LEEB MJERENJE TVRDOE

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Hard and Fast Rules for Portable Hardness Testing

The necessity of on-site component inspection drove development of portable hardness
testers, until today there are a variety of portable testing
instruments to choose from

BY JAMES FULTZ

Fig. 1 Illustration showing how the impact body travels

through the guide tube of a rebound method portable
hardness testing machine.

Almost from the time hardness testing was first conceived,

a need existed for portable instruments that could safely
inspect large components on-site. Technology has improved
the performance of today's portable testers and they are
being used to perform incoming inspections, in-process
testing, and failure analysis.

Portables are intended to complement benchtop testers. There is a common misconception

that if a portable hardness tester displays a Rockwell or Brinell scale, it can be substituted for
a benchtop model without question. Since portables use different loads and indenters, the
material's work hardening behavior and elastic properties may not respond to testing with
similar results. Therefore, before using a portable, studies should be performed to verify
proper correlation with a benchtop tester.

Proper selection of a portable hardness tester requires an understanding of various methods to

identify and control the factors that can contribute to their measurement uncertainty. These
factors include microstructure and elastic modulus of the material, as well as size, shape, and
surface finish of the part.

This article covers three entirely different approaches to portable hardness testing: rebound,
ultrasonic contact impedence (UCI), and through indenter viewing (TIV). Explanations
follow on the principles behind each method, how to perform the test, examples of
applications, and influencing factors.

Leeb or Rebound Method

Fig. 2 The voltage generated by the impact body traveling through one coil.
 The Leeb method, commonly referred to as the
rebound method, determines hardness from
voltages generated by the electromagnetic
induction principle.

Pressing the button on top of the impact device

releases a spring that propels an impact body
through a guide tube toward the part's surface, as
shown in Fig. 1. The impact body passes
through a coil surrounding the guide tube. The motion of the impact body's magnet through
the coil creates a voltage across the coil windings. When the impact body's indenter strikes
the part, a portion of its energy is lost in the material. The softer the material, the greater the
energy loss and the slower the rebound velocity. The magnet returning through the coil
creates a second voltage whose amplitude is relative to the velocity of the impact body.
Figure 2 illustrates the voltage generated by the impact body traveling through one coil. The
instrument calculates and displays the Leeb hardness value HL from the ratio of the two
voltages based on the following equation:

A variety of impact devices are available, with the D device being the most common model.
The D device has a 3-mm-diameter tungsten carbide ball indenter and a spring force to create
an indentation size suitable for homogeneous materials. The E device provides the same
spring force as the D device but uses a 3-mm-diameter diamond indenter for testing parts in
excess of 50 HRC. The G device uses a larger 5-mm-diameter tungsten carbide ball indenter
and a heavier spring to create a larger indentation, which is necessary for testing coarse-
grained forgings and castings. Some manufacturers provide variants of the D device for use
when access is limited.

Rebound Applications
The rebound method requires large, massive parts. Due to its large indentation size, it is the
best solution for coarse-grained castings and forgings. Examples of applications include the
following:

Steel mill rolls

Engine blocks

Shafts or axles

Extrusion dies

Crane wheel pulleys.

Factors Influencing the Rebound Method

 The rebound method creates a large force of short duration during impact. Thin and
lightweight parts may yield, causing erroneous and random readings. For example, the
D device requires a minimum weight of 5 kg and a minimum wall thickness of 20
mm. Smaller parts can be tested but require the aid of an additional support fixture.

Gravity affects the velocity of the impact body; therefore, as the test direction
changes, a correction factor is required. Most testers require the operator to manually
input any changes to the direction prior to performing a test. However, more advanced
instruments sense the direction and compensate automatically.

The measured HL value is not frequently specified in test procedures. To display the
common Brinell and Rockwell scales, the operator must choose the appropriate
material group to select a conversion table created for a specific Young's modulus.
Since conversion tables are based on empirical relationships, they must be considered
only approximations.

