Abraham Lincoln

Full Name: Abraham Lincoln

Born: February12, 1809, Hodgenville, Kentucky, U.S.

Died: April 15, 1865 (aged 56) House, Washington, U.S.

Profession: Lawyer, Politician

Political Party:

Whig (18341854), Republican (18541865), National Union (18641865)

[

Family:

Abraham Lincoln was born in humble surroundings, a one-room log cabin with dirt floors in
Hardin County, Kentucky. His father, Thomas Lincoln, could not read and could barely sign his
name. Thomas Lincoln was a farmer and carpenter who moved the family from rural Kentucky
to frontier Indiana when young Abe was seven years old. Thomas built a crude 360-square foot
log cabin where he lived with his wife, Abe, and elder daughter, Sarah.

Vision:

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His primary goal was to reunite the nation.

Key Activities:

-Abraham Lincoln is inaugurated as the sixteenth President of the United States, and the nation's
first Republican President. April3, 1861

Abraham Lincoln - Civil War Begins:

The fall of Fort Sumter brought the secession crisis to the breaking point. On April 15, President
Abraham Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to serve in the U.S. Army for a period of ninety
days.

-In response to Lincoln's decision to use force in South Carolina, Virginia secedes from the
nation, followed by three other upper Southern states: North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas.
Four border slave states remain in the Union. April 17, 1861 .Slavery is abolished in District of
Columbia in April 16, 1862.

-Lincoln announces to his cabinet his intention to issue the Emancipation Proclamation. By this
point, he believes the Border States will remain in the Union. Lincoln decides to wait to address
the nation publicly, however, hoping to introduce his proclamation after a more favorable
military battle in July 22, 1862.

The Battle of Murfreesboro occurs January 02, 1863.

-Lincoln makes his famous Gettysburg address consisting of three short paragraphs on the
bloodstained battlefield. Ceremonies take place which include the dedication of a national
cemetery in November 19, 1863.

-Lincoln offers a full pardon to Southerners who take the prescribed oath December 08, 1863.

-Congress creates the Freedmen's Bureau to help Southern blacks affected by the war. The
Bureau supplies blacks with food, clothing, and medical care, and will orchestrate the placement
of freedmen on abandoned lands in March 03, 1865.

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-Abraham Lincoln is inaugurated as President for his second term while Andrew Johnson
succeeds Hannibal Hamlin as vice-president in March 04, 1865.

Traits:

Wit
Intelligence
Integrity
Honesty
Ambitious
Idealistic

Queen Victoria

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Born: May 24, 1819, Kensington Palace, London, United Kingdom

Died: January 22, 1901, Osborne House, East Cowes, United Kingdom

Reign: 20 June 1837 22 January 1901.

Birth and family

Victoria's father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of the reigning
King of the United Kingdom, George III. Until 1817, Edward's niece, Princess Charlotte of
Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a
succession crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent and his unmarried brothers to marry
and have children. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed
German princess with two childrenCarl (18041856) and Feodora (18071872)by her first
marriage to the Prince of Leiningen. Her brother Leopold was Princess Charlotte's widower. The
Duke and Duchess of Kent's only child, Victoria was born at 4.15 a.m. on 24 May 1819 at
Kensington Palace in London.

Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on

24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace. She was baptized Alexandrina, after
one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria after her mother. Additional
names proposed by her parentsGeorgina (or Georgiana), Charlotte, and Augustawere
dropped on the instructions of the Duke's elder brother, the Prince Regent (later George IV).

At birth, Victoria was fifth in the line of succession after her father and his three older brothers:
the Prince Regent, the Duke of York, and the Duke of Clarence (later William IV). The Prince
Regent and the Duke of York were estranged from their wives, who were both past child-bearing

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age, so the two eldest brothers were unlikely to have any further children. The Dukes of Kent and
Clarence married on the same day 12 months before Victoria's birth, but both of Clarence's
daughters (born in 1819 and 1820 respectively) died as infants. Victoria's grandfather and father
died in 1820, within a week of each other, and the Duke of York died in 1827. On the death of
her uncle George IV in 1830, Victoria became heir presumptive to her next surviving uncle,
William IV. The Regency Act 1830 made special provision for the Duchess of Kent to act as
regent in case William died while Victoria was still a minor. King William distrusted the
Duchess's capacity to be regent, and in 1836 declared in her presence that he wanted to live until
Victoria's 18th birthday, so that a regency could be avoided.

Early reign
Victoria turned 18 on 24 May 1837, and regency was avoided. On 20 June 1837, William IV
died at the age of 71, and Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom. In her diary she wrote,
"I was awoke at 6 o'clock by Mamma, who told me the Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord
Conyngham were here and wished to see me. I got out of bed and went into my sitting-room
(only in my dressing gown) and alone, and saw them. Lord Conyngham then acquainted me that
my poor Uncle, the King, was no more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning and
consequently that I am Queen."Official documents prepared on the first day of her reign
described her as Alexandrina Victoria, but the first name was withdrawn at her own wish and not
used again.

Since 1714, Britain had shared a monarch with Hanover in Germany, but under Salic law women
were excluded from the Hanoverian succession. While Victoria inherited all the British
dominions, Hanover passed instead to her father's younger brother, her unpopular uncle the Duke
of Cumberland and Teviotdale, who became King Ernest Augustus I of Hanover. He was her heir
presumptive until she married and had a child.

At the time of her accession, the government was led by the Whig prime minister Lord
Melbourne, who at once became a powerful influence on the politically inexperienced Queen,
who relied on him for advice.[37]Charles Greville supposed that the widowed and childless
Melbourne was "passionately fond of her as he might be of his daughter if he had one", and
Victoria probably saw him as a father figure.[38]Her coronation took place on 28 June 1838 at
Westminster Abbey. Over 400,000 visitors came to London for the celebrations. She became the
first sovereign to take up residence at Buckingham Palace and inherited the revenues of the
duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall as well as being granted a civil list allowance of 385,000 per
year. Financially prudent, she paid off her father's debts.

At the start of her reign Victoria was popular, but her reputation suffered in an 1839 court
intrigue when one of her mother's ladies-in-waiting, Lady Flora Hastings, developed an
abdominal growth that was widely rumored to be an out-of-wedlock pregnancy by Sir John
Conroy. Victoria believed the rumors. She hated Conroy, and despised "that odious Lady Flora",

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because she had conspired with Conroy and the Duchess of Kent in the Kensington System. At
first, Lady Flora refused to submit to a naked medical examination, until in mid-February she
eventually agreed, and was found to be a virgin. Conroy, the Hastings family and the opposition
Tories organized a press campaign implicating the Queen in the spreading of false rumors about
Lady Flora. When Lady Flora died in July, the post-mortem revealed a large tumor on her liver
that had distended her abdomen. At public appearances, Victoria was hissed and jeered as "Mrs.
Melbourne".

In 1839, Melbourne resigned after Radicals and Tories (both of whom Victoria detested) voted
against a bill to suspend the constitution of Jamaica. The bill removed political power from
plantation owners who were resisting measures associated with the abolition of slavery. The
Queen commissioned a Tory, Sir Robert Peel, to form a new ministry. At the time, it was
customary for the prime minister to appoint members of the Royal Household, who were usually
his political allies and their spouses. Many of the Queen's ladies of the bedchamber were wives
of Whigs, and Peel expected to replace them with wives of Tories. In what became known as the
bedchamber crisis, Victoria, advised by Melbourne, and objected to their removal. Peel refused
to govern under the restrictions imposed by the Queen, and consequently resigned his
commission, allowing Melbourne to return to office.

Empress of India
After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British East India Company, which had ruled much of
India, was dissolved, and Britain's possessions and protectorates on the Indian subcontinent were
formally incorporated into the British Empire. The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the
conflict, and condemned atrocities on both sides. She wrote of "her feelings of horror and regret
at the result of this bloody civil war, and insisted, urged on by Albert, that an official
proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the state "should breathe
feelings of generosity, benevolence and religious toleration". [143]At her behest, a reference
threatening the "undermining of native religions and customs" was replaced by a passage
guaranteeing religious freedom.

In the 1874 general election, Disraeli was returned to power. He passed the Public Worship
Regulation Act 1874, which removed Catholic rituals from the Anglican liturgy and which
Victoria strongly supported. She preferred short, simple services, and personally considered
herself more aligned with the Presbyterian Church of Scotland than the Episcopal Church of
England. He also pushed the Royal Titles Act 1876 through Parliament, so that Victoria took the
title "Empress of India" from 1 May 1876. The new title was proclaimed at the Delhi Durbar of 1
January 1877.

On 14 December 1878, the anniversary of Albert's death, Victoria's second daughter Alice, who
had married Louis of Hesse, died of diphtheria in Darmstadt. Victoria noted the coincidence of
the dates as "almost incredible and most mysterious". [149] In May 1879, she became a great-

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grandmother (on the birth of Princess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen) and passed her "poor old 60th
birthday". She felt "aged" by "the loss of my beloved child".

Between April 1877 and February 1878, she threatened five times to abdicate while pressuring
Disraeli to act against Russia during the Russo-Turkish War, but her threats had no impact on the
events or their conclusion with the Congress of Berlin. Disraeli's expansionist foreign policy,
which Victoria endorsed, led to conflicts such as the Anglo-Zulu War and the Second Anglo-
Afghan War. "If we are to maintain our position as a first-rate Power", she wrote, "we must ... be
Prepared for attacks and wars, somewhere or other, CONTINUALLY."[152] Victoria saw the
expansion of the British Empire as civilizing and benign, protecting native peoples from more
aggressive powers or cruel rulers: "It is not in our custom to annexed countries", she said,
"Unless we are obliged & forced to do so." To Victoria's dismay, Disraeli lost the 1880 general
election, and Gladstone returned as prime minister. When Disraeli died the following year, she
was blinded by "fast falling tears", and erected a memorial tablet "placed by his grateful
Sovereign and Friend, Victoria R.I."

Later years
On 2 March 1882, Roderick Maclean, a disgruntled poet apparently offended by Victoria's
refusal to accept one of his poems, shot at the Queen as her carriage left Windsor railway station.
Two schoolboys from Eton College struck him with their umbrellas, until he was hustled away
by a policeman. Victoria was outraged when he was found not guilty by reason of insanity, but
was so pleased by the many expressions of loyalty after the attack that she said it was "worth
being shot atto see how much one is loved".

