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Meso-scale barrier estuary disturbance, response and recovery behaviour: Evidence of system
equilibrium and resilience from high-resolution particle size analysis
David W Clarke, John F Boyle, Javier Lario and Andrew J Plater
The Holocene 2014 24: 357 originally published online 23 January 2014
DOI: 10.1177/0959683613518597

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518597
research-article2014
HOL24310.1177/0959683613518597The HoloceneClarke et al.

Research paper

The Holocene

Meso-scale barrier estuary disturbance,

2014, Vol. 24(3) 357369
The Author(s) 2014
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DOI: 10.1177/0959683613518597
hol.sagepub.com
Evidence of system equilibrium and
resilience from high-resolution
particle size analysis

David W Clarke,1 John F Boyle,1 Javier Lario2

and Andrew J Plater1

Abstract
Establishing the future trajectories of coastal wetlands, especially the nature of their disturbance, response and recovery regimes, is of critical importance
for a wide range of stakeholders and environmental managers. Reconstructing meso-scale behaviour in coastal environments can serve to attune coastal
resource management strategies to natural scales of system operations, thus fostering genuine sustainability. Sediments from Pescadero Marsh, a back-
barrier coastal wetland in California, were analysed down-core for their particle size distribution in consecutive 2-mm sections. The particle size data
reflect changing hydrodynamics in the back-barrier area driven by past variations in barrier coherence. When considered together, the down-core mean
particle size trend and particle size distribution curve styles provide considerable insight into meso-scale system behaviour, revealing barrier/back-barrier
disturbanceresponserecovery regimes, regime shifts and the role of aperiodic high-energy events in disturbing these regimes. Over sub-annual and
multi-annual time periods, the behaviour of the Pescadero system was consistently characterised by both dynamic response to disturbance and recovery
through negative feedback. Furthermore, over the duration of the analysed core section, that is, 12002300 years, the system was determined to have
adopted a series of static equilibrium states. The barrier estuary behaviour reconstructed from the Pescadero sediment record is indicative of innate
environmental resilience.

Keywords
barrier estuary, coastal resilience, end-member attractor states, meso-scale behaviour, particle size analysis, static equilibrium

Received 27 November 2013; revised manuscript accepted 28 November 2013

Introduction
Over the coming centuries, coastal environments will be subject to
a number of factors that will compromise their resource value and
provision of ecosystem goods and services (cf. Millennium Ecosys-
tem Assessment, 2005). Particular threats include changes in cli-
mate, sea level and increasing human population. Establishing the
future trajectories of coastal wetlands, especially the likely nature
of their disturbance, response and recovery, is of critical importance
for a wide range of stakeholders and environmental managers. In
this regard, behaviour over the meso-scale (100102 years) has
become a critical timescale of interest (Cooper, 2009; Cooper and
McKenna, 2008; McKenna etal., 2008) and is the focus of this
study on barrier and back-barrier wetland environments.
With respect to these back-barrier and barrier estuary wetlands,
their future is closely tied to barrier system behaviour. Cooper
(1994) lists tectonic setting, basement topography, lagoon orienta-
tion, climate, sea-level, barrier morphology, barrier grain size,
wave energy, tidal range and sediment supply as the main factors
determining the long-term development of barrier estuarine and
lagoonal environments. Rapidly rising sea levels characterised the
early Holocene until around 6000 BP, after which global sea level
largely stabilised (e.g. Goodwin, 2003). Following this Holocene
marine transgression, barrier and barrier estuary environments
began to occupy locations close to those of the present day (Wood-
roffe, 2002). Subsequent changes in sea level, closely linked to
glacio-isostatic adjustment (Shennan, 2007) or tectonic activity
(Pirazolli, 1994), have also been influential playing a key role in
morphodynamic evolution (Roy etal., 1994), in essence control-
ling the transgressive or regressive nature of barrier environments
and the critical balance between accommodation space and sedi-
ment supply (Nichols, 1989). If the rate of sedimentation is not in
equilibrium with sea-level rise, then the volume and shape of the
basin will change. This, in turn, has impacts on tidal prism, tidal
range and morphodynamic evolution (Cooper, 1994; Fitzgerald
1University of Liverpool, UK
2UNED-Universidad Nacional de Educacin a Distancia, Spain
Corresponding author:
David W Clarke, Department of Geography and Planning, School
of Environmental Sciences, University of Liverpool, Roxby Building,
Chatham Street, Liverpool L69 7ZT, Merseyside, UK.
Email: d.w.clarke@hotmail.co.uk

