Meaning of Research

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Research is an art of

scientific investigation. Redman & Mary defines research as a systematized effort to gain
new knowledge. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method
of finding solution to a problem is research. Thus research is re-search i.e. a revisit on the
earlier findings with the intention of correlating them with newly discovered facts.

Objectives of Research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of

scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet. The basic research objectives may be summarised as
follows:

To Explore: To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. Such a
research is termed as exploratory or formulative research studies. Eg. A domestic company
may think of setting up its manufacturing operations abroad.

To Describe: To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a

group. Such research is termed as descriptive research. Eg. A study can be carried out to
study the voting pattern in a particular state on the basis of gender, economics status, and
religion etc. as observed in the election.

To Diagnose: To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else. Such research is termed as diagnostic research. Eg. A fast
food chain has conducted a research to find out the feasibility of setting up an outlet in a
multiplex.

To Establish Causal Relationship: To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between

variables. Such a research is called as hypothesis testing research. Eg. A research carried out
to establish the relationship between polio vaccine and its effectiveness in controlling the
occurrence of polio.

Research Process (Diagram and Intro)

 FIG 1: RESEARCH PROCESS IN FLOW CHART

Formulation of the Research Problem: The first step in research is formulation of the research
problem. Without a problem research cannot proceed, because there is nothing to proceed
from and proceed towards. A poorly defined problem will not yield useful results, it is rightly
said that, a problem well defined is half solved. Poorly defined problem causes confusion
and does not serve the purpose of the research. Thus, a problem sets the goal or direction of
research. Research begins when the researcher experiences a difficulty or a challenge which
is the basic component of a research problem.

Extensive Literature Survey: Once the problem is formulated, the next step is to write down a
brief summary. A brief summary of previous research should be given so that the researcher
and reader may be familiar with what is already known and with what is still unknown and
untested. This step helps to eliminate the duplication of work and provides useful basis for
the formulation of hypothesis. For extensive literature survey, the abstracting journals,
published or unpublished bibliographies, government reports, academics journals, books etc.
must be consulted.

Formulation of Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a tentative assumption regarding the solution of

the problem under study. The hypothesis is the focal point around which the future research
efforts will be directed. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of
research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the
researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens
his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also
indicates the types of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.

Preparing the Research Design: After formulation of the research problem, the researcher has
to work out on design for the study. A research design is a plan comprising of sampling, data
collection and analysis of data with respect to a given study, which aims to fulfil the
objectives of the study. A research design is a logical and systematic planning and directing of
a piece of research.
Sampling Design: The researcher must decide the method of selecting a sample or a sample
design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data is
actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Samples may be
probability samples (simple random, stratified, systematic and cluster etc.) or non-probability
samples (quota, convenience sampling etc.).

Collection of Data: After drafting a satisfactory plan, the most crucial and lengthy stage of the
statistical investigation is collection of data. There are several primary and secondary
sources of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of cost, time
and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.

Execution of the Project: The researcher must see that the project is executed in a systematic
manner and in time. A careful control over the data collection process is maintained. The
basic aim is that the data is collected in correct form and within the specified schedule.

Analysis of Data: Data analysis is concerned with reducing the bulk of accumulated data to a
manageable size. The purpose of data analysis is to summarize the completed observations in
such a way that they yield answers to the research questions. The analysis consists of specific
sub-tasks such as tabulation, coding and drawing of statistical inference etc.

Hypothesis Testing: After analysing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier. It will result in either accepting the hypothesis
or in rejecting it. There are various parametric and non-parametric tests like t-test, chi-square
test, z-test, and f-test etc. The choice of test selected for hypothesis testing depends on factors
like the nature and objective of research, the sampling technique, and the type of data etc.

Data Interpretation and Generalisation: For studies, in which no hypothesis has been tested,
data interpretation is done with the intention of seeking explanation for the research results on
the basis of existing theories and doors are thrown open for newer explanations and
possibilities for further research. If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be
possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation i.e. to build a theory.

ii) Report writing: The final stage of a research study is to make inferences & prepare the
report of what has been done by him.The report of the survey or research study is thus, the
statement that contains in brief, the procedure adopted & the findings arrived at by the
researcher of a research study . It have the following contents-

a) The preliminary section containing the title of the report , table of contents, list of
tables, graphs, preface & an executive summary, which gives briefly the research
objectives & the finding & importance of the study.
b) A main text section which contains the problems, research objectives, research
methodology, the importance of conducting the research & the conclusion arrived
thereof.
c) The end section includes items like questionnaires and schedules used, glossary of
terms etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
 1) A research aims at solving a problem.

2) Research is purposive i.e. it deals with a well defined significant problems.

3) A research gathers new knowledge & brings to the forefront either to unexplored &
unexplained phenomenon.

4) Research should be objective & logical. The findings should be free from bias & the
research should be carefully verified.

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence , for it leads to
inquiry & inquiry leads to invention is a famous Hudson Maxim.