The tungsten carbide ball indenter of the D and G devices may become flattened,
causing high readings, or, for all models, the guide tube may require cleaning to
prevent low readings. Periodic checks on a test block will detect these conditions.

Ultrasonic Contact Impedance (UCI) Method

Fig. 3 Illustration showing the ultrasonic contact

impedence method determines hardness by measuring the
frequency of the oscillating rod.

The UCI principle determines hardness by measuring the

frequency of an oscillating rod, as shown in Fig. 3. The rod
consists of a metal shaft with two pairs of piezoelectric
ceramics affixed along its length and a pyramid-shaped
Vickers diamond mounted on one end. One pair of ceramics
excites the rod into oscillating at an ultrasonic frequency of
approximately 70 kHz and the other pair monitors its
frequency.

To perform a measurement, the diamond is forced into the material by either spring pressure
or a motor. A proximity switch senses when the full load is achieved and instantly measures
the frequency and compares it to the frequency in air. The frequency shift is relatively small
for hard materials and becomes larger as the indentation increases in size. The instrument
converts the frequency shift to an HV value using the following formula:

where f = frequency shift, A = area of indentation, Eelast = Young's modulus, HV = Vickers

hardness value, and F = test load.

Ultrasonic contact impedence probes use loads ranging from 100 gf to 10 kgf. For areas
difficult to access, special models that include extended length and shortened probes are
available. Some models use a motor to apply loads below 1 kgf in a controlled manner.
Examples of various UCI probes are shown in Fig. 4.

UCI Applications
The UCI method requires homogenous fine-grained materials. Its shallow penetration makes
it possible to test thin casehardened components. The probe design allows testing in any
direction, on complex shapes without elaborate fixturing, and on assembled components
without costly disassembly.

Examples of applications include the following:

Heat-affected zone of welds

Gears

Camshafts and crankshafts

Stamping dies

Chrome plating.

Fig. 4 Examples of UCI probes.

Factors Influencing the UCI Method

As indicated in Equation 2, the frequency shift depends not only on the size of the
contact area but also on the elastic modulus of the material. Probes for the UCI
method are factory calibrated on certified hardness reference plates of nonalloyed and
low-alloyed steels. To test another material having a different elastic modulus requires
fabricating a reference standard from a prepared coupon of the material. This can then
be used to properly calibrate the instrument.

Sufficient mass and thickness are required to prevent the part from going into self-
oscillation. Requirements for the UCI method are not as demanding as the rebound
method. In fact, the size of most standard test blocks is adequate for testing.

Due to the relatively shallow indentations created, special attention must be given to
the surface condition and preparation of the part. The indentation must be large in
comparison to the surface roughness. If surface preparation is required, care must be
taken not to alter the surface hardness by overheating.

Alignment of the probe with respect to the surface is important to create a proper
indentation for measurement. Fixtures aid in alignment and should be used whenever
possible. When testing conditions require handheld measurement, operator technique
will influence the results and additional variation in the results should be expected.

The UCI method is best suited for materials having a homogeneous microstructure.
The small size of the sampled area is unable to provide consistent and dependable
results on most cast and forged materials.
 Fig. 5 Hardness testing on
different materials using the
through indenter viewing
method. A Steel; B sheet
steel; C Teflon; D glass.

Through Indenter Viewing (TIV) Method

The TIV method is an optical hardness measurement. This method is unique in that you can
actually see the indentation being created as the test load is being applied. Images of various
materials are shown in Fig. 5.

The measurement technique is quite simple. As the force is applied to a spring, a special lens
in combination with a CCD lens digitizes and displays an image of the indenter penetrating
the material. Figure 6 provides a look at the probe's internal workings. When the test load is
attained, the image is frozen, the indentation diagonals are automatically measured, and the
value is displayed. In addition, the image provides a quick check of the quality of the
measured value and the indenter's condition.

TIV Applications
Fig. 6 Schematic of the inside of a TIV method hardness tester. The TIV method provides a
Vickers hardness value on all materials without additional calibration. Mass and thickness
have no influence on the results.

