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A BALANCE
Temperature regulation
Most organisms are active in a limited temperature
range
active site
substrate
active site
TR functioning. The heavy metals mercury oxygen and glucose may be chemically
and cadmium replace zinc cofactors combined to release energy. In the
in some enzymes and inhibit their laboratory, we can activate this reaction
functioning. by adding heatwe burn the glucose
and cause it to react with oxygen in the
Teaching strategy The role of enzymes in air to release energy as light and heat.
enzymes reduce
activation energy
metabolism In the human body, we cannot add
The following functions of enzymes heat to glucose and oxygen to initiate a
lead to their effective role in reaction and so an enzyme is necessary
metabolism: to lower the required activation energy,
so that glucose can react with oxygen
Acceleration of chemical reactions to release energy. (See Fig. 1.2.)
Enzyme catalysts are able to speed
Action on specific substrates
up (or slow down) reactions without
a change in temperature. This is Enzymes are therefore substrate-
extremely important in cells, since heat specific, meaning that one particular
damages living tissue. For a chemical enzyme can work on only one
reaction to begin, activation energy is particular substrate molecule, because
necessary (see Fig. 1.1). The role of the active site is reciprocally shaped to
an enzyme is to lower the activation bind with that molecule. The enzyme
energy needed to start a reaction, so itself is not chemically changed in
that the reaction can proceed quickly, the reaction and so it can be reused
without a change in temperature. in subsequent reactions. Enzyme-
controlled reactions are always
Lowering of activation energy reversible.
In chemical reactions that occur in the
non-living world, heat could provide Characteristics of enzymes
the necessary activation energy for a Enzymes, due to their protein nature,
chemical reaction, but in the living are sensitive to temperature (heat
world, heat burns tissue. It is important and excessive cold) and to pH (a
SR TR to remember that an enzyme does not measure of the acidity or alkalinity of
provide activation energyit reduces a substance).
the amount of activation energy
needed (by bringing specific molecules Temperature-sensitive
Student worksheet together, rather than relying on them Enzymes within cells function best
enzymes colliding randomly). For example, at the body temperature of the living
(a) (b)
Figure 1.2 Scheme
uncatalysed
of activation energy
energy supplied
optimum
temperature
optimum pH optimum pH
for pepsin for trypsin
Rate of reaction
Rate of reaction
30 40 50 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(a) Temperature of reaction (C) (b) pH of reaction
baking soda
soapy water
black coffee
battery acid
examples
sea water
bleach
urine
pH 10
pH 11
pH 12
pH 13
pH 14
pH 0
pH 1
pH 2
pH 3
pH 4
pH 5
pH 6
pH 7
pH 8
pH 9
PFA
How enzymes work: models to describe enzyme specificity on
H2 substrates
Enzymes are large, globular protein molecules allows the reaction to be
molecules with one or more rapidly catalysed and the products of
indentations on their surface called the reaction are released. To validate
active sites. For an enzyme to this model, predictions were made and
catalyse a reaction, the small substrate tested. The results led to the proposal
molecules must temporarily bind to of the currently accepted amended
these active sites. At first a lock-and- version of the model, known as the
key model was proposed: it was induced-fit model. This model is
thought that the active site is rigid based on the realisation that proteins
and the small substrate molecule is are not rigid. Evidence suggests that the
reciprocally shaped and fits into the binding of a substrate to the active site
active site, like a lock fits a key. Once of an enzyme induces the enzyme to
this enzymesubstrate complex has alter its shape slightly, to fit more tightly
formed, the close proximity of the around the substrate. (See Fig. 1.5.)
3 bond binding
the substrate
breaks
enzymesubstrate
active sites complex fit in
lock-and-key
arrangement 5 enzyme is free
to bind other
enzyme substrates
(a)
3 bond binding
the substrate
breaks
(b)
Rate of reaction
rate of reaction, since all enzymes are
working at their maximum turnover rate
Student worksheet
and will have to be reused to act on
graphs related to
enzyme activity the additional substrate. The only way
to increase the reaction rate would be
to increase the enzyme concentration.
(See Fig. 1.6.)
