Chapter Three: Compression Members 1

Chapter Three: Compression Members

3.1 Introduction

Compression members are perhaps the most common structural elements in an ordinary
structure and are variously termed as columns, posts, struts or stanchions, etc. A structural
member is considered to be a compression member if it is designed primarily to resist axial
compression, though some bending may also be present and accounted for in the design. If the
bending action is quite significant, the member is termed as a beam-column and designed in a
different way as will be shown later in Chapter Five.

Structural action of columns, stanchions, struts and posts is identical; but due to difference in
their usage different names are used. Columns are ordinarily used in buildings, are vertical and
transmit some actual load or beam reaction to another column or foundation. Stanchions are
steel columns made of rolled steel sections (usually built up) and carry heavy loads. Struts on
the other hand are not necessarily vertical and are used as compression members in roof trusses
and bridge trusses. The term post is loosely used for a column but the end member of a bridge
truss is known as the end-post. Similarly, the main compression members of a roof truss are
known as rafters.

Under the general category of compression members could be included columns, compression
members in a trussed structure, component parts of frames such as compression flanges of
beams or plate girders.

The two main differences between tension and compression members are:

A. Tension members are held

straight by means of tensile loads,
while in the case of compression
members, the compressive loads
tend to bend the member out of
the plane of loading.

B. For riveted or bolted

connections, the net area will
govern the strength of a tension
member, while for compression
members the rivets are assumed
to fill the holes.

This Chapter will present the assessment

and design of structural members that
are acted upon by pure compression
forces; i.e., direct loads with no moments
acting simultaneously.
The main kinds of compression members
are as shown in Fig. 3.1.
Fig. 3.1a Simple compression members

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members 2

Fig. 3.1b Tapered members Fig. 3.1c Stepped columns

Fig. 3.1d Built up columns

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members 3

Fig.3.1e Built up members Fig. 3.1f Perforated plate columns

Compression members can fail by yielding, inelastic buckling, or elastic buckling depending on the
slenderness ratio of the members as well as in local buckling that is usually influenced by the
relative thickness of the component elements that constitute the cross section. Members with
low slenderness ratios generally tend to fail by yielding, whereas members with high slenderness
ratios tend to fail by elastic buckling. Most compression members used in construction have
intermediate slenderness ratios, and so the predominant mode of failure is inelastic buckling.

Member buckling can occur in one of three different modes: flexural, torsional, and flexural-
torsional.

Flexural buckling occurs in members with doubly symmetric or doubly anti-symmetric

cross sections such as I and Z sections, and in members with singly symmetric sections
such as C, T, equal-legged L and double L.

Torsional buckling occurs in members with very thin walls.

Flexural-torsional buckling occurs in members with singly symmetric cross sections such
as C, T, equal-legged L, double L.

Normally, torsional buckling of symmetric shapes and flexural-torsional buckling of un symmetric

shapes are not important in the design of hot-rolled compression members; either they do not
govern or their buckling strengths do not differ significantly from the corresponding weak-axis
flexural buckling strengths. However, torsional and flexural-torsional buckling modes may
govern for sections that have relatively thin component plates.

In addition to slenderness ratio and cross-sectional shape, the behavior of compression members
is affected by the relative thickness of the component elements that constitute the cross
section. The relative thickness of a component element is qualified by the width-to-thickness

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members 4

ratio (b/t) of the element. The width-to- thickness ratios of some selected steel shapes are
shown in Fig. 3.2. If the width-to-thickness ratio falls within a limiting value stipulated by
relevant codes and specifications, local buckling of the component element will not occur.
However, if the width-thickness ratio exceeds these stipulated values, consideration of local
buckling in the design of the compression member is required.

Fig. 3.2 Dimensions of sections

3.2 Classification of Sections

Classification of sections of compression members depends on their failure modes under load.
Different standards and codes stipulate various classification although they generally coverage
to two main modes of classification-either into four classes (as in, for example, the EBCS3 1995)
or into three classes (as in, for example, the AISC Standard).

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members 5

The EBCS 3 1995 classifies sections into four categories. Accordingly, the design strength of a
cross-section subject to compression depends on its classification as Class 1 (Plastic), Class 2
(Compact), Class 3 (Semi-compact), or Class 4 (thin-walled) according to their capacity in the
following manner.

Class 1 cross sections, also known as plastic sections can develop their plastic moment resistance
(fy times plastic modulus) with the rotation capacity required for plastic analysis. Only cross
sections falling in this class may only be used for plastic design.

