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The future of comminution

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 34th IOC on Mining and Metallurgy, 30 Sept.-3 Oct.2002, Hotel Jezero, Bor Lake, Yugoslavia

THE FUTURE OF COMMINUTION

Walter Valery, Aleksandar Jankovic

JKMRC, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

ABSTRACT

Public demand for the Sustainable Development and CO2 reduction will increase the pressure for more
energy efficient comminution. To assess the avenues for reduction of energy required for comminution with
already available technologies, modeling and simulations were undertaken using data from a nominated mining
site. They were directed to calculate comminution energy consumption for a conventional blasting/SAG/ball
mill circuit and an alternative high intensity blasting/High Pressure Grinding Rolls/Verti mill circuit. The
simulation work has indicated that energy savings in excess of 45 % are with application of high intensity
blasting, High Pressure Grinding Rolls and the stirred milling technology. Obtained results illustrate that more
efficient comminution of ores is just around the corner.

Key words: energy, comminution, blasting, HPGR, SAG, ball, Verti mill, efficiency.

INTRODUCTION

One of the most important steps in the mining and processing of mineral ores is
comminution, which is the term used to describe processes directed toward size
reduction. Size reduction is necessary in both underground and surface-mining
operations, and for almost all mineral ores. The three most important comminution
processes are blasting, crushing, and grinding. Because most of the energy consumed in
mining occurs during comminution processes, there are tremendous energy and cost
benefits that can be realised by optimising the comminution circuit. Comminution is also
the largest single source of greenhouse gases (GHG), through the generation of power
required to operate the comminution processes and steel consumption required as
grinding media for tumbling mills (SAG and ball mills).
A great deal of attention has recently been focused on optimising crushing and
grinding through blast optimisation, and in particular, by optimising the size distribution
of post-blast fragmentation. Studies have shown that enormous amounts of energy can
be saved by optimising the size distribution of blasted rock fragments for specific
downstream operations, be it mill processing, leaching, or waste dumping (1, 2, 3).
The results presented in this paper demonstrate that energy savings in excess of
45% are possible by introduction of high intensity blasting, high-pressure grinding rolls
and stirred milling technology.

METHODS OF REDUCING ENERGY CONSUMPTION

The comminution energy consumption is strongly related to the type of ore and to
the size of the grinding product. Crushing produces material typically coarser than 5 mm
and consumes relatively low levels of energy. Milling, on the other hand, produces very
fine products (often below 0.1 mm) and it is very energy intensive. Figure 1 shows the
Bond based calculated energy consumption relationship with the product size for a
hypothetical hard ore. It can be seen that most of the energy is consumed for milling and
that consumption rises sharply for product sizes below 1 mm. It would therefore be

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correct to conclude that significant energy savings can be achieved by the reduction of
energy required for the production of fine particles. This can be achieved by:

Comminuting less material

Comminuting more efficiently
Blast Induced Fragmentation

40

35
energy consumption ( kWh/t)

30

25

20
milling
15

10
crushing
5

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
80% passing size (mm)

Fig. 1 Comminution energy consumption as function of product size

Comminute less material

This is the most obvious way of reducing comminution costs in general and energy
consumption in particular. There are three options:
Ore sorting, using optical, radiometric, magnetic or other characterisation
principles.
Pre-concentration, using dense medium separation or froth separation (coarse
grind followed by coarse particle flotation).
Improved mining practice, to reduce dilution by waste. This may offer the
largest single benefit in some applications.

Comminute more efficiently

Comminution circuits are rarely designed (or even operated) to minimize energy
consumption. The initial capital cost is a more common driver in their design. There is
no doubt that many circuits can be made more energy-efficient by modifying their
design or operating conditions. Options here include:

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Redistribution of power (capacity) between comminution machines, e.g.

crushers, AG/SAG mills and ball mills, and between stages (primary, secondary and
regrind),
Use of alternative comminution machines, e.g. high-pressure grinding rolls
(HPGR), pebble crushers, stirred mills, less use of AG/SAG mills.
Correct selection and operation of classifiers, particularly hydrocyclones.
Optimising process control to operate comminution machinery closer to the
optimum for longer periods of time.