Substrate concentration
Figure 1.6 Graph showing the effect of substrate
concentration on enzyme activity
Catalase Hydrogen peroxide Hydrogen peroxide Creates a fizzing effect Measure the height of
(potato or any fresh converted to water and bubbles
plant or animal tissue) oxygen
Rennin Milk protein Converts soluble Milk curdles and a Time how long milk
(available as junket (caseinogen) caseinogen protein precipitate forms takes to curdlethis
tablets) into an insoluble form indicates rate of
(casein) enzyme activity
1.3 Home
Homeostasis
maint
and feedback mechanisms
maintaining a balance
Of all liv
living
ving organisms the mammalian in mammals and vascular tissue in
body hahas best perfected keeping plants)
internal functioning constant, no matter the control of water and salt balance
changes occur in the external
what cha (osmoregulation) and of pH and
conditions in the environment. The waste products (brought about
module Maintaining a balance has as mainly by the kidneys in mammalian
its central theme the maintenance of bodies).
internal stability, called homeostasis, An organism is healthy as long as
within living organisms. In this module, homeostasis is maintained. When a
we will study regulatory systems in person visits a doctor for a medical
both plants and animals that act to check-up, the doctor will monitor their
maintain a balance in their internal wellbeing by carrying out standard
environments: checks, including measuring their
temperature regulation (brought body temperature and taking blood
about mainly by the skin in samples to compare the patients blood
mammals and by leaves in plants) composition with a standard set of
control of chemical substances values that indicate the normal range
available to cells, transported for optimal metabolic efficiency.
through organisms (by blood vessels
Homeostasis
describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms
maintain a relatively stable internal environment
The word homeostasis comes from the for example a power cut, could have
Greek words homoios, meaning like or drastic results if the organisation cannot
the same and stasis, meaning state. This continue to work independently of the
implies a state of balance or constancy, outside changes. The fluctuations need
where conditions stay the same in to be monitored and counter measures
the internal environment of living must be put in place. For example, if
organisms to allow them to function there is a power failure and a hospital
efficiently, despite fluctuations in the does not have a back-up plan, many
external environment. lives will be lost.
Homeostasis is defined as In order to maintain a constant
the maintenance by an organism
internal environment, the following two
of a constant or almost constant
steps are essential:
internal state, regardless of external
1. detect the change
environmental change.
Any organised infrastructure, 2. counteract the change.
whether a living organism or a non- In a similar way, living organisms
living enterprise, needs careful control must have mechanisms in place to
and certain constants if it is to run enable them to function independently
smoothly and efficiently, particularly of external changes and to maintain
when external circumstances fluctuate a relatively constant internal state. In
or change. If we consider the smooth this chapter, we look at homeostasis
running of a hospital or even a and how living organisms maintain a
household, a sudden external change, constant internal environment.
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CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
Discuss the following analogy, which should help us to understand the importance of maintaining
constant internal conditions in an organisation such as:
a hospital
a home.
In order to maintain a constant internal environment in the event of a power cut, how would people
within the hospital or home:
1. detect the changehow will people become aware that the power supply has been cut off?
2. counteract the changewhat measures could be put in place within each organisation to
temporarily overcome the problem until things return to normal?
Compare the efciency of these measures and relate this to the importance of the functioning of
the organisation.
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STUDENT ACTIVITY
the increase
successfully reverses the
change will return the body set point (ideal value)
to homeostasisits relatively
constant state. lower value that triggers
Homeostatic mechanisms a response to counteract
ensure that variables (such the decrease
as temperature or the Time
concentration of chemical
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control
stimulus receptor effectors response
centre
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Peripheral receptors are located in Fig. 1.11) and are sensitive to extremely
the skin and central thermoreceptors small temperature changes (a fraction
monitor the temperature of the blood of a degree).
skeletal muscles
activated; shivering
generates heat
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CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
In pairs, discuss the familiar responses that you are aware of in your own bodies on a hot day or
when you have been exercising, as opposed to your body responses on a really cold day. Try to
work out how these responses bring about heating or cooling.
