P309 Intermediate Lab, Indiana University Dept.

of Physics

Lab #3: Operational Amplifiers

Goal: So far we have looked at passive circuits composed of resistors, capacitors and
inductors. The problem with passive circuits is that the real part of the impedance always
decreases the amplitude of voltage and current in the circuit. Often we wish to take a
small voltage or current and amplify it, so that we can measure it with greater precision.
We might also want to add, subtract, multiply, divide, integrate or differentiate two or
more voltage or current amplitudes. Amplifiers allow us to perform all of these
mathematical operations and more on an AC or DC voltage or current. The operational
amplifier (op-amp) is a particular type of integrated circuit amplifier with standard
properties that makes implementing these functions particularly simple. In this laboratory,
you will learn the basic properties of an ideal op-amp, how to use operational amplifiers
with various types of feedback control to perform simple transformations of an input
signal and also some of the limitations of real op-amps. You will also apply the integrator
circuit to measure the amplitude and direction of earths magnetic field in the laboratory.
For a good primer on op-amps, see Wikipedia
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_amplifier).

Equipment: OP07 op-amp, proto-board, assorted resistors and capacitors, DMM,

oscilloscope, large inductor coil.

1 Introduction:
An op-amp has two
inputs: a non-
inverting input
labeled +, and
an inverting input
labeled . The
voltage output of
the output of the op-
amp is:

Figure 1: Amplifier in open-circuit mode, showing , and connections. +V
V .(eq .1)
V out =Gain

For a normal amplifier,

like a stereo amplifier, Gain is adjustable and we operate the amplifier with the output
completely separate from the inputs. Operational amplifiers differ from a standard
amplifier like a stereo amplifier because they have a very high gain Indeed, in an ideal

op-amp, we assume that Gain , in which case, V out , unless +=V . In
V
most useful op-amp circuits, we connect the output of the op-amp to one or both inputs

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 P309 Intermediate Lab, Indiana University Dept. of Physics

via appropriate passive components (resistors, capacitors, inductors,). In this case, the

amplifier will set V out to be whatever is necessary to make +=V . We call the
V
connection of output to input feedback. The arrangement of the feedback determines the
function of the op-amp circuit.

We can determine the function of an ideal op-amp circuit from two golden rules:

No current flows in or out of either of the two inputs to the op-amp.

V out in any feedback scenario strives to make the voltage difference between the

two inputs zero +=V .
V
Our op-amp is an OP07, an integrated circuit with dozens of transistors, packaged in an
8-pin plastic DIP (Dual In-Line Package). You will find a data sheet for the OP07 at the
end of this document. Unlike the other components you have studied so far, the op-amp is
an active device: it requires a power supply to operate. The OP07 op-amp requires power-
supply voltages of 15 V. If the output wants to exceed the supply voltage, the signal is
clipped, i.e., if equation 1 predicts V out >15 V , then the actual V out =15 V , and if
equation 1 predicts V out <15V , then the actual V out =15 V . Clipping is one of
the differences between a real and an ideal op-amp.

2 Inverting Amplifier
We will first build a circuit to multiply the input signal by a fixed negative Gain .
Follow figure 2 to build this circuit. In this op amp configuration, connect the input signal
through the series input resistor R1 to the inverting input and also connect the
feedback resistor R2 to the inverting input . Connect the non-inverting input
+ to ground.
The op-amp gain is given by
Vout R
Gain= 2 (eq. 2)
Vin R1 .
Question: derive equation 2 for this circuit starting with the two golden rules.

R
2

V+
_

R
1
-

V +
in
V-

Figure 2. Inverting amplifier circuit. The figure shows the two power supply pins to the op-amp, and . Most op-amp schematics do not show these pins
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P309 Intermediate Lab, Indiana University Dept. of Physics

Using the Proto Board, build the inverting amplifier as shown in figure 2. Pick R1 and R2
to have nominal resistances of 1 k and 10 k so that Gain 10 . Use a DMM
to measure the actual resistance of the resistors and calculate the expected value for
Gain . Refer to the photo in Figure 5 to see what your configuration will look like. Use
a simple color scheme to help you remember the function of the different wires on the
breadboard; e.g., red for power, green for ground, white or blue for signals. Use a signal
generator to produce a 1 kHz sine wave of 1V peak-to-peak amplitude with no DC
offset for V . Use the oscilloscope to measure V and V out simultaneously.
V
Determine the gain ain= out .
V
Questions: Compare your measured Gain to the theoretical value
R2
Gai ntheoretical = . Change the frequency of the function generator to 1 00 Hz and
R1
10 kHz and measure the gain again. Is the gain independent of frequency? Change the
input peak-to-peak voltage to 0.1 V , 0.2V, 0.5V and 1.5V. Is Gain independent of
the input voltage (i.e. is the amplifier linear)?