Class 2 cross sections can develop their plastic moment resistance but with limited rotation
capacity. Cross-sections falling in this group are also known as compact sections.

Class 3 cross sections are those which can reach their yield moment (f y times elastic modulus)
but local buckling prevents the development of the plastic moment resistance. In Class 3
sections, the stress in the extreme fibers should be limited to the yield stress because local
buckling prevents development of the plastic moment capacity. Cross-sections falling in this
group are also known as semi-compact sections.

Table 3.1. Classification of Compression Sections According to EBCS 3 1995 (Modified to meet
latest Euro code Standard).
(Refer to fig. 3.2 for the various parameters under ratio checked)
Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for Compression Elements (those exceeding these limits are
taken as Class 4 section)
Section Element Ratio Checked Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
General - None Assumed Class 3
Rectangular - None Assumed Class 2
d/tw (rolled)
Web 33 44 51
d/tw (welded)
I - shape
c/tf (rolled) 10 11 15
Flange
c/tf (welded) 9 10 15
Web d/tw 33 38 42
Box (b-3tf)/tf (rolled) 42 42 42
Flange
b/tf (welded) 42 42 42
Web d/tw 33 38 42
Channel
Flange b/tf 10 11 15
Web h/tw 33 38 42
T-Shape b/2tf (rolled) 10 11 15
Flange
b/2tf (welded) 9 10 14
h/t 15.0
Angle - NA NA
(b+h)/(2t) 11.5
Round Bar - None Assumed Class 1
Pipe - d/t 502 702 902
h/t 15.0
Double Angle - NA NA
(b+h)/(2t) 11.5
NA = Not Applicable

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members 6

Class 4 cross sections, also known as thin-walled cross-sections, are those in which local buckling
is liable to prevent the development of the yield moment; i.e., premature buckling occurs
before yield is reached.

According to EBCS 3 1995, the classification of sections depends on the classification of flange
and web elements. The classification also depends on whether the compression elements are in
pure compression, pure bending or under the influence of combined axial force and bending. The
latter two conditions will be discusses in subsequent chapters. This Chapter presents
classification of compression elements for only pure compression according to Table 3.1.

The section dimensions used in the tables are given in Fig. 3.2. If the section dimensions satisfy
the limits shown in the tables, the section is classified as Class 1, Class2, or Class3 as applicable.
A cross-section is classified by reporting the highest (least favorable) class of its constituent
compression elements that are partially or wholly in compression. If a section fails to satisfy
the limits for class 3 sections, it is classified as Class 4.

One of the major factors in determining the limiting width-thickness ratio is the parameter .
This parameter is used to reflect the influence of yield stress on the section classification.
Parameter Steel Grade

1/ 2
Fe 360 Fe 430 Fe 510
235 (3.1) fy 235 275 355
fy
1 0.92 0.81
The properties of Class 4 cross-sections may be
established by calculation using the effective
widths of the component elements in
compression. The later may be obtained from
Table 3.2 both for internal and outstand
elements.

The effective widths of flange elements may be

based on the stress ratio determined for the
gross cross-section. The effective width of a
web element should be based on the stress ratio
determined for a cross-section comprising the
effective area of the compression flange but the
gross area of the web and tension flange. In
Fig. 3.3 Gross and effective cross sections of
Table 3.2, it is recommended to determine the class 4 section subjected to compression
reduction factor as follows:

1 for p 0.673



p 0.22 for p 0.673
Where p 2 p is the element slenderness defined as:

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members 7

fy b/t (3.2b)
p
cr 28.4 k
t = the relevant thickness
k = the buckling factor corresponding to the stress ratio from Table 3.2.

b = the relevant width (see Fig 3.2) and given as follows:

Webs b=d

Internal flanges b=d

Box elements: b = b-3t

Outstand flanges b=c

Equal-legged angle: b = (b + h)/2

Unequal-legged angle: b = h or (b + h)/2
Table 3.2 Effective width of Class 4 cross-sections.

Generally, the neutral axis of the effective section will shift by a dimension e compared to the
neutral axis of the gross section as shown in fig. 3.3. This should be taken into account when
calculating the properties of the effective cross-section.

RADII OF GYRATION OF COMMON SECTIONS

Whatsoever the section may be for design purposes, its radii of gyration about the principal
axes are required so that the least radius of gyration may be obtained and used to find
slenderness ratio.

Table 3.3 Approximate radii of gyration for different sections.