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358 The Holocene 24(3)
etal., 2008). The role of antecedent topography in barrier/barrier
estuary location and development is almost as critical as that of sea
level. Antecedent topography continues to dictate the shape and
volume of a basin as relative sea-level changes and is therefore
closely linked to the morphodynamic and sedimentary evolution
(Dalrymple and Zaitlin, 1994).
Changes in climate factors may prompt reorganisation or evo-
lution in barrier and barrier estuary environments. Climate factors
include wave, water level and currents along with precipitation
and temperature regimes. Although wave or tide dominance is
often used as the primary basis for description of coastal inlets
(Dalrymple etal., 1992), precipitation and temperature play a key
role in determining salinity, which then impacts water density,
stratification and, in turn, sedimentation. The rate of freshwater
supply also impacts sediment delivery and the maintenance of
communication of the inlet with the ocean (Reading and Collin-
son, 1996). Indeed, waves, tides, currents, precipitation and tem-
perature all play a role, to a greater or lesser extent, in determining
how open an estuarine system is by facilitating or removing
accumulations of clastic material at the mouth (Dalrymple etal.,
1992; Woodroffe, 2002). Over multi-annual and longer times-
cales, climatic cycles may be an important control on barrier
opening regime, for example, the El Nio Southern Oscillation
(ENSO; Masters and Aiello, 2007).
High-magnitude/low-frequency events such as storms, hurri-
canes and tsunamis are known to affect the evolution of coastal
environments (Smith etal., 2004). This is especially true of back-
barrier lagoon and barrier estuary environments where barrier
dynamics are heavily influenced by such extreme events (Wood-
roffe, 2002). The aperiodic switching of dynamic forcing, prevail-
ing sediment transport pathways and coastal morphology
associated with events of high magnitude and low frequency
means that coastal change over timescales of decades to centuries
can be considered in terms of erosion during storms and recovery
during the inter-storm period if other boundary conditions are
unchanged (Plater and Kirby, 2011).
Human activity can directly impact barrier and barrier estuary
systems through the modification of morphology and hydrology
while also indirectly impacting boundary conditions such as river
flow and sediment delivery through activity in the catchment area
(Woodroffe, 2002). Human activity has become a more prominent
factor over recent centuries as human impacts on the coastal zone
have generally intensified with proximity to the present (French,
1997). Many human impacts on the evolution of coastal wetlands
may not yet be fully realised due to complex feedbacks and
thresholds within these systems (cf. Wolanski, 2006).
At the decadal scale, barrier regimes, and thus barrier estuary
and back-barrier lagoon environments, may appear to exhibit a
high level of stability characterised by variation between end-
member attractor states (Cooper etal., 2007). However, over lon-
ger timescales, that is, centuries and millennia, shifts in barrier
regime are more likely to be observed; such system reorganisa-
tions can be considered environmental evolution. At the meso-
scale (years to centuries), barrier system behaviour is poorly
understood (Cooper etal., 2007). Indeed, improving our limited
understanding of meso-scale system behaviour has been identi-
fied as a challenge in coastal geomorphology more generally
(French and Burningham, 2009).
Resistance is the ability of a system to prevent or resist change
(Klein and Nicholls, 1999). Management of coastal systems is
often focused on attempting to engineer resistance (French,
2001). Conversely, resilience is becoming an increasingly promi-
nent concept in the theoretical consideration of coastal environ-
ments. Resilience is the innate ability of systems to adjust to, and
persist despite, changing inputs. Resilience is a desirable attribute
of coastal systems, more so when uncertain future changes in
coastal processes are considered (Klein et al., 1998), as resilient
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coastal environments respond sensitively to, as opposed to resist-
ing, change (Nicholls and Branson, 1998). Direct physical dem-
onstration of resilient behaviour in coastal environments is rare,
particularly at the meso-scale. Obtaining evidence on system
resilience over the meso-scale (and even the longer term) is far
from straightforward and requires a level of interpretation that
can characterise both high-frequency process-based understand-
ing and long-term coastal evolutionary trends. In this respect,
obtaining empirical evidence of system equilibrium, the nature
of response to system disturbance and thresholds or tipping
points in system behaviour is essential. For example, following
the terminology of Woodroffe (2007: 4849), a system in
dynamic equilibrium may be seen to fluctuate over the short
term but displays a progressive environmental trajectory over the
medium term or meso-scale. A system in static equilibrium
fluctuates above and below, but remains close to, an environmen-
tal base level, while a metastable equilibrium comprises a series
of different static equilibria.
This study is conducted on a barrier estuary and back-barrier
lagoon located at Pescadero in San Mateo County, California. The
Pescadero site incorporates an intermittently open sand barrier, a
back-barrier lagoon, a barrier estuary and extensive wetlands
ranging from salt marsh to freshwater reed swamp. Over the late
Holocene, sea level, climate (rainfall/runoff), sediment supply,
storms, tsunami and tectonic activity have probably been the
more significant influences on barrier dynamics, disturbance,
response and recovery. Following European occupation, land use
and hydrology in and around the site, as well as in the Pescadero
and Butano Creek catchments, have been significantly altered and
sedimentation rates have changed accordingly (Environmental
Science Associates (ESA), 2004; Williams, 1990). Hence, barrier/
back-barrier equilibria and disturbanceresponserecovery
regimes are highly likely to have changed over the period of time
preserved in the sediment record.
Aims
By investigating down-core trends in particle size distribution,
specifically the mean particle size (MPS) and the shape of charac-
teristic particle size distribution curves (PSDCs), this paper seeks
to demonstrate environmental change in a barrier estuary and
back-barrier wetland at sub- and inter-annual timescales over a
period of several centuries. Environmental interpretations are
made in relation to the varying prominence of different deposi-
tional processes as preserved in the PSDCs of consecutive core
samples and by the down-core trend of MPS. Through this proce-
dure, given an appropriate core location, a sufficient sedimenta-
tion rate and an appropriately fine sampling resolution, meso-scale
behaviour may be reconstructed, barrier inlet opening regimes
characterised and the role of low-frequency/high-magnitude
events appraised. Reconstructing such meso-scale disturbance
responserecovery behaviour in coastal environments can serve
to better attune coastal resource management strategies to natural
scales of system equilibria and resilience, thus fostering genuine
sustainability by incorporating empirical data on the underlying
resilience in coastal systems (i.e. Klein etal., 1998; Nicholls and
Branson, 1998; Woodroffe, 2007).
Study area and system behaviour
Physiography and barrier regime
Pescadero Marsh Natural Preserve is located in San Mateo
County, California, ~40 km south of San Francisco on the west
coast of the United States (Figure 1). The site includes the largest
wetland area on the central coast of California between San Fran-
cisco Bay and Elkhorn Slough (Griggs etal., 2005b). The wet-
lands are found in the back-barrier area of a barrier estuary formed
Clarke et al. 359

Figure 1. Map of Pescadero Marsh Natural Preserve and location in California. The high-resolution core (PM08R) location is marked.