Blast-induced fragmentation

The role of drilling and blasting, in its crudest sense, is to efficiently break rock to
facilitate extraction of the valuable mineral contained within or below it - it is the first
comminution stage and is arguably the most energy efficient method of size reduction.
As an explosive detonates, a self-sustaining shock wave travels through it, driving
the chemical reaction that gives off energy and various gases and solid particles. The
speed at which this shock wave travels through the explosive is known as the velocity of
detonation (VOD). For commercial blasting explosives, this VOD is usually 4000-7000
m/s. The shattering is largely due to the high dynamic pressure in the shock front of the
detonation wave that passes through the explosive and out into the surrounding medium.
Behind the shock front, the explosive pressure created from high reaction temperatures
causes the borehole to expand radially to a quasi-static equilibrium. The stress wave in
the surrounding rock attenuates due to geometric spreading as well as losses associated
with its interaction with the rockmass. If the stress exceeds the compressive strength of
the intact rock it will fail. This process takes energy from the expanding stress wave and
attenuates it further. At some point, the stress will drop below the strength of the intact
rock and radial cracking from the induced hoop stress will become the dominant
breakage mechanism. The transition from compressive to tensile failure is evident in
practice (see Figure 2) and well documented in the literature (4, 5). The region that fails
due to compression is termed the crushed zone and results in relatively fine fragments,
while the cracked zone produces relatively coarse fragmentation from tensile failure.
The fragmentation in the cracked zone is also influenced by the pre-existing fractures in
the rockmass.
Many models were developed in the past to predict blasting fragmentation. More
recently two models were developed at JKMRC to improve the prediction of the fine end
of the size distribution. The Crush Zone Model (CZM) (6) uses a semi-mechanistic
approach to calculate the volume of crushed material around each blast hole while
Djordjevic (7) utilised small-scale blasting to experimentally derive the fine end of the
distribution in the Two-Component Model (TCM).

New Grinding Technologies

There are several new technologies which may offer energy savings if
incorporated optimally in the comminution circuit. The most prospective is the HPGR,
for which a good deal of information (and a JKMRC model) now exists. Other

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technologies include modified crusher designs, modified mill liners and grates, roller
mills, and stirred mills such as the Verti mill.

Fig. 2 Photo of a blasted concrete cylinder clearly showing the zones

of different breakage mechanisms

High pressure grinding roll (HPGR)

High pressure particle-bed comminution using double-roll mills was introduced by

Professor Schonert. The HPGR resemble conventional rolls but are more similar to
compacting rolls as used for potash compacting. The rolls of the larger units measure 1.0
m to 2.4 m diameter by 0.8 to 1.6 m wide. Circumferential speed is usually 1 to 2 m/s
and energy consumption in the single pass is in the range 1.5 to 5 kWh/t. The rating of
the installed motors may be up to 4.5 MW and the capacity of the largest units reaches
1800 t/h (8). There are several manufacturers of HPGR, for example KHD, Krupp
POLYSIUS, KOPPERN.
The basic machine concept is simple. The material is force-fed into the unit by
creating a head of material over the machine, as seen in Figure 3. The material is drawn
in by two counter-rotating rolls which crush the material under great hydraulic pressure.
The rolls are designed so that one roll is fixed and other is floating, being forced toward
the fixed roll by means of hydraulic pressure. The gap between the rolls is constantly
varying due to the draw in characteristics of the material. As the hydraulic pressure is
increased, the amount of fines increases and the particle size distribution curve is not as
steep as is observed with other types of grinding equipment.
The reduction ratio obtained in one pass through the HPGR unit is substantially
higher than that obtained in conventional roll crushers. Further, the micro-fractures
caused during passage through the HPGR results in better disintegration of material
during subsequent downstream crushing.
The primary cost saving aspect with the HPGR is the reduction in energy cost. The
HPGR is known to be between 20-50% more energy efficient than conventional crushers
and mills (9). Hence the technology has the potential of dramatically reducing the
comminution energy consumption. Additionally, the circuit capacity can increase by as
much as 100% over the current level.