On 17 March 1883, she fell down some stairs at Windsor, which left her lame until July; she
never fully recovered and was plagued with rheumatism thereafter.[161] Brown died 10 days after
her accident, and to the consternation of her private secretary, Sir Henry Ponsonby, Victoria
began work on a eulogistic biography of Brown. Ponsonby and Randall Davidson, Dean of
Windsor, who had both seen early drafts, advised Victoria against publication, on the grounds
that it would stoke the rumours of a love affair. The manuscript was destroyed. In early 1884,
Victoria did publish More Leaves from a Journal of a Life in the Highlands, a sequel to her
earlier book, which she dedicated to her "devoted personal attendant and faithful friend John
Brown". On the day after the first anniversary of Brown's death, Victoria was informed by
telegram that her youngest son, Leopold, had died in Cannes. He was "the dearest of my dear
sons", she lamented. The following month, Victoria's youngest child, Beatrice, met and fell in
love with Prince Henry of Battenberg at the wedding of Victoria's granddaughter Princess
Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine to Henry's brother Prince Louis of Battenberg. Beatrice and
Henry planned to marry, but Victoria opposed the match at first, wishing to keep Beatrice at
home to act as her companion. After a year, she was won around to the marriage by Henry and
Beatrice's promise to remain living with and attending her.

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Victoria was pleased when Gladstone resigned in 1885 after his budget was defeated. She
thought his government was "the worst I have ever had", and blamed him for the death of
General Gordon at Khartoum. Gladstone was replaced by Lord Salisbury. Salisbury's
government only lasted a few months, however, and Victoria was forced to recall Gladstone,
whom she referred to as a "half crazy & really in many ways ridiculous old man". Gladstone
attempted to pass a bill granting Ireland home rule, but to Victoria's glee it was defeated. In the
ensuing election, Gladstone's party lost to Salisbury's and the government switched hands again.

Golden Jubilee
In 1887, the British Empire celebrated Victoria's Golden Jubilee. Victoria marked the fiftieth
anniversary of her accession on 20 June with a banquet to which 50 kings and princes were
invited. The following day, she participated in a procession and attended a thanksgiving service
in Westminster Abbey. By this time, Victoria was once again extremely popular. Two days later
on 23 June, she engaged two Indian Muslims as waiters, one of whom was Abdul Karim. He was
soon promoted to "Munshi": teaching her Hindustani, and acting as a clerk. Her family and
retainers were appalled, and accused Abdul Karim of spying for the Muslim Patriotic League,
and biasing the Queen against the Hindus. Equerry Frederick Ponsonby (the son of Sir Henry)
discovered that the Munshi had lied about his parentage, and reported to Lord Elgin, Viceroy of
India, "the Munshi occupies very much the same position as John Brown used to do." Victoria
dismissed their complaints as racial prejudice. Abdul Karim remained in her service until he
returned to India with a pension on her death.

Victoria's eldest daughter became Empress Consort of Germany in 1888, but she was widowed
within the year, and Victoria's grandchild Wilhelm became German Emperor as Wilhelm II.
Under Wilhelm, Victoria and Albert's hopes of a liberal Germany were not fulfilled. He believed
in autocracy. Victoria thought he had "little heart or Zartgefhl [tact] and ... his conscience &
intelligence have been completely wharped [sic]".

Gladstone returned to power after the 1892 general election; he was 82 years old. Victoria
objected when Gladstone proposed appointing the Radical MP Henry Labouchere to the Cabinet,
so Gladstone agreed not to appoint him. In 1894, Gladstone retired and, without consulting the
outgoing prime minister, Victoria appointed Lord Rosebery as prime minister. His government
was weak, and the following year Lord Salisbury replaced him. Salisbury remained prime
minister for the remainder of Victoria's reign.

Diamond Jubilee
On 23 September 1896, Victoria surpassed her grandfather George III as the longest-reigning
monarch in English, Scottish, and British history. The Queen requested that any special
celebrations be delayed until 1897, to coincide with her Diamond Jubilee, which was made a

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festival of the British Empire at the suggestion of Colonial Secretary Chamberlain. The prime
ministers of all the self-governing dominions were invited to London for the festivities.

The Queen's Diamond Jubilee procession on 22 June 1897 followed a route six miles long
through London and included troops from all over the empire. The procession paused for an
open-air service of thanksgiving held outside St Paul's Cathedral, throughout which Victoria sat
in her open carriage, to avoid her having to climb the steps to enter the building. The celebration
was marked by vast crowds of spectators and great outpourings of affection for the 78-year-old
Queen.

Victoria visited mainland Europe regularly for holidays. In 1889, during a stay in Biarritz, she
became the first reigning monarch from Britain to set foot in Spain when she crossed the border
for a brief visit.By April 1900, the Boer War was so unpopular in mainland Europe that her
annual trip to France seemed inadvisable. Instead, the Queen went to Ireland for the first time
since 1861, in part to acknowledge the contribution of Irish regiments to the South African war.
In July, her second son Alfred ("Affie") died; "Oh, God! My poor darling Affie gone too", she
wrote in her journal. "It is a horrible year, nothing but sadness & horrors of one kind & another."

Death and succession

Following a custom she maintained throughout her widowhood, Victoria spent the Christmas of
1900 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. Rheumatism in her legs had rendered her lame, and
her eyesight was clouded by cataracts. Through early January, she felt "weak and unwell, and
by mid-January she was "drowsy ... dazed, [and] confused". She died on Tuesday, 22 January
1901, at half past six in the evening, at the age of 81. Her son and successor King Edward VII,
and her eldest grandson, Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany, were at her deathbed. Her favorite pet
Pomeranian, Turi, was laid upon her deathbed as a last request.

In 1897, Victoria had written instructions for her funeral, which was to be military as befitting a
soldier's daughter and the head of the army, and white instead of black. On 25 January, Edward
VII, the Kaiser and Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught, helped lift her body into the coffin. She
was dressed in a white dress and her wedding veil. An array of mementos commemorating her
extended family, friends and servants were laid in the coffin with her, at her request, by her
doctor and dressers. One of Albert's dressing gowns was placed by her side, with a plaster cast of
his hand, while a lock of John Brown's hair, along with a picture of him, was placed in her left
hand concealed from the view of the family by a carefully positioned bunch of flowers. Items of
jewellery placed on Victoria included the wedding ring of John Brown's mother, given to her by
Brown in 1883.Her funeral was held on Saturday, 2 February, in St George's Chapel, Windsor
Castle, and after two days of lying-in-state, she was interred beside Prince Albert in Frogmore
Mausoleum at Windsor Great Park.

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With a reign of 63 years, seven months and two days, Victoria was the longest-reigning British
monarch and the reigning queen in world history until her great-great-granddaughter Elizabeth II
surpassed her on 9 September 2015. She was the last monarch of Britain from the House of
Hanover. Her son and successor Edward VII belonged to her husband's House of Saxe-Coburg
and Gotha.

Legacy
Victoria amused. The remark "We are not amused" is attributed to her but there is no direct
evidence that she ever said it, and she denied doing so.
According to one of her biographers, Giles St Aubyn, Victoria wrote an average of 2,500 words a
day during her adult life. From July 1832 until just before her death, she kept a detailed journal,
which eventually encompassed 122 volumes. After Victoria's death, her youngest daughter,
Princess Beatrice, was appointed her literary executor. Beatrice transcribed and edited the diaries
covering Victoria's accession onwards, and burned the originals in the process. Despite this
destruction, much of the diaries still exist. In addition to Beatrice's edited copy, Lord Esher
transcribed the volumes from 1832 to 1861 before Beatrice destroyed them. Part of Victoria's
extensive correspondence has been published in volumes edited by A. C. Benson, Hector
Bolitho, George Earle Buckle, Lord Esher, Roger Fulford, and Richard Hough among others.

Victoria was physically unprepossessingshe was stout, dowdy and no more than five feet tall
but she succeeded in projecting a grand image. She experienced unpopularity during the first
years of her widowhood, but was well liked during the 1880s and 1890s, when she embodied the
empire as a benevolent matriarchal figure. Only after the release of her diary and letters did the
extent of her political influence become known to the wider public. Biographies of Victoria
written before much of the primary material became available, such as Lytton Strachey's Queen
Victoria of 1921, are now considered out of date. The biographies written by Elizabeth Longford
and Cecil Woodham-Smith, in 1964 and 1972 respectively, are still widely admired. They, and
others, conclude that as a person Victoria was emotional, obstinate, honest, and straight-talking.

Through Victoria's reign, the gradual establishment of a modern constitutional monarchy in

Britain continued. Reforms of the voting system increased the power of the House of Commons
at the expense of the House of Lords and the monarch. In 1867, Walter Bagehot wrote that the
monarch only retained "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn.
As Victoria's monarchy became more symbolic than political, it placed a strong emphasis on
morality and family values, in contrast to the sexual, financial and personal scandals that had
been associated with previous members of the House of Hanover and which had discredited the
monarchy. The concept of the "family monarchy", with which the burgeoning middle classes
could identify, was solidified.

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Victoria's links with Europe's royal families earned her the nickname "the grandmother of
Europe". Victoria and Albert had 42 grandchildren, of whom 34 survived to adulthood. Their
descendants include Elizabeth II, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, Harald V of Norway, Carl
XVI Gustaf of Sweden, Margrethe II of Denmark, and Felipe VI of Spain.

Victoria's youngest son, Leopold, was affected by the blood-clotting disease haemophilia B and
two of her five daughters, Alice and Beatrice, were carriers. Royal haemophiliacs descended
from Victoria included her great-grandsons, Tsarevich Alexei of Russia, Alfonso, Prince of
Asturias, and Infante Gonzalo of Spain. The presence of the disease in Victoria's descendants,
but not in her ancestors, led to modern speculation that her true father was not the Duke of Kent
but a haemophiliac. There is no documentary evidence of a haemophiliac in connection with
Victoria's mother, and as male carriers always suffer the disease, even if such a man had existed
he would have been seriously ill. It is more likely that the mutation arose spontaneously because
Victoria's father was over 50 at the time of her conception and haemophilia arises more
frequently in the children of older fathers. Spontaneous mutations account for about a third of
cases.

Around the world, places and memorials are dedicated to her, especially in the Commonwealth
nations. Places named after her include the capital of the Seychelles, Africa's largest lake,
Victoria Falls, the capital of Gozo and a line of fortifications in Malta, the capitals of British
Columbia (Victoria) and Saskatchewan (Regina), and two Australian states (Victoria and
Queensland).

The Victoria Cross was introduced in 1856 to reward acts of velour during the Crimean War, and
it remains the highest British, Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand award for bravery.
Victoria Day is a Canadian statutory holiday and a local public holiday in parts of Scotland
celebrated on the last Monday before or on 24 May (Queen Victoria's birthday).

Titles, styles, and arms

Titles and styles

24 May 1819 20 June 1837:Her Royal Highness Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent

20 June 1837 22 January 1901:Her Majesty The Queen

At the end of her reign, the Queen's full style and title were: "Her Majesty Victoria, by the Grace
of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Queen, Defender of the Faith,
Empress of India."

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Arms
As Sovereign, Victoria used the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom. Before her accession,
she received no grant of arms. As she could not succeed to the throne of Hanover, her arms did
not carry the Hanoverian symbols that were used by her immediate predecessors. Her arms have
been borne by all of her successors on the throne.