where the confluence of the Pescadero and Butano Creeks meet
the Pacific Ocean.
The PescaderoButano watershed drains an area of approxi-
mately 210 km2 with elevation ranging from sea level to over 750
m. The PescaderoButano watershed is bisected by two tectonic
fault lines, the San Gregorio Fault and the Butano Fault. A small
anastomosing branch of the San Gregorio Fault, the Frijoles Fault,
runs directly through the area of Pescadero Marsh Natural Pre-
serve (ESA, 2004, 2008).
The watershed experiences a Mediterranean climate. Mean
annual temperature for the region is 12C with a mild, wet winter
season from November to March and a warm, very dry, summer
season from June to September (ESA, 2004). Annual average pre-
cipitation is ~1000 mm, almost all of which falls during the wet
season and often during intense storm events (Hedlund etal.,
2003). Precipitation can also vary greatly between years, with the
ENSO phenomenon being an important driver of inter-annual
variability in central California (Cayan etal., 1999).
Barrier regime along the California coast is closely related to
trends in precipitation and wave climate (Emmett etal., 2000;
ODoherty and Rutten, 2007). During the 20th century, the bar-
rier inlet at Pescadero has generally been observed to close in
early summer when rainfall and stream flow are limited and
wave action is constructive. After sandbar closure, freshwater
inflow raises the level, increases the size and reduces the salinity
of the back-barrier lagoon. Inlet opening has primarily occurred
in late autumn, driven by increased rainfall, stream flow, storm
activity and destructive high-energy waves, resulting in a tidal
marsh (TM) back-barrier environment (ESA, 2004; Sloan, 2006;
Smith, 1990).
Environmental history
Sea-level rise and sediment supply have had an important influ-
ence on the long-term environmental history of Pescadero. At the
time of the last glacial maximum, the shoreline of California was
between 15 and 30 km west of its present location (Griggs etal.,
2005a). By c. 5000 years ago, global post-glacial sea-level rise
had largely stabilised, but a gradual overall rising trend, with
small-scale embedded fluctuations, continued on the American