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Nitrogen cylinder Feed

Oil cylinders Moveable roll Fixed roll

Product

Fig. 3 Principle of operation of High Pressure Grinding Rolls

The HPGR can be located in many areas of a plant and used as either a primary or
secondary crusher. Many industries have used this equipment as a pre-crusher to a
tertiary ball mill to help reduce the power and media consumption of the existing units.
Further, it has also been used as a pebble crusher in a SAG mill circuit. In other
applications, the HPGR has been used as a primary crusher, handling feed material as
large as 150 mm.

Stirred mills

A number of devices are now available which fall in the broad category of mills
which use a stirrer to provide motion to the grinding media. In the last twenty years these
mills have drawn interest from mineral processors, although they have been well known
in other industries (paints and pigments, pharmaceutical, herbicides, chemical
technology, etc.) for a much longer time. Conventional grinding equipment has serious
limitations in the fine grinding area and hence the industry is looking for alternative
equipment. For example, the Tower mill, invented in the 1950s in Japan, is increasingly
being used in the mineral processing industry for fine grinding applications. The mills

Tower mill SAM mill

Fig.4 Stirred mills

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operate by the use of a helical screw which induces rotation of the ball charge and are
claimed to be able to operate at much reduced energy consumption levels as well as
being able to significantly decrease particle size well below levels obtainable by ball
mills. The Sala agitated mill (SAM) shown in Figure 4 is one of the vertical pin stirrer
mills which are also being introduced in the mineral processing industry.
Processing experience has shown that stirred mills are more energy efficient (by up
to 50%) than conventional ball mills for products finer then ~100 m (10, 11). One of
the reasons for this is that stirred mills can be operated with smaller media sizes. This
gives a particle/media ratio more suitable for fine grinding. In addition, the high power
density in some stirred mills means that they are smaller in size for the same production
rate compared to ball mills and they require smaller floor space.
Verti mills were successfully applied in a tertiary grinding application (12). Using
38 mm grinding media, ore was efficiently reduced from 0.5 mm to 0.22 mm. The Verti
mill was also used in a secondary milling of phosphate rock (Lichter and Zandberg,
1994). It was charged with 15-20 mm balls and fed with the rod mill product with size
ranging between 1.0 0.5 mm. These two examples confirm that Verti mills can be
applied for coarser grinding and offer an alternative to many secondary milling
applications.
In summary, stirred milling technology can be used in most secondary and fine
milling applications. It is more efficient than the ball milling as it can utillise smaller
grinding media. The energy efficiency, compared to ball mills, increases for finer
product sizes.

THE CASE STUDY

The case study was carried out on a base metal mine to assess the effect of a change
in ore blasting and the implementation of different crushing and grinding equipment.
The blasting and comminution simulations were carried out using the models developed
at JKMRC. The models were developed based on data obtained from the surveys of the
current mine operation, pilot testwork and data available from other operations. The
effect of changed blasting practices as well as use of different grinding equipment was
examined;

1. SAG mill circuit current operation

2. High pressure grinding rolls (HPGR) followed wit the verti mill

All of the blast fragmentation modelling conducted for this study uses the Crush
Zone Model. It has been demonstrated at many sites to be acceptably accurate and the
best model for this exercise. A summary of the standard and alternative blast designs is
presented in Table 1. The rock mass properties and the explosive properties have been
kept constant for all cases. The only difference between designs BD1 and BD3 is the
burden and spacing. BD2 also reduces the hole size with a corresponding reduction in
stemming and sub-drill.

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Table 1 Summary of Blast Designs

BD1 BD2 BD3
Bench Height (m) 15 15 15
Burden (m) 9 2 5
Spacing (m) 10.35 2.3 5.75
Hole Diameter (mm) 311 102 311
Sub-drill (m) 3 1 3
Stemming Length (m) 6.5 3 6.5
Staggered (Y/N) Y Y Y
Explosive Type PG2560 PG2560 PG2560
Explosive Length (m) 11.5 13 11.5
Density (kg/m3) 1230 1230 1230
VOD (m/s) 5300 5300 5300
RWS 85 85 85
Rock Density (kg/m3) 2550 2550 2550
Youngs Modulus (GPa) 37 37 37
UCS (MPa) 84 84 84
Mean In situ Block Size (m) 0.9 0.9 0.9
Powder Factor (kg/m3) 0.77 1.89 2.49
Cost* ($/tonne) 0.30 0.93 0.89