Radii of gyration of single sections can be found generally with less computational effort. These
properties are also given along with manufacturers manuals for standard sections. But for built
up sections made of two or more components with or without the cover plates, the calculation
work for radii of gyration becomes very tedious. The design of compression members is a a
process of a trail and error which means that if first trial is not satisfactory, the next trails will
have to be made. In every trail the radii of gyration are to be necessarily calculated. It
becomes customary for a designer to have an idea of approximate radii of gyration of various
commonly used sections so that much of the calculation work is reduced. The radii of gyration
of commonly used sections are given in Table 3.3

a) Internal compression element b) Outstand compression element

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members 8

Generally, the neutral axis of the effective section will shift by a dimension e compared to the
neutral axis of the gross section as shown in fig. 3.3. This should be taken into account when
calculating the properties of the effective cross-section.
Radii of Gyration of Common Sections

Whatsoever the section may be for design purposes, its radii of gyration about the principal
axes are required so that the least radius of gyration may be obtained and used to find
slenderness ratio.

Radii of gyration of single sections can be found generally with less computational effort. These
properties are also given along with manufacturers manuals for standard sections. But for built
up sections made of two or more components with or without the cover plates, the calculation
work for radii of gyration becomes very tedious. The design of compression members is a
process of a trail and error which means that if first trial is not satisfactory, the next trails will
have to be made. In every trail the radii of gyration are to be necessarily calculated. It
becomes customary for a designer to have an idea of approximate radii of gyration of various
commonly used sections so that much of the calculation work is reduced. The radii of gyration of
commonly used sections can be obtained from any standard books.

Effective Length Factor

The effective length factor K is a factor which, when multiplied by the actual unbraced length L
of an end-restrained compression member, will yield an equivalent pinned-ended member whose
buckling strength is the same as that of the original end-restrained member. For a prismatic
member, the effective length factor can be determined from Fig. 3.4 or Fig. 3.5

Fig. 3.4 K factor table

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members 9

Figure 3.4 is used when the support conditions of the compression members can be closely
represented by those shown in the figure. On the other hand, Fig. 3.5 is used for members that
are parts of a framework.

The effect of end restraint is quantified by the two end restraint factors G A and GB where the
subscripts A and B refer to the joints at the two ends of the member being considered and G is
defined as:

sum of flexural stiffness of all columns meeting at the jo int

G
sum of flexural stiffness of all beams meeting at the join

( EI / L) columns
(3.3)
( EI / L) beams

Fig. 3.5 K factor alignment

Note that if the end of the member is fixed, the theoretical value of G is 0, but a G value of 1
is recommended for use. On the other hand, if the end of the member is pinned, the theoretical
value of G is infinity, but a G value of 10 is recommended for use. The rational behind the
foregoing recommendations is that no support in reality can be truly fixed or pinned.

Once the G factors are calculated, the effective length factor can be obtained from the
appropriate alignment chart. The chart for sideways-inhibited frames applies to frames that

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members 10

are braced in such a way that relative displacement between two ends of the member is
negligible. The chart for sidesway-inhibited frames applies to frames in which relative
displacement between member ends is not negligible. Although the charts were developed
assuming elastic behaviour for all members, inelasticity in the columns can be accounted for by
multiply the end-restrained factors by the quantity Et/ E, where Et is the tangent modulus.

The alignment charts shown in Fig 3.5 where developed based on a number of simplifying

assumptions; as a result, they do not always give accurate results, especially for members in

frames for which the parameter varies significantly from column to column in a
L ( P EI )
given story. The alignment charts also fail to give accurate results for

frames that contain leaner columns.

Limiting Slenderness Ratio

The governing slenderness ratio (KL/r) of compression members preferably should not exceed
200.

3.3 Design Criteria for Compression Members

A number of design checks are required for compression members. In all cases, it is
recommended that the forces and moments in the members are derived from an elastic global
analysis.

In addition to cross-sectional resistance, consideration should be given to overall buckling of

members. Members in compression are susceptible to a number of buckling modes including local
buckling (Class 4 or thin sections only), flexural buckling torsional buckling and flexural-torsional
buckling. The last three modes are overall buckling modes involving the whole member. Although
all modes should be considered, point-symmetric open sections ( such as Z-shapes) are usually
more prone to torsional buckling while single-symmetric open sections to flexural-torsional
buckling. Local buckling while single-symmetric open section to introducing certain modification
pertinent to specific code implementation.

Compression members are to be designed in such a way that both the cross-sections resistance
to applied loads be established and member capacity verified against possible buckling failures.
These will be presented for EBCS 3 1995 Specification as follow.