Outside Scotland, the blazon for the shieldalso used on the Royal Standardis: Quarterly: I
and IV, Gules, three lionspassant guardant in pale Or (for England); II, Or, a lion rampant within
a double treasure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III, Azure, a harp Or stringed Argent
(for Ireland). In Scotland, the first and fourth quarters are occupied by the Scottish lion, and the
second by the English lions. The crests, mottoes, and supporters also differ in and outside
Scotland.

Royal arms (outside

Royal arms (in Scotland)
Scotland)

7 things about Queen Victoria

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1) She was only 18 when she became queen

2) She had an unhappy childhood

3) She spoke several languages

4) Her relationship with her prime ministers wasnt always easy

5) She was known as the grandmother of Europe

6) She survived at least six assassination attempts

7) She mourned Prince Albert for 40 years

J P Morgan

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Nick Name: -J. P. Morgan, Pierpont

Also known As -John Pierpont Morgan

Famous As -Financier and Banker

Nationality -American

Religion-Anglicanism, Episcopal Church

Born On -17 April 1837 AD

Born In -Hartford

Died On - 31 March 1913 AD

Place of Death -Rome

Brief History about JP Morgan:

J.P. Morgan was an American financier and banker who founded J.P. Morgan & Co., one of the
leading financial firms of the United States. Born to a successful financier in Connecticut,
Morgan received education in Boston and then attended the University of Gottingen in Germany.
Thereafter, he was trained as an accountant at the New York banking firm of Duncan, Sherman
and Company. Later, Morgan got involved in his father's banking company and subsequently
became a partner in Drexel, Morgan and Company. In 1895, the firm was restructured as J. P.
Morgan and Company, evolving into one of the most important banking houses in the world. In
the meantime, Morgan arranged the merger of Edison General Electric and the Thompson
Houson Electric Company to form General Electric, which materialized as the primary electrical-

14
equipment manufacturing company in the country. After financing the creation of the Federal
Steel Company, he later merged it with Carnegie Steel Company to form the United States Steel
Corporation. During his final years, Morgan concentrated on gaining control of nations leading
corporations and financial institutions. In addition to being a foremost financier, Morgan was
also an enthusiastic art collector and a leading philanthropist of his time. Hailed as a master of
finance at the time of his death in 1913, J.P. Morgan is still considered as one of America's
leading businessmen and is largely credited for shaping the nation.

Childhood & Early Life:

John Pierpont Morgan was born on April 17, 1837, in Hartford, Connecticut, to Junius
Spencer Morgan, a wealthy financier, and his wife Juliet Pierpont.

Morgan received his elementary education from several public schools such as Hartford
Public School and Episcopal Academy in Cheshire. Then, he attended the Boston's
English High School, and later got enrolled in Germany's prestigious University of
Gottingen.

After improving his German and obtaining a degree in art history from Gottingen,
Morgan returned to begin his career in finance. In 1857, he started working at the London
branch of Peabody, Morgan & Co., a merchant banking firm.

Career:
In 1858, J.P. Morgan moved to New York and joined as an accountant for Duncan,
Sherman & Co., the American representatives of George Peabody and Company. At the
outbreak of the American Civil War, Morgan joined his father's firm, J. Pierpont Morgan
& Company, where he worked until 1864.
From 1864 to 1872, he served as an influential member of the firm of Dabney, Morgan,
and Co. In 1871, he entered in a partnership to form the New York firm of Drexel,
Morgan & Co.

With the help of newly founded private banking firm, Morgan continued to make
investments and acquisitions. He backed Thomas Edison projects and laid the financial
foundation for Edison Electric Company.

Meanwhile, when many small companies and railroads faced hard times after the Civil
War, Morgan acquired and restructured many of them, bringing his own standards to the
rail industry. Some of his rail holdings were the New York Central, New Haven and
Hartford, Pennsylvania, Southern, and the Northern Pacific systems.

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 In 1892, Morgan arranged the merger of Edison General Electric and Thomson-Houston
Electric Company to form General Electric. During the depression following the panic of
1893, Morgan provided financial support to the U.S. government in order to prevent a
Treasury crisis.

In 1895, the Drexel, Morgan & Co. was reorganized as J.P. Morgan & Co., which
gradually evolved into one of the most powerful banking institutions in the world.

Spotting the requirement of huge quantities of steel in rails and trains, Morgan founded as
well as acquired a large amount of steel-making operations. In 1901, he formed the U.S.
Steel Company by merging Carnegie Steel Works along with several other steel and iron
industries.

Subsequently, Morgan expanded his business into many other sectors in the financial and
industrial worlds. He helped in providing financial backing to coal mines, insurance, as
well as the communications industries. During the stock market panic of 1907, Morgan
directed the banking coalition and led several business communities, acquiring control of
various banks and insurance companies in the process.

Morgan was also an ardent art collector and accumulated a large collection of pictures,
paintings, and other art objects. Most of the art works were donated to the Metropolitan
Museum of Art after Morgans death.

Major Works:
In 1871, Morgan started his own private banking company and later restructured it as J.P.
Morgan & Co. The firm acquired, financed and expanded many businesses, subsequently
emerging as one of the most powerful banking houses in the world. It also provided
financial support to the U.S. government during the economic depression following the
panic of 1893.

Morgan helped in consolidation of the railroad industry in the East and helped achieve
railroad rate stability by gaining control of much of the railroads. In 1901, he arranged
the merger of several steel and iron companies, and formed the United States Steel
Corporation, which gradually became the world's largest steel manufacturer.

Philanthropic Works:
Apart from being a successful financier, Morgan's was a prominent philanthropist who bestowed
his wealth in numerous humanitarian endeavors. He donated a substantial portion of his personal
fortune to charities, churches, hospitals and schools.

Personal Life & Legacy:

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 In 1861, Morgan married Amelia Sturges but unfortunately she died the following year.
In February 1865, Morgan tied the knot with Frances Tracy, also known as Fanny. The
couple had four children together; Louisa, John Pierpont Jr., Juliet and Anne.

J.P. Morgan died in his sleep on March 31, 1913, at the Grand Hotel in Rome, Italy. He
was interred in Cedar Hill Cemetery, Hartford, Connecticut, U.S.

Personal Quality of J.P Morgan:

Boating:

An avid yachtsman, Morgan owned several large yachts. The well-known quote, "If you have to
ask the price, you can't afford it" is commonly attributed to Morgan in response to a question
about the cost of maintaining a yacht, although the accuracy of the story is unconfirmed

Collector:

Morgan was a notable collector of books, pictures, paintings, clocks and other art objects, many
loaned or given to the Metropolitan Museum of Art and many housed in his London house and in
his private library on 36th Street, near Madison Avenue in New York City.

Gem collector:

By the turn of the century, Morgan had become one of America's most important collectors of
gems and had assembled the most important gem collection in the U.S. as well as of American
gemstones Tiffany & Co. assembled his first collection under their Chief Gemologist, George.
The collection was exhibited at the World's Fair in Paris in 1889. The exhibit won two golden
awards and drew the attention of important scholars, lapidaries, and the general public.

John D Rockefeller

17
Born: July 8, 1839

Birthplace: Richford, New York, United States

Died: May 23, 1937

Sphere of Influence: Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, Middle East, North America

Type of Leader: Economic

John D. Rockefeller was an American business mogul who co-founded the Standard Oil
Company. Demand for kerosene and gasoline soared along with the transportation revolution,
and Rockefeller built a network to service Americas expansion. Amassing his fortune, he then
turned his efforts to philanthropic work focusing on science, medicine, and education.
Rockefeller modernized the way that corporations were developing and is still considered one of
the greatest captains of industry.

BIOGRAPHY

John D. Rockefeller always showed a tendency for hard work and devout religiosity. His early
aptitude for numbers helped gain him a position as an assistant bookkeeper at the age of 16. After
starting his own wholesale foodstuff business with a partner, Rockefeller eventually became the
owner of the Standard Oil Company. Rockefeller capitalized on the new increased need for oil
created by the expanding railroads, which competed to transport the oil. He continued to
purchase more oil refineries and absorb them into his company through horizontal integration.
He expanded his business so that he could improve productivity. He made his own barrels, hired
his own plumbers, and invested in horses and wagons to transport his oil (a process known today
as vertical integration). Rockefeller was famous for his efficiency and attention to the most

18
minute of details. He borrowed money, reinvested his profits, and constantly tracked the
industrys success. Standard oil also created oil based products. As he expanded his company, the
antitrust movement started to grow against companies which controlled large shares of a market
and squeezed out competition. In 1911, the United States Supreme Court declared that the
Standard Oil Company held an unlawful trust in violation of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act
(Standard Oil Company of New Jersey v. The United States). Standard Oil was divided into
several regions, and these eventually became competitors. Rockefeller helped found several
colleges and educational foundations, including the University of Chicago, Rockefeller
University, and Central Philippine University. His generosity as well as his impressive and
hardnosed business dealings has made his name synonymous with business success.

WHAT MADE JOHN D ROCKEFELLER A LEADER?

Rockefeller expanded his lucrative business through horizontal and vertical integration.

Rockefeller capitalized on the growth of the railroad to build a profitable industry.

Rockefeller made an example of philanthropy, giving more than $500 million to various
educational, religious, and scientific institutions.

Thomas Alva Edison

19
Born: February 11, 1847

Birthplace: 9 Edison Drive, Milan, Ohio, United States

Died: October 18, 1931

Sphere of Influence: North America

Type of Leader: Economic, Intellectual, Scientific, and Social

Thomas Edison was a prolific American inventor with 1093 patents to his credit. Edison created
or made improvements to a wide range of fields, including electrical power, audio recording,
movies, batteries, mining, telecommunications, and even cement technology. Creating what was
popularly known as an invention factory; Edison hired other inventors to work for him, with the
goal of creating a minor invention every ten days and a major invention every six months.
Edisons greatest legacy is that he established the model for industrial innovation, bringing
experts together and creating the model for research and development in the twentieth century.

Famous Quotation:

"Genius is one per cent inspiration and ninety-nine per cent perspiration."

BIOGRAPHY

In 1859, Edison began working for the Grand Trunk Railroad as a telegrapher. Edison left the
railroad in 1868 to design and produce inventions for telegraph companies. He became widely
known as an innovative product developer. Some of these inventions included stock tickers, fire

20
alarms, and a system to send messages in either direction on telegraph wires simultaneously.
Edison demonstrated his leadership abilities when he established two research facilities at Menlo
Park, New Jersey, in 1876, and West Orange, New Jersey, in 1887. At these locations Edisons
greatest inventions were created.

Edison developed a transmitter for the telephone to make Alexander Graham Bells invention
practical for use. Next, Edison a method to record sound, creating the phonograph. Most
famously, he produced an incandescent electric lighting system that was more reliable and longer
lasting than previous attempts by other inventors. Later, Edison collaborated on a project to build
a motion picture camera called a kinetoscope and developed a process to make cement to be
more durable. Edisons invention factory was remarkable because it combined the talents of
experts and fostered the modern research and development model. Edison died in 1931 due to
complications from diabetes. Fittingly, President Hoover asked Americans to dim their lights in
remembrance.

