; 11:2-45; 12:1-8;
19:25). This pattern is evident in his teachings (a woman plays the role of
God in the parable of the lost coin) and his actions (in clear violation of
Jewish tradition, Jesus invited both men and women to receive theological
and spiritual instruction from him).
Jesus also taught and practiced servant leadership and the empowerment
of others. According to Jesus, leadership is about servanthood, not authority.
Passages in the Gospels such as Luke 22:24-30 and John 13:13-17 record
Jesus’ teaching on this subject and show that Jesus ushered in a paradigm
that was counter to the existing culture of hierarchical systems and authority.
The remainder of the New Testament continues this teaching of servant
leadership, emphasizing that spiritual gifts are given to serve others and
build the body of Christ (1 Corinthians 12; Ephesians 4:11-16; Philippians
2:3-11; Galatians 5:13; 1 Peter 5:2-3).
Most importantly, Jesus Christ came to fully redeem all people,
women as well as men. Paul emphasizes that all who believe in Christ are
redeemed from sin and become new creations. Not only do we who believe
become the children of God, and equal heirs, but we also become one in
Christ. These blessings come through our faith in Christ, independent of
our racial, social, physical, or gender distinctions (John 1:12-13; Romans
8:14-17; 2 Corinthians 5:17; Galatians 3:26-28).
In the world, characteristics such as “maleness” or “femaleness” function
as primary markers of personal definition and are used to assign rank, status,
and worth. In Christ, we are instead defined by being a new creation in
Christ. As a result of becoming a new creation, a believer’s primary identity
is his or her new life in Christ. Our old identities—those of gender, race,
or social class—become secondary to our true identity in Christ. In our
culture, like that of Jesus and Paul, maleness and femaleness matter. But
our beliefs and practices ought not to be determined by earthly cultures, as
our citizenship is in heaven (Philippians 3:20).
The domination of one group by another group is one of the effects of sin
82
Ap plying the Liberating M essage of the G ospel i n t h e Lo c a l C h u rc h
that Jesus came to abolish. In its stead the New Testament affirms Christian
community as marked by mutual interdependence, where differences are
not to be of any advantage or disadvantage (Galatians 3:28). The result is
a new community with new kingdom realities. For believers to continue
subordinating other humans is contrary to our new identities in Christ
and contrary to the new kingdom community. We can choose to model
the coming eschatological community (Thy kingdom come, on earth as
it is in heaven), or we can choose a hierarchical model conformed to this
sinful world.
83
A New Vision for M inistr y
How does the church understand biblical passages that seem to re-
strict women’s ministry in the church?
There are passages that seem to advocate a restrictive view of women and
their place within the Christian community, such as 1 Corinthians 11:2-16;
14:34-35; and 1 Timothy 2:9-15. To ignore any of the passages relevant to
this issue is to damage the integrity of the biblical witness and to abdicate
our responsibility to be biblical people. However, these passages, though not
entirely clear, must not be interpreted in a way that contradicts the rest of
Scripture. Space allows only summary consideration of these texts.4
First Corinthians 11:2-16 is among the most obtuse passages in the
New Testament, yet its main instructions are sufficiently clear. Paul offers
instruction on the decorum of those who pray and prophesy. To “prophesy”
in the Bible is to speak God’s word. Most often this takes the form of cogent
teaching delivered to the faithful at the behest of the Holy Spirit.5 This is
the case in 1 Corinthians, where the term “prophecy” is aimed at instruction
and exhortation (14:31).
It is worth noting that the New Testament identifies men (Silas in Acts
15:32) and women (the four daughters of Philip in Acts 21:9) with the role
of prophet. The combination of “pray” and “prophesy” suggests that Paul
is referring to public leadership and instruction of the saints. Paul asserts
the clear teaching of “nature” is that women should have their heads cov-
ered while men should be bareheaded when praying and prophesying. He
then claims that women should have their heads covered because of the
angels, and because man is the image of God, while woman is the image
of man.