1) It leads to discovery & innovation : Research helps us to discover the unknown , be it

the physical world or the social world. New knowledge is synonymous to a new born
baby. It holds a promise of growth. It gives us the pleasure of watching it mature to
newer opportunities. Thus, research opens doors for more & more opportunites.

2) It improves decision making : Research inculcates the habit of logical & inductive
thinking, thereby improving our decision making facilities.

3) It helps in ascertaining trends : The strength to face the future is based on our ability
to make certain predictions about the future. These predictions are based on an
analysis of the past trends.

4) Social sciences also depends on research : Social scientists use research to understand
the dynamics of social relationships. It helps us to understand the working of social
groups & social structures. As a result several misconceptions are removed & new
insights are gained which makes social progress possible.

5) It aids in framing the government policies : Almost all the policies & budgets laid
down by the government is assisted by various bodies like the FICCI, trade unions,
National Council for Applied & Economics Research etc, which provide the data
based on their field specific research.

6) Research is widely used in business organizations : The increasingly complex nature

of business & government has focused attention on the use of research in solving
operational problems.

In marketing, research is carried out to study the market trends, identify new
market opportunities, study consumer preferences etc.

In accounting, issues related to tax management, budget control systems,

inventory costing methods are some areas of research.
 In human resource management, research can be carried out to study the
employer satisfaction, performance appraisal systems, managerial leadership
style, employee absenteeism and turnover etc.

Thus research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important
source of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social
problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new
developments in ones field in a better way.

MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design is a map developed to guide the research. It is a part of the planning stage
of research, a blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.

William Zikmund define research design as a master plan specifying the methods and
procedures for collecting and analysing the needed information . It primary addresses to the
following questions:-

a) Why is the study being conducted?

b) What is the study all about?
c) When will the study be carried out?
d) Where will the study be conducted?
e) What is the kind of data required?
f) Where is the required data available?
g) What will be the method of sampling used?

Selltiz, Jahoda, Destch & Cook define a research design as the arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine the revelance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure.

According to Miller It is the planned sequence of the entire process involved in conducting a
research study.

ESSENTIALS OR FEATURES OF A RESEARCH DESIGN

a) It is a plan that specifies the objective of the study and hypothesis to be tested.
b) It is a blue print specifying the method to be adopted for gathering and analysing the
data.
c) It limits the boundaries of research activity and makes systematic investigation possible.
d) It enables a researcher to anticipate potential problems that he may encounter in future.

A research design comprises of four phases:

1. Sampling design: It is concerned with method defining and selecting the sampling unit.
2. Observational design: It describes the conditions under which the data is to be collected
or observations are to be made.
3. Statistical design: It addresses the question of how many units are to be observed and
how the collected data is to be analysed.
 4. Operational design: It deals with the specific techniques using which the above specified
procedures can be carried out.

Characteristics of a good design

1. Objectivity: Simply means object oriented research. The design shows no proclivity
towards any side and the resultant data collected under this design should be free from
biasness.
2. Reliability: Refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements or consistency
in response. A good design should deliver consistent results each time the research is
repeated under the design. The response given by the respondent is genuine and
would remain the same.
3. Validity: The design would deliver accurate and correct results. It collects and
measures what it is supposed to be and nothing else.
4. Generalisations: It means that the results collected under this design, which hold true
for a sample must hold true for the entire population.

Importance of research design

1. It facilitates smooth, effective and economical working for various research problems.
It yields maximum output with minimum efforts, time and money.
2. It is useful to prepare an advance plan for collecting and analysing the information,
keeping in view the objectives of the research and availability of men, money and
time.
3. It helps the researcher to organise his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for
him to look for flaws and inadequacies.
4. It gives direction to the study. It prevents our research from being unfocused aimless
empirical wandering.
5. A research design is especially useful in social science research. It helps in developing
ways of inquiring. It allows a researcher to solve major social problems in a scientific
way.
6. It helps a researcher in deciding the relevant and irrelevant facts. This would enable
him to give a proper and representative character to the study.
7. It helps researcher in deciding what level of accuracy would make his study useful.

Important concepts relating to research design

Variable: is any

Dependent Variable: If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it
is termed as a dependent variable.

Independent Variable: These are the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variables.
Example: If we say that height depends upon age, then height is a dependent variable and age
is an independent variable.

Continuous Variable: If a phenomena or a variable can assume any value, even in decimal
points, then it is called as a continuous variable. Example: Height, Weight etc.
Discrete Variable: These are those variables that can be expressed only in integer values.
Example: Number of people can be expressed as whole numbers and not in decimals.

Extraneous Variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study,
but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variable. Suppose in an
experimental study, the yield of a particular variety depends upon the type of seed and
fertilizer used, but whether is also a factor which affects the productivity of the crop. But
since it is not the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as
extraneous variable. The effect of extraneous variable on dependent variable is called
experimental error. It should be noted that extraneous variables are always independent.

Control: In a research design, one important characteristic is to minimise the influence or

effect of extraneous variable. In other words to minimise the experimental error is control.