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(a) blood vessel constricts (b) blood vessel dilates Figure 1.12
(vasoconstriction) (vasodilation) Temperature-regulating
responses of the skin:
(a) vasoconstriction
conserves heat;
(b) vasodilation brings
about heat loss;
(c) sweating brings
increased about heat loss
heat loss
across
epidermis
epidermis epidermis
heat conservation increased heat loss
evaporation
(c) water
vapour hair
sweat pain
droplet heat receptors
sweat pore
epidermis
sweat
duct
sweat
gland
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STUDENT ACTIVITY
Source an image of hydrothermal vents and/or the organisms that can be found living in their
vicinity.
The term hypothermophilic means extremely heat loving and is derived from Greek. Try to match
the English meaning with its Greek word roots.
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1.8 Temp
Temperature
endot
regulation in ectothermic and
endothermic organisms
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It shelters from cold winds and may of heat loss from the body can be
move out into the sun on warmer days. adjusted by altering the flow of blood
If the ambient temperature rises above near the body surface. Evaporative
its heat tolerance level, the central cooling such as sweating, panting or
netted dragon will retreat into the licking saliva onto the body surface is
shade of rocks and vegetation or into a another common cooling mechanism.
burrow and reduce its activity to avoid Evaporative cooling brings with it the
overheating. It will then emerge at night risk of water loss. Animals that live
to hunt when it is cool. in hot, dry climates have to develop
mechanisms for cooling that do not
Endothermic organisms allow too great a loss of water.
Under laboratory conditions and Endotherms also show adaptations
in nature, the body temperature of in their behaviour to help regulate their
endothermic organisms tends to remain body temperature. Body temperature in
stable (within a couple of degrees), humans is approximately 37C and that
despite variation in the ambient of birds is 40C (these may fluctuate
temperature. An endothermic organism within about 1.5C).
has the ability to control its body The fairy penguin (Eudyptula
temperature and maintain it at a stable minor) is found along the southern
level within a very narrow range. If Australian coastline and in Tasmania
the ambient temperature rises above and New Zealand. It is the smallest of
or drops below the animals tolerance all penguins and lives in burrows in
level, endothermic mammals and birds coastal sand dunes, not in the ice and
are able to adjust their metabolic rate to snow like most penguins. (For those
control heat loss. students living in or visiting Sydney,
In low ambient temperatures, the the colonies of fairy penguins on the
main source of heat in the body of harbourside at Manly are well worth
endotherms is that generated as a seeing.)
result of the metabolic activity of their Fairy penguins have feathers that
cells, particularly the muscle and liver provide an insulating layer; trapping a
cells. The size of an animal also plays layer of air close to the skin reduces
a significant role in the regulation of the amount of heat lost. This layer
body temperaturea small body loses of air can be altered depending on
heat much more quickly and so small the ambient temperature. In cold
mammals often have a high metabolic conditions the feathers are lifted
rate. away from the skin, increasing the air
Some endotherms have special heat- layer and providing a greater degree
producing tissue called brown fat, of insulation. In hotter conditions
which can be quickly metabolised in the fairy penguins feathers lie flat
cold conditions. The common bentwing against the skin, trapping a smaller
bat (Miniopterus schreibersii) produces amount of air. Penguins also have
brown fat in late summer and through behavioural mechanisms to regulate
autumn when food is abundant. In the body temperature, moving into the
cold winter months, periods of torpor water to cool down in hot conditions
can last up to 12 days. The brown fat or huddling close together in cold
is metabolised and used to increase the conditions to reduce the surface area
body temperature, allowing these bats of each penguin exposed to the cold.
to fly after periods of torpor. They may also retreat to their burrows.
If the ambient temperature is high, The mountain pygmy possum
endotherms have a physiological (Burramys parvus) lives above
cooling mechanism as wellthe rate 1400 metres in the alpine regions of
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positioned at right angles to the body, with the weather during winter. (See the Student
tail pointing forward, to reduce the large surface Resource CD for additional information.)