WHAT MADE THOMAS ALVA EDISON A LEADER?

Edison promoted the invention of many technological products, most notably the phonograph
and electric light bulb, which contributed to U. S. dominance in industrial production.

While Edison was not the first to invent several products such as the light bulb, he improved
on these inventions for practical use.

Edison inspired a culture of invention where people worked collaboratively to develop and
improve products. He challenged the notion that inventions result only out of necessity

George Curzon

21
 George Nathaniel Curzon
11 January 1859
Born:
Kedleston, Derbyshire, United
Kingdom

20 March 1925 (aged 66)

Died:
London, United Kingdom

Political
Conservative
party:

Early life
Lord Curzon was the eldest son and second of eleven children of Alfred Curzon, the 4th Baron
Scarsdale (18311916), Rector of Kedleston in Derbyshire, and his wife Blanche (18371875),
daughter of Joseph Pocklington Senhouse of Netherhall in Cumberland. He was born at
Kedleston Hall, built on the site where his family, who were of Norman ancestry, had lived since
the 12th century. His mother, worn out by childbirth, died when George was 16; her husband
survived her by 41 years. Neither parent exerted a major influence on Curzon's life. Lord
Scarsdale was an austere and unindulgent father who believed in the short-held family tradition
that landowners should stay on their land and not go "roaming about all over the world". He thus
had little sympathy for those journeys across Asia between 1887 and 1895 which made his son
one of the most travelled men who ever sat in a British cabinet. A more decisive presence in
Curzon's childhood was that of his brutal governess, Ellen Mary Paraman, whose tyranny in the
nursery stimulated his combative qualities and encouraged the obsession side of his nature.
Paraman periodically forced him to parade through the village wearing a conical hat bearing the
words liar, sneak, and coward. Curzon later noted, "No children well born and well-placed ever
cried so much and so justly."

22
He was educated at Wixenford School, Eton College and Balliol College, Oxford. At Eton he
was a favorite of Oscar Browning, an over-intimate relationship that led to his tutor's dismissal.[5]
[6]
While at Eton, he was a controversial figure who was liked and disliked with equal intensity
by large numbers of masters and other boys. This strange talent for both attraction and repulsion
stayed with him all his life: few people ever felt neutral about him. At Oxford he was President
of the Union and Secretary of the Oxford Canning Club. Although he failed to achieve a first
class degree in Greats, he won the Lothian and Arnold Prizes, the latter for an essay on Sir
Thomas More (about whom he confessed to having known almost nothing before commencing
study, delivered as the clocks were chiming midnight on the day of the deadline). He was elected
a prize fellow of All Souls College in 1883. Whilst at Oxford, he was a contemporary and close
friend of Cecil Spring Rice and Edward Grey.

A teenage spinal injury, incurred while riding, left Curzon in lifelong pain, often resulting in
insomnia, and required him to wear a metal corset, contributing to an unfortunate impression of
stiffness and arrogance. While at Oxford, Curzon was the inspiration for the following Balliol
rhyme, a piece of doggerel which stuck with him in later life:

My name is George Nathaniel Curzon,

I am a most superior person.

My cheeks are pink, my hair is sleek,

I dine at Blenheim once a week.

Early political career

Curzon became Assistant Private Secretary to Lord Salisbury in 1885, and in 1886 entered
Parliament as Member for Southport in south-west Lancashire. His maiden speech, which was
chiefly an attack on home rule and Irish nationalism, was regarded in much the same way as his
oratory at the Oxford Union: brilliant and eloquent but also presumptuous and rather too self-
assured. Subsequent performances in the Commons, often dealing with Ireland or reform of the
House of Lords (which he supported), received similar verdicts. He was Under-Secretary of State
for India in 189192 and Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in 189598.

Titles:
On his appointment as Viceroy of India in 1898 he was created Baron Curzon of Kedleston, in
the County of Derby. This title was created in the Peerage of Ireland to enable him to potentially
return to the House of Commons, as Irish peers did not have an automatic right to sit in the
House of Lords.

23
In 1911 he was created Earl Curzon of Kedleston, Viscount Scarsdale, and Baron Ravensdale.
All of these titles were in the Peerage of the United Kingdom and thus precluded Curzon's return
to the House of Commons, but conferred upon him the right to sit in the House of Lords.

Upon his father's death in 1916, he also became 5th Baron Scarsdale, in the Peerage of Great
Britain. The title had been created in 1761.

In the 1921 Birthday Honors, he was created Marquess Curzon of Kedleston and Earl of
Kedleston. Both titles were extinct upon his death in 1925, as he was survived by three daughters
and no sons.

Styles of address

185986: The Hon George Nathaniel Curzon

188698: The Hon George Nathaniel Curzon MP

189899: The Rt Hon The Lord Curzon of Kedleston

18991901: His Excellency The Rt Hon The Lord Curzon of Kedleston GCSIGCIE

190105: His Excellency The Rt Hon The Lord Curzon of Kedleston GCSI GCIE PC

190511: The Rt Hon The Lord Curzon of Kedleston GCSI GCIE PC

191116: The Rt Hon The Earl Curzon of Kedleston GCSI GCIE PC

191621: The Rt Hon The Earl Curzon of Kedleston KG GCSI GCIE PC

192125: The Most Hon The Marquess Curzon of Kedleston KG GCSI GCIE PC

Assessment
Few statesmen have experienced such changes in fortune in both their public and their personal
lives. Gilmour concludes:

Curzon's career was an almost unparalleled blend of triumph and disappointment. Although he
was the last and in many ways the greatest of Victorian viceroys, his term of office ended in
resignation, empty of recognition and devoid of reward.... he was unable to assert himself fully
as foreign secretary until the last weeks of Lloyd George's premiership. Finally, after he had
restored his reputation at Lausanne, his ultimate ambition was thwarted by George V.

24
Critics generally agreed that Curzon never reached the heights that his youthful talents had
seemed destined to reach. This sense of opportunities missed was summed up by Winston
Churchill in his book Great Contemporaries (1937):

"The morning had been golden; the noontide was bronze; and the evening lead. But all were
polished till it shone after its fashion."

Churchill also wrote there was certain something lacking in Curzon:

"it was certainly not information nor application, nor power of speech nor attractiveness of
manner and appearance. Everything was in his equipment. You could unpack his knapsack and
take an inventory item by item. Nothing on the list was missing, yet somehow or other the total
was incomplete."

His Cabinet colleague The Earl of Crawford provided a withering personal judgment in his diary;
"I never knew a man less loved by his colleagues and more hated by his subordinates, never a
man so bereft of conscience, of charity or of gratitude. On the other hand the combination of
power, of industry, and of ambition with a mean personality is almost without parallel. I never
attended a funeral ceremony at which the congregation was so dry-eyed!"

The first leader of independent India, Jawaharlal Nehru, paid Curzon a surprising tribute,
presumably referring to the fact that Curzon as Viceroy exhibited real love and knowledge of
Indian culture:

"After every other Viceroy has been forgotten, Curzon will be remembered because he restored
all that was beautiful in India."

Curzon Hall, the home of the faculty of science at the University of Dhaka, is named after him.
Lord Curzon himself inaugurated the building in 1904.

Curzon Gate, a ceremonial gate, was erected by Maharaja Bijay Chand Mahatab in the heart of
Burdwan town to commemorate Lord Curzon's visit to the town in 1904, which was renamed as
Bijay Toran after independence of India in 1947.

Curzon Road, the road connecting India Gate, the memorial dedicated to the Indian fallen during
the Great War of 191418, and Connaught Place, in New Delhi was named after him. It has since
been renamed Kasturba Gandhi Marg. The apartment buildings on the same road are still named
after him.

25
 Rabindranath Tagore

Born: May 07, 1861

Birthplace: Jorasanko mansion in Calcutta, India.

Died: August 07, 1941 in Calcutta, India.

Leader: Writer, Painter.

Brief Description:
Rabindranath Tagore name is written as Rabindranath Thakur in Indian languages. He was also a
philosopher and an artist. He wrote many stories, novels, poems and dramas, as well as
composing music. His writings greatly influenced Bengali culture during the late 19th century
and early 20th century. In 1913, he won the Nobel Prize in Literature. He was the first Asian
person ever to win this prize. Tagore was popularly known as "Gurudev." His major works
included Gitanjali (Song Offerings), a world-famous poetry book; Gora (Fair-Faced); Ghare-
Baire (The Home and the World); and many other works of literature and art. Tagore was also a
cultural reformer, and modernized Bangla art. He made it possible to make art using different
forms and styles. Tagore died on 7th August 1941 (baaisha sraban in bengali 22nd sraban).

Family:
Tagore was born in the city of Kolkata (formerly called Calcutta), at No. 6 Dwarkanath Tagore
Lane, Jorasanko Thakur Bari. He was the youngest of his parents' 14 children. His father was
Debendranath Tagore; his mother was Sarada Devi. Tagore was a Bengali Brahman by birth. His
nickname was "Rabi" or "Robi."

Vision:

26
To develop and major change of Bengali society and its nations with his Music and artwork,
Short stories, Poetry, Anthems,Political views,Educational views,essays, travelogues, dramas.

Key Activities:
Tagore was also an excellent musician and painter. He wrote around 2,230 songs. People call
these songs "Rabindra Sangeet (which means "Tagore Song" in English). These songs are now a
part of modern Bengali culture. Tagore's many poems and songs are parts of his novels and
stories.

Among Rabindra Sangeet are two great works, which are now national anthems of two different
countries: India and Bangladesh.

Another notable play by him is Dhaka Ghar (The Post Office), describes how a child tries to
escape from his confinement, and falls asleep. This sleeping is suggestive of death. This play
received reviews in many parts of Europe.

In 1890 he wrote Visarjan (Sacrifice). Many scholars believe this to be his finest drama.

The Bangla-language originals included intricate subplots and extended monologues.

He wrote many other drams on a variety of themes. In Tagore's own words, he wrote them as
"the play of feeling and not of action". Rabindra Nritya Natya means dance dramas based on
Tagores plays.

Tagore wrote many stories during the period from 1891 to 1895. Galpaguchchha (Bunch of
Stories) is a three volume collection of eighty-four of his stories. Tagore wrote about half of
these stories during the period 1891 to 1895. This collection continues to be very popular work
of Bangla literature. These stories have been used for many movies and theatrical plays.

Tagore drew inspiration and ideas for writing his stories from his surroundings, from the village
life of India. He saw the poor people very closely during travels to manage his familys large
landholdings. Sometimes he used different themes to test the depth of his intellect.

Tagore's poetry is very varied, and covers many styles. He drew inspiration from 15th - and
16th century poets, as also from ancient writers like Vyasa. Bengals Baul folk singers also
influenced his style of poetry.

Jana Gana Mana, the national anthem of India, was one of the works of Tagore.

Amar Shonar Bangla, the national anthem of Bangladesh, was written by Tagore.

