AIO Derivations Formula

XII PHYSICS
DERIVATIONS AND
FROMULA
Girishkumar Govindan
www.girishgovindan.com
Unit-1 Electrostatics
(Electric Charges and Fields, Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance)

1. Expression for electric field intensity at a point the axial line of a dipole.
As shown in the figure, consider an electric dipole of charges q and +q, separated by
distance 2a and placed in vacuum. Let P be point on the axial line at a distance r from the
centre O of the dipole on the side of the charge +q.
rg
Electric field due to charge q at a point P is
l.o

4

Where is a unit vector along the dipole axis from q to +q.

al
Electric field due to charge +q at a point P is

4

s4
Hence the resultant electric field at point P is

1 1 4
.
4
4

ic
1 2
.
4

ys
Here !2=dipole moment. For , can be neglected compared to .
1 2
.
4
%
ph
Electric field at any point on the axis of the dipole acts along the dipole axis from negative to
.
positive charge, i.e. in the direction of dipole moment
www.physics4all.org 1 www.girishgovindan.com
2. Expression for the electric field intensity at any point along the equatorial line of an
electric dipole.
As shown in the figure, consider an electric dipole of charges

q and +q, separated by distance 2a and placed in vacuum. Let
P be point on the equatorial line of the dipole at distance r
from it. i.e. OP= r
Electric filed at point P due to +q charge is

&'()*(& +,-. /0.
4

rg
Electric filed at point P due to -q charge is

&'()*(& +,-. 0.
4

l.o
Clearly, the magnitudes of -& are equal. So, the components of
-& normal to the dipole axis will cancel out. The components parallel to the dipole
axis will add up. The total electric field 1 is opposite to .
al
1 2 cos 6 cos 67
1 2 cos 6 2 7

s4

,, 1 2 cos 6
4

Now, from fig. cos 6 : ; ,
;
ic

1 2
4

1
ys
,, 1 . =>(( 2, '? (+()*') &',+( @,@(-*

4
%/
If the point P is located far away from the dipole, , then
1
ph
1 . %
4

The direction of electric field at any point on the equatorial line of the dipole will be
antiparallel to the dipole moment A.
Important note: the electric field intensity due to a short dipole at a distance r along its
axis is twice the intensity at the same distance along the equatorial axis. '. (.
21B
3. Expression for the torque acting on an electric dipole, when held in a uniform
electric field. (net translational force is zero)
rg
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges +q and q and length 2a placed in a uniform
electric field , making an angle with it. It has a dipole moment of magnitude,
2
Force exerted on charge +q by field along
l.o
Force exerted on charge -q by field opposite to
CDD 0

al
Hence net translating force on dipole in a uniform electric field is zero. But the two equal and
opposite force act at different points on the dipole. So, they form a couple and exert torque.
s4
Torque = either force x perpendicular distance between the two forces
'. (. F ! 2 sin 6 ! 2 sin 6

F sin 6
As the direction of torque F is perpendicular to both and , we can write

ic
F !
ys
As shown in the figure the direction of torque is that in which a right-handed screw would
advance when rotated from to .
ph
4. Deduce Coulombs law from Gausss theorem or Expression for the force between
two points using two point charges.
As shown in figure, consider an isolated positive point charge q. We select a spherical surface
S of radius r centered at charge q as the Gaussian surface.
rg
at any point on S are
By symmetry, has same magnitude at all points on S. Also and &?
is
directed radially outward. Hence flux through area &?
&? cos 0 &?
&M . &?
l.o
Net flux through closed surface S is
N &? N &?

M N . &?
O O O
M ! 4

al

Using Gausss theorem, M P , we get

Q
! 4

s4
1
,, .
4

The force on the point charge if placed on surface S will be
1
C .
4

ic
ys
ph
5. Expression for the electric field intensity due to infinitely long, straight wire of linear
charge density R STU.
Consider a thin infinitely long straight wire having a uniform linear

charge density V W@X. By symmetry, the field of the line charge
is directed radially outwards and its magnitude is same at all points
equidistant from the line charge. Here we choose a cylindrical
Gaussian surface of radius r, length l and with its axis along the line
charge.
rg
As shown in the figure the Gaussian surface has curved surfaces S1
X , &Y
and flat circular ends S2 and S3. Since &Y [ -& &Y
% [
only the curved surface contributes towards the total flux.
l.o
\ . &?
M N . &? X \ . &?
\ . &?
%
O O] O; O^
M \ &YX cos 0 \ &Y cos 90 \ &Y% cos 90

O]
al O;
M \ &YX ! ( ,` )ab(& ?a`)(

O^
O]
s4
M ! 2
+
Charged enclosed by the Gaussian surface is V+

ic
V+
. 2
+

V
ys
,,
2

ph
6. Expression for the electric field intensity at a point near a thin infinite plane sheet of
charge density c STd .
As shown in the figure consider a thin, infinite plane sheet of charge with uniform surface
charge density e. We have to calculate its electric field at a point P at distance r from it. By
symmetry, electric field points outwards normal to the sheet. Also, it must have same
magnitude and opposite direction at two points P and P` equidistant from the sheet and on
opposite sides.
rg
l.o
Here we consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of cross-sectional area A and length 2r with
its axis perpendicular to the sheet. As the lines of force are parallel to the curved surface of
of the cylinder is
al
the cylinder, the flux through the curved surface is zero. The flux through the plane end faces
M f f 2f
s4

Using Gausss theorem, M , we get
P Q
ef
2f

e
,,
ic
2
ys
ph
7. Calculate the electric field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell at a point (i)
outside the shell, (ii) on the shell and (iii) inside the shell.
Consider a thin spherical shell of charge of radius R with uniform surface charge density
e. From symmetry, we see that the electric field at any point is radial and has same
magnitude at points equidistant from the centre. To determine electric field at any point at
a distance r from O, we choose a concentric sphere of radius r as the Gaussian surface.
(i) When point P lies outside the spherical shell: The total charge q inside the Gaussian
surface is the charge on the shell of radius R and area
4
g .
4
g e
rg
Flux through the Gaussian surface, M ! 4


Q
! 4

l.o

1
,, .
4

of shell is concentrated at its centre.

al
For points outside the shell, the field due to uniformly charged shell is as if the entire charge
(ii) When point P lies on the spherical shell: The Gaussian surface just encloses the charged
s4
spherical shell. Applying Gausss theorem, for r=R

! 4
g

,,
4
g
ic
e
,, ?'-)( 4
g e

ys
(iii) When point P lies inside the spherical shell: For r<R, the charge enclosed by Gaussian
surface is zero, i.e. q=0
Flux through the Gaussian surface, M ! 4

ph
! 4
0 , 0
Hence, electric field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell is zero at all points inside the
shell.
8. Expression for the electric potential at a distance r from a point charge Q.
Consider a positive point charge Q

placed at the origin O. We wish to
determine the potential at any point P
with position vector r from the origin.
By definition, it is the amount of work
done in bringing a unit positive test
charge from infinity to the point P.
Now, at some point P`, the electrostatic force on a unit positive charge is
Q 1 `
k `2 where k = and r is the unit vector along OP`.
r 4o
Work done against this force from r` to r`+r` is
rg
Q
W = k `2 r`, here W is positive but the negative sign indicates r` <0
r
Now, the total work (W ) by external force can be obtained by intrgrating above equation from r`= to r`=r.
l.o
r
Qr Q 1 1
W = k `2 dr =k ` = kQ
r r r
kQ Q Q
i.e. W = = or, V (r) =
r 4or 4or
al
s4
9. Electric potential due to an electric dipole
Consider an electric dipole consisting of two point charges -& and seperated by
distance of 2 as shown in the figure. We wish to determine the electric potential at a point p
at a distance from the centre O, the direction OP making an with the dipole moment .
Let f0 X -& /0 . Now, total potential at point P due to dipole is
ic
ys
ph
1
i i i . 1
4
j X
Where X and are the distances of the point P from -& respectively.
Now, from APO and BPO
X 2 cos 6 -& 2 cos 6
2 cos 6 2 cos 6
, X l1

m -& l1

m

Now, for and neglecting higher order terms of /, we get
2 cos 6 2 cos 6
X n1 o -& n1 o

X
1 1 2 cos 6 X 1 1 2 cos 6
, n1 o , n1 o
X X
rg
Similarly,
1 1 2 cos 6 X/
n1 o

l.o
Now, Using binomial theorem and neglecting higher order terms of /, we get
1 1 cos 6 1 1 cos 6
n1 o -& n1 o
X
1 cos 6 cos 6 1 2 cos 6

Substituting above equations in equation (1), we get
i n1 o n1 o
4
j
,, i
al
1 cos 6
4
j
n o

1
4
j
4
j
.

s4
Special Cases :
(i) When point P lies on the axial line of the dipole, '. (. 6 0, 180

i r
4
j
ic
(ii) When point P lies at any point in the equatorial plane of a dipole, '. (. 6 90
1 cos 90
i n o 0
4
j
ys
ph
10. Derive an expression for the potential energy of a dipole in a uniform electric field.
Or
Derive an expression for the total work done in rotating the dipole through an angle in
uniform electric field.
Consider a dipole with charges X -& placed

in a uniform electric field , as shown in Fig.
Electric potential energy of an dipole in an electrosstatic field is
the work done in rotating the dipole from zero energy position
(zero energyt is taken when dipole is held perpendicular to the
When an electric dipole of dipole moment 0 is held at an angle 6

electric field) to the desired position in the field.
rg
with the electric field , a torque F acts on it i.e.
F s
l.o
This torque will tend to rotate the dipole (unless p is parallel or antiparallel to E). Suppose an
external torque ext is applied in such a manner that it just neutralises this torque and rotates it
in the plane of paper from angle 0 to angle 1 at an infinitesimal angular speed and without
angular acceleration. The amount of work done by the external torque will be given by

W = ext ( )d = pE sin d = pE cos
0
W = pE (cos0 cos )
0 al 0
If W is the work done in turning the dipole from 90 to , then

s4
W = pE (cos 90o cos )
W = pE cos
This work is stored as the potential energy U of the system.

U = pE cos or U = p . E
ic
Special cases
(i) = 0
U = pE cos 0o = pE. This is the minimum potential energy.
ys
Stable equilibrium.
(ii) = 90
U = pE cos90o = 0. In this position potential energy will be zero.
(iii) = 180
U = pE cos180o = pE. In this position dipole will have maximum potential energy.
ph
Unstable equilibrium.
NOTE: The work done in rotating an electric dipole in a uniform electrical field through an
angle ( from 0) is given by W = pE (1 cos )
11. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel conducting plates separated by a
small distance d which is small compared with the linear
dimensions of the plates.
To find the capacitance, we can first assume that there is
vacuum betweem the plates.
Since d is much smaller than the linear dimension of the
plates, the result on electric field by an infinite plane sheet
of uniform surface charge density can be applied in this
case Plate 1 has surface charge density = Q/A and plate 2
the net electric field outer region II (otside of plate 1 and 2) will be
has a surface charge density .
e e
rg
0
2j 2j
while in the inner region between the plates 1 and 2, the electric fields due to the two charged
e e e t
plates add up and gives
l.o

2j 2j j j f
The direction of electric field is from the positive to the negative plate (shown in the figure).
Since the electric intensity is uniform between the plates therefore the potential difference
between the two plates is given by
al
V = Ed
t t tj f
Now, the capacitance of a parallel capacitor (with vacuum) will be
W
i &

t&
j f
s4
W
&
i.e. the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is directly proportional to the area of the
plates and inversly proportional to their seperation. It does not depend upon the charge of the
capacitor.
ic
ys
ph
12. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor when a
dielectric is introduced between its plates.
The Electric field between the plates of capacitor when there is no dielectric between the
t
plates is given by

j f
The direction of electric field is from the positive to the negative plate . Since the electric
intensity is uniform between the plates therefore the potential difference between the two
i &
plates without dielectric, is given by
j f
Now, the capacitance of a parallel capacitor (with vacuum) will be
rg
W
&
Now, consider a dielectric inserted between the plates fully occupying the space between the
r eu . So, the reduced electric field will be

plates. The dielectric gets polarised due to the electric field with polarised charge densities
e eu
l.o

j
e e
And the potential difference across the plates will be
i & &
al j0
e , e
Now, dielectric constant
v n v o , e e
e e v
e& t&
i
s4
j v fj v
t
-& ))'*-)( ='*> &'(+()*'), W
i
j vf
,, W
&
ic
ys
ph
13. Derive an expression for the energy stored in a capacitor with air as the medium
between its plates. How does the stored energy change if air is replaced by a medium
of dielectric constant .
Or
Derive an expression for the energy stored in a parallel plate capacitor. Hence show
U
that electric field E is a source of energy with energy density d wx yd zT{ .
The energy of a charged capacitor is measured by the total work done in charging the
capacitor to a given potential.
Let assume that initially both the plates are uncharged. Now, we have to repeatedly remove
small positive charges from one plate and transfer them to the other plate. At a certain stage
during this process, let q be the total quantity of charge transferred. Let v be the potential
rg
q= Cv
difference between the plates.
Now, when additional small charge dq is tranferred from the negative plate to the positive

plate, the small amount of work done is given by
&| b& &
W
l.o
the total work done in transferring charge Q is given by
}
1 }
| \ & \ &
W W
}
1 1 t t
al
| ~ ~ 0
W 2 W 2 2W
This work is stored as electrostatic potential energy U in the capacitor.
}; X X
Wi ti t Wi
s4

The energy stored in the capacitor can be found by using graphical method also, i.e the area
under the graph of Q and V.
If the capacitors are connected in series or parallel, the total energy will be the addition of
energies of individual capacitors.
ic
Now capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is given by
j f
W

ys

If is the surface charge density on the capacitor plates, then electric field, , e

j
Charge on either plate is t ef j f

ph
t j f 1
-(. ?*,(& j f&
2W 2 j f 2

but Ad=volume of the capacitor between its two plates. Therefore, the energy stored per unit
volume or the energy density a is given by
1
a j
f& 2
14. Two capacitors of capacitance SU , Sd are connected in series. Find their
equivalent capacitance.
Figure shows two capacitors connected in series. A potential

difference i is applied across the combination. This sets up
charges r t on the two plates of each capacitor.
The potential difference across each capacitor is
t t
iX , i
WX W
For the series circuit the sum of these potential differences must be equal to the applied
rg
potential difference.
t t
i iX i
WX W
l.o
If W is the equivalent capacitance of the combination, then
t t t
,,
W WX W
al 1 1 1
,,
W WX W
15. Two capacitors of capacitance SU , Sd are connected parallel. Find their

s4
equivalent capacitance.
Figure shows two capacitors connected in series. A potential

difference i is applied across the combination. All the capacitors
ic
will have constant potential difference but different charges given by
tX WX i -& t W i
ys
Total charge stored in the combination is
t tX t WX i W i
If Wu is the equivalent capacitance of the combination, then
Wu i WX i W i
ph
,, W WX W
U-2 Current Electricity
1. Express Ohms law in vector form.
Or
Deduce the relation connecting current density and conductivity of the conductor,
when electric field E, is applied to it.
If E is the magnitude of electric field in a conductor of length l, then the potential difference
across its end is
i +
rg
Also from Ohms law
+ +
i g ,, + ,
f f
l.o

Where , is the current density. As the direction of current density is same as that of
electric field , we can write the above equation as
al
,, e
1
s4
=>(( e ),-&a)*'b'*

The above equation is the vector form of Ohms law.

ic
ys
ph
2. Derive the expression for the resistivity of a conductor in terms of the number
density of free electrons and their relaxation time.
Volume of the conductor = Al

Consider a conductor of a length l and of uniform area of cross section A.
If n is the number density of electrons, then the total number of free electrons in the
conductor = Aln. If e is the charge on each electron, the total charge on all the free electrons
in the conductor, q=Alne
Now, let a constant potential difference V be applied across the ends of the conductor. The
i
electric field setup across the conductor is then given by,

+
Due to this field the free electrons present in the conductor will begin to move with a drift
rg
+
velocity vd and the time taken by the free electrons to cross the conductor will be,
*
b
Hence the current
f+-(
l.o

* +/b
f-(b
1M
Putting value of b F, in above eq, we get

f-(
Also current density

al
@
F
-( -(
s4
Y,, F ,, F
f @ @
Comparing the above equation with e we get

-( @
ic
e F ,, (?'?*'b'*
@ -( F
ys
ph
3. Relation between current and mobility
|b | F
Mobility: mobility is defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field.