While the meanings of the allusions to nature, angels, and creation are
difficult to discern, the central issue in the passage is not. The question is
how women should conduct themselves while they pray and prophesy, not
whether or not they should pray and prophesy.
Paul’s argument about nature appears not to reference the created order
(after all, Genesis 1 asserts that male and female together are the image
of God, and as a Jew, Paul was aware of the vow mentioned in Numbers
84
Ap plying the Liberating M essage of the G ospel i n t h e Lo c a l C h u rc h
6:1-7 by which men did not cut their hair but allowed it to grow long),
but rather the then common cultural order of Roman civilization. This is
confirmed in verse 11 where the “natural” pattern of gender hierarchy is set
in contradistinction to the very different pattern of the Christian community
in which woman is as essential to man as man is to woman. Similarly, it is
possible that the term “angels” is a symbolic reference to local customs and
culture (see Revelation 2:1, 8, 12, 18; 3:1, 7, 14).
Whatever else may be said of this passage, it is clear that Paul believed
the Spirit led both women and men to pray and prophesy. The rub, as with
the discussion of the Eucharist that follows, is that many in the Corinthian
congregation were using the church to pursue their own worldly agenda.
They celebrated the Eucharist in emulation of pagan feasts that reinforced
social status. Paul claimed this practice indicated they had not understood
the leveling effects of the work of Christ: differences exist but are not to be
of any advantage or disadvantage in the body of Christ. Socially pretentious
women at this time chose to go about in public with their heads uncovered
in an attempt to assert social superiority. The point Paul makes here, as with
the Eucharist, is that he will not brook efforts at self-glorification that seek
to use the Christian community to achieve that end.
In 1 Corinthians 14:34-35, Paul writes that women should keep silent
in the churches, that they should be submissive, and that if they want to be
taught, they should ask their husbands at home. At first blush this seems a
rather unbending injunction. However, we must remember that Paul has
already argued that women may pray and prophesy (chapter 11). We should
also not fail to note that Paul has in view not women generally but wives
whose questions about Christian theology and practice have apparently
disturbed the worship service. Paul commends their interest but urges them
to seek instruction at home.
In what is generally regarded as the most restrictive passage in Paul’s
letters, 1 Timothy 2:9-15, Paul claims that he permits no woman to teach
or to have authority. While this passage frequently is used to support the
claim that Paul (or the Bible as a whole) is against women having authority
in matters of Christian faith and practice, this can only be maintained if
1 Corinthians and Romans, among other New Testament documents, are
85
A New Vision for M inistr y
removed from consideration. If Paul did not intend this text as a universal
principle for all cultures at all times, then there is no case for restricting
women in ministry.
How can this be understood? As always, we must look at the historical
context and translation issues. There are several reasonable explanations of
this passage that do not lead to the conclusion that Paul restricts women
for all time.6
First, the word for “authority” (authentein) is rare in Greek literature,
and often means, “to domineer.” This definition makes more sense in the
passage than “authority,” as it explains Paul’s recourse to Genesis: it is not
God’s plan for women to domineer men, after all Eve was not created first
(1 Timothy 2:13-14). It is significant that Paul does not go on to argue
that men, therefore, have the right to domineer women. First Timothy 4:3
and 2 Timothy 3:6-7 indicate certain women in the church at Ephesus had
come under the influence of false teaching. In light of the fact that heresy
was beginning to appear in the church, Paul may be trying to silence the
heresy, not women. For example, his intent may have been to say, “When
women are the source of heresy, they are not allowed to teach,” which is no
different than his silencing of male heretics in Acts 18. It is possible that
Paul is suggesting that these women (i.e., heretical women) should not be
allowed to teach and so to domineer/to have authority.
It is also quite possible, even likely, that Paul is employing a poetic device
parallel to that used in Matthew 6:20 “where thieves do not break in and
steal.” The purpose of the first action is to accomplish the second, that is,
one breaks in with the purpose of stealing. Read in this fashion Paul’s intent
is to say, “I permit no woman to teach if her aim is to domineer.”