Tagores political views were complex. He criticized European colonialism, and supported
Indian nationalists. But, he also criticized the Swadeshi movement of many nationalist leaders of
India. Instead, he emphasized selfhelp and intellectual uplift of the masses. He requested Indians

27
to accept that "there can be no question of blind revolution, but of steady and purposeful
education".

Tagore was also critical of traditional style of education. While on a visit to Santa Barbara,
California on 11 October 1917, he visualized a new type of education. He thought of a new type
of university which he desired to be set up at Shantiniketan. On 22nd December 1918, work for
building the new university began. It started functioning from 22nd December 1921. He named
the university: Visva-Bharati University.

In his own words, he wanted this university to become a world center for the study of
humanity ... somewhere beyond the limits of nation and geography."

What Made Rabindronath Tagore A leader?

At first Robi thakur raised his voice about dowry system with according to his short story
Hoimonti.

He was giving us actual relationship between the king and subordinates with according to his
song amra shobai raza. He describes us about actual democracy implication.

He was introduced about the relationship between Nature and Human.

He was anthems writer of two states.

He describes how a child tries to escape from his confinement, and falls asleep. This sleeping is
suggestive of death according to his drama Dakghor.

Traits:

Articulates a vision

Motivates others

Makes effective decision

Sun Yat-Sen

28
Born: November 12, 1866

Birthplace: Cuiheng, China

Died: March 12, 1925

Sphere of Influence: Asia

Type of Leader: Political, Social

Sun Yat-Sen is considered the Father of Modern China because he was instrumental in bringing
the Qing dynasty to an end. After becoming President, Sun Yat-Sen resigned under pressure.
After that, he fought warlords in the hope of uniting China. Although he died before China
became unified, he helped put China on a path to become a more modern country by ending the
rule of dynasties.

BIOGRAPHY

Sun Yat-Sen was educated in Hawaii and later trained in Hong Kong to become a doctor. By the
time he graduated from medical school he was convinced that the Qing dynasty would cause
China to remain a backward country if it stayed in power. Instead of practicing medicine, Sun
Yat-Sen traveled through Europe and the United States. He also traveled back to China and
engaged in revolutionary activities which led to periods of exile in Japan and Great Britain.
Eventually the Qing dynasty was overthrown in 1911 and Sun returned. He was elected the first
President of China in 1913, but he faced serious opposition from regional warlords. He resigned
in the hope of uniting the country, but China remained fractured.

Sun Yat-Sen promoted his political beliefs through the Kuomintang political party. In the early
1920s Sun strengthened the party by creating small party organizations in many areas thereby
putting the party and its ideals in greater contact with people. The Kuomintang also created a
military academy, led by Chiang Kai-Shek, a future leader of China.

29
Sun Yat-Sen died of cancer in 1925 and although China was still largely ruled by warlords the
Kuomintang continued to grow in power. In order to become a more modern country China had
to end centuries of rule by dynasties and Sun Yat-Sen was instrumental in ending government
under dynasties.

WHAT MADE SUN YAT-SEN A LEADER?

Sun Yat-Sens vision for China included three principles: nationalism, democracy, and
socialism, which he believed would allow China to flourish as a modern country.

Sun Yat-Sen realized that an important first step to becoming a modern country was to end
rule by dynasties and he took great risks to end dynastic rule.

Sun Yat-Sen was willing to resign from his leadership because he believed it would help
China become unified.

Sun Yat-Sen strengthened his political party and encouraged it to spread throughout China so
it could influence people in all parts of China.

Mohandas Gandhi

30
Full Name: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

Born: October 2, 1869

Birthplace: Porbandar, Gujarat, India

Death: 30 January 1948 (aged 78)New Delhi, India

Ethnicity: Gujarati

Nationality: Indian

Education: Barrister-at-law

Sphere of Influence: Africa , Asia , Europe

Type of Leader: Political

Known for: Leadership of Indian independence movement Philosophy of Satyagraha,

nonviolence & pacifism. Mohandas Gandhi believed that passive resistance to authority would
allow India to gain its independence from Great Britain. Gandhi had seen discrimination and
inequality while living in South Africa. After returning to India he continued to urge his
followers to passively resist the British colonial government. He organized economic boycotts to
protest the economic inequality of colonialism. Gandhi led the Indian independence movement
by orchestrating peaceful, nonviolent protests and marches, often in the face of violent
resistance. In 1948, England granted India its independence.

BIOGRAPHY

31
Mohandas Gandhi was heavily influenced by the discrimination he experienced while in South
Africa practicing law. In one incident he was forced to leave the first class car on a train because
he was not white and later had to give up his seat to a European passenger. He soon began
developing the idea of passive resistance which he called satyagraha (truth or force) to resist
authority.

In 1914, Gandhi returned to India and began to organize passive resistance against the British
colonial government. Gandhi also adopted a lifestyle based on prayer, fasting and meditation. He
urged Indians to make Khaddar, or homespun cloth, to gain more economic independence by not
relying on expensive British cloth.

In 1939 he began a new campaign of civil disobedience to protest the colonial governments tax
on salt. He led followers on a 250-mile march to the sea and gained international attention and
additional concessions from the British. When World War II began, Gandhi demanded
independence from the British in return for Indias support. The British government arrested all
the leaders of Gandhis political party, the Congress Party. He spent another two years in prison.
After the war, the British government entered into discussion to grant independence to India but
split the country into two India and Pakistan. Gandhi opposed dividing the country but agreed
to it in order to maintain peace between the largely Hindu population of India and the Muslim
population of Pakistan. On January 30, 1948, Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu who was
angered because Gandhi negotiated with Muslims.

Vision:

To ensure sustainable human development which encourages self-reliant and self-content

society
To promote activities related to community services, social welfare and also Indian
heritage and culture.
To inculcate the culture of non-violence and truthfulness through vipassanna meditation
and Gandhian Philosophy.
To develop the culture of simple living and high thinking.

Key Activities:

Civil rights activist in South Africa (18931914):

Gandhi was 24 when he arrived in South Africa in 1893 to work as a legal representative for the
Muslim Indian Traders based in the city of Pretoria. He spent 21 years in South Africa, where he
developed his political views, ethics and political leadership skills. In South Africa, Gandhi faced
the discrimination directed at all colored people. He was thrown off a train at Pietermaritzburg
after refusing to move from the first-class. He protested and was allowed on first class the next

32
day. Travelling farther on by stagecoach, he was beaten by a driver for refusing to move to make
room for a European passenger. He suffered other hardships on the journey as well, including
being barred from several hotels. In another incident, the magistrate of a Durban court ordered
Gandhi to remove his turban, which he refused to do.

These events were a turning point in Gandhi's life and shaped his social activism and awakened
him to social injustice. After witnessing racism, prejudice, and injustice against Indians in South
Africa, Gandhi began to question his place in society and his people's standing in the British
Empire. Indians in South Africa included wealthy Muslims, who employed Gandhi as a lawyer,
and impoverished Hindu indentured laborers with very limited rights. Gandhi considered them
all to be Indians, taking a lifetime view that "Indianness" transcended religion and caste. He
believed he could bridge historic differences, especially regarding religion, and he took that
belief back to India where he tried to implement it. At the onset of the South African War,
Gandhi argued that the Indians must support the war effort in order to legitimize their claims to
full citizen rights, and he organized a volunteer ambulance corps composed of 300 free Indians
and 800 indentured laborers.

At the conclusion of the war, however, the situation for the Indians did not improve; in fact, it
continued to deteriorate. In 1906, the Transvaal government promulgated a new act that called
for compulsory registration of the colony's Indian population. At a mass protest meeting held in
Johannesburg in September, 1906, Gandhi adopted, for the first time, his platform of satyagraha
(devotion to the truth), or nonviolent protest, calling on his fellow Indians to defy the new law
and suffer the punishments for doing so rather than resisting through violent means. This plan
was adopted and led to a seven-year struggle in which thousands of Indians were jailed
(including Gandhi himself on many occasions), flogged, or even shot, for striking, refusing to
register, and engaging in other forms of nonviolent resistance. While the government was
successful in repressing the Indian protesters, the public outcry stemming from the harsh
methods employed by the South African government in the face of peaceful Indian protesters
finally forced South African general Jan Christian Smuts to negotiate a compromise with Gandhi.

Struggle for Indian Independence (191547):

At the request of Gokhale, conveyed to him by C.F. Andrews, Gandhi returned to India in 1915.
He brought an international reputation as a leading Indian nationalist, theorist and organizer. He
joined the Indian National Congress and was introduced to Indian issues, politics and the Indian
people primarily by Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Gandhi took leadership of the Congress in 1920 and
began escalating demands until on 26 January 1930 the Indian National Congress declared the
independence of India. The British did not recognize the declaration but negotiations ensued,
with the Congress taking a role in provincial government in the late 1930s. Gandhi and the
Congress withdrew their support of the Raj when the Viceroy declared war on Germany in
September 1939 without consultation. Tensions escalated until Gandhi demanded immediate

33
independence in 1942 and the British responded by imprisoning him and tens of thousands of
Congress leaders. Meanwhile, the Muslim League did co-operate with Britain and moved,
against Gandhi's strong opposition, to demands for a totally separate Muslim state of Pakistan. In
August 1947 the British partitioned the land with India and Pakistan each achieving
independence on terms that Gandhi disapproved. Gandhi's other successful strategies for the
independence movement included swadeshi policy - the boycott of foreign-made goods,
especially British goods. Linked to this was his advocacy that khadi (homespun cloth) be worn
by all Indians instead of British-made textiles. Gandhi exhorted Indian women, rich or poor, to
spend time each day spinning khadi in support of the independence movement. This was a
strategy to include women in the movement at a time when many thought that such activities
were not 'respectable' for women.

Role in World War I:

In April 1918, during the latter part of World War I, the Viceroy invited Gandhi to a War
Conference in Delhi. Perhaps to show his support for the Empire and help his case for India's
independence, Gandhi agreed to actively recruit Indians for the war effort. In contrast to the Zulu
War of 1906 and the outbreak of World War I in 1914, when he recruited volunteers for the
Ambulance Corps, this time Gandhi attempted to recruit combatants. In a June 1918 leaflet
entitled "Appeal for Enlistment", Gandhi wrote "To bring about such a state of things we should
have the ability to defend ourselves, that is, the ability to bear arms and to use them...If we want
to learn the use of arms with the greatest possible dispatch, it is our duty to enlist ourselves in the
army." He did, however, stipulate in a letter to the Viceroy's private secretary that he "personally
will not kill or injure anybody, friend or foe."

Gandhi's war recruitment campaign brought into question his consistency on nonviolence.
Gandhi's private secretary noted that "The question of the consistency between his creed of
'Ahimsa' (nonviolence) and his recruiting campaign was raised not only then but has been
discussed ever since."