@
SI unit of Mobility is @ ? X i X , @? X X W
f-(b
Relation between current and mobility
b
and
f-(
rg
4. When a battery of emf w and internal resistance is connected to a resistance R, a
current I flows through it. Derive the relation between w, , .
l.o
Consider a cell of emf w and internal resistance r connected to an external resistance R.
g
Suppose a constant current I flows through the circuit. Then, by definition
j

g
al j
,= >@ ? +=, i g g
g
Where, V is the potential drop across the terminals of a cell when current is being drawn from
s4
it.
,, i g jg
ji j
n o g 1 g
i i
ic
ys
ph
5. Two cells of different emfs and internal resistances are connected in series. Find
expressions for the equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance of the
combination.
Let V (A), V (B), V (C) be the potentials at points A, B and C shown in Fig. Then V (A) V
(B) is the potential difference between the positive and negative terminals of the first cell.
VAB = V(A) V(B) = I r
Similarly, VBC = V (B) V (C) = I r
rg
i i f i W i f i / i / i W
Hence, the potential difference between the terminals A and C of the combination is
i X X
,, i 1 1
=>((, 1 X
l.o
and, r rX r
If we connect the two negatives of the cell, we get
eq = 1 2 (1 > 2)
Note: For n cells of EMF and internal resistance r

al
The total emf = n

Current
The total resistance = nr + R and

s4
If out of n cells, m cells are grouped in reverse order then, net emf = n (2m)
ic
ys
ph
6. Two cells of different emfs and internal resistances are connected in parallel. Find
expressions for the equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance of the
combination.
rg
Consider a parallel combination of the cells. I1 and I2 are the currents leaving the positive
electrodes of the cells. At the point B1, I1 and I2 flow in whereas the current I flow out. Since
as much charge flows in as out, we have
I = I1 + I2
Let V (B1) and V (B2) be the potentials at B1 and B2, respectively. Then, considering the first
l.o
cell, the potential difference across its terminals is V (B1) V (B2). Hence,
i i /X i / X X
X i
X
X
For the second cell al
i i /X i /
i

s4

,=, X
X i i X 1 1
n o i n o
X X X
X X X
ic
, i n o
X X
,, i 1 1
X X
ys
=>(( 1
X
X
-& 1
X
1 1 1 X
ph
,, '- ?'@+( = -&,

1 X 1 X
Note: For m rows of cells of emf and internal resistance r.

The total resistance = T
T
And current =
T

If r R,

7. What is Wheatstone bridge? Deduce the condition for which the Wheatstone bridge
is balanced.
Wheatstone bridge: It is a measuring instrument used to determine the resistance of

unknown resistor by applying Kirchhoffs rules. It is a network of four resistor arranged in
the form of a quadrilateral as shown in the figure. It is also
known as a bridge circuit. The bridge is said to be balanced
when no current pass through the galvanometer. Under this
g g
condition the ratios.

gX g%
Proof: Considering the ckt and assuming that the cell has
negligible internal resistance we can adjust the bridge such that
rg
current through the galvanometer is zero. In this case, the
Kirchhoffs junction rule applied to junctions D and B gives
X % -&
l.o
Now applying Kirchhoffs loop rule to closed loop ADBA gives
X gX 0 g 0 2 07
X g
, 1
gX
and from closed loop CBDC

X g
al
g 0 % g% 0 2 07 , g 0 X g% 0
2
g%
s4
g g
From eq (1) and (2)

gX g%
g '? a--,=- (?'?*-)( =( )- b ,*>( (?'?*-)( *, +-)( *>( '&.( -& `,@ *>*
If
ic
g% g
g
gX
ys
ph
8. Draw a circuit diagram which can be used to determine the resistance of a given
wire. Explain principle, construction and working of the experiment.
Meter Bridge (Slide Wire Bridge):

Principle: Meter Bridge is the practical form of Wheatstone
bridge. It uses the principle of Wheatstone bridge to find the
unknown resistance.
For a network of four resistance in a manner shown in figure,
when no current flows through the galvanometer, the bridge is
0 g
said to be balanced and

t Y
Construction and working: The Meter bridge circuit is
rg
shown in the fig. It consists of a wire (usually nichrome) of
length 1m and of uniform cross sectional area stretched taut
and clamped between two thick metallic
strips bent at right angles. The metallic
l.o
strip has two gaps across which resistors
can be connected. The end points where
the wire is clamped are connected to a
cell through a key. One end of a
galvanometer is connected to the metallic
strip midway between the two gaps. The
other end of the galvanometer is
connected to a jockey. The jockey is
al
essentially a metallic rod whose one end
has a knife-edge which can slide over the wire to make electrical connection. The unknown
s4
resistance is connected to one of the gap and Jockey is used to find Null point (where
galvanometer shows zero deflection).
The segment of length l1 and (100-l1) form two resistances of the Wheatstone bridge, with R
(unknown) S as other two.
If Rcm is the resistance per unit length then when bridge is balanced (at Null point) according
ic
g g +X +X
to Wheatstone principle

Y g 100 +X 100 +X
+X
, *>( a--,=- (?'?*-)(, g Y
ys
100 +X
ph
9. With the help of a circuit diagram, explain how a potentiometer can be used to
compare the emfs of two primary cells.
Potentiometer: It is a device used to compare EMF of two cells or to measure the internal resistance
of a cell.
Principle: If a constant current is passed through a wire of uniform area of cross section. The potential
drop across any portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion.

i.e. j + ?'-)( )),&'-. *, >@ ? += j g -& g
So if and A is constant, then j + , j +
=>(( '? *>( ,*(-*'+ &, ( a-'* +(-.*>.
Sensitivity of potentiometer can be increased by increasing the length of the potentiometer wire.
To compare EMF of two cells:
rg
In order to compare EMF of two cells, the circuit is
so that the galvanometer is connected to jX . The jockey is

arranged as shown in the figure. If 1 and 3 are connected
moved along the wire till at a point N1, at a distance l1

from A, there is no deflection in the galvanometer. We
l.o
can apply Kirchhoffs loop rule to the closed loop
+X 0 X 0
AN1G31A and get,
Similarly, if another emf is balanced against l2 (AN2)

+ 0 0
X +X
From last two equations, we get
al
+
s4
Note: To measure EMF potentiometer is a better option than a voltmeter as in the balanced position it
does not draw any current from the cell and keeps the circuit open, so true value of emf is measured.
ic
ys
ph
10. State the principle of a potentiometer. With the help of a circuit diagram, describe a
method to find the internal resistance of a primary cell.
Potentiometer: It is a device used to compare EMF of two cells or to measure the internal resistance
of a cell.
Principle: If a constant current is passed through a wire of uniform area of cross section. The potential
drop across any portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion.

i.e. j + ?'-)( )),&'-. *, >@ ?+= j g -& g
So if and A is constant, then j + , j +
=>(( '&? *>( ,*(-*'+ &, ( a-'* +(-.*>.
Sensitivity of potentiometer can be increased by increasing the length of the potentiometer wire.
To find internal resistance: To find the internal
rg
resistance of the cell, the cell (emf ) whose internal
resistance (r) is to be determined is connected across
a resistance box through a key K2, as shown in the
figure. With key K2 open, balance is obtained at
j +X
length l1 (AN1). Then,
l.o
When key K2 is closed, the cell sends a current (I)
through the resistance box (RB). If V is the terminal
potential difference of the cell and balance is
i +
obtained at length l2 (AN2), then
But, j g-& i g. >'? .'b(?

al
j +X

i +
j g

s4
i g
g +X
,,
g +
+X
g n 1o
+
ic
ys
ph
Unit-3 Magnetic effect of Current and Magnetism
(Moving charge and Magnetism, Magnetism and Matter)

1. Using Biot-Savarts law, derive the expression for the magnetic field due to a current
carrying loop of radius R, at a point which is at a distance x from its centre along
the axis of the loop.
Figure depicts a circular loop carrying a steady current I. The loop is

placed in the y-z plane with its centre at the origin O and has a radius R.
The x-axis is the axis of the loop. We wish to calculate the magnetic
field at the point P on this axis. Let x be the distance of P from the
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centre O of the loop.
Consider a conducting element dl of the loop. This is shown in Fig. The
magnitude dB of the magnetic field due to dl is given by the Biot-Savart
law,
&+ !
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&/
4
%
Now r x R . Further, any element of the loop will be perpendicular to the displacement vector

from the element to the axial point.

Hence &+ ! &+. Thus &/

; ;
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The direction of &/ is shown in Fig. It is perpendicular to the plane formed by &+ -& . It has an x-
component &/ and a component perpendicular to x-axis, &/ . When the components perpendicular to
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the x-axis are summed over, they cancel out and we obtain a null result. Thus, only the x-component
survives. The net contribution along x-direction can be obtained by integrating &/ &/ ),? 6 over
the loop.

Now from above fig, cos 6 ; ; ]/;
&+ g &+ g
From above two equations
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&/
4
! g ! g
X/ 4
! g %/

The summation of elements dl over the loop yields 2R, the circumference of the loop. Thus, the
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magnetic field at P due to entire circular loop is

g g
/
/ % , `, ),'+ >b'-. *a-?, / %
2 ! g 2 ! g
At the centre of the current loop, x

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Special cases

, d ,
d{
At the axial points lying far away from the coil, ,
d

d{ d{
At an axial point at a distance equal to the radius of the coil i.e. , we get
d

d d d { d dd

2. Draw a neat and lablled diagram of a cyclotron. State the underlying principle and
explain how a positively charged particle gets accelerated in this machine. Show
mathematically that the cyclotron frequency does not depend upon the speed of the
particle.
Cyclotron: The cyclotron, devised by Lawrence and Livingston, is a device for accelerating
ions to high speed by the repeated application of accelerating potentials.
Construction: The cyclotrons consists of two flat semi-circular metal boxes called dees and
are arranged with a small gap between them. A source of ions is located near the mid-point of
the gap between the dees. The dees are connected to the terminals of a radio frequency
oscillator. The whole apparatus is placed between the poles of a strong electromagnet which
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provides a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the dees.
Working: The positive ions produced from a source S at the centre are accelerated by a dee
which is at negative potential at that moment. Due to the presence of perpendicular magnetic
field the ion will move in a circular path inside the dees. The magnetic field and the
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frequency of the applied voltages are so chosen that as the ion comes out of a dee, the dees
change their polarity (positive becoming negative and vice-versa) and the ion is further
accelerated and moves with higher velocity along a circular path of greater radius. The
phenomenon is continued till the ion reaches at the periphery of the dees where an auxiliary
bombarded.
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negative electrode (deflecting plate) deflects the accelerated ion on the target to be
The function of electric field is to accelerate the charged particle and so to impart energy to
the charged particle. The function of magnetic field is to provide circular path to charged
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particle and so to provide the location where charged particle is capable of gaining energy
from electric field.
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Expression for Period of Revolution and Frequency:

Suppose the positive ion with charge q moves in a dee with a velocity v, then,
@b @b
b/ ,
/
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Where m is the mass and r the radius of the path of ion in the dee and B is the strength of the
magnetic field.
b /
The angular velocity of the ion is given by,

@

@
The time taken by the ion in describing a semi-circle, i.e., in turning through an angle is,
*
/
Thus the time is independent of the speed of the ion i.e., although the speed of the ion goes on
increasing with increase in the radius when it moves from one dee to the other, yet it takes the
same time in each dee.
Now for the cyclotron to work, the applied alternating potential should also have the same

@
semi-periodic time (T /2) as that taken by the ion to cross either dee, i.e.,
*
2 /
2
@
,
/
This is the expression for period of revolution.
Obviously, period of revolution is independent of speed of charged particle and radius of
circular path.
Frequency of revolution of particles.
1 /
`
2
@
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Hence, cyclotron frequency does not depend upon the speed of the particle.
Note: Maximum KE of the accelerated ions (if asked)
The ions will attain maximum velocity near the periphery of the dees. If b is the maximum
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velocity acquired by the ions and is the radius of the dees, then
@b /
b / , b
@
The maximum K.E. of the ions will be
v
1
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@b @ n
/ /
o
2 2 @ 2@
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3. Derive a mathematical expression for the force acting on a current carrying straight
conductor kept in a magnetic field. Under what condition is this force (i) zero and
(ii) maximum?
Consider a conductor PQ of length l, area of

cross section A, carrying current I, along +ve Y-
acts along +ve Z-direction.
direction. The field /
The electrons drift towards left with velocity b .
Each electron experiences a magnetic Lorentz
force along +ve X-axis, which is given by
` ( b x /

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If n is the number of free electrons per unit volume, then total number of electrons in the
conductor is - x b,+a@( -f+
The total force on the conductor is C ` -f+(2b x /

7 (-f+b x /

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If + represents a current element vector in the direction of current, then vectors + -& b will
have opposite directions and we can take
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+b
b +
C (-fb + x /

,, C 2+ x /
7 @.-'*a&( ,` `,)(, C +/?'- 6
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where is the angle between the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of flow of
current.
(i) If = 0 or 180, then C +/ 0 0

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Thus, a current carrying conductor placed parallel to the direction of the magnetic field does
not experience any force.
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(ii) If = 90, then C + sin 90 +/ C
Thus, a current carrying conductor placed perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field
does not experience a maximum force.
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4. State Amperes circuital law. Derive an expression for the magnetic intensity at a
point due to a current carrying straight wire of infinite length.
Amperes law states that the line integral of the magnetic field
around any closed path in free space is equal to o times the total

current passing through the surface. i.e. B.d l = o I
Let a long straight conductor of infinite length carry current I.