Increase the signal generator amplitude until you observe clipping of V out . At what
output voltage do you see clipping?

An ideal op-amp has an output voltage that changes instantly as the input voltage
changes. A real op-amp has a maximum change in output voltage/second called the slew
rate. Estimate the slew rate of your op-amp by setting the function generator to produce a
square wave signal. Display both the square wave input voltage and the output voltage on
the oscilloscope. Increase the frequency of the signal until the two traces are clearly
dV
different. Bow sketch or record the traces and measure the maximum for the op-
dt
amp. Compare this result to the slew-rate quoted in the data sheet for the op-amp.

QuestionHow can the finite slew rate of an op-amp affect its function? Suppose you
had a sine-wave input signal to the op-amp of a fixed peak-to-peak amplitude,
V
V = p p sin ( t) . Calculate the theoretical output voltage of the op-amp circuit as
2
a function of the Gain , the slew rate, V p p and . Repeat your experiment
V p p
with a sine-wave input for three different V p p ( 10 )
, V p p10 V p p . For each
V p p sweep the frequency in powers of 10 and measure the output peak-to-peak
voltage. Compare your results to your theoretical calculation.

For an ideal op-amp, V out =0V if+=V . A real op-amp, will have V out = a
V
.
small offset voltage V OS , when +=V Measure the offset voltage of the OP07.
V

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 P309 Intermediate Lab, Indiana University Dept. of Physics

Use the circuit in Figure 2, and pick R1 and R2 to have nominal resistances of 1 0
and 10 k so that Gain 1000. As usual, measure both R1 and R2 to

calculate Gai ntheoretical . Connect V to ground to set V =0 V . Now measure

V out with a DMM.

Question: Consider R1 and R2 as a voltage divider. What is V ? Compare the

measured offset voltage with V OS specified in the OP07 data sheet.

3 Non-inverting Amplifier
What if we dont want to have the output voltage inverted with respect to the input
voltage? Build the non-inverting linear amplifier circuit in Figure 3. Here the input
voltage connects to the non-inverting input and the voltage divider returns a fraction of
the output voltage to the inverting input. Use the same resistors that you used in Section 2
for a nominal Gain 10 to construct the circuit. Measure Vin and Vout, determine the
actual gain.

Question: Using the golden rules for op-amps show that the theoretical value for the gain
of this circuit is:
V R
Gain= out =1+ 2 . (eq. 3)
V R1

Compare your experimental and theoretical results. Change the frequency of the function
generator to 1 00 Hz and 10 kHz and measure the gain again. Is the gain
independent of frequency? Change the input peak-to-peak voltage to 0.1 V , 0.2V,
0.5V and 1.5V. Is Gain independent of the input voltage (i.e. is the amplifier linear)?
No connection here R
2

R
1
-

V +
in V out= V (1 + R / R )
in 2

Figure 3. Non-inverting amplifier circuit. The figure does not show the two power supply pins to the op-amp, and , but you always must connect the po
4 Integrator
Op-amps can be used to construct a circuit that integrates an electrical signal over time
(Figure 4). A capacitor serves as the memory of the integrator. To clear the memory, we
simply short circuit the capacitor by closing a switch. When we open the switch, the
integration starts ( t=0 ).

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 P309 Intermediate Lab, Indiana University Dept. of Physics

QuestionUse the two golden rules, to show that for a time-dependent input voltage,
V out
t
1
( t )=
RC 0
V ( t ' ) d t ' .(eq . 4)

Switch
C
_

+V Vin
+
Vout
R1

pin 1 pin 8
V
0

R 20k pot.
0

+V

Figure 4. Basic voltage integrator circuit. The figure does not show the two power supply pins to the op-amp, and , but you always must connect the po

First briefly connect V to ground to reset the integrator and connect nothing to V
. Since the integrand in Equation 3 is zero, V out should remain zero for an ideal op-
amp. Usually, however, the output will drift because the golden rules are not exactly true.
Estimate the drift rate in Volts/second.