3.4 Ethiopian Building Code Standard EBCS 3 1995

Resistance of Cross section

Compression

According to the EBCS 3 specification, axially loaded compression members designed to resist a
factored axial force of Nc.sd, calculated using appropriate load combinations, must satisfy the
condition:

Nc.sd, Nc.Rd (3.4)

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members 11

Where Nc.Rd = design compression resistance of the cross-section, taken as a smaller of either
the design plastic resistance Npl, RD of the gross section or the design local buckling resistance
N0,Rd of the gross section where, again, N pl,Rd and N0,Rd are determined as in the following
expressions:

Ag x f y
N p1, Rd for Class 1, 2 or 3 cross sec tions (3.4a)
MO

Aeff x f u
N O , Rd for Class 4 cross sec tions (3.4b)
M1

The partial safety factors are MO = 1.1 and M1 = 1.1.

Note that Class 4 sections which are not doubly symmetric should be assessed to account for
the additional bending caused by shift in the neutral axis discussed earlier.

Flexural Buckling

Axially loaded compression members designed to resist a factored axial force of N c.sd, calculated
using appropriate load combinations must satisfy the condition:

Nc.Sd Nb, Rd (3.5a)

Where Nb, Rd = design flexural buckling resistance of the cross-section to be determined from:
A fy
N b , Rd A
M1
(3.5b)
Where:
A = 1 for Class 1,2,3 cross-sections
= Aeff/ A for Class 4 cross-sections
Where Aeff is the effective cross-section for Class 4 cross-sections
A = gross area
= a reduction factor accounting for buckling
= 1.0 for 0.2

1
but 1 for 0.2 3.0
2

2 0.5

In which:

0.5 1 0.2 2
Leff 1 fy A 0.5
A Af y / N er A ; 1 93.9 ; 235
r E 1 E / f y 5 fy

Leff = effective length of member

Ner = the elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members 12

r = radius of gyration of the gross section

= an imperfection factor as in the following tables:
Buckling curve a b c d
0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76

Values of the reduction factor can easily be obtained for the appropriate non-dimensional
slenderness from Table 3.5 while for flexural buckling, the approximate curve shall be
determined from Table 3.4

Torsional and Flexural-torsional buckling

The resistance to these buckling modes may be determined as in for the flexural buckling
discussed above by introducing a substitution for by the greater T or FT and taking =
0.34
Where:

fy A
T
T

(3.6)
fy A
FT
FT

In which:
A = 1 for Class 1,2,3 cross-sections
= Aeff/A for Class 4 cross-sections
Where Aeff is the effective cross-section for Class 4 cross-sections

1 2 EI w
T G1t
Ar 2 0 L2 et
FT
1
Ey T T 2
4 Ey T
2
Ey

2E
Ey
Ley / ry 2
A = cross-sectional area of gross section
E = Modulus of elasticity
G = Shear modulus

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members 13

Table 3.4 Selection of buckling curve for a cross section

NOTE:
Fyb; the bsic tensile yield strength of the basic metal out of which the member is made
by cold-forming
Fya: the average yield strength of a member after colding-forming and shall not exceed f u
or 1.2fyb.

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members 14

= 1 (y0/r0)2
Yo = distance from shear center to centroid of gross cross-section along the y-axis.
Ry = radius of gyration of the gross cross-section about the y-axis.
Rx = radius of gyration of the gross cross-section about the z-axis.
It = torsional constant
Iw = Warping constant
Let = effective length
Ley = effective length corresponding to buckling over the y axis.