Now, to find the magnetic intensity at a point P due to this
current carrying straight wire let us consider a circular amperian
loop of radius r through point P.
Applying Amperes circuital law for this closed circular surface we get
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B.dl = o I
B dl = o I or B.2 r = o I
o I
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B=
2 r
5. Derive an expression for the force acting per unit length between two long straight
parallel metallic conductors, carrying current in the same direction and kept near
each other. Hence define an ampere.
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(a) Consider two long straight conductors P and Q, placed parallel to
each other, at a distance r apart. The currents through the two
conductors are X and respectively in the same direction.
The magnitude of the magnetic field due to current X in P, at any
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X
point of Q, is given by
/ . 1
2

The direction of magnetic field is into the plane of the paper.
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The current carrying conductor Q is placed in the magnetic field B.

Since Q is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field B, the force
acting per unit length l of Q is given by
C / +,
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X X
directed towards P. Using eq (1), we get
C + +
2
2

C X
,, `
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+ 2

When X 1 f -& 1@, we get

` 2 x 10 @X
2
One ampere is that value of steady current, which on flowing in each of the two parallel infinitely
long conductors of negligible cross-section placed in vacuum at a distance of 1m from each other,
produces between them a force of 2 ! 10 @X of their length.
6. Derive an expression for the torque on a rectangular coil of area A, carrying a
current I and placed in a magnetic field B. The angle between the direction of B and
vector perpendicular to the plane of the coil is .
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l.o
As shown in the figure, consider a rectangular coil PQRS suspended in a uniform magnetic
, with its axis perpendicular to the field.
field /
Let current flowing through the coil, , sides of the coil PQRS, f =area of the
and normal to the plane of the coil.
coil and =angle between the direction of /
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According to the Flemings left hand rule, the magnetic forces on sides PS and QR are equal,
opposite and collinear (along the axis of the loop), so their resultant is zero.
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The sides PQ experiences a normal inward force equal to IbB while the side RS experiences
an equal normal outward force. These two forces from a couple which exerts a torque given
by
F C,)( x ((-&')a+ &'?*-)( / ! sin 6 /f sin 6

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If the rectangular loop has N turns, the torque increases N times, i.e.
F /f sin 6
But f @, the magnetic moment of the loop, so

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F @/ sin 6 , '- b()*, -,**',- F @

x /
The direction of the torque is such that it rotates the loop clockwise about the axis of
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suspension.
Special cases:
When = 0, =0, i.e. the torque is minimum when the plane of the loop is
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
When =90, , i.e. the torque is maximum when the plane of the loop is
parallel to the magnetic field.
7. Show that a current carrying circular loop behaves as a magnetic dipole. Hence
derive an expression for the magnetic dipole moment of the loop.
The magnetic field due to a circular current loop of radius r at a distance x from its centre is
given by

/
2 ! %/
2

, /
4
! %/
is the area of the plane of the loop, say A.

2f
/
4
! %/
`, ! ,
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2f
/
4
!%
Now, the electric field due to an electric dipole along the dipole axis, at a distance x from the
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1 2
centre of the dipole is given by

4
! %
Comparing the two equations, we conclude that a current loop behaves like a magnetic dipole
coil. It is denoted by M. Thus,

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whose magnetic dipole moment is equal to the product of the current and the area of plane of
f
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8. Describe the principle, construction and working of a moving coil galvanometer.
Define its figure of merit, current sensitivity and voltage sensitivity.
A galvanometer is a device to detect the presence of current

in a circuit.
Principle: A Weston type moving coil galvanometer is

based on the fact that when a current carrying loop or coil is
placed in the uniform magnetic field, it experiences a
torque.
Construction: A Weston type moving coil galvanometer is

shown in the figure. It consists of a coil wound on a
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non0metallic frame. The coil is suspended between two
poles of a permanent cylindrical magnet. The motion of the
coil is controlled by a pair of hair springs (usually of
phosphor- bronze). The inner ends of the springs are
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soldered to the ends of the coil and the outer ends are
connected to the binding screws. The spring provides the
restoring torque and also serves as current leads. A light
aluminum pointer attached to the coil measures its
deflection. There is a cylindrical soft iron core which not
Working: Let / -*(-?'* ,` @.-(*') `'(+&,

only makes the field radial but also increases the strength of the magnetic field.
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)a(-* `+,='-. *>,a.> *>( ),'+, f ( ,` *>( ),'+ -&
-a@( ,` *a-? '- *>( ),'+.
F f/ sin 6 f/ sin 6 1
When current flows through the coil, it experiences a torque, which is given by
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This torque is called deflecting torque.
given by , =>(( (?*,'-. *,a( ( a-'* *='?* -& &(`+()*',-.

As the coil is deflected, the spring gets twisted and a restoring torque is developed, which is
'. (. f/
For equilibrium of the coil, Deflecting torque = Restoring torque
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,, n o
f/

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=>(( '? )++(& +b-,@(*( ),-?*-*.

f/
,
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Thus, deflection of the coil is directly proportional to the current flowing through it. Hence a
linear scale in the galvanometer can be used to detect the current in the circuit.
Figure of merit: It is defined as the current which produces a unit deflection in the
galvanometer. It is given by

f/
This is equal to the galvanometer constant.
Current Sensitivity: It is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer, when a

unit current flows through it. It is given by
f/

Voltage sensitivity: It is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer, when a unit
potential difference is applied across its ends. It is given by,
f/ )a(-* ?(-?'*'b'*
i '. (. b,+*.( ?(-?'*'b'*
i g g g g
9. Explain how a galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter of given range.
An ammeter is an instrument used to measure electric current in an electric current. An ideal
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ammeter should have zero resistance.
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A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance called
shunt parallel to the galvanometer. The value of shunt resistance depends on the range of the
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current required to be measured.
+(* .+b-,@(*( (?'?*-)(,

)a(-* `, =>')> .+b-,@(*( .'b(? `a++ ?)+( &(`+()*',-
0 *, (a'(& -.( ,` )a(-*, Y ?>a-* (?'?*-)(
As -& Y ( ),--()*(& ++(+
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,*(-*'+ &'``((-)( )),?? *>( .+b-,@(*( ,*(-*'+ &'``. )),?? *>( ?>a-*
2 7Y
?
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,, Y +?,
Y
An ammeter is a shunted or low resistance galvanometer. Its effective resistance is
Y
ph
g =>')> '? Y
Y
10. Explain how a galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter of given range.
Voltmeter is a device for measuring potential difference across any two points in a circuit.
Ideal voltmeter should have infinite resistance.
rg
l.o
A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series
with it.
+(* .+b-,@(*( (?'?*-)(,

)a(-* `, =>')> .+b-,@(*( .'b(? `a++ ?)+( &(`+()*',-
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0 *, i (a'(& -.( ,` b,+*.(, g '.> (?'?*-)(
Total resistance of the circuit g

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By ohms law
i

g
i
ic
,, g

A voltmeter is a high resistance galvanometer. Its effective resistance is g g

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11. Derive an expression for the time period of oscillation of the magnetic needle in an
uniform magnetic field.
Or
Show that the oscillations of a freely suspended magnet in a uniform magnetic field
are simple harmonic. Hence deduce an expression for its time period.
Consider a small compass needle of magnetic moment @ and moment of inertia placed in a

uniform magnetic field /
The needle will be under a torque which makes it oscillate.

Torque on the needle is given by
F @/ ?'-6
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But,
& 6
F
&*
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&6
@/ sin 6 b( ?'.- '-&')*( (?*,'-. *,a( '? ,,?'*(
&*
Since is very small sin 6 6

& 6
&*

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@/6 '. (.
&6
&*

@/

6
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Comparing it with the equation of simple harmonic motion,
&6 @/ @/
6, =( .(* ,
&*
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2
@/ 4

, '(. /
@
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,. 2

@/
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12. Derive an expression for the potential energy of a magnetic dipole ( or bar magnet)
placed in a uniform magnetic field at an angle of a dipole placed in a uniform
magnetic field at an angle with it. When will be the magnetic dipole be in the
position of stable and unstable equilibrium.
If a magnetic dipole of magnetic moment @ is palced at an angle 6 w.r.t. uniform magnetic

field /, then the torque experienced by it is given by
F @/ sin 6
If the dipole rotates through angle &6, then work done is given by
&= F&6 @/ sin 6 &6
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Total work done to rotate the dipole from 6X *, 6 position is given by
; ;
| \ @/ sin 6 &6 @/ \ sin 6 &6 @/ cos 6;]

] ]
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| @/ cos 6 cos 6X
By definition, potential energy | @/ cos 6 cos 6X

. /
` 6X 90 -& 6 6, @/ cos 6 @
When @ -& /

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are parallel to each other 6 0 , the diploe has minimum

. /
potential energy and is in stable equilibrium.'. (. @
are anti - parallel to each other 6 180 , the diploe has
When @ -& /
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. /
maximum potential energy and is in unstable equilibrium. '. (. @
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13. Relation between Magnetic permeability and magnetic susceptibility
Total magnetic field / in a solenoid having a material core is the sum of the magnetic field
in free space (vacuum) / and the magnetic field / due to the material core.
'. (. / / /
/ -& / , =>(( @.-(*'?'-. '-*(-?'* -&
@.-(*'?*',-.
/
+?, , =>(( @.-(*') ?a?)(*''+*'.
/ 1
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,, 1 , 1

,, 1

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,, : 1 , =>(( : (+*'b( (@('+'*
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Unit-4 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
(Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current)

1. State the law which relates to generation of induced emf in a conductor being moved
in a magnetic field.
Apply this law to obtain an expression for the induced emf when one rod of a
rectangular conductor is free to move in a uniform, time independent and normal
magnetic field.
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Faradays law of electromagnetic induction:
The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic
flux through the circuit.
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&
Mathematically, the induced emf is given by

&*
Let us consider a straight conductor moving in a uniform and time independent magnetic
field. Figure below shows a rectangular conductor PQRS in which the conductor PQ is free to
move.
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The rod PQ is moved towards the left with a constant velocity b as shown in the figure.
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Assume that there is no loss of energy due to friction. PQRS forms a closed circuit enclosing
an area that changes as PQ moves. It is placed in a uniform magnetic field / which is
perpendicular to the plane of this system. If the length gt ! and gY +, the magnetic
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flux enclosed by the loop PQRS

will be
/+!
Since ! is changing with time, the rate of change of flux will induce an emf given by:
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& &
/+!
&* &*
&!
, /+ /+b
&*
2. Deduce an expression for the motional emf by considering the Lorentz force acting
on the free charge carriers of a conductor moving in perpendicular magnetic field.
Also deduce expressions for the induced current, force necessary to pull the
conductor, power delivered by the external source, and power dissipated as Joule
loss. Hence discuss the energy conservation.
A conductor has large number of free electrons. When it moves through a magnetic field,
Lorentz force acting on the free electrons can set up a current. Fig shows a rectangular
conductor in which arm PQ is free to move. It is placed in a uniform magnetic field B,
directed normally into the plane of paper. As the arm PQ is moved towards left with speed v,
the free electrons of PQ also move with the same speed towards left. The electrons
experience a magnetic Lorentz force C b/. According to Flemings left hand rule, this
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force acts in the direction QP and hence the free electrons will move towards P. A negative
charge accumulates at P and a positive charge at Q. An electric field E is set up in the
conductor from Q to P.
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This field exerts a force, C1 on the free electrons. The accumulation of charges
continues at the two ends till these two forces balance each other. i.e.,
C C1
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b/ , b/
The potential difference between the ends Q and P is

ys
i + b/+
Clearly, it is the magnetic force on the moving free electrons that maintains the potential
difference and produces the motional emf,
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/+b
Induced current: Let R be te resistance of the movable arm PQ. Now, if the total resistance
of the remaining arms is negligible compare to R, then
/+b

g g
Force on the movable arm: The conductor PQ of length l carrying current I experiences a
force F in the perpendicular magnetic field. The force is given by
/+b /+b
C /+ sin 90 n o +/
g g
This force (due to induced current) acts in the outward direction opposite to the velocity of
the arm in accordance to the Lenzs law.
Power delivered by external force : The power supplied by the external force to maintain
the motion of the movable arm is
/+b
0 Cb
g
Power dissipated as Joule Loss: The power dissipated in the loop as Joule heating loss is
/+b
0 g
g
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Clearly, 0 0 . Thus, the mechanical energy expended to maintain the motion of the
movable arm is first converted into electrical energy (the induced emf) and then to thermal
energy. This is consistent with the law of conservation of energy.
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3. Deduce an expression for the self- inductance of a long solenoid of N turns, having a
core of relative permeability .
Consider a long solenoid of length l and radius r with + and having n turns per unit
length. If a current I flows through the coil, then the magnetic field inside the coil is almost
constant and is given by
/ -
Magnetic flux linked with each turn /f -f
Where f
= the area of cross section of the solenoid.
Magnetic flux linked with the entire solenoid is
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C+a! +'-(& ='*> ()> *a- ! *,*+ -,. ,` *a-?
-f ! -+ - +f
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But
Self- inductance of the long solenoid, - +f

If N is the total number of turns in the solenoid, then -
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and so
f

+
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If the coil is wound over a material of high relative magnetic permeability : (for e.g. soft
iron), then
: u f
: - +f
+
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4. Deduce an expression for mutual inductance of two long coaxial solenoids of same
length wound over the other.
Consider two long co-axial solenoids YX and Y, with Y wound over YX .
Let + +(-.*> ,` ()> ?,+(-,'&, X , &'' ,` *>( *=, ?,+(-,'&?,
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f
X ( ,` ),?? ?()*',- ,` '--( ?,+(-,'& YX
X , -a@( ,` *a-? ,` *>( *=, ?,+(-,'&?
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First we pass a time varying current through Y . The magnetic field set up inside Y due
;
to is / - , where -
*>( -a@( ,` *a-? ( a-'* +(-.*> ,` Y
Total magnetic flux linked with the inner solenoid is