To reduce this drift, the OP07 provides an offset trim that allows you to adjust the balance

+V Vin
R1

V
0

R0

Figure 5. Voltage integrator circuit with drift control. Attach a potentiometer connected to a +15V power supply to pins 1 and 8 of the integrated circuit.
of the two inputs. Build the circuit in Figure 5, by installing the offset trim, connecting a
20 k potentiometer (variable resistor) between pins 1 and 8 of the op-amp. Connect

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 P309 Intermediate Lab, Indiana University Dept. of Physics

the adjustable contact of the potentiometer to the +15 V supply. Adjust the
potentiometer until the drift of the integrator is as nearly zero as possible. Use the white
adjusting tool to rotate the potentiometer. Determine the residual drift rate in Volts/second
(you will need this result in Section 4).

To show that the circuit integrates the input voltage as in equation 3, build the circuit in
Figure 6 and apply a constant voltage V 0 to the input. In this case, equation 3 tells us
that the output voltage is a linear function of the time. Use a voltage divider to generate a
small V 0 10 mV , so V out takes about 30s to increase from 0V to 15V. Select the
divider resistors accordingly.

+V _
C
Vin
R
R1 -

+V Vin
+
Vout
R1

V
0 pin 1 pin 8
V
0
R 20k pot.
R 0
0

+V

Figure 6. Voltage integrator circuit with drift control and small voltage applied to the input via a voltage divider ( and ). The figure does not show the tw

QuestionWhy should R0 be less than R ?

Measure the rate of increase of V out . Compare with the rate calculated from the values
of the resistors and the capacitor in the circuit. Change R1 and repeat your
measurement. Do the two results agree with equation 3?

QuestionsUse the function generator to apply an alternating sine-wave of frequency

10 Hz ,100 Hz , 1000 Hz as V as shown in Figure 7. Calculate the expected
output signal V out from equation 3 for a sine-wave input of frequency
f =10 Hz ,100 Hz , 1000 Hz and peak-to-peak amplitude V peak and compare to your
experimental V out . Repeat the derivation and comparison for a square-wave and a
triangle wave at your three frequencies. You may either save the oscilloscope outputs to a
file or take pictures with your cell phone.

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 P309 Intermediate Lab, Indiana University Dept. of Physics

Swi

+V Vin
Function Generator
R1

V
0

R
0

Figure 7. Voltage integrator circuit with drift control and alternating voltage applied to the input. The figure does not show the two power supply pins to
4 The Magnetic Field of the Earth
We will now use the integrator in Section 3 to measure the magnetic field of the earth.
The magnetic field of the earth varies in amplitude and direction with geographical
position. A classical compass measures only the field direction in the xy direction. We
will measure the full magnetic field vector in the laboratory. A large many-turn inductor
coil is an excellent transducer for magnetic-field measurements because of Faradays law,
which states that an electromotive force is induced in the coil when the magnetic
field flux changes. When the coil is flipped by 180 , in a fixed magnetic field, the
flux changes by twice the starting value. Thus, integrating the change in voltage suffices
to determine the flux, according to:
t
1 ANB
V final=
RC 0
( t ' ) d t ' =2
RC
, (4)

where B is the component of the magnetic field in the direction of the coil axis, N
is the number of turns of the coil and A the effective coil area. The average area of a
multi-layer coil, whose mean radius is r and whose maximum and minimum radii are
r , is:

1
(
A= r 2+ 2 .
3 ) (5)

Choose the input resistor R such that a single flip of the coil causes a V out that you
can measure with at least 10% accuracy with the DMM. Note that any drift in the
integrator is faster when R is smaller. You need not completely eliminate the drift; just

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 P309 Intermediate Lab, Indiana University Dept. of Physics

make it small compared to the final value for V out . Make a series of measurements
flipping the coil by 180 . Repeat your measurement three times to measure: B z
with the coil axis vertical, B x with N-S horizontal coil axis (along the lab room), and
B y with horizontal E-W axis (perpendicular to both). Combine the three components
to get the magnitude of the B vector.

The S.I. unit for B (appropriate for equation 4) is 1T (Tesla). 1T =10 4 G .

QuestionsList possible sources for uncertainties. Evaluate the error of the three
individual field measurements. Combine the errors to get the uncertainty of the
magnitude B of the field.

QuestionCompare your measurement of the earths magnetic field with the accepted
value: http://ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/geomag/jsp/struts/calcPointIGRF.

Figure 8. Photo of the apparatus for the magnetic field measurement. Use the white plastic adjustment tool to set the potentiometer to minimize the drif

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