Table 3.5 Reduction factors

Reduction factor

Curve a Curve b Curve c Curve d

0,2 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000

0,3 0,9775 0,9641 0,9491 0,9235
0,4 0,9528 0,9261 0,8973 0,8504
0,5 0,9243 0,8842 0,8430 0,7793
0,6 0,8900 0,8371 0,7854 0,7100
0,7 0,8477 0,7837 0,7247 0,6431
0,8 0,7957 0,7245 0,6622 0,5797
0,9 0,7339 0,6612 0,5998 0,5208
1,0 0,6656 0,5970 0,5399 0,4671
1,1 0,5960 0,5352 0,4842 0,4189
1,2 0,5300 0,4781 0,4338 0,3762
1,3 0,4703 0,4269 0,3888 0,3385
1,4 0,4179 0,3817 0,3492 0,3055
1,5 0,3724 0,3422 0,3145 0,2766
1,6 0,3332 0,3079 0,2842 0,2512
1,7 0,2994 0,2781 0,2577 0,2289
1,8 0,2702 0,2521 0,2345 0,2093
1,9 0,2449 0,2294 0,2141 0,1920
2,0 0,2229 0,2095 0,1962 0,1766
2,1 0,2036 0,1920 0,1803 0,1630
2,2 0,1867 0,1765 0,1662 0,1508
2,3 0,1717 0,1628 0,1537 0,1399
2,4 0,1585 0,1506 0,1425 0,1302
2,5 0,1467 0,1397 0,1325 0,1214
2,6 0,1362 0,1299 0,1234 0,1134
2,7 0,1267 0,1211 0,1153 0,1062
2,8 0,1182 0,1132 0,1079 0,0997
2,9 0,1105 0,1060 0,1012 0,0937
3,0 0,1036 0,0994 0,0951 0,0882

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members 15

For angles, they y and z axes should be taken as the u and v axes, respectively. For mono-
symmetric sections, the y axis should be taken as the axis of symmetry. For point-symmetric
sections, the y axis should be taken as the major principal axis. For double-symmetric sections,
the y axis should be taken as the minor principal axis.

3.5 Built-up Compression Members

Built-up members are members made by bolting or welding together two or more standard
structural shapes. For a built-up member to fully effective (i.e., if all component structural
shapes are to act as one unit rather than as individual units), the following conditions must be
satisfied.

1. The ends of the built-up member must be prevented from slippage during
buckling.
2. Adequate fasteners must be provided along the length of the member.
3. The fasteners must be able to provided sufficient gripping force on all the
component shapes being connected.

Condition 1 is satisfied if continuous welds are used throughout the length of the built-up
compression member all component shapes in contract at the ends of the member are connected
by a weld having a length not less than the maximum width of the member, or by fully tightened
bolts spaced longitudinally not more than four diameters apart for a distance equal to 1 times
the maximum width of the member.

Condition 2 is satisfied if continuous welds are used throughout the length of the built-up
compression member.

Condition 3 is satisfied if either welds or fully tightened bolts are used as the fasteners.

While condition 1 is mandatory, conditions 2 and 3 can be violated in design. If condition 2 or

condition 3 is violated, the built-up member is not fully effective, and slight slippage among
component shapes may occur. To account for the decrease in capacity due to slippage, a
modified slenderness ratio is used for the computation of the design compressive strength when
buckling of the built-up member is about an axis coincident with or parallel to at least one plane
of contact for the component shapes. The modified slenderness ratio (KL/r) m is given as follows:

Condition 2 Violated. If intermittent welds or fully tightened bolts are used:

h / 2rib 2
2 2
KL KL a
0.82
1 (h / 2rib ) ri
2
0
r m r (3.7a)

Condition 3 Violated. If snug-tight bolts are used,

2 2
KL KL a
0 (3.7b)
r m r ri
Where:

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members 16

(KL/r)0 = (KL/r)x if the buckling axis is the x axis and at least one plane of contact
between component shapes is parallel to that axis.
(Kl/r)0 = (KL/r)y if the buckling axis is the y axis and at least one plane of contact
between component shapes is parallel to that axis
a = the distance between fasteners measured along the longitudinal axis of the member
ri = the minimum radius of gyration of the component element
rib = the radius of gyration of the component element relative to its centroidal axis
parallel to the member axis of buckling.
h = the distance between centroids of component elements perpendicular to the member
buckling axis.

No modification to (KL/r) is necessary if the buckling axis is perpendicular to the planes of

contact of the component shapes. Modifications to both (KL/r) x and (KL/r)y are required if the
built-up member is so constructed that planes of contact exist in both the x and y directions of
the cross section.

Once the slenderness ratio is computed, the design compression strength is to be calculated
from the expressions developed for simple compression members depending on the cross section
geometry and component element width-thickness ratio of the built up shapes.

An additional requirement for the design of built-up members is that a/r i does not exceed of
the governing slenderness ratio of the built-up member. This provision is provided to prevent
component shapes buckling from occurring between adjacent fasteners before the built-up
member buckling overall.

_______________________________
ADDITIONAL READING

E.H. Gayloard and J.E. Stalmeyer

Chapter 6
Charles G. Salmon and Johne E. Johnson
Chapters 4

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 Chapter Three: Compression Members 17

Robert Englekirk
Chapter 3
EBSC 3 and EC 3

Design of Steel and timber structures (CE 519) Yibeltal Temesgen