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X / fX - . fX
X f
+
Mutual inductance of coil 1 w.r.t. coil 2 is
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X X f
X
+
We now consider the flux linked with the outer solenoid Y due to the current X in the inner
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solenoid YX. The field /X due to X inside YX
/X -X X
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Total magnetic flux linked with the outer solenoid is
X fX
/X f -X X . f
+
Mutual inductance of coil 1 w.r.t. coil 2 is
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X f
X
X +
Clearly, X X ?
X f
-X - f+ -X -
X +
+
If a medium of relative permeability : is present within the solenoids, then
: -X -
X +
5. With the help of a labeled diagram, explain the principle, construction and working
of an a.c. generator. Derive the expression for induced emf.
AC generator: It is a device which converts mechanical

energy into alternating form of electrical energy.
Principle: The working of an a.c. generator is based on

the principle of electromagnetic induction. When a closed
coil is rotated in a uniform magnetic field with its axis
perpendicular to the magnetic field, the magnetic flux
linked with thee coil changes and an induced emf and
hence a current is set up in it.
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Construction: It consists of the following main parts:
Field Magnet: N-S is either a strong permanent magnet
or an electromagnet
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Armature: PQRS is a rectangular armature coil. It consists of a large number of turns of
insulated copper wire wound on a soft iron cylindrical core. It can be rotated about an axis
perpendicular to the magnetic field of the field magnet.
Slip rings: These are two brass rings YX and Y rigidly connected to the two ends of the
rotation.
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armature coil. As the armature coil rotates slip rings also rotates about the same axis of
Brushes: These are two graphite rods /X-& / which remains fixed in their positions but
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maintain sliding contacts with the slip rings. Through these brushes, the current induced in
the armature coil is feed to the external circuit.
Working: As the armature rotates, the magnetic flux linked with it changes and so an
induced current flows through it. Initially, suppose the coil is in the vertical position and is
rotated clockwise. Its side PQ moves downward and SR moves upward. By Flemings right
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hand rule, the current flows from Q to P and from S to R. So during the first half rotation of
the coil, the current flows in the direction SRQP. During the second half rotation, the
direction of current is reversed, i.e., it flows along PQRS. The direction of current in the
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external circuit is reversed after every half cycle. Hence alternating current is produced by the
(* -,. ,` *a-? '- *>( ),'+, f `)( ( ,` ()> *a-,

generator.
/ @.-(*'*a&( ,` *>( @.-(*') `'(+&,

6 -.+( =>')> -,@+ *, *>( ),'+ @(? ='*> `'(+& / * - '-?*-* *
*>( -.a+ b(+,)'* ='*> =>')> ),'+ ,**(?.
ph
/f cos 6 /f cos *
Then magnetic flux linked with the coil at any instant t will be
& &
Induced emf will be
/f cos * /f sin * , sin *
&* &*

Where /f ( b+a( ,` '-&a)(& (@`.
Clearly induced emf varies sinusoidally with time.
6. Prove that the voltage and current always vary in the same phase in an a.c. circuit
containing resistance only. Show this phase relationship graphically.
As shown in the fig, suppose a resistor R is connected to a source of alternating emf give by
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sin *
If I be the current in the circuit at any instant ti, then the potential drop across R will be IR.
According to Kirchhoffs loop rule,
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sin * g , sin *
g
, sin *
PQ
Where ( b+a( , @!'@a@ b+a( ,` . ).

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From the above equation, we note that both and I are functions of sin *. Hence the emf
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and current are in same phase in purely resistive circuit.
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The fig above shows the phasor diagram for a resistive a.c. circuit. Both the phasors -&
are in the same direction, making same angle * with x-axis. The phase angle between them
ph
is zero.
7. A pure inductor is connected across an a.c. source. Show mathematically that the
current in it lags behind the applied emf by a phase of /2. What is the inductance
reactance? Draw a graph showing the variation of inductive reactance with the
frequency of the a.c . source.
The fig. below shows a pure inductor of inductance L

connected to a source of alternating emf given by
sin *

As the alternating current flows through the inductor, a back emf is set up which
D
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opposes the applied emf.
&
-(* '-?*-*-(,a? (@`
&*
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But this emf must be zero because there is no resistance in the circuit
& &
0 ,
&* &*
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,, sin * , & sin * . &*
&*
Integrating
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\ & \ sin * . &* , cos * sin *

2

,, sin *
2
ic
P
Where Q *>( ( b+a( ,` . ).
ys
The above equation shows that the current lags behind the applied emf by a phase of
/d.
Phase relationship between

ph
P PQ
Inductive Reactance: Comparing equation Q with the ohmic relation
, we find
that L plays the same role here as the resistance R in resistive case. It is a measure of
effective resistance or opposition offered by the inductor to the flow of a.c. through it. Such a
non-resistive opposition to the flow of current is called reactance. In this case it is called
inductive reactance and is denoted by .
2
`
Where f is the frequency of a.c. supply.
For a.c ` -& `, &. ). , ` 0 ?, ,
rg
Thus an inductor allows d.c. flow through it easily but opposes the flow of a.c. through it.
Variation of inductive reactance with the frequency of the a.c .source:
l.o
al
s4
ic
ys
ph
8. An alternative emf is applied across a capacitor. Show mathematically that the
current in it leads the applied emf by a phase of /2. What is the capacitive
reactance? Draw a graph showing the variation of capacitive reactance with the
frequency of the a.c. source.
As shown in the figure, consider a pure capacitor C

connected across a source of emf given by
sin *
Due to the continues charging and discharging of

the capacitor plates, a continues but alternating
rg
current exists in the circuit.
At any instant potential difference across the plates = Applied emf
i sin *
l.o
}
But i , t Wi W sin *
current at any instant is
&t &
W sin * W cos *
al
&* &*

,, sin *
2
s4

Where
W
1/W
ic
The above equation shows that the current leads the applied emf by a phase of /2.
Phase relationship between

ys
ph
P PQ
Capacitive Reactance: Comparing equation X/
Q
with the ohmic relation
, we
find that 1/C is a measure of effective resistance or opposition offered by the capacitor to
the flow of a.c. through it. It is called capacitive reactance and is denoted by .
1 1

W 2
`W
Where f is the frequency of a.c. supply.

X
For a.c -& `, &. ). , ` 0 ?,
Thus a capacitor allows a.c. flow through it easily but offers infinite resistance to the flow of
rg
d.c., i.e. a capacitor blocks d.c.
Variation of capacitive reactance with the frequency of the a.c .source:
l.o
al
s4
ic
ys
ph
9. An inductor L, a capacitor C and a resistor R are connected in series in an a.c.
circuit. Deduce, with the help of suitable phasor diagrams, a mathematical
expression for impedance of this circuit. What is meant by resonance of this circuit?
U
Prove that this circuit exhibits resonance at a frequency given by dS.
rg
l.o
From the circuit, we see that the resistor, inductor and capacitor are in series. Therefore, the
ac current in each element is the same at any time, having the same amplitude and phase. Let
it be
?'- *
where is the phase difference between the voltage across the source and the current in the
circuit. al
Let I be the phasor representing the current in the circuit as given by Further, let VL, VR, VC,
and V represent the voltage across the inductor, resistor, capacitor and the source,
respectively. We know that VR is parallel to I, VC is /2 behind I and VL is /2 ahead of I. VL,
s4
VR, VC and I are shown in Fig. above with appropriate phase relations.
The length or amplitude of these phasors are
b g, b , b ,
From the fig using Pythagoras theorem, we get
b
b b
ic
g
,, g

,
ys
g
*>( ,b( (a*',- .'b(? '@(&-)( g
b i
Now,
ph
*- , *- tanX

b g g
Resonace condition of LCR circuit:
When , i i
g g
Clearly the impeadence is minimum. The circuit is puerly resistive. The current and voltage
are in same phase and the current in the circuit is maximum. This condiition of the LCR
circuit is called resonance condition. The frequency at which the current amplitude attains
a peak value is called natural or resonant frequency of the LCR circuit, given by `
As
1 1 1
rg
2
, ,
2
W 4
W 2
W
l.o
al
s4
ic
ys
ph
10. Prove that an ideal inductor does not dissipate power in a.c. circuit.
When a.c. is applied to an ideal inductor, current lags behined the voltage in phase by /2
radian. So we can write the instantneous values of voltage and current as follows:
i i sin *

sin * cos *
2
Work done in small time dt is
i
&| 0&* i &* i sin * cos * &* sin 2* &*
2
rg
The average power dissipated per cycle in the inductor is
| 1 i i cos 2*
0 \ &| \ sin 2* &*
2 2 2
i 4
i i
, 0 cos * cos 4
cos 0 1 1 0
l.o
4 4 4
Thus, an ideal inductor does not dissipate power in a.c. circuit.
al
11. Prove that an ideal capacitor connected to an a.c. does not dissipate any power.
When a.c. is applied to an ideal capicitor, the current leads the voltage in phase by /2
radian. So we can write the instantneous values of voltage and current as follows:
s4
i i sin *

sin * cos *
2
ic
Work done in small time dt is

i
&| 0&* i &* i sin * cos * &* sin 2* &*
2
ys
The average power dissipated per cycle in the inductor is

| 1 i i cos 2*
0 \ &| \ sin 2* &*
2 2 2
i 4
i i
, 0 cos * cos 4
cos 0 1 1 0
ph
4 4 4
Thus, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate power in a.c. circuit.
12. Show that when a capacitor is discharged through an inductor of negligible
resistance, the discharge is oscillatory and simple harmonic. Calculate its frequency.
Suppose a capacitor of capacitance C, initially charged to be connected to an inductor of

inductance L. As the circuit is closed, the charge on the capacitor begins to decrease, giving
rise to a current, I
&

&*

Induced emf across the inductor at any instant D

Potential difference across the capacitor at that instant
rg
So, according to Kirchhoffs law
& &
0 , 0
&* W &* W
l.o
& 1 & 1
,, 0 , 0 =>((
&* W &* W
al
This is a differential equation of second order, with a solution
cos *
s4
Thus the charge on the capacitor plates oscillates simple harmonically with time with angular
frequency.
1

W
ic
Frequency of oscillation ,
1 1
`
2
W
ys
ph
13. Show that in the free ocsillations of an LC circuit, the sum of energies stored in
capacitor and inductor is constant at any instant of time.
At any instant, the electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor is,
1
M
2W
And the magnetic energy in the inductor at any instant is
1

2
rg
If there is no (resistive) loss of energy, then the total energy of the LC circuit will be
1 1

2W 2

Now, cos * -& D cos *
l.o
1 1
cos * sin *
2W 2

1 1 1
, cos * sin * n o
2W al2 W W
1 1
,, cos * sin * Wi '-'*'+ (-(. ),-?*-*
2W 2W 2
s4
ic
ys
ph
14. Explain with the help of a labelled diagram, the principle, construction and working
of a transformer.
Principle: It works on the principle of mutual induction, i.e., when a changing current is
rg
passed through one of the two inductively coupled coils, an induced emf is set up in the
other coil.
Construction: A transformer essentially consists of two coils of insulated copper wire
having different number of turns and wound on the same soft iron core. The coil to which
l.o
electric energy is supplied is called Primary coil and the coil from which energy is drawn
is called Secondry coil. A laminated core is used to reduce eddy current loss.
Working: As a.c. flows through the primary, it generates an alternating magnetic flux in
the core which also passes through secondary. The changing flux is sets up an induced
emf in the secondary. The value of this emf depends on the number of turns in the
primary and secondary windings.

al
secondary. Considering negligible primary resistance, all the flux in the core links both in
Let be the flux in each turn in the core at time * due to current in the primary when a
voltage bu is applied to it.
s4
Then the induced emf or voltage , in the secondary with turns is
d
N
dt
The alternating flux also induces an emf, called back emf in the primary. This is
d
N
ic
dt
Considering primary as negligible resistance v -& v
ys
v N
From above equations

v N
If the transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient (no energy losses), the power input is
equal to the power output, and since ' b,
'u v N
ph
'u bu ' b >(-)(

' v N
The ratio /u , i.e. of the number of turns in the secondary to that in the primary is
called the turns ratio or transformer ratio.

1, the transformer is called Step up transformer.

If

1, the transformer is called Step down transformer.

If
Unit-5: Electromagnetic Waves
1. Define Displacement current. Derive an expression for displacement current.
Displacement current is that current which comes into exixtance whenever the electric field
and hence the electric flux changes with time. It is equal to j times the rate of change of
electric flux through a given surface.
&1
j
&*
If A be the area of the capacitor plates and q be the charge on the plates at any instant t during
the charging process. Then the electric flux
t t
rg
1 f f
j f j
}
Where,

l.o
&1 & t 1 &t
n o
&* &* j j &*
al
s4
ic
ys
ph
rg
l.o
al
s4
ic
ys
ph
Unit-6 Optics
(Ray optics and Optical instruments, Wave optics)

1. Derive mirror formula for a concave mirror when it forms a real image.
Consider an object AB placed on the principal axis beyond
the centre of curvature C of a concave mirror of small
aperture, as shown in fig. The ray will reflected as shown in
the ray diagram.
rg
Using Cartesian sign convection, we find
Object distance, =
Image distance, ` =
l.o
Focal length, =
Radius of curvature, = = 2
Now ``~

=
al
`` ` ` +
= =
+
(1)
s4
As `` = ,
``~
Consequently,
ic
`` `
= = = (2)

ys
(1) (2)
+
=
+
, + = +
ph
, + = 2
Dividing both sides by , we get
1 1 2 1
+ = =

The above equation gives mirror formula for a concave mirror, when it forms a real image.
2. Derive mirror formula for a concave mirror when it forms a virtual image.
Consider an object AB placed on the
principal axis between the pole and the focus,
as shown in fig. The ray will be reflected as
shown in the ray diagram.
Object distance, =
` =
rg
Image distance,
Focal length, =
l.o
Now ``~
2 +
= = = (1)
`` ` ` 2 +
Consequently, al
also, ~``
s4

= =
`` ` + `

, = (2)
`` +
ic
(1) (2)
2 +
=
ys
2 + +
, 2 2 2 + = 2 2
, + = 0
ph
= +
1 1 1
+ =

The above equation gives mirror formula for a concave mirror, when it forms a virtual image.
3. Derive mirror formula for a convex mirror.
Consider an object AB placed on the principal
axis of a convex mirror having small aperture, as
shown in fig. The ray will be reflected as shown
in the ray diagram.
Object distance, =
` =
rg
Image distance,
Focal length, =
l.o
Now ``~
`` ` `
= = = (1)
+ +
As `` = = ,
al
s4
Therefore, A`B`P~ABP
Consequently,
ic
`` `
= = = (2)

ys
(1) (2)

=
+
ph
, + = +
, + = 2
1 1 2 1
+ = =

The above equation gives mirror formula for a convex mirror.
4. Derive the relation between the distance of object, distance of image and radius of
curvature of a convex surface, when refraction takes place from optically rarer to
optically denser medium and the image formed is real.
In fig below AMB is a convex refracting
surface which separates a rarer medium of
refracting index 1 from a denser medium of
refracting index 2 . Let P be the pole, C be
the centre of curvature R=PC be the radius of
curvature of this surface. Suppose a point
rg
object O is placed on the principal axis in the
rarer medium. Rays from O after refraction
forms a real image I (as shown in the ray
diagram). NM in the ray diagram is the
l.o
perpendicular to the principal axis. Let
, be the angles as shown in the ray diagram.
In , I is an exterior angle, therefore
=+
Similarly, from , we have
=+
al , =
s4
Suppose all the rays are paraxial, then all the angles , , , will be small.

tan =

ic
tan =

tan =

ys
From Snell's law of refraction
sin 2
= =
sin 1
ph
, 1 = 2
, 1 [ + ] = 2 [ ]

, 1 [ + ] = 2 [ ]

1 1 1 1
, 1 [ + ] = 2 [ ]