area exposed to sun. The water-holding frog As these migratory waterbirds inhabit many
(Cyclorana platycephala) retires to a burrow countries, there is a need for international co-
in extreme temperature conditions. It survives operation to recognise and to conserve these
hot, dry conditions by living in burrows below species. Over the past 30 years, this has come
the surface. In extremely arid conditions, it lives about through international conventions on
within a cocoon made from secreted mucus and migratory species, and bilateral agreements
its cast-off skin, which is shed after rain and with Japan, China and more recently the
then dries out, forming a waterproof covering. Republic of Korea have assisted with
This minimises exposure to heat as well as conservation of the species and their habitats.
reducing water loss and dehydration. The ight path, East AsianAustralian Flyway,
Nocturnal activity is another common launched in 2006, has also been acknowledged
behavioural adaptation seen in animals that as one of eight major waterbird yways, which
live in habitats where the daytime temperature cover 22 countries.
is very hot. Nocturnal animals remain relatively
inactive during the heat of the day, so that they Structural adaptations
do not generate additional metabolic body heat Structural adaptations that assist with
as a result of increased activity. (Increased temperature control include insulation such as
activity must be supported by greater energy fur, hair, feathers, insect scales and coats that
production, which relies on a higher metabolic enable a layer of air to be trapped to reduce
rate.) Nocturnal activity is seen in many reptiles the amount of heat lost. The feathers of the
and birds that inhabit hot, arid areas and the emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) act as an
few mammals that are able to survive desert insulator to reduce heat gain or loss. Blubber
conditions (for example, the bilby, Macrotis is another form of insulation to reduce heat
lagotis). Some organisms like the common loss from organisms living in water, such as
wombat (Vombatus ursinus) and the brown the Australian fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus
snake are diurnal, but change their normal doriferus). This signicantly minimises heat
active periods from daytime to night during hot loss.
weather. The surface area to volume ratio is also an
Migration is another behavioural adaptation important structural component of temperature
that can assist in the regulation of body regulation, as larger animals have a smaller
temperature. Migrating organisms physically surface area to volume ratio, which means they
move to a different habitat that is within their will not lose as much heat as smaller animals.
tolerance range. The grey plover (Pluvialis Larger animals such as the common wombat
squatarola) breeds in the Northern Hemisphere (Vombatus ursinus) have large, compact bodies
between May and August and then migrates that have relatively small surface areas from
to Australia over August and stays until April. which they can lose their internally produced
This migration allows the birds to avoid severe heat; therefore the wombat loses very little heat Figure 1.17 (a) Red
kangaroos lying in a
shaded position;
(a) (b) (b) water-holding frog
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Australian ectothermsblue-tongue
lizard, water-holding frog, brown Adaptations and responses
snake, broad-headed snake, thorny of Australian organisms for
devil, Kangaroo Island tiger snake and temperature regulation:
crocodile http://www.environment.gov.au/events/iydd/
Australian endothermsred kangaroo, pubs/fauna.pdf
emu, duck-billed platypus and spinifex Australian desert-dwelling animals and their TR
hopping mouse. adaptations
2. Analyse information from secondary
sources relating to these animals and http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/content/
then answer the questions on the Student abstract/20/6/1278
Resource CD. Read information in the Body-temperature regulation studies in Skillprocessing and
textbook (pages 2429) and on the Student some Australian Aboriginal people and analysing information
Resource CD, which are secondary sources. investigating animals in extremes-polar from secondary
Additional sources may be accessed, and desert environments sources
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sun sun
6 am 6 pm
6 am 12 noon 6 pm
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to grow again when the warmer winter and storing them in the SR
weather returns. refrigerator, before replanting them
The alpine ash uses seed in spring, to ensure that they flower.
dormancy to allow it to withstand Many responses of plants to
colder temperatures at higher temperature change (such as leaf
Additionall iinformation
f ti
altitudes than other species. fall and flowering) are the result of
on plant responses to
Vernalisation: some plants flower temperature and/or light changing temperature changes
in response to low temperatures; the concentration of chemical growth
for example, tulip bulbs must be regulators in plants. Responding to
exposed to between 6 weeks and temperature change and the regulation
3 months of intense cold before they of internal temperatures is important
will flower. Australian gardeners not only for the individual plant,
often mimic this effect by removing but also for the continuation of the
tulip bulbs from the ground in species.
REVISION QUESTIONS
(c) Burrowing
(e) Shivering
(f) Panting
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