Champaran and Kheda:

Gandhi's first major achievements came in 1918 with the Champaran and Kheda agitations of
Bihar and Gujarat. The Champaran agitation pitted the local peasantry against their largely
British landlords who were backed by the local administration. The peasantry was forced to grow
Indigo, a cash crop whose demand had been declining over two decades, and were forced to sell
their crops to the planters at a fixed price. Unhappy with this, the peasantry appealed to Gandhi
at his ashram in Ahmedabad. Pursuing a strategy of nonviolent protest, Gandhi took the
administration by surprise and won concessions from the authorities.

34
In 1918, Kheda was hit by floods and famine and the peasantry was demanding relief from taxes.
Gandhi moved his headquarters to Nadiad, organising scores of supporters and fresh volunteers
from the region, the most notable being Vallabhbhai Patel. Using non-cooperation as a technique,
Gandhi initiated a signature campaign where peasants pledged non-payment of revenue even
under the threat of confiscation of land.

Khilafat Movement:

In 1919, Gandhi, with his weak position in Congress, decided to broaden his political base by
increasing his appeal to Muslims. The opportunity came in the form of the Khilafat movement, a
worldwide protest by Muslims against the collapsing status of the Caliph, the leader of their
religion. The Ottoman Empire had lost the First World War and was dismembered, as Muslims
feared for the safety of the holy places and the prestige of their religion. Although Gandhi did not
originate the All-India Muslim Conference, which directed the movement in India, he soon
became its most prominent spokesman and attracted a strong base of Muslim support with local
chapters in all Muslim centers in India. As a mark of solidarity with Indian Muslims he returned
the medals that had been bestowed on him by the British government for his work in the Boer
and Zulu Wars. He believed that the British government was not being honest in its dealings with
Muslims on the Khilafat issue. His success made him India's first national leader with a
multicultural base and facilitated his rise to power within Congress, which had previously been
unable to influence many Indian Muslims. In 1920 Gandhi became a major leader in Congress.
By the end of 1922 the Khilafat movement had collapsed.

Salt Satyagraha (Salt March):

Gandhi stayed out of active politics and, as such, the limelight for most of the 1920s. He focused
instead on resolving the wedge between the Swaraj Party and the Indian National Congress, and
expanding initiatives against untouchability, alcoholism, ignorance, and poverty. He returned to
the fore in 1928. In the preceding year, the British government had appointed a new
constitutional reform commission under Sir John Simon, which did not include any Indian as its
member. The result was a boycott of the commission by Indian political parties. Gandhi pushed
through a resolution at the Calcutta Congress in December 1928 calling on the British
government to grant India dominion status or face a new campaign of non-cooperation with
complete independence for the country as its goal. Gandhi had not only moderated the views of
younger men like Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru, who sought a demand for
immediate independence, but also reduced his own call to a one-year wait, instead of two.

The British did not respond. On 31 December 1929, the flag of India was unfurled in Lahore. 26
January 1930 was celebrated as India's Independence Day by the Indian National Congress
meeting in Lahore. This day was commemorated by almost every other Indian organization.

35
Gandhi then launched a new Satyagraha against the tax on salt in March 1930. This was
highlighted by the famous Salt March to Dandi from 12 March to 6 April, where he marched 388
kilometers (241 mi) from Ahmedabad to Dandi, Gujarat to make salt himself. Thousands of
Indians joined him on this march to the sea. This campaign was one of his most successful at
upsetting British hold on India; Britain responded by imprisoning over 60,000 people.

World War II and Quit India:

Gandhi initially favored offering "nonviolent moral support" to the British effort when World
War II broke out in 1939, but the Congressional leaders were offended by the unilateral inclusion
of India in the war without consultation of the people's representatives. All Congressmen
resigned from office. After long deliberations, Gandhi declared that India could not be party to a
war ostensibly being fought for democratic freedom while that freedom was denied to India
itself. As the war progressed, Gandhi intensified his demand for independence, calling for the
British to Quit India in a speech at Gowalia Tank Maidan. This was Gandhi's and the Congress
Party's most definitive revolt aimed at securing the British exit from India.

Partition and independence, 1947:

As a rule, Gandhi was opposed to the concept of partition as it contradicted his vision of
religious unity. Concerning the partition of India to create Pakistan, while the Indian National
Congress and Gandhi called for the British to quit India, the Muslim League passed a resolution
for them to divide and quit, in 1943. Gandhi suggested an agreement which required the
Congress and Muslim League to co-operate and attain independence under a provisional
government, thereafter, the question of partition could be resolved by a plebiscite in the districts
with a Muslim majority. When Jinnah called for Direct Action, on 16 August 1946, Gandhi was
infuriated and personally visited the most riot-prone areas to stop the massacres. He made strong
efforts to unite the Indian Hindus, Muslims, and Christians and struggled for the emancipation of
the "untouchables" in Hindu society.

India's partition and independence were accompanied by more than half a million killed in riots
as 1012 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims crossed the borders dividing India and Pakistan.

Characteristic:

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi "Father of the nation" is called Mahatma Gandhi, was the
charismatic leader who brought the cause of India's independence from British colonial rule to
world attention. His philosophy of non-violence, for which he coined the term satyagraha has
influenced both nationalist and international movements for peaceful change.

By means of non-violent civil disobedience, an idea he developed from the teachings of Leo

36
Tolstoy and Henry David Thoreau, Gandhi helped bring about India's independence from British
rule. This inspired other colonial peoples to work for their own independence, ultimately
dismantling the British Empire and replacing it with the Commonwealth of Nations. Gandhi's
principle of satyagraha ("soul force"), often translated as "way of truth" or "pursuit of truth", has
inspired other democratic activists, including Martin Luther King, Jr.. He often said that his
values were simple; drawn from traditional Hindu beliefs: truth (satya), and non-violence
(ahimsa).

Principles, Practices &Beliefs:

Gandhism designates the ideas and principles Gandhi promoted. Of central importance is
nonviolent resistance. A Gandhian can mean either an individual who follows, or a specific
philosophy which is attributed to, Gandhism. M. M. Sankhdher argues that Gandhism is not a
systematic position in metaphysics or in political philosophy. Rather, it is a political creed, an
economic doctrine, a religious outlook, a moral precept, and especially, a humanitarian world
view. It is an effort not to systematise wisdom but to transform society and is based on an
undying faith in the goodness of human nature. However Gandhi himself did not approve of the
notion of "Gandhism", as he explained in 1936:

There is no such thing as "Gandhism", and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not
claim to have originated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to
apply the eternal truths to our daily life and problems. The opinions I have formed and the
conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I may change them tomorrow. I have nothing new to
teach the world. Truth and nonviolence are as old as the hills.

WHAT MADE MOHANDAS GANDHI A LEADER?

Gandhi developed the idea of passive resistance to authority and practiced nonviolent resistance
even though it sometimes resulted in arrest or physical harm. Gandhi modeled a simple life of
prayer, meditation, and fasting to show his followers commitment to his cause. Although
somewhat symbolic, the spinning of homespun cloth rallied people to support the cause of
independence for India.

Here are 10 great strategies and virtues we should learn from the Great life of Mahatma Gandhi.
All the quotes are by Mahatma Gandhi:

1. Faith in self

In a gentle way, you can shake the world.

Also,

37
Men often become what they believe themselves to be. If I believe I cannot do something, it
makes me incapable of doing it. But when I believe I can, then I acquire the ability to do it even
if I didn't have it in the beginning.

Mahatma Gandhi wasnt a great orator, didnt had a very attractive physique, lived a life of
simplicity and avoided limelight as much as he could, but still he is regarded as one of the
Greatest persons to have ever walked on earth. The reason is he always believed in himself. He
believed that he has a great responsibility to free his country and he had complete faith in
himself. He knew hed a play a significant role in the freedom of India and so he did. His faith in
himself triggered the faith of millions of Indians in him.

Remember-All of us have great abilities and great responsibilities. All of us play a very
significant role in the flow of History. The reason we never realize is because we never believe
we can have a worldwide impact.

2. Resistance & Persistence-

First they ignore you, then they laugh at you, then they fight you and then you win.

It was very tough to lead the Independence movement of a huge country such as India and that
too with non-violence and against the violent and cruel British army. Gandhi was beaten a lot of
times, a lot of times he was left alone, bleeding and lying on the ground and sometimes it seemed
that he wont see the sun, next day but each day and each time he faced the opposition, he
resisted, he persisted and he got through all the opposition.

Remember-When you fight for a noble cause and you know that youre doing the right thing
youll face the opposition. The opposition make everything seem worse, you may feel ike youre
the only one standing for your cause and the whole world is against you.

Thats the time you might feel like giving up but you must resist the opposition, and must
persevere to make your dreams come true.

3. Forgiveness-

The weak can never forgive. Forgiveness is the attribute of the strong.

Mahatma Gandhi was thrown into jail, beaten on the roads; many people conspired about his
death and tried to assassinate him. But he forgave them all. He always forgave the people that
might have hurt him in any way.

Remember-

What people dont understand is that forgiveness is not only a great quality but its also
somewhat a selfish act; When you forgive the people that might have hurt you or caused you
some problems, you let go of the negativity associated with that event.

38
Also, forgiving people causes a long lasting positive impact on their lives and builds everlasting
relationships. So remember to forgive everyone, issue a blank pardon and forgive everyone.

4. Learning from mistakes-

Confession of errors is like a broom which sweeps away the dirt and leaves the surface
brighter and clearer. I feel stronger for confession.

Mahatma Gandhi wasnt perfect from the beginning. When he was child, he lied, he stole, and he
fought and was too much after material things. Not all his actions were praised around the globe.
Some of his actions were condemned in his own land. He made mistakes throughout his life but
he never made the same mistake twice. He failed but he learned from it and achieved success.

Remember-

Were all humans and making mistakes is a part of being human. But we should always stop
and take a look at what mistakes we did and why they happened. If we learn from failures and
mistakes, theyd eventually turn out to be as grand success in life.

5. Strength of Character-

There are seven sins in the world: Wealth without work, Pleasure without conscience,
Knowledge without character, Commerce without morality, Science without humanity, Worship
without sacrifice and politics without principle.

Mahatma Gandhi was a man of great character. He kept himself away from the materialistic
desires, always favored the truth and honesty, he condemned violence, he was married but still he
was celibate and was himself a pure vegetarian. He was celebrity and was covered on the front-
page of all the important newspapers in the world at that time. But still he lived the life of
simplicity and discipline.

Remember-Anyone can fool around when given a chance to but only the people who live a life
of discipline, great character and have urgency in day to day affairs are the people who reach
their destiny and become famous.

6. Love but never hate-

Whenever youre confronted with an opponent, conquer him with love.

This is a quality most of the people would have difficulty to adopt. But this is a quality often
found in great people. It was present in the Buddha, Christ and in other great spiritual leaders.
This was something Gandhi adopted from his ideals.

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Remember-When you avoid a fight and instead walk out of the arena with your opponent, both
having a smile on their faces: it might look stupid. But it actually works in your favor. Two
things youve won- the fight without even actually fighting and a good friend that might help you
in the ups and downs of life. Actions like this help in building everlasting relationships.