1 1 2 2
, + =

1 2 2 1
, + =

Using New Cartesian sign convection, we find
Object distance, =
Image distance, =
rg
Radius of curvature, =
1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1
+ = =

l.o
,
1 1
=

al
s4
ic
ys
ph
5. Show by a ray diagram the image formation of a point object by a thin double convex
lens having radii of curvature . Hence derive Lens Makers Formula.
As shown in fig, consider a thin double convex lens of refractive index 2 placed in a medium of
refractive index 1 . Here 2 > 1 . Let B and D be the poles, 1 and 2 be the centres of curvature
and 1 and 2 be the radii of the curvature of the teo lens surfaces ABC and ADC respectively.
Suppose a ray OM from point object O is incident on the first surface ABC. It is refracted along
MN, bending towards the normal If the second surface ADC is absent the ray would have met
principal axis at 1 . This can be considered as the real image formed by the first surface in the
medium of refractive index 2 . So, we can write the relation between
rg
, 1 , 1
2 1 2 1
=
1 1
l.o
al
s4
But actually the ray MN suffers another refraction from surface ADC and met the principal axis
at I. For refraction at second surface, 1 acts as a virtual object placed in the medium of refractive
index 2 and I is the real image formed in the medium of refractive index 1 .
ic
we can write the relation between the object distance 1 , image distance v and radius of curvature
2 as
ys
1 2 1 2
=
1 2
Adding above two equations
1 1 1 1
= 2 1 [ ]
1 2
ph
1 1 2 1 1 1
, = [ ]
1 1 2
If the object is placed at infinity ( = ), the image will be formed at the focus, i.e. =
1 2 1 1 1
= [ ]
1 1 2
This is Lens Makers formula
6. Derive the expression for the angle of deviation for a ray of light passing through an
equilateral prism of refracting angle A.
The fig shows the path PQRS of a ray of light suffering refraction through a triangular glass prism.
The angle between the direction of the incident ray PQ and the emergent ray RS is called the angle
of deviation, . Let i and r be the angles of incidence and refraction at the face AB, and r and e
be angles of incidence and emergence at the face AC. Let A be the angle of prism.
rg
l.o
From the quadrilateral AQNR,
From the triangle QNR, al

+ = 180
s4
+ + = 180
= +
Now, from the triangle MQR, the deviation produced bt the prism is
= + = ( ) + ( )
ic
= + = ( + ) ( + )
= +
ys
, + = +
ph
7. Draw a graph to show the variation of the angle of deviation with that of the angle of
incidence i for a monochromatic ray of light passing through a glass prism of refracting
angle A . Hence derive the expression for the refractive index of the material of the
prism in terms of the angle of the prism and angle of minimum deviation.
rg
l.o
The graph above shows the variation of angle of deviation with angle of incidence. The minimum
value of the angle of deviation suffered by a ray on passing through a prism is called the angle of
minimum deviation and is denoted by .
When a prism is in the position of minimum deviation, a ray of light passes symmetrically (parallel
to the base) through the prism so that
al
= , = , =
+ = +
s4
+
+ = + , =
2
Also

ic
= + = + = 2 =
2
From Snells law, the refractive index of the material of the prism will be
ys
+
sin sin
= = 2
sin
sin 2
Note: For small angled prism. i.e. a thin prism, is also very small. So above equation can be
ph
written as
+
= 2 ( sin = )

2
+
= = ( 1)

8. Draw a neat ray diagram of a simple microscope. Deduce the formula for its angular
magnification when the image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision.
When an object is placed between the focus F
and optical centre O of a convex lens; a virtual,
erect and magnified image is formed on the
same side of the lens as the object. The position
of the lens is so adjusted that the final image is
formed at the distance D from the lens, as shown
in the figure.
rg
The linear magnification m, for the image
formed at the near point D, by a simple
microscope can be obtained by using the relation
1 1
l.o
= = ( ) = 1

Now according to our sign convention, v is negative, and is equal in magnitude to D. Thus, the
magnification is

= 1
al
= 1 +

s4
9. Draw a neat ray diagram of a simple microscope. Deduce the formula for its angular
magnification when the image is formed at infinity.
A simple microscope is just a convex lens of short focal length. Here the object is placed at the
focus of the convex lens, so that parallel rays enter the eye, as shown in fig. The image is formed
ic
at infinity, which is more suitable and comfortable for viewing by the relaxed eye.
ys
ph
Magnifying power: The magnifying power of a simple microscope is defined as the ratio of the
angle formed by the image (when situated at infinity) at the eye to the angle formed by the object
at the eye, when situated at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye.
Thus,
tan
, = = ( , )
tan
In case when the image formed is at infinity we will have to obtain the angular magnification.
Suppose, the object has a height . The maximum angle it can subtend, and be clearly visible
(without a lens), is when it is at the near point, i.e., a distance . The angle subtended is then given
by

tan =

The angle subtended by the image

tan = = . = ( = = )

rg
angle subtended by the object, when it is at =

=

l.o
Also from figure,

tan =

So, the angular magnification of simple microscope when the image is formed at infinity is given
by
al
=

s4
ic
ys
ph
10. With the help of diagram, explain the formation of the image in a compound microscope.
Derive an expression for its magnifying power.
Compound microscope: A compound microscope is an optical device used to see magnified
images of tiny objects.
Construction: It consists of two convex lenses of short focal length, arranged co-axially at the
ends of two sliding metal tubes.
Objective: Convex lens of short focal length and small aperture
Eyepiece or ocular: convex lens of comparatively large focal length and larger aperture than the
rg
objective.
Working:
When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision:
l.o
The object AB to be viewed is placed at distance slightly larger than the focal length of the
objective O. The objective forms a real, inverted and magnified image AB of the object on the
other side of the lens O. The separation between the objective O and the eyepiece E is so adjusted
that the image AB lies within the focal length of the eyepiece. The image AB acts as an
object for the eyepiece which essentially acts like a simple microscope. The eyepiece E forms a
al
virtual and magnified final image AB of the object AB. Clearly, the final image AB is inverted
with respect to the object AB.
s4
ic
ys
Magnifying power: The magnifying power of a compound microscope is defined as the ratio of
ph
the angle subtended at the eye by the final virtual image to the angle subtended at the eye by the
object, when both are at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye.
The ray diagram of Fig above shows that the (linear) magnification due to the objective, namely
h/h, equals
h` L
mo = =
h fo
h h`
Where we have used the result tan = =
fo L
Here h is the size of the first image, the object size being h and fo being the focal length of the
objective. The first image is formed near the focal point of the eyepiece. The distance L, i.e., the
distance between the second focal point of the objective and the first focal point of the eyepiece
(focal length fe) is the tube length of the compound microscope.
As the first inverted image is near the focal point of the eyepiece, using the result of simple
microscope

= (1 + )

Thus, the total magnification

= = (1 + )

When the final image is formed at infinity:
rg
When the final image is formed at infinity, the angular magnification due to the eyepiece

=

l.o
Thus, the total magnification when the image is formed at infinity,
0
= =
0
The magnifying power of the compound microscope is large when both are small.
al
s4
ic
ys
ph
11. State Huygens Principle. Using Huygens Principle show that, for a parallel beam
incident on a reflecting surface, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
(laws of reflection)
Huygens Principle : It is the basis of wave theory of light. According to Huygens principle, each
point on a wave front is a source of secondary waves, which add up to give a wave front at any
later time.
Consider a plane wave AB incident at an angle i on a reflecting surface MN. If represents the
speed of the wave in the medium and if represents the time taken by the wavefront to advance
from the point B to C then the distance = .
rg
In order the construct the reflected wavefront we draw a sphere of radius from the point A as
shown in figure below. Let CE represent the tangent plane drawn from the point C to this sphere.
Obviously = =
l.o
Consider the triangles
al
s4
= = 90
= ()
= =

, =
ic
, =
. . , .
This proves the first law of reflection.
ys
ph
12. State Huygens principle and use it to construct refracted wavefront for refraction of a
plane wavefront at a plane surface from rarer to denser medium. Hence derive Snells
law.
Huygens Principle : It is the basis of wave theory of light. According to Huygens principle, each
point on a wave front is a source of secondary waves, which add up to give a wave front at any
later time.
rg
l.o
al
Consider a plane wave front AB incident on a plane surface XY, separating two media 1 and 2, as
s4
shown in the fig.. Let 1 and 2 be the velocities of light in two media with 2 < 2 .
The wave front first strikes at point A and then at the successive points towards C. According to
Huygens principle, from each point on AC, the secondary wavelets start growing in the second
medium with speed 2 . Let the disturbance takes time t to travel from B to C, then = 1 .
During that time the secondary wavelet from point A covers = 2 in the second medium.
ic
Let the angles of incidence and refraction be and respectively.

From ,

sin = sin =
ys
From ,

sin = sin =

ph
sin 1 1
= = =
sin 2 2
sin 1
, = = 21
sin 2
.
The constant 21 is called the refractive index of the second medium w.r.t. first medium.
13. Derive a mathematical expression for the width of interference fringes obtained in
Youngs double slit experiment with the help of a suitable diagram.
Let S1 and S2 be two coherent sources separated by a
distance d. Let the distance of the screen from the
coherent sources be D.
The spherical waves emanating from S1 and S2 will
produce interference fringes on the screen GG, as shown
in Fig.
rg
Now,
2 2 2
2 2
2
(2 ) (1 ) = [ + ( + ) ] [ + ( ) ] = 2
2 2
2
2 1 =
l.o
2 + 1
If, x, d D then negligible error will be introduced if S2P + S1P (in the denominator) is replaced by 2D.
Thus if we replace S2P + S1P by 2 D, we have
2
2 1 = =
2
integral multiple of (wavelength)

i.e.
al
Position of bright fringes (or maxima): For maximum intensity at P, the path difference must be an
s4

= , =

where, = 0, 1, 2,
Position of dark fringes (or minima):For minimum intensity at P, the path difference must be
ic
1 1
= ( + ) , = ( + )
2 2
where, = 0, 1, 2,
ys
Fringe Width: It is the separation between two successive bright or dark fringes
=
ph
( + 1)
, = +1 = =

14. Show that the central maximum in the single slit diffraction is twice as wide as the
secondary maximum and the pattern becomes narrower as the width of the slit is
increased.
Linear width of secondary maximum: In any diffraction pattern,
Direction of nth minimum,

=

Direction of ( + 1) minimum,
rg

+1 = ( + 1)

( + 1)
l.o
= +1 = =

Hence the linear width of secondary maximum = Angular width x D

, =

al
, = 21 =
2

= 2
Thus the central maximum of a diffraction pattern is twice as wide as any secondary maximum
s4
Clearly,
1

ic
ys
ph
15. The polarisation of a beam of light by reflection, is best achieved when the reflected and
refracted rays are at right angles to each other. Show that the polarising angle of
incidence is then given by = .
rg
l.o
al
The angle of incidence at which a beam of unpolarised light falling on a transparent surface
is reflected as a beam of completely plane polarized light is called polarizing or Brewster
angle.
s4
The reflected ray is totally plane polarised, when reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular
to each other. i.e. BOC=90.
If ip is angle of incidence, r is the angle of reflection and r the angle of refraction, than
according to the law of reflection ip = r
ic
Also r + 90o + r = 180o or r = 90o r

or, r = 90o ip
From Snells law, refractive index is
ys
sin ip sin ip sin ip

n= = = = tan ip
sin r sin(90o ip ) cos ip
Angle of incidence, ip = tan1 n
ph
Unit-7 Dual Nature of Matter
(Dual nature of radiation and matter)

1. Derive de-Broglie wave equation for a material particle
Considering photon as an e.m. wave of frequency , its energy from Plancks quantum theory is
given by
= . (1)
Where is Planks constant. Considering photon as a particle of mass , the energy associated
rg
with it is given by Einsteins mass-energy relationship as
= 2 . (2)
l.o
From equations (1) and (2), we get

= 2 = 2

al
, = =

Where is the wavelength of the radiation of frequency and = , is the momentum of the
photon. The above equation has been derived for photon of radiation. According to de Broglies
s4
hypothesis, it must be true for material particles like electrons, protons, neutrons etc. Hence a
particle of mass m moving with velocity must be associated with a matter wave of wavelength
given by

= =
ic

This is de Broglies wave equation for material particles. It explains the dual nature of matter as it
connects the wave characteristic with the particle characteristic
ys
ph
2. Show that the de Broglie wavelength of electrons of energy K is given by the relation.

=
2
Consider an electron of mass and charge . Let be the velocity attained by the electron when
it is accelerated from rest to attain kinetic energy K. Then
1 2
2 = =
2
Hence the de Broglie wavelength of the electron is
rg

= = =
2 2

l.o
3. Show that the de Broglie wavelength of electrons accelerated through a potential
difference of V volts can be expressed as
12.3
= =
al
2
Consider an electron of mass and charge . Let be the velocity acquired by ir when it is
accelerated from rest through a potential difference of volts. Then
1
s4
= 2
2
=
1
. = 2 =
2
2
ic
=

Hence de-broglie wavelength of electrons is

ys
= = =
2 2

= 6.63 1034 , = 9.1 1031 = 1.6 1019
6.63 1034 12.3 1010 12.3
ph
= = =
2 9.1 1031 1.6 1019
Unit-8 Atoms and Nuclei
(Atoms, Nuclei)
1. Bohrs Theory of hydrogen Atom
i. Radii of Bohrs stationary orbits: The centripetal force required by the electron is
provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron
2 2 2
= 2 2 = . . . (1)

Where is the mass of the electron, is the radius of the electronic orbit and is the
rg
velocity of the electron. Since the nucleus is nearly 2000 times heavier than the electron
therefore it is reasonable to assume that the nucleus remains at rest
But according to Bohrs postulate

= =
l.o
2 2
From eq (1)
2 2 1 2 2
( ) = =
2 4 2 2
1
in general
= 4 .
al
=
2 2

4
=
2 2 4
( )
s4

4 2 2 2 2
For n=1, we get the smallest orbit. This represents normal state of the hydrogen atom
1 2 2
, 1 = =
4 2 2 2
, = 6.63 1034 , = 9 109 2 2 , = 9 1031
ic
= 1.6 1019 , we get

1 = 0.53 1010 = 0.53
ys
This is the radius of the lowest orbit and is known as Bohr Radius.
ii. Velocity of Electron

1 2 2
ph
= =
2 4 2 2
2 2
4 2 2
= =
2 2 2
2 2 1 2
2 1 2 1
, = = ( ) ( ) = ( )( )
4
2
Relation between speed of electron in hydrogen atom and speed of light in vacuum
Multiplying numerator and denominator of above equation by , we get
2
= .
4 ( )
2
2
The term gives a dimensional constant known as fine structure constant (). Its
4 ( )
2
1
value is 137. This gives
1
=
137
1
So, the speed of electron in the innermost orbit (n=1) is 137 of the speed of light in vacuum.
rg
The speed of the electron decreases as we move away from the nucleus.
iii. Frequency of revolution