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360 The Holocene 24(3)
Pacific Coast (Coe, 2003; Williams, 1990). Located in a pre-
Holocene river cut valley, the present-day site of Pescadero Marsh
was flooded during the Holocene marine transgression (Viollis,
1979). Over the mid- and late Holocene, the drowned estuary
infilled with sediment and a sand barrier formed across the mouth
(Williams, 1990). By c. 3000 years ago, the back-barrier complex
at Pescadero had begun to approximate its current form at a loca-
tion close to that of the present day (Williams, 1990).
The PescaderoButano watershed may have experienced
human occupation for over 10,000 years. Shell and bone middens
found at analogous local wetland sites (Gordon, 1996; Patch and
Jones, 1984) suggest that Pescadero Marsh supported plentiful
hunting and gathering by local Native Americans. European land-
use practices were first introduced after 1791 when the site came
under the jurisdiction of the Spanish Mission at Santa Cruz. Small-
scale grazing of livestock and agriculture were practised in the area
until Spain abandoned the Mission system in 1822 (ESA, 2004). In
1833 and 1838, the Mexican government awarded land grants in
the watershed. Cattle ranching was revived but remained small in
scale due to the physical isolation of the watershed (ESA, 2004).
The European American era in California began in earnest
with the discovery of gold in 1848 and was legitimised by state-
hood in 1850. The town of Pescadero was established in 1856.
Through the mid- to late 19th century, the PescaderoButano
watershed experienced dramatic changes due to the onset of com-
mercial logging, and the rapid intensification of agriculture and
animal husbandry (Curry etal., 1985). Structural engineering of
catchment and marsh hydrology have also been features of the
European American era (ESA, 2004; Viollis, 1979). Agriculture
and logging continue in the catchment to the present day with
both having declined from respective peaks in the 1950s and
1970s (ESA, 2004).
In 1958, California State Parks began purchasing tracts of wet-
land and wetland marginal agricultural fields. State Parks have
since been active in the subsequent management of the wider Pes-
cadero wetland and beach complex (ESA, 2004).
Methodology
Site selection and sampling
A 185-cm-long sediment core was retrieved from the back-barrier
area of Pescadero Marsh (see Figure 1) using a hand-driven gouge
corer. The core sampling location was identified using a time
series of maps and aerial photographs, which dated from 1854 to
2003, together with stratigraphic ground-truthing (Clarke, 2011).
Since at least 1854, the selected sampling location has remained a
salt marsh subject to inundation by the higher tides and submer-
gence in the seasonal lagoon pool while also being remote from
direct fluvial influence. Furthermore, the core location has not
been directly altered by recent human activity (ESA, 2004). The
selected core location allows for sedimentation, since at least
1854, and probably longer, to be adequately characterised accord-
ing to the changing nature of barrier opening regime through time.
Sub-sampling resolution
Published sedimentation rates from analogous environments in
the region (e.g. Mudie and Byrne, 1980; Schwartz etal., 1986)
suggested that 2-mm-thick sub-samples from the core would
likely correspond to sub-decadal time periods in pre-impact
sediments and to sub-annual time periods following the onset of
intense European American land-use practice in the watershed.
Indeed, further support for this estimate is provided by chrono-
logical markers in the upper part of the Pescadero sediment record
which include a 137Cs profile, identifying a ~1963 peak of atmo-
spheric fallout from nuclear weapons testing at 22.622.8 cm, and
a stable Pb pollution trend related to the rise of motor vehicle use
and the development of the road network in the local area (Clarke,
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2011). Furthermore, sampling at a 2-mm resolution approaches
the limit of practicality without the use of specialist cutting
equipment.
Particle size analysis
Particle size analysis was performed on all sub-samples using a
Coulter LS200 laser granulometer. The laser granulometer deter-
mined the percentages of different particle sizes in a range of size
classes. Using these data, the GRADISTAT computer program
(Pye and Blott, 2001) calculated summary statistics and plotted
PSDCs for each sample. Prior to analysis, extraneous plant mate-
rial was removed from each sample by hand-picking. Following
Allen and Thornley (2004), consistently low loss-on-ignition per-
centage values negated the need for hydrogen peroxide treatment
to remove co-deposited organic matter. Full details of the particle
size analysis techniques are given in Clarke (2011).
Particle size analysis has been used successfully to identify
sub-annual variation in the hydrodynamic processes of estuarine
environments (Allen, 1990, 2004; Allen and Dark, 2008; Allen
and Haslett, 2002, 2006, 2007; Dark and Allen, 2005; Mohd-Lok-
man and Pethick, 2001; Plater etal., 2007, 2009; Stupples and
Plater, 2007). In this paper, high-resolution particle size analysis
is applied as a proxy for investigating regime shifts, equilibria and
overall system resilience in the back-barrier lagoon and barrier
estuary environment of Pescadero Marsh. Particular attention is
given to PSDCs, the shapes of which contain a wealth of sensitive
information regarding the depositional environment of a sample.
It is demonstrated that given a sufficiently large sample popula-
tion from a suitable location, the changing prominence of differ-
ent depositional processes in the back-barrier through time can be
interpreted by considering the relative shapes of PSDCs in the
context of the down-core MPS trends.
Interpretive framework
The core sampling location allows for the assumption that down-
core variation in MPS represents changes in the prevailing open-
ness of the barrier system, that is, overall depositional energy. In
order to support the down-core MPS trend as an indicator of bar-
rier openness and to allow more sensitive environmental interpre-
tation of the particle size data, the shapes of PSDCs are considered.
PSDC shape is interpreted in context of the anticipated range of
back-barrier depositional environments (TM, tidal lagoon (TL)
and closed lagoon (CL)) with respect to barrier openness, water
level and flow velocity at the core site and to the variable deposi-
tion of suspension and saltation loads.
The relative proportion and modal particle size of discrete sal-
tation and suspension loads are dictated by the coherence or integ-
rity of the barrier system which moderates water level and the
degree and strength of tidal action in the back-barrier area. In the
case of a fully developed barrier, this would inhibit tidal action in
the back-barrier area and see the core site submerged given suffi-
cient lagoon water level. As the barrier reduces in size, tidal flow
peaks increase in velocity and the relative significance of calm
water deposition is reduced. In response, the saltation (and, in
turn, traction) load becomes more prominent in the deposited
sediment. These principles enable the interpretation of CL, TL,
TM and open estuary (OE) environments as a function of barrier
integrity, as well as the hydrodynamic properties of end-member
environments that characterise different barrier regimes.
Results
Down-core MPS trend
The down-core MPS trend (expressed in ) for all 925 samples of
PM08R core is presented in Figure 2. A high degree of fluctuation
in MPS is notable, even between successive samples. Large-scale
Clarke et al. 361
Figure 2. Down-core trend of mean particle size () 0185 cm
with mean particle size base level (MPSBL) sections and high-energy
event layers (HEEL) illustrated.
coarsening and fining trends can also be observed over sequences
of multiple samples and, in some sections, several centimetres.
The down-core MPS trend features a number of sections in which
this larger order fluctuation centres on a relatively consistent
mean particle size base level (MPSBL), that is, ~185162, ~118
102 and 7515 cm. Within these core sections, while MPS is not
constant, no overall increase or decrease up-core is observed in
either the general MPS or the fine and coarse end-members. Each
of these sections therefore has a subtly different MPSBL and char-
acteristic range of MPS fluctuation. Above 15 cm depth, the trend
line does not appear to fluctuate around a MPSBL.
Both within and between the MPSBL sections described are
layers which appear coarse in context of the under- and overlying
sediment. Thin coarse layers (<6 mm in thickness) are found at
depths of ~170, 168, 80, 76, 39 and 35 cm; thicker layers are
found at depths of ~1512 and 86 cm. The largest magnitude
coarse layer in the core, both in thickness and coarsest MPS, is
found at ~142130 cm. These coarse layers are identified as
high-energy event layers (HEELs), being high-energy depar-
tures relative to the background MPSBL fluctuation at the depth
that they occur. HEEL 3 (Figure 2) merits further description as
both MPs fluctuation and larger order trends are observed within
this event layer. Initially, HEEL 3 is inversely graded, coarsening
upwards from ~142 to ~136 cm before subsequently fining
upwards to ~130 cm depth. In all, eight MPSBL sections and nine
HEELs are illustrated in Figure 2.
PSDCs
PSDCs were grouped into eight distinctive reoccurring styles:
CL1, CL2, TL1, TL2, TM1, TM2, OE1 and HE1 (Figure 3).
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Distinctions between styles were made on the basis of percentage
weighting in six fixed particle size windows. The particle size
windows used were dictated by multiple modal peaks which
occurred with a high level of consistency throughout the sample
set and by published estimates of the particle size ranges depos-
ited through settling, saltation and traction processes (Clarke,
2011).
All samples were assigned to one of the eight styles; as such a
degree of variation existed within each style group, yet funda-
mental similarities outweighed any differences. The examples
shown and the descriptions provided (Figure 3 and Table 1) cap-
ture the representative characteristics of each style.
MPS and PSDC associations
There are clear associations between MPSBL sections and differ-
ent PSDC styles; each MPSBL features reoccurring PSDC styles
associated with the coarse and fine limits of their regular particle
size variation range. These PSDC styles can be described as high-
and low-energy end-member PSDCs and used to describe the pre-
vailing depositional environment of the core section they are
associated with.
It is important to stress that the end-member PSDCs identified
here are not those of the absolute coarsest or finest mean particle
sized samples in each MPSBL section, rather they are the PSDC
styles that characterise the upper and lower limits of regular
MPS fluctuation within each MPSBL section. The coarse and fine
end-member PSDCs of each MPSBL section are listed in Table 2
along with the depth and particle size details of each section. End-
member distributions are illustrated for MPSBLs A, E, F and H in
Figure 4.
Subtle variations of the OE1 PSDC style are found in those
samples with the coarsest MPS of each HEEL. An exception to
this is HEEL 3, which is the only section of the core to feature
HE1 style PSDCs. In HEEL 3, HE1 PSDCs dominate between
137 and 132 cm. Lower energy PSDCs are also present in HEEL
3, between ~142 and 137 cm and again between 132 and 130 cm,
which include a significant saltation and suspended load contribu-
tions to the particle size distributions in addition to a dominant
traction component. These distributions are strongly negatively
skewed resembling the HE1 style but with the addition of a pro-
nounced fine tail. Between 142 and 138 cm, HEEL 3 features
numerous thin mud laminations in which the PSDCs resembled
the OE1 style PSDC.
Interpretation
Down-core MPS
Following Cooper etal. (2007), the range of environmental con-
figurations in each MPSBL section can be said to exist between
opposing, more open and more closed barrier, end-member
attractor states. The environments represented by end-member
PSDCs differ between MPSBL sections. Contrasting end-mem-
ber environments between MPSBL sections reveals a series of
persistent barrier regimes. Within each MPSBL section, inter-
play between perturbations and negative feedback processes is
responsible for maintaining the Pescadero barrier system
between the high- and low-energy end-member configurations.
At Pescadero, winter storms provide a common example of a
perturbation. Winter storms, characterised by high rainfall, river
flow and an energetic coastal wave climate, drive barrier inlet
opening which is then redressed by negative feedback processes,
that is, fair weather wave and current action, which gradually
return the barrier to a more closed state (Smith, 1990). While the
balance of geomorphological work done on a system by pro-
cesses of differing magnitude and frequency can maintain a per-
sistent environmental range (e.g. Wolman and Miller, 1960),
events of sufficient magnitude and frequency may result in the
362 The Holocene 24(3)