7. Truthfulness-

Truth stands, even if there be no public support. It is self-sustained.

Most of the people reading this post would not know that before becoming a freedom fighter,
M.K. Gandhi was actually a lawyer. Most people would wonder that the profession of lawyer
requires much cunning and lying but still Gandhi never resorted to lying. He promoted truth
throughout his life. He always called truth as his most powerful weapon.

Remember-While lying might serve your purpose for a short time, truth lasts forever. If you say
the truth every time and to everyone, you dont have to remember anything. While one lie
triggers even more lies, Truth stands for itself.

8. Live in Present-

I do not want to foresee the future. I am concerned with taking care of the present.

God has given me no control over the moment following.

Gandhi believed in living each moment at fullest and concentrating at the task in hands. He
didnt waste his time looking back at the past or wondering what would happen in the future.

Remember-

Concentrating on the present benefits you in two ways: it let go you of the worries of the past
and the future but also it increases your efficiency at the task you must focus. It sorts out your
priorities and help you to avoid procrastination.

9. Take the first step and Do it anyway-

Nearly everything you do is of no importance, but it is important that you do it.

Gandhi himself suffered from the menace of procrastination when he was in school and later on
when he went to England to learn law. Then he devised this method of taking first step in faith
and doing the task anyways. He knew that not all the actions that hed take would be important
but he knew that they will have important results later on.

Remember-

40
If you dont do something about it, it will never be done. The great tasks in future should never
be at the mercy of leisure and laziness. If you want something to be done the best thing is begin
it and do it anyway.

10. Non Violence-

My religion is based on truth and non-violence. Truth is my God. Non-violence is the means
of realizing Him.

Also,An eye for an eye would soon make the whole world blind.

Mahatma Gandhi is known in the whole world for his principles of non-violence. He never
resorted to violence and has won the war of independence of India just by non- violence. In his
memory and honor, today International Day of Non-Violence is observed worldwide. If human
resort to and resolve their problems and conflicts peacefully, without violence and cooperating
with each other, thousands of innocent lives can be saved, that are often lost in wars.

Remember-Wars can never actually solve issues, wars can only terminate them.

In the end, a quote by Gandhi that would help you to reach your destinyYour beliefs become
your thoughts. Your thoughts become your words. Your words become your actions. Your actions
become your habits. Your habits become your values. Your values become your destiny.

Vladimir Lenin

41
Full Name: Vladimir Lenin

Chairman of Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union

Birth: 22 April 1870 (Simbirsk, Russian Empire)

Died: 21 January 1924 (Gorki, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union)

Nationality: Soviet, Russian

Family:

Lenin was the son of Ilya Ulyanov and Maria Alexandrovna Ulyanova. Lenins wife
Nadezhda Krupskaya older brother Aleksandr Ulyanov, older sister Anna Ulyanova, younger
brother Dmitry Ilyich Ulyanov and younger sister Maria Ilyinichna Ulyanova and also there
are more 4 other siblings.
Vision:

The term "Leninism", used to describe Lenin's ideological beliefs, was first used by Martov in
1904. According to his Marxist perspective, Lenin believed that humanity would eventually
reach pure communism, becoming a stateless, classless, egalitarian society of workers who were
free from exploitation and alienation, controlled their own destiny, and abided by the rule of
"From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs".
Remarkable Activities:

42
1. Lenin played a leading role in the October Revolution of 1917, overthrowing the Provisional
Government and establishing a one-party state under the new Communist Party
2. Lenin's government proved victorious over anti-Bolshevik armies in the Russian Civil
War from 1917 to 1922
3. In 1921 Lenin introduced a mixed economic system with the New Economic Policy
4. Lenin's government also united Russia with neighboring territories to form the Soviet Union
in 1922
5. Creating the Communist International and waging the PolishSoviet War to promote world
revolution
6. On 3 March, the Treaty of Brest Litovsk was signed. The Treaty resulted in massive territorial
losses for Russia, with 26% of the former Empire's population, 37% of its agricultural harvest
area, 28% of its industry, 26% of is railway tracks, and two-thirds of its coal and iron reserves
being transferred to German control.

Personal life & Characteristics:

He became an ideological figurehead behind Marxism-Leninism and thus a prominent influence
over the international communist movement
1. Lenin believed himself to be a man of destiny.
2. Having an unshakable belief in the righteousness of his cause
3. A revolutionary leader
4. Had an influence over people

Subhas Chandra Bose

43
Born: November 30, 1874

Birthplace: Blenheim Place, Oxfordshire,United Kingdom

Died: August 18, 1945 in Taipei (Taihoku), Japanese Taiwan.

Type of Leader: Political, Military.

Brief Description:

Subhas Chandra Bose was an Indian nationalist whose defiant patriotism made him a hero in
India, but whose attempt during World War II to rid India of British rule with the help of Nazi
Germany and Imperial Japan left a troubled legacy. The honorific Netaji first applied in early
1942 to Bose in Germany by the Indian soldiers of the Indische Legion and by the German and
Indian officials in the Special Bureau for India in Berlin, was later used throughout India.

Earlier, Bose had been a leader of the younger, radical, wing of the Indian National Congress in
the late 1920s and 1930s, rising to become Congress President in 1938 and 1939. However, he
was ousted from Congress leadership positions in 1939 following differences with Mahatma
Gandhi and the Congress high command. He was subsequently placed under house arrest by the
British before escaping from India in 1940.With Japanese support; Bose revamped the Indian
National Army (INA), and then composed of Indian soldiers of the British Indian army who had
been captured in the Battle of Singapore. To these, after Bose's arrival, were added enlisting
Indian civilians in Malaya and Singapore. The Japanese had come to support a number of puppet
and provisional governments in the captured regions, such as those in Burma, the Philippines and
Manchukuo. Before long the Provisional Government of Free India, presided by Bose, was
formed in the Japanese-occupied Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Bose had great drive and
charismacreating popular Indian slogans, such as "Jai Hind,"and the INA under Bose was a
model of diversity by region, ethnicity, religion, and even gender. However, Bose was regarded
by the apneas as being militarily unskilled, and his military effort was short lived. The INA was

44
driven down the Malay Peninsula, and surrendered with the recapture of Singapore. Bose had
earlier chosen not to surrender with his forces or with the Japanese, but rather to escape to
Manchuria with a view to seeking a future in the Soviet Union which he believed to be turning
anti-British. He died from third degree burns received when his plane crashed in Taiwan. Some
Indians, however, did not believe that the crash had occurred, with many among them, especially
in Bengal, believing that Bose would return to gain India's independence.

Indian National Congress, the main instrument of Indian nationalism, praised Bose's patriotism
but distanced itself from his tactics and ideology, especially his collaboration with Fascism. The
British Raj, though never seriously threatened by the INA, charged 300 INA officers with treason
in the INA trials, but eventually backtracked in the face both of popular sentiment and of its own
end.

Family:
Subhash Chandra Bose was born on 23 January, 1897 in Cuttack (Orissa) to Janakinath Bose and
Prabhavati Devi. Janakinath Bose was one of the successful lawyer in Cuttack and received the
title of Rai Bahadur. He, later became a member of the Bengal Legislative Council. Subhash
Chandra Bose was a very intelligent and sincere student but never had much interest in sports.
He passed his B.A. in Philosophy from the Presidency College in Calcutta. He was strongly
influenced by Swami Vivekanandas teachings and was known for his patriotic zeal as a student.
He also adored Vivekananda as his spiritual Guru.

Vision:
He was eagerly waiting to see India, as an independent, federal and republic nation.
He wanted to develop Indian army team for independent india.

Key Activities:
Start of the opposition to British by Subhash Chandra Bose- Subhash Chandra Bose decided
to take revenge, after reading so many incidents about the exploitation of the fellow Indians by
the British. In 1916, Subhash reportedly beat and thrashed one of his British teachers E F Otten.
The professor made a racist remark against the Indian students. As a result, Subhash Chandra
Bose was expelled from the Presidency College and banished from Calcutta University. The
incident brought Subhash in the list of rebel-Indians. In December 1921, Bose was arrested and
imprisoned for organizing a boycott of the celebrations to mark the Prince of Waless visit to
India.

Subhash Chandra Bose in Britain for ICS and return to India- Subhash Chandra Boses father
wanted him to become a civil servant and therefore, sent him to England to appear for the Indian
Civil Service Examination. Bose was placed fourth with highest marks in English. But his urge

45
for participating in the freedom movement was intense that in April 1921, Bose resigned from
the coveted Indian Civil Service and came back to India.

Soon, he left home to become an active member of Indias independence movement. He, later
joined the Indian National Congress, and also elected as the president of the Youth wing party.

Subhash Chaandra Bose with Congress- Subhash Chandra Bose worked under the leadership
of Chittaranjan Das, an active member of Congress in Calcutta. It was Chittaranjan Das, who
along with Motilal Nehru, left Congress and founded the Swaraj Party in 1922. Subhash would
regard Chittaranjan Das as his political guru. While Chittaranjan Das was busy in developing the
national strategy, Subhash Chandra Bose played a major role in enlightening the students, youth
and labourers of Calcutta. He was eagerly waiting to see India, as an independent, federal and
republic nation.

Subhash Chandra Bose vs. Congress- In freedom struggle congress was large organisation.
Subhash Chandra Bose became a strong leader in Congress and he made brave attempt to mould
the entire party differently. Congress party was always lenient and never in a position to oppose.
Saubhashbabu out rightly opposed this behavior. This opposition was against Gandhis
philosophy. Therefore Mahatma Gandhi and other leaders were hurt and since then they opposed
him. Congress party had undertaken a mission of opposing his every thought, insulting him and
to stifle his highflying ambitions. In this maneuver of congress many a time he felt suffocated.
Once there was a picture of Subhash Chandra Bose against entire congress party. It was first
election of congress that time. Usually closer aide of Mahatma Gandhi used to get elected; but
this time Subhash Chandra Bose got elected with higher votes. This insulted Gandhi group,
which lead to their less interest of thinking towards parties campaign for independence. In order
to acknowledge outside support and get freedom he journeyed to far away Germany, Japan when
it was period of 2nd world war!

He decided to induce soldiers from outside to get freedom. Nehru at that time said If Subhash
would bring soldiers from outside and enter India, then I would be the first person to wield a
sword and oppose him. That was the extent to which he detested Subhash babu.

Formation of Azad Hind Fauj by Subhash Chandra Bose- Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose was
against rendering any kind of help to the British during the World War II. He warned them so.
The Second World War broke out in September of 1939, and just as predicted by Bose, India was
declared as a warring state (on behalf of the British) by the Governor General, without consulting
Indian leaders. The Congress party was in power in seven major states and all state governments
resigned in protest. Netaji Bose called it the Indian National Army (INA) and a government by
the name Azad Hind Government was declared on the 21st of October 1943. INA freed the
Andaman and Nicobar islands from the British and was renamed as Swaraj and Shaheed islands.
The Government started functioning.