Suppose an electron is rotating with angular velocity in an orbit of radius with speed
l.o
. Then,

= = (2) =
2
2
1 2 2
= ( )=
2
al
, =

s4
iv. Energy of electron
An electron revolving around the nucleus possesses both the kinetic energy and
potential energy .
= +
ic
1 2
2 ()() 2
, = = = =
2 2
2 2 2
= =
ys
2 2
2 2
1
=
4 2 2
2 2 2
4 2
2 2 4
= ( ) =
2 2 2 2 2
ph
The negative sign indicates that the electron is bound to the nucleus and some work is
required to be done to separate it from the nucleus.
The energy corresponds to n=1 is called ground state. In general
2 2 4 4
= 2 =
2 2 82 2 2
Substituting the values of constants we get,
2.18 1018 13.6

= = ( 1 = 1.6 1019 )
2 2
v. Work done in raising an electron
If W is the work done in moving an electron from a lower energy level (1 ) to higher energy
level (2 ) then
2 2 4
2 2
2 2 4
= 2 1 = [ ]
2 2 2 1 2 2
2 2 4 1 1
, = 2 [ ]
2 1 22
2
2. State the law of radioactive decay. Derive an equation for the same and show that the
rg
radioactive decay is exponential in nature.
Radioactive decay law: This law states that the number of nuclei disintegrating per second of a
radioactive sample at any instant is directly proportional to the number of undecayed nuclei present
l.o
in the sample at that instant.
Let = the number of radioactive nuclei present initially at time t=0 in a sample of radioactive
substance.
= the number of radioactive nuclei present in the sample at any instant t, and
= the number of radioactive nuclei which disintegrate in the small time interval .
,
al

s4
, = . (1)

Where is proportionality constant called the decay or disintegration constant. Here the negative sign
shows that the number of undecayed nuclei, N decreases with time.
The eq (1) can be written as
ic

=

Integrating

ys
=

ln = + . (2)
Where C is the constant of integration.
At = 0, = , therefore from above equation we get, = ln
ph
(2), ln = + ln

, ln =

, = , =

The above equation represents the radioactive decay law and it shows that the radioactive decay is
exponential in nature.
3. Define the terms decay constant and half-life of a radioactive sample. Derive the relation
connecting the two.
Decay or disintegration constant: According to radioactive decay law
=
1
If = , then

= 1 = = = 0.368
2.718
, = 36.8 %
rg
The radioactive decay constant may be defined as the reciprocal of the time interval during which
the number of active nuclei in a given radioactive sample reduces to 36.8% (or 1/e times) of its
initial value. It gives the probability per unit for a nucleus of a radioactive substance to decay. The
l.o
value of depends on the nature of the radioactive substance.
Half life: The time interval in which one-half of the radioactive nuclei originally present in a
radioactive sample disintegrate is called half-life of the radioactive substance. It is denoted by 1/2 .
Relation between half-life and decay constant
substance.
al
Let = the number of radioactive nuclei present initially at time t=0 in a sample of radioactive
= the number of radioactive nuclei present in the sample at any instant t

s4
At = 1/2 , = /2
Now = ,

= 1/2
ic
2
1
, = 1/2 1/2 = 2
2
ys
Taking natural logarithm, we get

1/2 ln = ln 2
ln 2 2.303 log 2
1/2 = =

ph
2.303 0.3010 0.693

, 1/2 = , 1/2 =

Thus the half life of a radioactive substance is inversely proportional to its decay constant and is
independent of the number , the number of radioactive nuclei present initially in the sample.
Unit-9 Electronic Devices
1. Discuss the process involved in pn junction formation
rg
We take a thin p-type silicon semiconductor wafer ad add to it a small quantity of pentavalent
impurity. The wafer now contains p and n region with metallurgical junction between them.
l.o
The two important process involved in the formation of p-n junction are
Diffusion
Drift
al
As soon as junction is formed, the majority charge carriers begin to diffuse from one region to
other. Thus electrons from n-region diffuse into p-region and where they combine with holes and
get neutralized. Similarly holes from p-region diffuse into n-region. This process of electron-holes
s4
recombination is called diffusion.
Because of diffusion, the p-region near the junction is left with immobile negative ions and n-
region near the junction is left with positive ions. This small region which is depleted of free
charge and having only immobile ions is called depletion layer. This accumulation of positive and
ic
negative charges setup ups a potential difference across the junction. This acts as a barrier and
is called barrier potential, which opposes the diffusion.
Due to this, an electron on p-side of the junction moves to n-side and a hole on n-side of the
ys
junction moves to p-side. The motion of charge carriers due to the electric field is called drift.
Thus a drift current opposite to diffusion current starts.
Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion process continues,
the space-charge regions on either side of the junction extend, thus increasing the electric field
ph
strength and hence drift current. This process continues until the diffusion current equals the
drift current. Thus a p-n junction is formed. In a p-n junction under equilibrium there is no net
current.
2. Explain the action of a p-n junction diode in (i) forward bias arrangement and
(ii) reverse bias arrangement.
Forward Biasing: If positive terminal of a battery is
connected to the p-side and the negative terminal to the
n-side, then the junction is said to be forward biased.
As shown in figure, here the applied voltage V opposes the
barrier voltage . As a result of this
(i) The effective barrier potential decreases to
rg
( ) and hence the energy barrier across the junction decreases,
(ii) The majority charge carriers i.e., holes from p-side and electrons from n-side begin to
flow towards the junction,
(iii) The diffusion of electrons and holes into the depletion layer decreases its width, and
l.o
(iv) The effective resistance across the p-n junction decreases.
When exceeds , the majority charge carriers start flowing easily across the junction and
set up a large current (in mA) in the circuit. The current increases with the increase in applied
voltage.
al
Reverse Biasing: If the positive terminal of the battery is
connected to the n-side and negative terminal to the p-side,
then the p-n junction is said to be reverse biased.
s4
As shown in figure, here the applied voltage V and the barrier
voltage are in the same direction. As a result of this
(i) The barrier potential increases to ( + ) and
ic
hence the energy barrier across the junction increases,

(ii) The majority charge carriers move away from the junction, increasing the width of the
depletion layer,
ys
(iii) The resistance of p-n junction becomes very large, and

(iv) No current flows across the junction due to majority charge carriers.
However, at room temperature there are always present some minority charge carriers like
holes in n-region and electrons in p-region. The reverse biasing pushes them towards
ph
junction, setting a current called reverse or leakage current, in the external circuit in the
opposite direction. As the minority charge carriers are much less in number than the majority
charge carriers, hence the reverse current is very small (in A).
3. Explain briefly with the help of a circuit diagram, how V-I characterstics of a p-
n junction diode are obtained in (i) forward bias, and (ii) reverse bias. Draw
the required V-I curves obtained.
Forward biased characteristics: As shown in the figure a battery is connected across the p-n
junction diode to a potential divider. For different values of voltages, the value of current is
noted. A graph is plotted between V and I. This V-I graph is called forward characteristic.
rg
l.o
Features of the graph:
(i)
(ii) al
The V-I graph is not a straight line i.e., a junction diode does not obey Ohms law.
Initially, the current increases very slowly, till the voltage across the diode crosses a
certain value, called threshold voltage or cut-in voltage. Before this voltage, the
s4
depletion layer plays a dominant role in controlling the motion of charge carriers.
(iii) After the cut-in voltage, the diode current increases rapidly, even for a very small
increase in the diode bias voltage. The resistance across the junction becomes quite
low.
ic
Reverse Bias characteristics: Figure sows the experimental arrangement for studying
characteristic curve of a p-n junction diode when it is reverse biased. Here a microammeter is
used to measure the small currents through the reverse biased diode. A V-I graph is drawn, which
ys
is called reverse characteristic of junction diode.

ph
Features of the graph:
(i) When the diode is reverse biased, a very small current (in A) flows, which almost
remains constant with bias. The small current is called reverse saturation current. It is
due to the drift of the minority charge carries across the junction.
(ii) When the reverse voltage across the p-n junction reaches a sufficiently high value, the
reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. This voltage at which breakdown
of the junction diode occurs is called breakdown or peak-inverse voltage.
Figure below shows the complete V-I characteristic of a p-n junction. A junction diode offers
a very small resistance when forward biased and has a very large resistance when reverse
rg
biased i.e., the diode can conduct current well in only one direction.
l.o
al
s4
Dynamic resistance: The dynamic or ac-resistance of the diode defined as the ratio of the small
change in applied voltage V to the corresponding change in current I. It is given by

ic
=

4. What is a rectifier? With the help of a circuit diagram, explain how a p-n
ys
junction diode can be used as a half wave rectifier. Draw the wave forms of
input and output voltages.
Rectifier: The process of converting n alternating current into a direct current is called
rectification and the device used for rectification is called rectifier.
ph
Junction diode as a half wave rectifier:

The primary coil of the transformer is
connected to the a.c mains and the
secondary coil is connected in series
with the junction diode and load
resistance .
Working: a.c. is supplied to the primary, the secondary of the transformer supplies
desired alternating voltage across A and B. During the positive half cycle of a.c., the
end A is positive and the end B is negative. The diode D is forward biased and
current I flows through . As the input voltage increases or decreases, the current
I also increases or decreases and so does output voltage across the load . Output
voltage across is same waveform as the positive half of the input. During the
negative half cycle, the end A becomes negative and B positive. The diode is reverse
biased and no current flows. No voltage appears across . So only the half wave
rg
is rectified, as shown in the figure below.
l.o
al
s4
5. What is a rectifier? With the help of a circuit diagram, explain how a p-n
junction diode can be used as a full wave rectifier. Draw the wave forms of
input and output voltages. (CBSE 03, 05, 06C)
ic
Rectifier: The process of converting n alternating current into a direct current is called
rectification and the device used for rectification is called rectifier.
ys
Junction diode as a half wave rectifier:
The input a.c. signal is fed to the primary

coil of the transformer. The two ends A
and B of the secondary are connected to
ph
p-ends of diodes 1 2 . The

secondary is tapped at its central point T
which is connected to the n-ends of the
two diodes through the load resistance
, as shown in the figure.
Working: At any instant, the voltages at the end A and end B of the secondary w.r.t. the centre
tap will be out of phase with each other. Suppose during positive half cycle of a.c. input, the end
A is positive and the end B is negative w.r.t. the centre tap. Then the diode 1 gets forward biased
and conducts current. The diode 2 is reverse biased and does not conduct. During the negative
half cycle, the end A becomes negative and
the end B becomes positive w.r.t. centre tap.
The diode 1 gets reverse biased and does
not conduct. The diode 2 conducts current.
As during both half cycles of input a.c. the
current through the load flows in the same
direction, we get a pulsating d.c. voltage
across , as shown in the figure. Since
output voltage across the load is obtained for
rg
both half cycles of input a.c., this process is
called full wave rectification.
l.o
Need of filter circuit: The rectified voltage is in the form of pulses of the shape of half sinusoids.
al
Though it is unidirectional it does not have a steady value. To get steady dc output from the
pulsating voltage normally a capacitor is connected across the output terminals parallel to the
load . These additional circuits appear to filter out the ac ripple and give a pure dc voltage, so
s4
they are called filters.
ic
ys
When the voltage across the capacitor is rising, it gets charged. If there is no external load, it
remains charged to the peak voltage of the rectified output. When there is a load, it gets
discharged through the load and the voltage across it begins to fall. In the next half-cycle of
ph
rectified output it again gets charged to the peak value. The rate of fall of the voltage across the
capacitor depends upon the inverse product of capacitor C and the effective resistance used
in the circuit and is called the time constant. To make the time constant large value of C should
be large. So capacitor input filters use large capacitors. The output voltage obtained by using
capacitor input filter is nearer to the peak voltage of the rectified voltage.
6. Explain the use of a Zener diode as a voltage regulator.
Zener diode: A junction diode specially designed to operate only in the reverse breakdown region
continuously (without getting damaged) is called a Zener diode.
Zener diode as a voltage regulator:
Principle: When a Zener diode is operated in the reverse breakdown region, the voltage across
it remains practically constant for a large change in the reverse current. The use of Zener diode
as d.c. voltage regulator is based on this fact.
rg
l.o
al
Working: Figure shows the circuit for using Zener diode as a voltage regulator. Here the Zener
diode is connected to a source of fluctuating d.c. through a dropping resistor . Thus the voltage
gets divided between and Zener diode. The output is obtained across the load resistance ,
s4
connected parallel with Zener diode.
If the input voltage increases, the current through and Zener diode also increases. This
increases the voltage drop across without any change in the voltage across the Zener diode.
This is because in the breakdown region, Zener voltage remains constant even though the current
ic
through the Zener diode changes. Similarly, if the input voltage decreases, the current through
and Zener diode also decreases. The voltage across decreases without any change in the
voltage across the Zener diode. Thus any increase/decrease of the input voltage results in voltage
ys
drop across without any change in voltage across Zener diode.
7. Draw a circuit diagram to study the input and output characteristics of an npn
transistor in common emitter configuration. Show these characteristics
ph
graphically. Explain how (i) input resistance (ii) output resistance and (iii)
current gain of the transistor are calculated by using these characteristics.
Common emitter characteristics: Figure shows the circuit diagram for studying the
common emitter characteristics of an npn transistor. The emitter-base junction is
forward biased by means of battery . The emitter-collector circuit is reverse
biased by means of a battery . The common emitter terminal is kept grounded.
rg
Input characteristics:
A graph showing the variation of base current with base-emitter voltage at constant
collector-emitter voltage is called the input characteristics of the transistor.
l.o
Following facts can be known from the input graph:
1. As long as is less than the barrier voltage, the base current is small as in case of
forward biased diode.
al
2. When the base-emitter voltage exceeds the barrier voltage, the base current
increases sharply with a small increase in as in the case of a forward biased diode.
3. The value of is much smaller than in a normal mode, more than 95 % majority carriers
go to the collector to constitute the collector current .
s4
ic
ys
ph
Output characteristics:
A graph showing the variation of collector current with collector-emitter voltage at
constant base-current is called the output characteristic of the transistor.
Following facts can be known from the input graph:
1. Initially when the voltage increases, the collector current increases rapidly. The
value of upto which increases rapidly is called knee voltage.
2. Once the voltage exceeds the voltage (so that the collector-base junction is
reversed biased), the output current varies very slowly but linearly with for a given
base current , i.e. beyond the knee voltage the output resistance of the transistor is
high.
3. Larger the value of , larges is the value of for a given .
rg
l.o
ac parameters of transistors:
al
1. Input resistance ( ): It is defined as the ratio of the small change in base-emitter voltage
s4
to the corresponding small change in the base current, when the collectoremitter
voltage is kept constant.

= [ ]
=
ic
As input characteristic is non-linear, so varies. At any point of the curve, is equal to

the reciprocal of the slope of a tangent to the curve.
2. Output resistance ( ): It is defined as the ration of the small change in the collector-
ys
emitter to the corresponding change in the collector current when the base current is
kept constant.