Figure 3. Characteristic PSDC styles of the PM08R core (ordered from fine to coarse, informed by the average MPS for good examples of
particle size distributions for each style). For each particle size distribution style, a selection of overlaid examples is shown to demonstrate the
range of variability.
MPS: mean particle size; PSDC: particle size distribution curve.

crossing of an intrinsic system threshold prompting the adoption The HEELs found in PM08R are likely associated with low-
of a new environmental range in response (Woodroffe, 2007). frequency, high-magnitude events (e.g. extreme storms and/or

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Clarke et al. 363

Table 1. Description of PSDC styles.

PSDC style PSDC description

CL1 The primary particle size mode varies between PSWs 2 and 3. Contributions in PSWs 1 and 4 are also prominent, yet the
lower proportion in the latter gives the PSDC a coarse tail and a negative skew. There is generally little deposition in PSW
5, although a small number of CL1 examples feature a limited modal peak in this window.
CL2 While PSWs 14 are prominent, the primary mode of this PSDC is always found in PSW 3. There is some contribution
in PSW 5 and occasionally a limited modal peak. The PSDC varies between approximating log normality and exhibiting a
slight positive skew when PSW 4 is more prominent.
TL1 The TL1 PSDC feature contributions across PSWs 15 with the primary mode always found in PSW 3. Sorting is
improved in relation to the CL2 distribution, with a greater proportion of the overall percentage weighting found in PSWs
2 and 3, causing the style to resemble an equilateral triangle in shape. PSW 5 has also become more prominent relative to
CL1 and CL2 with a modal peak almost always present. The weighting of the PSW 5 mode accounts for the majority of
variation between examples of this style.
TL2 In relation to TL1, the contributions in PSWs 1 and 2 are reduced, while the percentage weighting in PSWs 3 and 4 is
increased. The PSDC is yet better sorted and therefore more peaked, less triangular and more positively skewed than the
TL1 style. The primary mode is found in either PSW 3 or 4 and is now very prominent. Mode 5 is again present.
TM1 In relation to TL2, the proportion of PSW 5 has increased, while those of PSWs 3 and 4 have reduced. The result is a
positively skewed and prominently trimodal curve superficially resembling a right-angled triangle. The contribution in
PSWs 3, 4 and 5 in most instances is close to equally weighted with the primary mode being found in any of these three
windows. Some examples of the TM1 distribution include very limited deposition in PSW 6.
TM2 The TM2 distribution style is again trimodal and positively skewed. PSWs 3, 4 and 5 dominate this distribution with the
primary mode found in any of these windows but most often in PSW 4. Deposition in PSW 5 is similar to that of the
TM1 distribution both in terms of percentage weighting and coarse upper limit. The proportions of PSWs 1 and 2 are
reduced subtly in relation to the TM1 distribution, while those of PSWs 3 and 4 are similarly increased. The distribution
has a concave fine tail, rather than a triangular appearance, and an enhanced positive skew.Very limited deposition may be
observed in PSW 6.
OE1 The OE1 PSDC is further reduced in PSWs 1 and 2, a small decrease in PSWs 3 and 4. Deposition in PSW 5 remains
prominent. The primary mode may be found in PSWs 3, 4 or 5, with the three often close to equally weighted. A
prominent contribution in PSW 6 is the most distinctive feature of this PSDC. It is common for multiple modes to be
present in PSW 6.
HE1 The HE1 style is overwhelmingly dominated by PSW 6. The distribution is very well sorted, strongly peaked and unimodal.
The modal size varies between examples. The distribution has a positive skew due to very small amounts of deposition in
PSWs 15 creating an extended fine tail.

PSDC: particle size distribution curve; CL: closed lagoon; TL: tidal lagoon; TM: tidal marsh; OE: open estuary.

Table 2. Details of MPSBL sections, including coarse and fine end-member distribution styles.

MPSBL section Depth (cm) ~MPSBL () ~Range of regular mean Coarse end-member Fine end-member
particle size fluctuation PSDC style PSDC style

A 185.0162.2 6.4 6.06.8 TM1 CL2

B 162.2142.4 6.8 6.67.0 CL2 CL2
C 129.4117.6 5.5 5.25.9 TM2 TL2
D 117.6102.8 5.2 4.56.3 OE1 TM2
E 102.895.0 6.1 5.46.6 TM2 TL1
F 95.089.2 6.2 6.06.3 TL2 TL2
G 89.280.4 6.9 6.77.1 TL1 CL1
H 76.015.0 6.6 5.97.3 TM1 CL1

MPSBL: mean particle size base level; PSDC: particle size distribution curve; CL: closed lagoon; TL: tidal lagoon; TM: tidal marsh; OE: open estuary.