The following are examples of TIV applications:

Thin sheet material

Heat damage assessment

Engineering plastics

Ceramics

Glass.

Factors Influencing the TIV Method

The hardness range is dependent on the magnification of the optical system. For
example a 5-kgf probe has a range of 100 to 1000 HV and a 1-kgf probe provides a
range from 30 to 500 HV.

Displayed scales other than HV are from conversion tables and are subject to their
inaccuracies.

The optical system requires a large probe housing limiting its ability to access
difficult-to-reach areas.
Conclusion
Just as Rockwell and Brinell benchtop testers require a variety of indenters and test loads to
inspect a variety of materials and components, one portable hardness test method cannot be
expected to handle all applications. Achieving the best portable hardness solution begins with
selecting the right test method based on physical size and microstructure of the part. The
rebound method is preferred on larger, coarse-grained forgings and castings, while the UCI
method tests small and complexly shaped parts comprised of fine-grained materials. The TIV
method also requires fine-grained materials but, unlike the other two methods, it requires no
calibration and is unaffected by part weight and thickness. v

http://www.ndt.net/article/v06n09/frank/frank.htm

NDT.net - Sep 2001, Vol. 06 No. 09

Innovations in Portable Hardness Testing

Dr. Stefan Frank
Krautkramer GmbH
Robert-Bosch-Str. 3, D-50354 Hrth, Germany
Tel.: +49 2233 601-288
Fax.: +49 2233 601-345
Corresponding Author Contact:
Email: SFrank@KRAUTKRAMER.DE, Web: http://www.krautkramer.com

Abstract

Conventional hardness testers, like Rockwell, Brinell or Vickers machines, require the
test piece be brought to the testing device; but this is not always possible. Portable
testing devices have been developed that permit in-situ and on-site hardness
measurements thus offering quick and economical supplements to conventional,
stationary testing machines.
1. Introduction

1.1 What is "Hardness"?

With regard to metals, hardness has always been a subject of much discussion among
technical people, resulting in a wide range of definitions. Hardness properties include
such varied attributes as resistance to abrasives, resistance to plastic deformation, high
modulus of elasticity, high yield point, high strength, absence of elastic damping,
brittleness or lack of ductility.

To a metallurgist, hardness is a materials resistance to penetration. In general, an

indenter is pressed into the surface of the material to be tested under a specific load
for a definite time interval, and a measurement is made of the size or depth of the
indentation. Hardness is not a fundamental property of a material, but a response to a
particular test method. Basically hardness values are arbitrary, and there are no
absolute standards for hardness. It has no quantitative value, except in terms of a
given load applied in a specific, reproducible manner and with a specified indenter
shape.

Static indentation tests in which a ball, cone or pyramid penetrates into the surface of
the material being tested are widespread. The relationship of load to the area or depth
of indentation is the measure of hardness, such as in common bench-top Brinell,
Rockwell, Vickers or Knoop hardness testers.

The different methods and differently shaped indenters used by e.g. Brinell and
Rockwell produce dissimilar responses of the material under test. So-called
conversion tables relating to HRC and HB values are only approximations - there
exists no mathematical equation to transfer measurements from one scale to another.
Conversion tables have to be determined empirically by experimental evaluation of a
specific materials hardness with the different test methods. To compare the hardness
of two different samples, both must be measured using the same hardness scale, or a
scale must be developed to convert from one measurement to the other.

1.2 Why hardness testing?

In manufacturing applications, materials are primarily tested for two reasons: either to
research the characteristics of a new material or as a quality check to ensure that the
sample meets a particular specification.

1.3 On-site hardness testing?

Mobile hardness testing is on the advance in the field of on-site application within the
modern production process and plays an ever increasing part when testing large
geometry parts and positions which are difficult to access. The test piece needs no
longer to be cut and to be brought to the hardness tester - today mobile handheld
instruments allow measurements to be made on the spot.