= [ ]
=

ph
3. ac current gain or current amplification factor ( ): It is defined as the ratio of the

change in collector current to the small change in base current when the transistor is in
active state.

= [ ]
=
8. With the help of a labeled circuit diagram, explain the use of npn transistor as
a common emitter amplifier. Discuss phase relationship between input and
output voltages. Write expressions for the various gains of a common emitter
amplifier.
Fig below shows npn transistor as a common emitter amplifier. The emitter is common to both
input and output circuits. The emitter is forward biased by battery and the collector is reverse
biased by battery . This decreases the input resistance and increases the output resistance.
The low a.c. input signal is superimposed on the forward bias . A load resistance is
rg
connected between the collector and d.c supply and the amplified output is obtained between
the collector and the ground.
l.o
al
s4
Input signal when is superimposed on
+ = + + ( + )
= ( + ) = = +
ic
When current flows in the output circuit, the potential drop across the load resistance is .
Hence the output voltage is
=
ys
= = =
When the input signal is fed to the base-emitter circuit, the base-emitter voltage changes. This
ph
changes the emitter current and hence the collector current . The output voltage varies
in accordance with the above relation. This variation in the collector voltage appears as amplified
output.
Phase relationship between input and output signals: When an a.c. signal is fed to the input
circuit, its positive half cycle increases the forward bias of the circuit which, in turn, increases the
emitter current and hence the collector current. This increase in collector current makes the
output voltage less positive or more negative. So as the input signal goes through its positive
half cycle, the amplified output signal goes through a negative half cycle. Similarly, as the input
signal goes through its negative half cycle, the amplified output signal goes through its positive
half cycle. Hence in CE amplifier, the input output voltages are 180 out of phase or in opposite
phase.
Current, voltage and power gains of CE amplifier:
1. a.c. current gain: It is defined as the ratio of the small change in the collector current to
the small change in base current, when collector-emitter voltage is kept constant.

= [ ]
=
2. d.c. current gain: It is defined as the ratio of collector current to the base current, when
rg
collector-emitter voltage is constant.

= [ ]
=
3. a.c. voltage gain: It is defined as the ratio of small change in output voltage to the small
l.o
change in input voltage. It is given by

= = = = =

4. a.c. power gain: It is the ratio of small change in output power to the small change in
input power.
al
. = =
( )
( )
=
.

=
.

The transistor does not generate any power. The energy for the higher a.c. power at the output
s4
is supplied by the d.c. battery.
ic
ys
ph
9. Logic gates
A gate is a digital circuit that is designed for performing a particular logical operation. It is
called gate because it controls the flow of information.
Truth Table
It is a table that shows all possible input combinations and the corresponding outputs foe a
logic gates.
Boolean expression: Ii is a shorthand method to describe the functioning of a logic gate in
the form of an equation or an expression.
rg
NOT gate: It gives a high output (1), if the input is low (0) and vice versa.
Logic Symbol Truth table
Input Output
l.o

=
0 1
Boolean Expression 1 0
=
output Y is low (0).
Logic Symbol
al
OR gate: It gives high output (1) if either input A or B or both are high (1), otherwise the
Truth table
s4
Input Output
A B Y = A+B
0 0 0
ic
0 1 1
1 0 1
Boolean Expression
1 1 1
ys
= +
AND gate: It gives a high output (1) if inputs A and B are both high (1), otherwise the output
Y is low (0).
Input Output
ph
A B Y = A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
Boolean Expression 1 1 1
= .
NOR gate: Combination of an OR and a NOT gate
Input Output
A B =
+
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
Boolean Expression
= 1 1 0
rg
+
NOR gate: Combination of an AND and a NOT gate

l.o
Input Output
A B = +
0 0 1
Boolean Expression
=
.
al 0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
s4
ic
ys
ph
Some other important figures:
I V Characteristics of a Photodiode
rg
I
l.o
I V Characteristics of a Solar cell
al
s4
ic
ys
ph
Unit-10 Communication Systems
1. Deduce an expression for the distance up to which the TV signals can directly be received
from a TV tower of height h.
If the broadcast is made from a height h above the ground, no reception by direct signals is possible
beyond the points A and B.
The distance OB or OA up to which signals can be received can be calculated in terms of h and
the radius R of the Earth
rg
l.o
.
,
2 = 2 + 2
al
, = + =
( + )2 = 2 + 2 2 + 2 + 2 = 2 + 2
s4

2 = 2 + 2 2 = 2 [1 + ]
2
But hR, 2 = 2 = 2
ic
2. Write an expression for the maximum line of sight (LOS) distance between two antennas
for space wave propagation.
A space wave travel in a straight line from transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna i.e. it
is LOS communication.
ys
Due to the curvature of the earth, direct space wave get blocked at some points. Thus the earth
presents a horizon to space wave propagation commonly called radio horizon.
Fig shows the effect of antenna height on the radio horizon. The LOS radio horizon for a single
antenna at sea level is given by
= 2
ph
Where = , =
=
The maximum line of sight between the transmitting and receiving antennas
= + = 2 + 2
3. With the help of block diagram, explain the production of amplitude modulated wave
from a base band signal
Fig below shows a block diagram of simple square-law modulator for obtaining an AM wave. This
modulator requires a means for adding modulating and carrier signals, a non-linear element and a band
pass filter for extracting a desired modulated wave.
rg
l.o
Here the modulating signal is added to the carrier signal sin to produce the input
signal, () = + sin
This signal is passed through the square-law device which gives the output
() = () + 2 ()
al
() = [ + sin ] + [ + sin ]2
,
() = + sin + [ sin + 2 sin2 + 2 sin ]
2 2
s4
2 2
() = + sin + 2 (2 + 2 ) cos 2 cos 2 +
2 2
cos( ) cos( + )
[ sin2 = (1 cos 2)/2 2 sin sin = cos( ) cos( + )]

ic

The above equation has a d.c. term 2 (2 + 2 ) and sinusoidal frequencies , 2 , , 2 ,
+ . When the signal is passed through band pass filter centered at , the filter rejects
ys
d.c. signal and sinusoidal signals of frequencies , 2 2 and allows only ,

+ .
So, the output of band pass filter is
() = sin + cos( ) cos( + )
ph
The modulated wave consist of a carrier wave of frequency, and two sidebands of frequencies
+ .
4. Describe briefly the essential steps for detection of amplitude modulated wave.
The modulated carrier wave contains the frequencies . In order to obtain the original
message signal () of angular frequency , a simple method is shown in the form of a block
diagram below.
rg
l.o
The modulated signal of the form given in (a) of above block diagram is passed through a rectifier to
produce the output shown in (b). This envelope of signal (b) contains the message signal. In order to
retrieve actual message signal (), shown in (c), the signal is passed through an envelope detector
which usually consists of a simple RC circuit.
al
Block diagram of generalised communication system
s4
ic
ys
Block diagram of Simple Modulator

ph
Block diagram of transmitter
rg
Block diagram of receiver
l.o
al
Block diagram for detection of AM Signal
s4
ic
ys
ph
Unit-1 Electrostatics
(Electric Charges and Fields, Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance)
1. Quantisation of electric charge, = .
2. Coulombs law
1 1 2 1 1 2
= =
4 2 4 2
3. Superposition principle
1 = 12 + 13 + 14 + + 1
l
= 12 + 22 + 21 2 cos
al
4. Electric Field

= =

5. Electric field of a point charge
s4
1
=
4 2
6. Dipole moment = 2
7. Electric field for a dipole at an axial point at distance form the centre of the dipole
1 2
= . 2
4 ( 2 )2
ic
1 2p
when r a, Eaxial = . 3
4o r
8. Electric field for a dipole at an equatorial point at distance form the centre of the dipole
1
= . 2
4 ( + 2 )3/2
ys
1 p
when r a, E = . 3
4o r
9. Torque on a dipole,
= = ,
10. Electric Flux through a plane surface area S,
= . = cos
Ph
11. According to Gausss law the total electric flux through a closed surface S is

= . =

12. = =

13. Electric field of a long straight wire at distance ,

=
2
14. Electric field of an infinite plane sheet of charge density ,

=
2
15. Electric field of a thin spherical shell of charge density and radius R,
1 q
= . (for r > )
4o r 2
1 q
= 0 ( < ) E= . 2 ( = )
4o R
where, = 4 2
16. Electric field of a solid sphere of uniform density and radius R
1 q
= . 2 ( > )
4o R
1 qr 1 q
l
= . 3 ( < ) = . 2 ( = )
4o R 4o R
al
4
= 3
3
17. Electric potential due to a point charge at a distance from it,
1 q
= .
4o r
s4
18. Potential at a point due to N point charges,
N
1 qi
=
4o ri
i=1
19. Electric potential at a point due to a dipole,
1 p cos 1 p. r
= . 2
= . 3
4o r 4o r
ic
20. Relation between electric field and electric potential,

=

21. Electric potential energy of a system of two point charges,
ys
1 q1 q 2
= .
4o r12
22. Electric potential energy of a system of N point charges,
1 qjqk
=
4o rjk
23. Electric potential energy of an electric dipole in a uniform electric field,
Ph
= (cos 2 cos 2 )
If initially the dipole is perpendicular to the field E, 1 = 90 2 = (), then
= cos = .
24. Polarisation vector, = , where is electric susceptibility.
()
25. () = ()
26. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor,

=

27. Equivalent capacitance of a series combination,
1 1 1 1
= + + +
1 2 3
28. Equivalent capacitance of a parallel combination,
= 1 + 2 + 3 +
29. Energy stored in a capacitor,

1 2 1 2 1
= = =
2 2 2
30. Energy stored per unit volume or the energy density of the electric field of a capacitor,
l
1
= 2
2
al
31. Electric field between capacitor plates,

=

32. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor filled with dielectric of dielectric constant ,

s4
= =

33. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric slab of thickness t (<d) in between
its plates,

=
1
(1 )
34. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a conducting slab of thickness t (<d) in
ic
between its plates,

=

35. Dielectric Constant,
ys

= = = = =
0
= 1+
Ph
U-2 Current Electricity
1. Electric current

=
= =

2. In case of an electron revolving in a circle of radius r with speed , period of revolution is
2 1
= , frequency = = 2 and current

= =
2
3. Ohms law =
l
4. Current in terms of drift velocity ( ), =
al
5. Resistance

= = 2

6. Resistivity or specific resistance,

s4
= = 2

1
7. Conductance =
8. Conductivity
1 1
= =

9. Current density,
ic

= = =

10. Relation between current density and electric field, = =
11. Mobility,

ys
= =

12. Temperature coefficient of resistance,
2 1
=
1 (2 1 )
If 1 = 0 2 = ,

= = (1 + )
Ph

13. Equivalent resistance in series, = 1 + 2 + 3 +
If resistance, each of value is connected in series, than equivalent Resistance =

1 1 1 1
14. Equivalent resistance in parallel, = + + +
1 2 3

If resistance, each of value is connected in parallel, than equivalent Resistance

=


15. For a cell of internal resistance , the emf is , = + = ( + )
16. Terminal potential difference of a cell,

= =
+
17. Terminal potential difference when a current is being drawn from the cell, =
18. Terminal potential difference when the cell is being charged, = +
19. Internal resistance of a cell,

= [ ]

20. Fr cells in series,
l

=
al
+
21. For cells in parallel,

=
+
22. Heat produce by electric current,
s4
2
2
= = , = =
4.18 4.18
23. Electric power,
2
= = = 2 =

2
24. Electric energy, = = =
25. Kirchhoffs laws of electrical networks
ic
a. = 0 or total incoming current = total outgoing current (junction rule)
b. = (loop rule)

26. Potential gradient of the potentiometer wire, =
27. For comparing emf of two cells,
ys
2 2
=
1 1
28. For measuring internal resistance of a cell,
1 2
=
2
29. For a balanced Wheatstone bridge,
Ph

=

IF X is unknown resistance

= =

30. In slide wire or metre bridge, if the balance point is obtained at from the zero end,
then
100
= = = ( )
100

l
al
s4
ic
ys
B B ROY of Great Britain had Very Good Wife

or
Ph
Better Build Roof Over Your Garage Before Vehicle Gets Wet

Unit-3 Magnetic effect of Current and Magnetism
(Moving charge and Magnetism, Magnetism and Matter)

1. Biot-Savart law,
sin
=
4 2
2. Magnetic field due to an infinitely long conductor,

=
2
l
3. Magnetic field due to a straight conductor of finite length,
al

= (sin 1 + sin 2 )
4
4. Magnetic field at the centre of a circular loop,

=
2
s4
5. Magnetic field at an axial point of a circular loop,
2
=
2( 2 + 2 )3/2
6. Amperes circuital law,
=
.

When B is directed along tangent to every point on closed curve L, =
ic
7. Magnetic field due to straight solenoid,
a. At a point well inside the solenoid, =
1
b. At either end of the solenoid, = 2
Here is the number of turns per unit length
ys
8. Magnetic field inside a toroidal solenoid, = .
Magnetic field outside the toroid is zero.
9. Force on a charge moving with velocity in a magnetic field at an angle with it is ,
= sin
10. For a charged particle, accelerated by a cyclotron,
a. Velocity,
Ph

=

b. Period of revolution,
2
=

c. Cyclotron frequency,

=
2
d. Maximum kinetic energy,
222
= =
2

11. Kinetic energy gained by an electron when accelerated through a potential difference V,
1 2
2 = =
2
12. Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field, = (
) = sin
13. Force between two parallel current-carrying wires
a. Force per unit length,
1 2
=
2
l
b. Force on length of one of the wires,
1 2
al
=
2
14. Torque on a current loop in a magnetic field, sin = sin
Where = = .
In vector form, =

s4
15. In a moving coil galvanometer,
a. Current,

= .

b. Deflection produced,

= .

ic
c. Figure of merit,

= =

d. Current sensitivity,

ys
= =

e. Voltage sensitivity,

= = =

16. For conversion of galvanometer into an ammeter, the shunt resistance,

= , =
Ph
+
17. Resistance of an ammeter,

=
+
18. For conversion of a galvanometer into a voltmeter, the value of high resistance in series is,

= =
+
19. Resistance of a voltmeter, = +

20. Magnetic dipole moment, m = q m 2l
21. Coulombs law,
1 2
= .
4 2
22. Magnetic flux through any closed surface , = . = 0
23. Magnetic field of a bar magnet of length 2 and dipole moment at a distance from its
centre,
a. On the axial line,
2 2
= . 2 2 2
( ) =
4 ( ) 4 3
l
b. On the equatorial line,
al

= . 2 ( ) = .
4 ( 2 )3/2 4 3
24. Work done in turning the dipole or P.E. of a dipole, = = (cos 2 cos 1 )
If initially the dipole is perpendicular to the field, its P.E. is = cos
a. When , = 0, = , P.E. of the dipole is minimum. i.e. Stable

s4
equilibrium.
b. When , = 180, = +, P.E. of the dipole is maximum. i.e. Unstable
equilibrium.
c. When , = 90, = 0.