tsunami) which were effective in markedly diminishing the
integrity of the barrier system.
Some of the HEELs correspond to shifts in MPSBL fluctua-
tion; in fact, two MPSBL shifts are strongly associated with
HEELs. A couplet of HEELs is found at the transition from
MPSBL G to H. MPSBL H has a coarser MPSBL than that of
MPSBL G. These HEELs may have been deposited by high-
energy events which served to diminish barrier integrity to a
degree that a more open barrier regime was established. HEEL 3
also appears to be associated with a more fundamental reduction in
barrier integrity. MPSBL sections C, D, E and F can all be inter-
preted as part of a prolonged and staggered recovery sequence fol-
lowing the HEEL 3 event. Indeed, it is only in MPSBL G that the
MPSBL again becomes as fine as it had been in MPSBL B prior to
the HEEL 3 event. When the down-core MPS trend is considered
in this manner, a significant proportion of the PM08R record is
dominated by disturbance arising from the high-energy event
responsible for HEEL 3 and the subsequent recovery sequence.
PSDCs
Using the interpretive framework described, seven of the PSDC
styles of the PM08R core were related to a range of back-barrier
depositional environments. These environments are CL, TL, TM
and OE. Because of the seasonal barrier regime at Pescadero,
most styles were interpreted to represent deposition under more
than one barrier configuration, that is, a more open winter and
more closed summer environment (see Table 3).
Being dominated by deposition through saltation and traction,
the HE1 or high-energy style does not represent an environment

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364 The Holocene 24(3)

Figure 4. Down-core MPS () trend for MPSBLs A, E, F and H, with approximate MPSBLs and regular fluctuation ranges illustrated. Examples
of high- and low-energy end-member particle size distribution styles are included to the left and right of each curve. Arrows indicate the
depths at which these samples are found.
MPSBL: mean particle size base level.

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Clarke et al. 365
Table 3. Summary of the depositional environments interpreted from each of the characteristic PSDC styles.
PSDC style High-energy configuration
CL1
CL2 Restricted inlet tidal lagoon
TL1 Restricted inlet tidal lagoon
TL2 Tidal lagoon
TM1 Tidal marsh
TM2 Tidal marsh
OE1 Tidal marsh open to wave action
HE1 Sustained high energy flow
PSDC: particle size distribution curve; CL: closed lagoon; TL: tidal lagoon; TM: tidal marsh; OE: open estuary.
Suggested high- and low-energy configurations are listed for each style with the configuration considered temporally dominant in bold type.
within the envisaged back-barrier range. Indeed, the HE1 PSDC
style was only found in the core section designated as HEEL 3,
and most likely represents a low-frequency, high-magnitude
event.
MPS and PSDC associations
MPSBL sections. Environmental interpretations of the eight char-
acteristic PSDC styles coupled with the identification of end-
member PSDCs allows for the characteristic environmental range
of each MPSBL section to be diagnosed. The environmental
range of each MPSBL section is best constrained by the highest
and lowest energy coastal configurations of the associated end-
member PSDCs. These configurations along with their interpreta-
tions are given for each MPSBL in Table 4.
HEELs.The causes of the individual HEELs cannot be diag-
nosed confidently on the basis of the information available here,
the exception being HEEL 3. The prominence of the HE1 PSDC
style in HEEL 3 is indicative of conditions of high energy flow
when deposition through saltation/traction processes dominated.
HEEL 3 has many characteristics of a tsunami deposit. The
inverse grading observed in the lowermost part of the layer is
likely caused by initial maximum inundation sheet flow fol-
lowed by a period of waning flow velocity which accounts for
the above fining-upward sequence (Switzer etal., 2005, 2012).
Furthermore, the coarse sand layer of HEEL 3 has been mapped
across a significant area of the marsh surface at Pescadero,
extending for tens of metres inland from the ocean, and no anal-
ogous HEELs were identified during an extensive survey of the
sites deeper late-Holocene stratigraphy (Clarke, 2011). Being a
single, coarse, spatially extensive layer with a consistent depth
of less than 25 cm and mud laminations towards the base, a tsu-
nami event is the most favourable explanation for the deposition
of HEEL 3 (Jaffe and Gelfenbaum, 2007; Morton etal., 2007;
Smith etal., 2004).
Discussion
The site selection, methodology and interpretive models applied
to the PM08R core allow a high-resolution reconstruction of the
changing barrier regime at Pescadero throughout the European
American era and for several preceding centuries (Clarke, 2011).
Over this time, the Pescadero barrier system is characterised by
the prevalence of subtly different disturbanceresponserecovery
regimes. A number of shifts between more open and more closed
barrier regimes are interpreted down-core; many of these shifts
can be related to disturbance from high-magnitude/low-frequency
events at the site. Indeed, several of the barrier regime shifts
observed in the deeper core are interpreted as stages of a recovery
sequence following the HEEL 3 tsunami.
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Low-energy configuration
Closed inlet back-barrier lagoon
Closed inlet back-barrier lagoon
Closed inlet back-barrier lagoon
Restricted inlet tidal lagoon
Closed inlet back-barrier lagoon
Restricted inlet tidal lagoon
Large inlet tidal lagoon
From the pollution markers present in the upper section of
PM08R, along with geochemical trends implying sub-soil erosion
related to catchment clearance (Clarke, 2011), the transition from
MPSBL G to H, at ~75 cm, likely dates to ~1850 and therefore
marks the onset of intensive European American impact at the site
(Clarke, 2011). In the upper 75 cm of the core, the sedimentation
rate appears highly consistent with each 2-mm sample represent-
ing an average time period of just under 5 months.
No pre-impact chronological markers were identified in the
PM08R core. However, using sedimentation rates from the upper
core, 14C dates from other Pescadero cores (Clarke, 2011), and
published rates from analogous local systems (see section
PSDCs), a rate of between 0.5 and 1 mm/yr can be suggested for
the deeper core. The bottom of the PM08R core, at a depth of 185
cm, would then date to between ~1200 and 2300 yr BP, while the
~140 cm lower limit of HEEL 3 would occur somewhere between
800 and 1500 yr BP. It must be stressed that the dates suggested
for the deeper core are highly speculative. For example, it is prob-
able that the HEEL 3 tsunami was initially erosive, increasing
accommodation space and sedimentation rate for an uncon-
strained period at the core site.
From the above, it is evident that each of the MPSBL sections
persisted for multiple decades and in many cases several centu-
ries. The tendency for multi-decadal and centennial duration
MPSBL fluctuation in the PM08R core provides significant
insight into the meso-scale behaviour and long-term evolution of
the barrier system at Pescadero Marsh. Sub-annual and inter-
annual fluctuations in back-barrier environmental configuration,
represented by individual PSDCs, are linked to long-term quasi-
stable environmental regimes which begin to correspond to the
timescales of Holocene environmental change. In this respect, the
gap between the micro-scale and macro-scale, or the process and
evolution knowledge bases, is successfully bridged. Furthermore,
the MPSBL fluctuation of the PM08R core can be directly related
to the concepts of equilibrium in coastal environments discussed
by Woodroffe (2007).
The Pescadero barrier system has had a tendency to exist in
states of static equilibrium. Each MPSBL section represents a
static equilibrium state in which the barrier disturbanceresponse
recovery regime had become adjusted to the contemporary
boundary conditions resulting in either a more open or more
closed back-barrier environmental range, depending on the pre-
vailing barrier integrity. Moreover, the environmental transition
recorded by the whole PM08R core may be interpreted as a bar-
rier estuary metastable equilibrium. Contrasts in barrier regime,
both in terms of end-member attractor states and characteristic
fluctuation between these states, were identified between MPSBL
sections, yet the barrier system is a resilient feature of the envi-
ronment. The sequence of static equilibria identified in PM08R
often driven by detectable disturbances (i.e. HEELs) serves to
demonstrate an innate morphological resilience in the system
 366