There are two different physical methods particularly recognized in the practical field
and which are accepted tools for many applications. The application possibilities are
far ranging, this includes large as well as small parts, and especially applies to
positions which are difficult to access.
 Fig 1: Hardness testing with a UCI instrument Fig 2: Hardness testing with a rebound tester
on the tooth flanks of a pinion shaft. on the drive wheel of a large hydraulic digger.

One popular device measures the frequency shift of a resonating rod having a Vickers-
diamond tip, which occurs when the diamond penetrates into the test material by
applying a specific test load. The frequency shift is evaluated, electronically converted
and displayed as a hardness value on an LCD. MICRODUR instruments work
according this method, using the so-called UCI (Ultrasonic Contact Impedance)
principle (see Fig. 1).

Another well-known principle for portable hardness testers is the rebound method.
Instruments working according to this method measure the velocity of a propelled
impact body directly before and after impact onto the test materials surface. The
ratio between both velocities indicates the hardness of the material, which can be
converted into different scales by using pre-stored conversion tables for different
materials (see Fig. 2).

Krautkramer developed two series of portable hardness testers operating on the UCI
Ultrasonic Contact Impedance principle (MIC 10 instruments) and the rebound
principle (DynaMIC and DynaPOCKET instruments).

2. The UCI Method (MIC 10)

As in standard Vickers or Brinell hardness testing, the question as to the size of the
test indentation in the material generated by a certain test load also arises in Vickers
hardness testing according to the UCI (Ultrasonic Contact Impedance) method.
However, the diagonals of the test indentation, which have to be known in order to
determine the Vickers Hardness value, are not evaluated optically as usual, but the
indentation area is electronically detected by measuring the shift of an ultrasonic
frequency.

A UCI probe typically consists of a Vickers diamond attached to the end of a metal
rod (Fig. 3). This rod is excited into longitudinal oscillation at about 70 kHz by
piezoelectric transducers. Imagine instead of the metal rod (we refer to it as oscillation
rod) a large spiral spring held at the end and oscillating at a resonant frequency of 70
kHz at the free end (Fig. 4).
 Fig 4: UCI principle in an imaginary
experiment: an oscillating spring in
contact with material. The spring
Fig 3: Schematic description of the
symbolizes the oscillating rod, the
UCI probe.
contact plate symbolizes the diamond,
the material springs symbolize the
material and its elastic constants.

At the very top of this spring (free end) there is a contact plate, the Vickers diamond.
The test material, with which the Vickers diamond comes into contact, can also be
imagined as being a system of smaller spiral springs positioned vertically to the
surface - an atomic bonding, two atoms inter-linked via a "spring". If only one of
these "atomic springs" is touched by the Vickers diamond in this imaginary
experiment - like very hard material in which the diamond only slightly penetrates
and thus produces a small indentation - then an additional spring, i.e. mass, is coupled
to the large spiral spring. By doing this, the resonant frequency shifts due to this
additional mass / spring.

This frequency shift will become greater when additional "springs" are touched, that
means if the diamond penetrates deeper into a material of medium hardness, and the
test indentation becomes larger. Analogously, the largest frequency shift is produced
by soft test materials; the diamond penetrates deeper into the material and leaves a
large indentation.

This is the secret of UCI hardness testing: the frequency shift is proportional to the
size of the test indentation produced by the Vickers diamond. Equation (1) describes
this basic relation in comparison to the definition of the Vickers hardness value.

(1)

Equation 1: The Frequency shift is proportional to the indentation size of a Vickers

indentor.
f = frequency shift, A = area of indentation, Eelast = Youngs modulus,
HV = Vickers hardness value, and F= Force applied in the Vickers hardness test.

To carry out the UCI principle, a probe containing a rod with a Vickers diamond
attached to the contact end is resonated by piezoelectric ceramics at an ultrasonic
frequency.
 A spring applies the load and the frequency of the rod changes in proportion to the
contact area of the indentation produced by the Vickers diamond. Therefore the
hardness value is not visually determined by the diagonals of the indent, but by an
electronic measurement of the frequency shift within seconds.

The instrument constantly monitors the frequency, performs the calculation and
instantaneously displays the hardness value.