* Note: Indicative costs only

Different parameters influence different parts of the blasting product size

distribution. For example, the VOD of the explosive and the intact rock strength
predominantly affect the amount of fines, while the rockmass structure (jointing) and
pattern dimensions control the coarse end of the size distribution. The changes
employed in these alternative designs are not too radical and there is certainly room for
more improvement. In order to keep the number of alternative designs to a minimum,
the aim of this exercise was to reduce the burden and spacing to a minimum considering
the size of the drills. Some additional fragmentation and corresponding reduction of
downstream comminution energy could be achieved for all patterns, by using improved
explosive products but these have not been included at this stage.

SAG mill circuit current operation

In this case study the ore is mined from an open pit. The ore is blasted and then
transported to the primary crusher where the size reduction takes place to the size
required for feeding to the SAG mill. Blasting is carried out typically using a powder
factor of around 0.77 kg/m3 (i.e. 0.77 kg of explosive for each cubic metre of rock
blasted). This corresponds to 0.33 kWh/t of blasting energy. The simplified
mining/grinding flowsheet is presented in Figure 5.

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Typical results from the current operation are presented in Table 2, column 1. These
results are used as a benchmark for estimating the effects of changes in mining/grinding
practice on energy consumption. It can be seen that the total comminution energy
(crushing, SAG, ball mill) for this circuit is 23.3 kWh/t.

Muckpile

Primary
crusher

Stockpile

Cyclones

Ball mill
SAG

Fig. 5 Simplified mining/grinding flowsheet with SAG mill

The effect of blasting on the grinding circuit performance was simulated using the
blast fragmentation model to generate ROM size distributions for different blast designs.
It can be seen from Table 2 that by increasing the powder factor from 0.77 to 2.49 kg/m3,
the ROM P80 (80 % passing size) reduced from 430 mm to 155 mm. The primary
crusher product was then simulated using the primary crusher model and the ROM ore as
a feed to produce the SAG mill feed size distribution. The simulated SAG mill feed size
distributions for the different blast designs (BD1, 2 and 3) are presented in Fig. 6. It can
be seen that very fine SAG feed was obtained at higher powder factors. The large
increase in fines (-1 mm) is a direct result of more explosive energy while the decrease
in P80 is due to the reduced crusher gap. It was possible to close the crusher gap
significantly as the fraction of coarse rock in the ROM ore was significantly reduced due

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to higher explosive energy. It can be seen from Table 2 that the SAG mill feed F80 was
reduced from 170 mm to 91 mm.

100
bd1
90
bd2
80
bd3
70
cum%pass

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
size (mm)

Fig. 6 SAG mill feed for three different blast designs (bd1, 2 and 3)

The simulation results of the SAG/ball mill circuit with feed size distributions from
Figure 6 are presented in Table 2. It can be seen that with blast designs 2 and 3 (BD2,
BD3), the SAG milling circuit specific energy reductions of 7.65% and 13.7% were
obtained. The energy savings are due to the increased production of material at final
product size (-0.212 mm) and more efficient SAG operation with the favourable
fragmentation from the high intensity blast.

Table 2 Simulation results for SAG mill circuit and the HPGR / Verti mill circuit
Benchmark Simulation 1 Simulation 2 Simulation 3
Blast design BD1 BD2 BD3 BD3
Powder Factor (kg/m3) 0.77 1.89 2.49 2.49
Blast energy (kWh/t of rock) 0.33 0.80 1.06 1.06
ROM P80 (mm) 430 220 155 155
SAG/HPGR feed F80 (mm) 170 102 91 70
minus 212 um in crushed product (%) 2.4 9.62 13.3 13.6
Crushing energy consumption (kWh/t) 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.19
SAG/HPGR energy consumption (kWh/t) 14.46 12.68 11.25 3.66
Ball/Verti mill energy consuption(kWh/t) 8.71 8.73 8.75 7.75
Comminution energy Total (kWh/t) 23.33 21.55 20.12 11.6
Blasting + Comminution energy (kWh/t) 23.66 22.35 21.18 12.66
Energy saving (%) - 7.6 13.7 46.6