Table 4. Environmental range of MPSBL sections.

MPSBL Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Environmental range Comments

high-energy high-energy low-energy low-energy
end-member end-member end-member end-member
environment environment environment environment

Closed lagoon Tidal lagoon Tidal marsh Open estuary

A Tidal marsh (no Closed inlet back- Closed inlet back- Restricted inlet Two high-energy episodes are
tide barrier inlet) barrier lagoon barrier lagoon tidal lagoon identified within this section, MPSBL
fluctuation is not disrupted
B Closed inlet back- Restricted inlet Closed inlet back- Restricted inlet Barrier inlet predominantly closed
barrier lagoon tidal lagoon barrier lagoon tidal lagoon year round
High-energy event layer 3
C Tidal marsh (no Restricted inlet Tidal lagoon Restricted inlet Open barrier inlet likely a
tide barrier inlet) tidal lagoon tidal lagoon permanent feature
D Tidal marsh (no Large inlet tidal Tidal marsh (no Restricted inlet Barrier inlet predominantly open
tide barrier inlet/ lagoon tide barrier inlet) tidal lagoon year round, barrier system regularly
wave action) diminished to a point where it
becomes effectively absent
E Tidal marsh (no Restricted inlet Restricted inlet Closed inlet back- A slight overall fining-upward trend
tide barrier inlet) tidal lagoon tidal lagoon barrier lagoon is observed in this section
F Tidal lagoon Restricted inlet Tidal lagoon Restricted inlet Persistent tidal lagoon conditions
tidal lagoon tidal lagoon
G Restricted inlet Closed inlet back- Closed inlet back- The finest/lowest energy MPSBL of

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tidal lagoon barrier lagoon barrier lagoon the series
H Tidal marsh (no Closed inlet back- Closed inlet back- Two high-energy episodes are
tide barrier inlet) barrier lagoon barrier lagoon identified within this section, MPSBL
fluctuation is not disrupted