The frequency shift nevertheless also depends on the Young's modulus of elasticity,
which is a material constant such as the spring constant in our mental experiment. For
the practical application of the UCI-method, the Young's modulus therefore has to be
considered. The instrument has to be calibrated when the hardness of different
materials with different values of the Young's modulus has to be determined.

After completing the calibration, the UCI method can be used for all materials
showing this modulus of elasticity. When being manufactured, the probes are
calibrated on low-alloyed or unalloyed steels; however, modern test instruments can
be calibrated quickly, also at the test location, to other materials as well, such as
titanium or copper.

3. The Rebound method (DynaMIC and DynaPOCKET)

Hardness testers using the Rebound method operate in a slightly different manner.
Although the size of the test indentation generated is connected with the material
hardness even in this case, it is indirectly measured via the loss of energy of a so-
called impact body. Fig. 5 illustrates the physical principle of measurement. A mass is
accelerated to the surface of the test object and impinges on it at a defined speed, i.e.
kinetic energy. The impact creates a plastic deformation of the surface, i.e. an
indentation, due to which the impact body loses part of its original speed - or energy.
It will lose more velocity when creating a bigger indentation on softer material.
Technically, this principle of measurement is implemented by means of an impact
body which has a spherical tungsten carbide tip and which is accelerated onto the test
surface by spring force.

The velocities after and before the impact are each measured in a non-contact mode.
This is done by a small permanent magnet within the impact body (Fig. 6) which
generates an induction voltage during its passage through a coil, with this voltage
being proportional to the speed.

The inventor of this method, D. Leeb, defined his own hardness value, the Leeb
hardness value. The Leeb hardness value, HL, is calculated from the ratio of the
impact and rebound speed according to:

(2)

Equation 2: The Hardness value according to Leeb (HL) is defined as the ratio
between the rebound velocity (vR) after and the impact velocity (vI) before the impact
of the tungsten carbide ball onto the test piece surface.
 Fig 5: The basic principle of the rebound
hardness test.
Fig 6: Cross-cut of a typical impact
d = diameter of indentation,
device.
Epot = potential energy
Ekin = kinetic energy.

You might ask yourself: "Who wants to measure the hardness value in Leeb?". The
answer is: as a matter of fact, anybody who uses the rebound hardness testing method
does it because the Leeb hardness value is, by definition in the equation (2), the actual
physical measurement value behind this method. However, nearly no user indicates
the Leeb hardness value HL in his specifications or test reports. We mostly convert
into the required hardness scales (HV, HB, HS, HRC, HRB, N/mm2 ). For this reason,
only conversion brings the rebound hardness method to life. Empirically determined
conversion tables for different material groups are stored in the DynaMIC and
DynaPOCKET instruments.

To apply the principle, an impact device uses a spring to propel an impact body
through a guide tube towards the test piece. As it travels towards the test piece, a
magnet contained within the impact body generates a signal in a coil encircling the
guide tube. After the impact, it rebounds from the surface inducing a second signal
into the coil. The Krautkramer instrument calculates the hardness value using the ratio
of the voltages and analyzes their phases to automatically compensate for changes in
orientation. Due to the patented signal processing there is no need for any manual
correction for the impact direction. Only the Krautkramer hardness testers DynaMIC
and DynaPOCKET offer this autobalancing feature.

Application solutions are determined by the force and indenter of the impact body.
The operator can select between different impact devices for the DynaMIC (Dyna D,
Dyna E and Dyna G) as well as the DynaPOCKET.

4. Conclusions

Mobile hardness testing instruments will not replace the conventional bench-top
machines, but nevertheless, they became an indispensable addition for hardness
testing units. During the last decades several portable instruments based on different
physical methods were developed. Today portable units are widespread and accepted
tools for portable, on-site hardness testing applications.
Those instruments solve plenty of mobile hardness testing tasks, but however, each
method is limited - more or less - to a specific application area and, therefore, the
decision as to which method and instrument to use strongly depends on the testing
application.