One can conclude that it is possible that in these passages Paul offers
injunctions against women in leadership roles within the Christian
community. But, if so, they stand in stark contradiction to other clearly
authoritative passages where Paul strongly supports, expresses appreciation
for, and advocates for women in leadership roles in the church. Since the
totality of Scripture must inform our thinking and practice, and since Paul’s
thought on women and ministry ought to be consistent throughout his
letters, the passages seem to make the most sense when read as suggested
86
Ap plying the Liberating M essage of the G ospel i n t h e Lo c a l C h u rc h
above. To claim that Paul did, indeed, intend to restrict women in ministry
for all time and all cultures is to attribute inconsistency to Paul and his
teaching, which creates a greater burden of proof than does our conclusion,
which is as follows:
Based on our examination of the Scriptures as a whole, we humbly
conclude that qualified men and women, whether clergy or lay, are free to
exercise their God-given gifts in all ministry and leadership positions in the
church. As a result, the Evangelical Covenant Church licenses, commissions,
and ordains qualified men and women. We encourage our pastors and
congregations to recognize, develop, encourage, and use the spiritual gifts
of women and men, clergy or lay, in all areas of service, teaching, and
leadership, including preaching and pastoral roles.
Conclusion
We believe that the Bible teaches the full equality of men and women in
creation and in redemption, and we affirm women in all roles and ministry
positions within the church. We recognize that this document cannot answer
all the questions related to this subject, but we hope it will stimulate a desire
to learn more. And we hope it will stimulate us to love one another in the
midst of our quest to live out the new kingdom realities.
Discussion Questions
1) Earlier, we talked about paradigm. On what paradigm is this session
(the booklet Called and Gifted) based?
87
A New Vision for M inistr y
5) Where is your church in regard to this issue? What is the range of views
held within your church?
6) How consistent is your church in living out what you perceive is its
belief?
7) What are the beliefs, convictions, and experiences that energize your
congregation on this issue?
88
Ap plying the Liberating M essage of the G ospel i n t h e Lo c a l C h u rc h
For Reflection
This concludes this study on women’s roles in the church. Reflect on
what you thought about the subject when you started this study and what
you think now. We recommend that you continue the study by going deeper
into Jesus’ ministry as covered in All God’s People by John E. Phelan Jr.
Endnotes
1. Robert Johnston, Jean Lambert, David Scholer, and Klyne Snodgrass, A Biblical and
Theological Basis for Women in Ministry (Chicago: Covenant Publications, 1987).
2. The word 'ezer is used twenty-one times in the Old Testament, and it refers to God
fifteen of those times (Exodus 15:2; 18:4; Deuteronomy 33:7, 26, 29; 1 Kings 7:12;
2 Samuel 22:42; Psalm 9:10; 33:20; 69:6; 89:19-20; and 115:9-11). Because the word 'ezer
so frequently refers to God, it could be interpreted as implying a superior status, except that
its modifier knegdo seems to point to equivalency, not superiority or inferiority. Or, as An-
drew Perriman points out, “What the word defines is not essentially the status of the helper
(the helper may be either superior or inferior), but the condition of the one in need of help.
This is of considerable importance. We cannot conclude from the position of Eve as helper
that she was placed under the authority of man” (Andrew C. Perriman, Speaking of Women:
Interpreting Paul [Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, London: Apollos, 1998.] p. 179).
3. The Greek word here, commonly translated “all men,” is pantas, which means simply
“all.”
4. More full-bodied theological discussions are available elsewhere, in particular the
fine articles by Klyne Snodgrass (“ ‘Your Slaves—on Account of Jesus’: Servant Leader-
ship in the New Testament”), Linda Belleville (“Male and Female Leadership Roles in the
New Testament”), and David M. Scholer (“Patterns of Authority in the Early Church”)
in Servant Leadership: Authority and Governance in the Evangelical Covenant Church, v. 1,
Chicago: Covenant Publications, 1993. The discussion here is heavily dependent on Linda
Belleville’s article.
5. Prediction of the future is an important but minor definition of prophecy in the
Bible.