Confounded Relationship: When the dependent variable is not free with the influence of
extraneous variable the relationship between dependent and independent variable is said to be
confounded with extraneous variable. In other words, if the effect of extraneous variable
cannot be separated from the effect of dependent and independent variable it is said to be
confounded.

Research Hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by

scientific method it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive
statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable.

Experimental and Non-experimental hypothesis testing research: When the purpose of

research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis testing research. It can be
of the experimental or of the non-experimental design. Research in which the independent
variable is manipulated is termed as experimental hypothesis testing research. A research in
which an independent variable is not manipulated is called non-experimental hypothesis
testing research.

Experimental and Control Group: In an experimental hypothesis testing research when a

group is exposed to usual conditions, is termed as control group. The purpose of control
group is to measure the effect of extraneous variables on the study. But when the group is
exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed as an experimental group.

Treatments: The different conditions under which experimental and control group are put are
usually referred to as treatments. Examples: If we want to determine through an experiment
the comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on the yield of wheat, in that case the
three varieties of fertilizers will be treated as three treatments.

Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an experiment. Example: If we want to determine the impact
of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute experiment but if we want to
determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer, our
experiment will be termed as comparative experiment.
Experimental Units: The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are
used, are known as experimental units. Such experimental units must be selected very
carefully.

Types of Research Design

Research Design

Exploratory Research Design Conclusive Research Design

Descriptive Research Diagnostic Research Experimental Research

The primary objective of an exploratory design is to provide insight into unexplored areas
and conclusive design is prepared with a specific problem in mind.

Exploratory Research Design: Exploratory research design is also known as Formulative

Research Studies. The main purpose of such studies is to determine the general nature of the
problem and the variables related to it and then to develop the working hypothesis and
explanation of probable solutions from an operational point of view. Major emphasis is laid
on the discovery of ideas and insights. Its objectives could be as follows:

1. Precise formulation of the problem.

2. Establish priorities for the further research.
3. Evaluate the feasibility of a research project.
4. Provide theoretical basis to a hypothesis.
5. Provide alternative options to a problem.

Exploratory research is of greart use when a researcher has only a vague idea of the problem
he would encounter during a study. It is appropriate for any problem in which a very little
knowledge is available. It may also help in saving time and money because if a problem is
not as significant as it was first thought, then the project can be cancelled. It is characterised
by flexibility, informality and ingenuity.

Exploratory research is generally carried out by using three sources or methods:

Secondary or literature survey.

The important things need to be observed while preparing these designs is as follows:

Clear definition of the problem: The first step is to specify the objectives with sufficient
precision to ensure that the data collected is relevant. The concepts, theories associated with
the problem need to be clearly explained.
Method of data collection: It must contain detail on the methods to be used for data
collection. Various survey methods like observation, interview etc. must be critically
evaluated and their fitness in collecting the data may be established. Generally the choice of
method depends on factors like objective of study, time, funds available etc.

Preparation of the instruments: The design will also include a section on the instruments to be
used and the questions which are to be made a part of the instrument. The questions should be
simple, unbiased and specific. Ambiguity, use of complex words and double meaning
questions should be avoided.

Sampling design: The method of sampling should be such that it give full representation to
the population so that findings of research which hold true for a sample are a reasonable
indicator of the population characteristics.

Data collection & Analysis techniques: The design should be that the checks may be set up to
ensure that the data collecting staff perform their duty honestly and without prejudice. This
would ensure that editing and tabulation would become simple.

Reporting the findings: This is the task of communicating the findings to others and the
researcher must do it in an effiecient manner. The layout of the report needs to be well
planned so that all things relating to the research study may be well presented in simple and
effective style.

Experimental Research Design

It is conducted to study the cause and effect relationship between variables under study. An
attempt is mada by the researcher to maintain control and manipulate the variables that affect
his study. Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase
reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about causality. Following steps are involved:

a. Identification and definition of the problem.

b. Formulation of hypothesis.
c. Developing an experimental design.
d. Conduct the experiment.
e. Analyse the data and test the hypothesis.
f. Report the findings.

They pay specific attention to controlling extraneous variables because if left unchecked they
have the power of altering the results.

Meaning of Research Problem

A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in a theoretical

or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.

A problem can be called a research problem only when it satisfies the following conditions:

There must be an individual or a group of organisations to whom the problem can be

attributed.
There must be atleast two courses of action to be pursued.

There must be atleast two possible outcomes of the course of action of which one should be
preferable to the other.

The course of action available must provide some chance of obtaining the objective, but they
cannot provide the same chance, otherwise the chance would not matter.

Thus a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution fot
the given problem i.e. to find out by which course of action the objective cn be attained
optimally in the context of a given environment.

Components of a Research Problem

Research consumer: There must be an individual or group which has some difficulty.

Research consumers objectives: The research consumer must have objective to be attained
at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a problem.

Alternative means to meet the objective: The research consumer must have objective he
desires. Means are course of action. This means that there must be atleast two means
available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.

Doubt in regards to selection of Alternatives: To experience a problem, there must remain

some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives.

One or more environments: There must be one o more environments to which the difficulty
or problem pertains. A change in environment may produce or remove a problem.