25. Magnetic moment of a current loop, =
26. Orbital magnetic moment of an electron in orbit,
ic

= = = ( )
2 2 4
27. Bohr magneton is the magnetic moment of an electron in first (n=1) orbit.

ys
= ( ) =
4
28. Declination (D) = angle between geographic meridian and magnetic meridian.
29. Relations between elements of earths magnetic field are (= angle of dip or inclination)
= cos = sin

tan = = 2 + 2

Ph
Where = , =
=

30. Magnetisation of a sample, = ( )

31. Intensity of magnetisation, = = ( + )

32. Magnetic susceptibility, =

33. Relative magnetic permeability of the substance, = 1 +
34. Total magnetic field = , = e =
0 r

Unit-4 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
(Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current)

1. Magnetic flux,
.
= cos =
2. Induced emf,

=

3. Average induced emf,
l
2 2
=
al

4. Induced current,
||
=

5. The emf induced in a conductor of length moving with velocity perpendicular to field ,
s4
=
6. Induced emf developed between the two ends of a rod rotating at its one end in
1
perpendicular magnetic field, = 2 2
7. Induced emf in a rotating coin,
= sin , = = 2
8. Foe self induction, =
ic
9. Self induced emf,

=

10. For mutual inductance, =
ys
11. Mutual induced emf,

=

12. Self inductance of a long solenoid,
2
= = 2 , =

13. Mutual inductance of tow closely wounds solenoids,
Ph
1 2
= = 1 2

14. Instantaneous value of ac,
= sin .
15. Average or mean value of ac over half cycle,
2
= = 0367

16. rms value of ac,
1
= = 0.707
2
1
17. For alternating voltages, we have = sin , = 0.637 =
2

18. For an ac circuit containing inductor only
a. Inductive reactance, = = 2
b. Current amplitude,

= =

c. Effective current (rms),

=
2
19. For an ac circuit containing capacitor only
a. Capacitive reactance,
l
1 1
al
= =
2
b. Current amplitude,

= =
1/
c. Effective current (rms),
s4

=
2 . 1/
20. Impedance of a series LCR-circuit,
1 2
= = 2 + ( )2 = 2 + ( )

21. Phase angle between current and voltage is given by,
ic

tan = cos =

22. Resonant frequency of LCR circuit (when = ),
1
=
ys
2
23. Q-factor,
1
= = =
2 1
Where 1 1 are the frequencies at which current falls to 1/2 times its resonant
Ph
value.
24. Power factor,

cos = =
2 + ( )2
25. Average power consumed per cycle in a pure resistive circuit,
2 2

= = . =
2
1 2
26. Energy stored in an inductor, = 2
27. Average power consumed per cycle in pure inductive or capacitive circuit = 0

28. Energy stored in a capacitor,
1 2 1 2
= =
2 2
29. The voltages and currents in a transformer are related as

= = =

30. Power in primary coil of a transformer=power in secondary coil,
=
31. Efficiency of a transformer,
l

= 100%

al
s4
ic
ys
Ph

Unit-5 Electromagnetic Waves
1. Displacement current,

=

Also,

= () = = ( ) = =

2. Modified Amperes circuital law,
= ( + )
.
al
3. Wave velocity, =

4. Energy of photon, = =
5. Speed of e.m. wave in vacuum,
1 1
= , =

s4
6. For a wave of frequency , wavelength , propagating along x-direction, the equations for
electric and magnetic fields are

= sin( ) = sin [2 ( )]

= sin( ) = sin [2 ( )]

ic
7. Amplitude ration of electric and magnetic fields,
1
==
0
8. Propagation constant,
2
ys
==

9. Average energy density of E-field and B-field ,
1 1 1 2 1 2
= 2 =
2
= =
4 2 4 2
10. Average energy density of e.m. wave,
2
1 1 2
Ph
2
= + = = = 2 =
2 2
11. Momentum delivered by an e.m wave,

=

12. Intensity of a wave,
/ 2
= = =


Unit-6 Optics
(Ray optics and Optical instruments, Wave optics)

1. Mirror formula,
2. Magnification produced by a spherical mirror,
l
3. Refractive index,
al
4. Snells law,
s4
5. Relation between refractive index and critical angle,
6. For refraction through a spherical surface, from rarer to denser medium,
7. For refraction through a spherical surface, from denser to rarer medium,

ic
8. Power of a surface,
ys
9. Thin lens formula,
10. Magnification produced by a lens,

Ph
11. Power of a lens,
12. Lens Maker formula,
[ ]
13. For combination of lenses,

14. For lenses in contact, equivalent focal length F is given by,

15. The equivalent focal length F of two lenses separated by a distance d is given by,
16. For refraction through a prism,

17. In the condition of minimum deviation,
18. Deviation produced by a prism of small angle,
l
19. Angular dispersion,
al
20. Simple microscope
a. When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision, the magnifying
power is .
b. When the final image is formed at infinity, the magnifying power is,
s4
21. Compound microscope
a. Magnifying power,
b. When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision,
( ) ( )
c. When the final image is formed at infinity,

ic
22. Astronomical telescope
a. In normal adjustment, , distance between objective and eyepiece
ys
b. When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision,
( )
23. Reflecting Telescope,

Ph
Where
24. Interference at Youngs double slit
a. Resultant amplitude,
b. Resultant intensity,
c. When
d. For bright fringe, path difference and for dark fringe, ( )
e. Distance of bright fringe from the center of the screen,
Where

f. Distance of dark fringe from the center of the screen,
( )
g. Fringe width,
h. Ratio of slit widths,
l
i. Intensity at maxima, and intensity of minima,
25. For diffraction at a single Slit
al
a. Condition for minimum,
b. Condition for secondary maximum, ( )
c. Angular position or direction of minimum,
s4
d. Distance of minimum from the centre of the screen,
e. Angular position or direction of secondary maximum, ( )
f. Distance of secondary maximum from the centre of the screen, ( )
g. Width of central maximum, D= distance between slit and screen
h. Angular spread of central maximum on either side,
ic
i. Total angular spread of central maximum,
26. Fresnel distance,
ys
27. Size of Fresnal zone,
28. Resolving power of microscope and telescope
a. Limit of resolution of a telescope,
b. Resolving power of a telescope,

Ph
c. Limit of resolution of a microscope,
d. Resolving power of a microscope,
Where half angle of cone of light from the point object.

29. Polarisation of light waves
a. Law of Malus,
b. Brewster law,
c.
30. Doppler effect,
is the component of the source velocity along the line joining the observer to the
source relative to the observer; is considered positive when the source moves away
l
from the observer.
al
s4
ic
ys
Ph

Unit-7 Dual Nature of Matter
(Dual nature of radiation and matter)

1. Energy of a photon,
2. Number of photons emitted per second,
l
3. Momentum of photon,
al
4. Equivalent mass of a photon,
s4
5. Kinetic energy of photo electrons,
[ ]
6. If is the stopping potential, the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected photo electrons,
7. Kinetic energy,
ic

8. De-Broglie wavelength,

ys
9. De-Brogile wavelength of an electron beam accelerated through a potential difference of
volts is,

10. Braggs equation for crystal diffraction,
Ph

Unit-8 Atoms and Nuclei
(Atoms, Nuclei)
1. K.E of particle,
2. Distance of closest approach,
l
3. Impact parameter,
al
Where is the scattering angle.
For
s4
4.
5. Relation between the orbit radius and the electron velocity for H-atom,
6. For total energy of the electron in a H-atom

ic
7. Bohr radius,
ys
8. Angular momentum,
9. Total energy of the electron in the stationary states of the H-atom,
10. Line spectra of H-atom

Ph
a. Frequency,
[ ]
[ ] [ ]
b. Wave number,
[ ]

c. Lyman series,
[ ]
d. Paschen series,
[ ]
e. Brackett series,
[ ]
f. Pfund series,
l
[ ]
al
11. Ionisation potential,
12. Einsteins mass-energy equivalence,
s4
13. Nuclear radius, where
14. Mass defect, [ ]
15. Binding energy,
16. Binding energy per nucleon,
17. Displacement laws for radioactive transformations
a. -decay,
ic
b. -decay,

c. -decay,
ys
18. Radioactive decay law
a.
b. where =decay constant
19. Half life,
Ph
20. Mean life,

21. Decay rate or activity of a substance, | |

22. Time required to reduce the radioactive substance,
23. Decay constant,

Unit-9 Electronic Devices
1. For intrinsic semiconductor,
2. At equilibrium in any semiconductor,
3. Minimum energy required to create a hole-electron pair,
4. Mobility of a charge carries,
l
5. Electric current,
al
6. Electrical conductivity,
7. For any transistor,

8. For a common emitter transistor amplifier
s4
a. dc current gain,
b. ac current gain,
c. Voltage gain,
ic
d. Power gain,
9. Logic gates
a. OR gate: High output when either of the input is high, otherwise low output,
ys
b. AND gate: High output when both the input ar high, otherwise low output,
c. NOT gate: High output when the input is low, and vice versa.

d. NAND gate: Low output when both inputs are high, otherwise the output is high,
Ph

e. NOR gate: High output when both the input are low, otherwise the output is low,


Unit-10 Communication Systems
1. Modulation factor,
2. If and are the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the carrier wave, then,
3. Modulating voltage, and carrier voltage,

4. For A.M. wave :
l
a. Carrier frequency =
al
b. USB= LSB
c. Bandwidth
5. The range of TV transmission, where h=height of antenna and R=radius of earth
6. Maximum distance covered in LOS communication,
s4
ic
ys
Ph

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XII PHYSICS

(Electric Charges and Fields, Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance)

Where  is a unit vector along the dipole axis from q to +q.

    

Here   !2=dipole moment. For  ,  can be neglected compared to   .

As shown in the figure, consider an electric dipole of charges

Electric filed at point P due to +q charge is

1  2  cos 6  2    7

,, 1   .   =>((   2, '? (+()*') &',+( @,@(-*

If the point P is located far away from the dipole,  , then

Force exerted on charge +q by field   along

CDD       0

'. (. F   ! 2 sin 6   ! 2 sin 6

As the direction of torque F is perpendicular to both  and , we can write

 N &?  N &?

Consider a thin infinitely long straight wire having a uniform linear

M  \ &YX cos 0  \ &Y cos 90  \ &Y% cos 90

M  \ &YX  ! ( ,` )ab(& ?a`)(

of shell is concentrated at its centre.

Flux through the Gaussian surface, M  ! 4

Consider a positive point charge Q

1   cos 6   cos 6 1 2 cos 6

Consider a dipole with charges X   -&    placed

When an electric dipole of dipole moment 0 is held at an angle 6

If W is the work done in turning the dipole from 90 to , then

r eu . So, the reduced electric field will be

Now capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is given by

Charge on either plate is t  ef  j f

Figure shows two capacitors connected in series. A potential

The potential difference across each capacitor is

15. Two capacitors of capacitance SU , Sd are connected parallel. Find their

Figure shows two capacitors connected in series. A potential

will have constant potential difference but different charges given by

Total charge stored in the combination is

If Wu is the equivalent capacitance of the combination, then

The above equation is the vector form of Ohms law.

Volume of the conductor = Al

Also current density 

Comparing the above equation with  e we get

Note: For n cells of EMF and internal resistance r

,, '- ?'@+( =   -&,  

Note: For m rows of cells of emf and internal resistance r.

Wheatstone bridge: It is a measuring instrument used to determine the resistance of

and from closed loop CBDC

Meter Bridge (Slide Wire Bridge):

To compare EMF of two cells:

so that the galvanometer is connected to jX . The jockey is

moved along the wire till at a point N1, at a distance l1

Similarly, if another emf  is balanced against l2 (AN2)

To find internal resistance: To find the internal

But, j    g-& i  g. >'? .'b(?

(Moving charge and Magnetism, Magnetism and Matter)

Figure depicts a circular loop carrying a steady current I. The loop is

from the element to the axial point.

magnetic field at P due to entire circular loop is

At the centre of the current loop,  x

Expression for Period of Revolution and Frequency:

Note: Maximum KE of the accelerated ions (if asked)

The maximum K.E. of the ions will be

Consider a conductor PQ of length l, area of

The total force on the conductor is C  `  -f+(2b x /

(i) If = 0 or 180, then C  +/ 0  0

(ii) If = 90, then C  + sin 90  +/  C

Let a long straight conductor of infinite length carry current I.

Where is a unit vector along the dipole axis from q to +q.

Here !2=dipole moment. For , can be neglected compared to .

1 2 cos 6 2 7

,, 1 . =>(( 2, '? (+()') &',+( @,@(-

If the point P is located far away from the dipole, , then

Force exerted on charge +q by field along

CDD 0

'. (. F ! 2 sin 6 ! 2 sin 6

As the direction of torque F is perpendicular to both and , we can write

N &? N &?

M \ &YX cos 0 \ &Y cos 90 \ &Y% cos 90

M \ &YX ! ( ,` )ab(& ?a`)(

Flux through the Gaussian surface, M ! 4

1 cos 6 cos 6 1 2 cos 6

Consider a dipole with charges X -& placed

Charge on either plate is t ef j f

Also current density

Comparing the above equation with e we get

,, '- ?'@+( = -&,

Similarly, if another emf is balanced against l2 (AN2)

But, j g-& i g. >'? .'b(?

At the centre of the current loop, x

The total force on the conductor is C ` -f+(2b x /

(i) If = 0 or 180, then C +/ 0 0

(ii) If = 90, then C + sin 90 +/ C

F C,)( x ((-&')a+ &'?*-)( / ! sin 6 /f sin 6

But f @, the magnetic moment of the loop, so

F @/ sin 6 , '- b(), -,*',- F @

is the area of the plane of the loop, say A.

Working: Let / -(-?' ,` @.-(*') `'(+&,

given by , =>(( (?,'-. ,a( ( a-'* ='? -& &(`+()*',-.

=>(( '? )++(& +b-,@(( ),-?-*.

+(* .+b-,@(( (?'?-)(,

+(* .+b-,@(( (?'?-)(,

Total resistance of the circuit g

A voltmeter is a high resistance galvanometer. Its effective resistance is g g

&= F&6 @/ sin 6 &6

When @ -& /

Magnetic flux linked with each turn /f -f

Self- inductance of the long solenoid, - +f

Let + +(-.> ,` ()> ?,+(-,'&, X , &'' ,` >( *=, ?,+(-,'&?,

X , -a@( ,` a-? ,` >( *=, ?,+(-,'&?

(* -,. ,` a-? '- >( ),'+, f `)( ( ,` ()> *a-,

/ @.-('a&( ,` >( @.-(') `'(+&,

Where /f ( b+a( ,` '-&a)(& (@`.

\ & \ sin * . &* , cos * sin *

For a.c ` -& `, &. ). , ` 0 ?, ,

>( ,b( (a',- .'b(? '@(&-)( g

- , - tanX

Suppose a capacitor of capacitance C, initially charged to be connected to an inductor of

'u bu ' b >(-)(