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High Intensity Blasting, HPGR, followed by the Verti mill Design for the
Future

Public demand for the Sustainable Development and CO2 reduction will increase
the pressure for more energy efficient comminution. It was demonstrated that high
intensity blasting can reduce the energy consumption in the conventional SAG/ball mill
circuit significantly, however it can not eliminate its inherent inefficiency. More efficient
comminution machines are required. As mentioned earlier, High Pressure Grinding Rolls
technology (HPGR) has been implemented in many grinding applications and proven to
increase the grinding circuit energy efficiency. The JKMRC HPGR model based on the
pilot plant testwork results was used this case study. The model was used to simulate the
performance of the HPGR in the simplified flowsheet presented in Figure 7. The HPGR
replaces the secondary and the tertiary crushing stages (including screening). To break
up the compacted product from the HPGR, a teeth crusher (MMD) is suggested. Two
stages of HPGR can produce material with P80 of 1.5 mm that can be then feed directly
to a Verti mill.
Apart from higher energy efficiency, there are strong indications that the
microfractures caused during passage through through the HPGR results in a reduction
of material resistance to subsequent milling. The degree of weakening depends on the
type of ore. To assess the potential, a Bond ball mill test was carried out on the sample
prepared as feed for the laboratory HPGR test. The product from the laboratory HPGR
was also tested. The Bond work index for the HPGR product was 23% lower (24.0 vs.
31.2 kWh/t). It suggests that if the HPGR product is fed to the Verti mill, an additional
20% reduction in energy consumption for milling can be expected due to weakening of
the material.
It was stated earlier that most of the energy is consumed in the final stage of the
grinding process where the particle size is reduced from approximately 1 mm down to
the final product size below 0.2 mm. This grinding stage is traditionally performed by
ball mills. Ball mills consume about twice as much energy as crushers for the same size
reduction ratio and are regarded as energy inefficient devices. One of the major reasons
for this is the disproportion between the grinding ball size and the particle size.
Generally, the grinding balls in industrial applications are significantly oversized (13).
Reasons for that are operational as well as commercial. The results from the laboratory
and pilot studies that show significant increase in grinding efficiency with smaller ball
size, often can not be proven in practice. It seems that big ball mills cannot efficiently
transfer the motion in the small ball environment which leads to creation of grinding
inactive regions in the ball charge. This can significantly reduce the overall grinding
efficiency. Combined with usually higher prices for smaller balls, the overall economics
with smaller balls are less favorable.
Stirred mills have proven to be more energy efficient than ball mills mainly due to
the fact that they can use much smaller grinding media efficiently. Their superiority is
proven in regrinding and fine grinding operations where 50% reduction in energy
compared to ball mills can be achieved in some applications. The Verti mills were
successfully applied for coarser grinding (12, 14). Apart from the energy efficiency, the
Verti mills have lower capital costs (10).

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High Intensity Blast

Primary
crusher

HPGR HPGR
Stockpile

MMD MMD

Cyclones

Verti mill

Fig. 7 Simplified mining/HPGR/verti mill flowsheet

The simulation results for the blasting/grinding flowsheet presented in Figure 7 are
given in the last column of the Table 2. It can be seen that compared to the current
conventional blasting/grinding circuit the energy consumption is 46.6 % lower. The
energy savings is coming from high intensity blasting, high HPGR and Verti mill
efficiency. In addition, the new circuit is more stable and easier to operate compared to
traditionally unstable SAG ciruits.

CONCLUSION

In order to achieve significant savings in comminution energy (and thus lower GHG
emissions), it is unlikely that business as usual is an acceptable strategy. New
approaches are required, and these may differ for greenfield and brownfield
developments and existing production facilities.
Modeling and simulations were undertaken using data from a nominated mining
site. They were directed to calculate comminution energy consumption for a variety of
scenarios, incorporating variations in:
Circuit design
Machine selection
Feed size (based on mine fragmentation).
The simulation work has indicated that energy savings in excess of 45 % are
possible by introduction of high intensity blasting, high-pressure grinding rolls and
stirred milling technology. The potential benefits are great and therefore it is is believed
that the brighter future for comminution is coming very soon.

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