6. Please refer to the attached bibliography for a further reading in this area. Much
scholarship has been done on these passages, and there are many fine books and articles that
elaborate on the hermeneutical ambiguities presented by these texts and more fully develop
the thoughts presented here. Collectively, they present a compelling case that these texts do
not adequately support a traditional hierarchical view of women in ministry.
89
RECOMMENDED READING
91
R ecommended R eading
92
R ecommended R eading
Keener, Craig S. Paul, Women, and Wives: Marriage and Women’s Ministry
in the Letters of Paul. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1992.
Kroeger, Richard Clark, and Catherine Clark Kroeger. I Suffer Not a Woman:
Rethinking 1 Timothy 2:11-15 in Light of Ancient Evidence. Grand Rapids:
Baker Books, 1998.
———. Women Elders...Called by God? Louisville: Women’s Ministry Unit,
Prebyterian Church (USA), 1992.
Martin, Faith. Call Me Blessed: The Emerging Christian Woman. Grand Rap-
ids: Eerdmans, 1988.
McKenzie, Vashti M. Not without a Struggle: Leadership Development for
African American Women in Ministry. Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, 1996.
———. Strength in the Struggle: Leadership Development for Women. Cleve-
land: Pilgrim Press, 2001.
Mickelsen, Alvera, ed. Women, Authority, and the Bible. Downers Grove,
IL: InterVarsity Press, 1986.
Mickelsen, A. Berkeley, and Alvera Mickelsen. Studies on Biblical Equality:
12 Lesson Outlines for Personal or Group Study. Minneapolis: Christians for
Biblical Equality, n. d.
Miles, Carrie A., and Laurence R. Iannacone, with Linda Ikeda. Male and
Female in Christ, 3rd ed. San Jose: Carrie Miles, 2000.
Miller, Casey, and Kate Swift. The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing. New York:
Harper Perennial, 1988.
Norén, Carol M. The Woman in the Pulpit. Nashville: Abingdon Press,
1992.
Osburn, Carroll. Women in the Church: Reclaiming the Ideal. Abilene, TX:
Abilene Christian University Press, 2001.
Perriman, Andrew. Speaking of Women: Interpreting Paul. Downers Grove,
IL: InterVarsity, London: Apollos, 1998.
93
R ecommended R eading
Phelan, John E. Jr. All God’s People: An Exploration of the Call of Women to
Pastoral Ministry. Chicago: Covenant Publications, 2005.
Smith, Marilyn B. Gender or Giftedness: A Challenge to Rethink the Basis for
Leadership within the Christian Community. N.p.: World Evangelical Fel-
lowship Commission on Women’s Concerns. 2000.
Snodgrass, Klyne. The NIV Application Commentary: Ephesians. Grand Rap-
ids: Zondervan, 1996.
Spencer, Aida Besançon. Beyond the Curse: Women Called to Ministry. Nash-
ville: Thomas Nelson, 1985. Reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publish-
ers, 1989.
Swartley, Willard M. Slavery, Sabbath, War and Women: Case Issues in Biblical
Interpretation. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1983.
Torjesen, Karen J. When Women Were Priests: Women’s Leadership in the Early
Church and the Scandal of Their Subordination in the Rise of Christianity. San
Francisco: Harper SanFrancisco, 1995.
Trombley, Charles. Who Said Women Can’t Teach? Gainsville, FL: Bridge-
Logos Publishers, 1987.
Tucker Ruth A., and Walter Liefeld. Daughters of the Church: Women and
Ministry from New Testament Times to the Present. Grand Rapids: Zonder-
van, 1987.
Tucker, Ruth A. Women in the Maze: Questions and Answers on Biblical
Equality. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1992.
Van Leeuwen, Mary Stewart. Gender and Grace: Love, Work, and Parenting
in a Changing World. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990.
Webb, William J. Slaves, Women and Homosexuals: Exploring the Hermeneutics
of Cultural Analysis. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2001.
Witherington, Ben, III. Women in the Earliest Church. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1991.
94
R ecommended R eading
95
R ecommended R eading
96