MPSBL: mean particle size base level; PSDC: particle size distribution curve.
End-member PSDC styles are interpreted to represent a combination of back-barrier environments, the environment listed as primary is suggested to be temporally dominant.
The Holocene 24(3)
Clarke et al. 367
over the period of deposition in terms of recovery from environ-
mental perturbation.
Barrier resilience (cf. Long etal., 2006), and the associated
environmental persistence, can be seen on two temporal (and spa-
tial) scales in the PM08R record. The environmental fluctuation
recorded within each static equilibrium section is the first of these
scales of resilience. This presumably results from seasonal and
inter-annual forcing by climate factors and negative feedback pro-
cesses which maintain the system at or close to a quasi-stable state.
Second, the shifts to subtly different static equilibria within the
barrier estuary metastable equilibrium reveal an ability to respond
to perturbation, recover and persist despite changing boundary
conditions, that is, long-term climate trends, or high-magnitude/
low-frequency perturbations like the HEEL 3 tsunami. Any loss of
this resilience is undesirable for management, as sustainable sys-
tems are required to survive unanticipated as well as anticipated
circumstances (Nicholls and Branson, 1998). A major issue at Pes-
cadero is the extent to which human modification of the catch-
ment, marsh and barrier beach has perhaps already impacted the
systems behaviour and, hence, compromised innate resilience.
Some observations relating to human impacts on the resilience
of the site can be made. Prior to the HEEL 3 tsunami, MPSBLs A
and B are indicative of several centuries of relative stability with
the transition from MPSBL A to B simply suggesting a shift to a
slightly drier climate. Following MPSBL B, the occurrence of the
event depositing HEEL 3 and the subsequent recovery dominate
the PM08R record. With the onset of MPSBL G, the Pescadero
barrier regime appears to regain a state that is comparable with
that in operation prior to the HEEL 3 tsunami. Following HEELs
4 and 5, and indeed being interrupted by HEELs 6 and 7, MPSBL
H also suggests a back-barrier regime that is comparable with
those of MPSBLs A and B. Therefore, it seems that despite the
onset of intense human impact on the PescaderoButano water-
shed and, indeed, the aperiodic disturbance by high-energy
events, the system continued to operate in static equilibrium for
the majority of the European American era. This suggests that the
innate resilience of the Pescadero barrierbarrier estuary environ-
ment had not been critically compromised beyond its long-term
pattern of dynamic response behaviour.
System behaviour cannot be interpreted from the upper 15 cm
of the PM08R core in terms of MPSBL fluctuation as this section
is dominated by HEELs 8 and 9. Coincidentally, well-documented
problems (i.e. flooding of neighbouring land, channel sedimenta-
tion, annual fish kill events) emerged and intensified at Pescadero
during the later part of the 20th century (ESA, 2004). It is likely
that the HEELs found in the upper 15 cm relate to erosional
events which removed sections of the recent record and replaced
them with rapidly deposited coarse material. Written and observa-
tional accounts of the site behaviour over recent decades describe
a system much like that interpreted as being represented by
MPSBL H (e.g. Kerbavaz, Senior Ecologist for Pescadero Marsh
Natural Preserve, California State Parks, personal communica-
tion, 2007; Sloan, 2006; Smith, 1990), that is, seasonal variation
between a TM and a lagoonal environment. While the system still
operates in a manner comparable with that of MPSBL H, it is pos-
sible that the cumulative impact of European American land-use
practices has resulted in functionality being compromised, the
emergent issues at the site being observable symptoms. In this
case, even though the sedimentary record of past change would
imply continued dynamic resilience, the long-term outcome of
such recent reorganisation cannot be suggested with any confi-
dence. It can, however, be stated confidently that attempting to
preserve the environment by engineering resistance is not a sus-
tainable solution.
At Pescadero, there is pressure on State Parks to promote cer-
tain habitats and aspects of the environment through direct inter-
vention, with barrier breaching and structural adaptation (i.e. dykes
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and levees) being the only methods available. By demonstrating the
resilience of the Pescadero Marsh system during a period of the late
Holocene, it can be seen that the environment has responded, reor-
ganised and reconfigured when prompted but has maintained the
barrier and back-barrier area in an overall metastable equilibrium.
Any attempt to increase the resistance of the present-day configura-
tion of Pescadero Marsh at the expense of the long-term resilience
of the unmodified system must be considered short-sighted. Facili-
tating inherent morphological resilience, as evidenced in this study,
is the key to genuine long-term sustainability over the coming
decades, centuries and millennia.
Promoting the ability of the system to respond to changing
inputs without undergoing fundamental reorganisation must be
the most efficient and effective way to meet the principal manage-
ment goals of fostering a natural system in a long-term low-cost
manner (Kerbavaz, Senior Ecologist for Pescadero Marsh Natural
Preserve, California State Parks, personal communication, 2007),
particularly as issues such as sea-level rise and climate change
will likely intensify during the 21st century (Allison etal., 2009).
The PM08R record suggests that, unmodified, the Pescadero
Marsh system would likely respond in a resilient fashion to, for
example, a marked sea-level rise, a change in storm climate or a
shift in ENSO cyclicity by adopting a subtly different barrier
estuarine static equilibrium. Alternatively, attempting to engineer
resistance to such trends would likely preserve the system over
the engineering timescale (Cowell and Thom, 1994) but risk the
impacts of coastal squeeze and require a high level of expensive
maintenance to prevent eventual failure and a massive reorganisa-
tion of the system (Klein etal., 1998; Nicholls and Klien, 2005;
Woodroffe, 2007), thus defeating the most fundamental manage-
ment goals for the site.
The Pescadero dataset furthers our understanding of meso-
scale processes in barrier estuary and back-barrier lagoon envi-
ronments during the late Holocene by confirming that these
environments can attain a maturity during which they persist by
reorganising in response to changing boundary conditions,
recover at different rates following perturbations of different
magnitudes and vary year on year due to inter-annual climate
variability (cf. Wolanski, 2006).
Conclusion
At a 2-mm resolution, the particle size data primarily reflect
changing hydrodynamics in the back-barrier area, offering signifi-
cant insight into the meso-scale behaviour of the barrier estuary
system over the 185 cm of sediment record. A number of distinct
barrier/back-barrier disturbance-response-recovery regimes are
illustrated, as is the role of periodic and aperiodic high-energy
events in driving, disturbing and establishing these regimes. As
such, the value of the data generated is clearly demonstrated with
regard to bridging the (long-term, stratigraphic) evolution and
(short-term, geomorphic) process knowledge bases. With regard to
coastal resilience, the results presented link direct physical obser-
vations to theoretical concepts of the behaviour of coastal environ-
ments over the meso-scale and thus contribute to our understanding
of barrier estuarine environments and their persistence through
dynamic response and recovery over the late Holocene.
The late-Holocene meso-scale behaviour of the Pescadero sys-
tem was characterised by both static equilibrium and aperiodic
rapid reorganisations. The static equilibria, or persistent barrier
regimes, likely correspond to periods of decades or centuries. Dur-
ing periods of static equilibrium, the back-barrier environment
changed frequently but did not display a progressive environmen-
tal trajectory. Indeed, each equilibrium state was characterised by
a distinct environmental range and a distinct degree of environ-
mental fluctuation. The equilibrium shifts were generally abrupt as
opposed to progressive change. The majority of equilibrium shifts
368 The Holocene 24(3)
within this overall metastable equilibrium condition were either
forced by high-energy events or were features of an extended (and
punctuated) recovery sequence following a putative tsunami event.
The presence of abrupt behavioural shifts in the absence of any
sedimentary evidence of external perturbation points to the exis-
tence and importance of intrinsic system thresholds or tipping
points which prompt rapid reorganisation when crossed.
The observed series of intermittently shifting static equilibria
(or metastable equilibrium) reveals the resilient meso-scale
behaviour of the Pescadero system to be driven by both sensitive
response to disturbance and recovery through negative feedback.
This is apparent over sub-annual and multi-annual time periods.
By providing particle size evidence that demonstrates the innate
meso-scale resilience of barrier estuary environments, the PM08R
record also demonstrates the need for decision makers to consider
facilitating these properties when planning for the long-term sus-
tainable management of barrier estuarine resources.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the University of Cali-
fornia, Santa Cruz, for access to their special collection of aerial
photographs, Tim Hyland at California State Parks, Joanne Ker-
bavaz, State Parks Senior Environmental Scientist for Pescadero
Marsh Natural Preserve, Sandra Mather for her assistance with
the final figures, Jason Kirby, Richard Chiverrell and two very
helpful anonymous reviewers.
Funding
This research was funded by the John Lennon Memorial
Scholarship.
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