46
 Effect of Netaji Subhash Chandra Boses earlier visits to England- During his sojourn to
England, he met with the leaders of British Labor Party and political thinkers including Clement
Attlee, Arthur Greenwood, Harold Laski, G.D.H. Cole, and Sir Stafford Cripps. Bose also
discuss with them about the future of India. It must also be noted that it was during the regime of
the Labor Party (1945-1951), with Attlee as the Prime Minister, that India

Disappearance of Subhash Chandra Bose- Although it was believed that Netaji Subhash Chandra
Bose died in a plane crash, his body was never recovered. There have been many theories put
forward regarding his disappearance. The government of India set up a number of committees to
investigate the case and come out with truth.

What Made Subhas Chandra Bose A leader?

Subhash Chandra Bose was one of Indias greatest freedom fighter

He revived the Indian National Army, popularly known as Azad Hind Fauj in 1943 which
was initially formed in 1942 by Rash Behari Bose.

He raised his voice against racism for Indian students in student life.

He was active member of Indias independence movement.

He joined the Indian National Congress, and also elected as the president of the Youth wing
party.

Traits:

Articulates a vision

Motivates others

Makes effective decisions

Willingness to confront tough issues

Winston Churchill

47
Born: November 30, 1874

Birthplace: Blenheim Place, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom

Died: January 24, 1965

Sphere of Influence: Africa , Asia , Europe ,Latin America , Middle East , North America

Type of Leader: Economic, Military, and Political

A soldier, journalist, author, politician, historian, diplomat, and world leader, Winston Churchill
is most remembered for his leadership of Great Britain during the Second World War. He was
noted for his perseverance, resolve, and commitment to opposing Hitler's Germany,
characteristics which won the approval of a demoralized British public. In 1940, with Great
Britain reeling from a series of defeats, Churchill became Prime Minister with the promise to
defeat Nazism in Europe and defend freedom in Great Britain and abroad.

Famous Quotation:
"I would say to the House, as I said to those who have joined this Government, I have
nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat.

BIOGRAPHY

Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill attended Sandhurst, the Royal Military Academy, and
served in the 4th Hussars as a soldier and a journalist in 1895, taking him to Cuba, India, the
Northwestern Frontier, and Egypt.

In 1899, Churchill left the military for politics, losing his first bid for Parliament. He won his
second bid for Parliament in 1900. After four years of conservative politics and a disagreement
over free trade, he switched to the Liberal Party and focused on shortened work hours, minimum
wage, and autonomy for Ireland. The rise of Germanys Nazi Party and the fall Czechoslovakia,

48
Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg led to Churchills rise to Prime Minister in
1940.

Putting aside his own ideology, Churchill gathered a coalition from across the political spectrum
and united Britain in the war effort. He strengthened ties with the United States, securing
economic and military support for Britain and coordinating with American leaders to form a
united front against Germany.

Despite his anti-communist beliefs, he also reached an agreement with the Soviet Union, creating
an alliance that pressured the Axis powers on all fronts. Through his efforts at home and abroad,
Churchill helped to create the alliance that ultimately defeated Nazism in Europe.

After his party was voted out of power at the end of the Second World War, Churchill continued
to influence international events through his efforts to oppose Soviet oppression in Eastern
Europe. He also called for a closer community between the nations of Western Europe, a
sentiment at the foundation of the European Union.

A prolific writer, in the post-war years he compiled an impressive six-volume history of the
Second World War. For his achievements, he received the Nobel Prize in literature in 1953.

WHAT MADE WINSTON CHURCHILL A LEADER?

Sir Winston Churchill led the country he loved and garnered the trust of the citizens to
weather the darkest days of World War II.

Churchills policy of unity regardless of ideology was essential to the Grand Alliance that
defeated Hitler in World War II.

Churchills Nobel Prize and honorary American citizenship indicate a worldwide respect for
the man who stood up against Nazism.

Churchills experiences as an accomplished soldier, journalist, politician, and Nobel Prize

winning author show the diversity of his talents.

Joseph Stalin

49
Born: December 1878

Birthplace: Gori, Georgia

Died: March 5, 1953

Sphere of Influence: Asia, Europe

Type of Leader: Intellectual, Military, Political, Social

Family:
His father was Besarion Jughashvili, a cobbler, while his mother was KetevanGeladze, a
housemaid. Stalins wife Ekaterina Svanidze (19061907) and NadezhdaAlliluyeva (19191932).

Vision:
Stalins vision, the concept of "Socialism in One Country" became a central tenet of Soviet
society. Stalin and his followers had a utopian vision of a completely socialist society with a new
type of humanity once the state owned everything. His vision did not materialize, but he did
manage to build a new society with good and bad aspects which existed well into the 1980s

BIOGRAPHY

50
Georgian Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili originally trained for the priesthood, but quit to
pursue revolutionary activities. After joining the Social Democratic Labor Party, he organized
strikes, spent time in prison, and was exiled to Siberia. During this time, Iosif changed his name
to Stalin (Man of Steel.)

Lenin invited Stalin to serve on the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party in 1912, and Stalin
positioned himself to work his way up the ranks, becoming general secretary. He amassed
allies and assumed leadership of the Soviet Union (USSR) following Lenins death in 1924,
when he usurped the top position from Leon Trotsky. Under Stalins direction, the Soviet Union
truly became a communist nation. Stalin abandoned Lenins New Economic Policy. Instead,
Stalin instituted communalized agriculture, discontinued all private enterprise, and enacted a
series of five-year plans that successfully industrialized the USSR. While the standard of living
rose marginally for the average Russian, reluctant peasants especially in Ukraine were
punished for noncompliance. During the Terror Famine of 1932- 1933, millions perished.
Wealthier peasants (kulaks) resisted collectivization and in response the government confiscated
grain and property, leaving the independent minded Ukrainians to starve.

Stalin purged Russia and the Communist Party of all perceived rivals. Estimated tens of millions
were exiled to Siberian gulags; half did not survive. Censorship was extreme, propaganda was
pervasive, and children were taught that Stalin was more important than God. During World War
II, Stalin joined forces with Great Britain and the United States to defeat the Axis powers. The
Soviets paid some of the highest costs during the brutal Nazi invasion. Competition after the war
led to the Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe and the partitioning of Germany, which lasted
until 1989.

As dictator of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953, Joseph Stalin
established the direction of global communism, and set the tone of the Cold War. Stalin
manipulated his rise to power in communist Russia, orchestrated the industrialization of the
Soviet Union, contributed to the defeat of Nazi Germany, and forced communism on Eastern
Europe following World War II.

Famous Quotation: We are 50 or 100 years behind the advanced countries. We must make
good this distance in 10 years. Either we do it, or we shall go under.

Remarkable Activities:
Stalin had a variety of reasons for imposing the Five Year Plan

1. He was deeply committed to socialism. He was afraid that a gradual restoration of capitalism
might occur; and was determined to stop it.

2. Economically, the economy had seemed to stall in 1927 and 1928. Stalin considered a new
socialist offensive as necessary if industry and agriculture were to grow rapidly.

51
3. There were also political considerations. The Soviet Union was behind the more advanced
capitalist nations, which Stalin and the Bolsheviks considered hostile. In 1931, he commented
that "We are fifty or a hundred years behind the advanced countries. We must make good this
distance in ten years. Either we do it, or we shall go under.

4. The Great Purges: In the 1930s Stalins efforts to build a new socialist state turned to ruthless
police terror and the purging of the Communist party.

5. Stalin entered into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany

6. Soviet forces managed to halt the Nazi incursion after the decisive Battles
of Moscow and Stalingrad. After defeating the Axis powers on the Eastern Front, the Red
Army captured Berlin in May 1945.

7. Stalin led the Soviet Union through its post-war reconstruction phase, which saw a significant
rise in tension with the Western world that would later be known as the Cold War.

8. The USSR became the second country in the world to successfully develop a nuclear weapon

Personal life & Characteristics:

1. Determined
2. Stubborn
3. Good organizer
4. Ruthless

WHAT MADE JOSEPH STALIN A LEADER?

Stalin served as dictator of the Soviet Union for over two decades and transformed Russia
into an industrialized superpower.
After Germany invaded Russia, Stalin supported the Allied cause in World War II as one
of the Big Three, along with Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt. Stalin
brought about the Cold War by occupying Eastern Europe as Soviet troops drove the Nazis
toward Berlin and forcing communist governments to create a buffer zone against the west.

Albert Einstein

52
Born: March 14, 1879

Birthplace: Ulm, Wurttemberg, Germany

Died: April 18, 1955

Sphere of Influence: Europe, North America

Type of Leader: Intellectual, Scientific

Albert Einstein changed the physics community with new views on space, matter, and time. His
special theory of relativity and mass-energy equivalence (E=mc2) was a ground-breaking idea at
the core of twentieth century physics. Over the next five decades, Einstein was a leader in
modern physics, winning the Nobel Prize in 1921 as he theorized new approaches to beliefs that
had been held since the time of Isaac Newton. He was also a key figure in urging the United
States to develop atomic weapons, though he later advocated against their use.

Famous Quotation: Unthinking respect for authority is the greatest enemy of truth.

BIOGRAPHY

Albert Einstein published a handful of papers in the first years of the twentieth century, but his
work in 1905 changed physics forever. In this, his miracle year, he published four papers
studying various topics. These included ideas on the concept of space and time (relativity), light,
gravity, and an equation of equivalence of mass and energy, E=mc2.

These new theories had their skeptics because they challenged centuries of beliefs in previous
theories of gravity and light. Other scientists of great fame, such as Niels Bohr, were especially

53
critical of the idea of light as quanta. Einstein stood firm, however, and other scientists soon
proved most of his work correct.

Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 and toured the world. He continued to
lead the field of physics with several more publications throughout the decade. Some of this
work was new, but he also continued to refine his previous theories.

In 1933, the Nazi party in Germany barred Jews from holding university posts, and Einstein, a
Jew, contacted many countries to ask for asylum for him and other unemployed, persecuted
scholars. He ultimately settled in the United States, working at Princeton University and gaining
American citizenship in 1940.

A lifelong pacifist, Einstein sent a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1939 urging him to
develop atomic weapons before the Nazis, who were actively working on one. This led to the
Manhattan Project, the top-secret American plan that produced the first nuclear weapon. Despite
his role in the atomic age, Einstein actively spoke and wrote on behalf of eliminating nuclear
weapons in his last decade.

WHAT MADE ALBERT EINSTEIN A LEADER?

Albert Einstein's work represented a fundamental change in the way physicists understood the
universe.

Einstein did not waver from his scientific beliefs, no matter how radical, despite several
challenges from other prominent scientists.

Einstein's fame and reputation pushed President Franklin D. Roosevelt to pursue an atomic
weapon program which led to the development of the world's first nuclear arsenal.

Einstein was an influential pacifist for most of his career. He spoke out against war, and urged
scientists to refuse to testify in front of the House Un-American Activities Committee hearings in
the United States, challenging Senator Joseph McCarthy's tactics in the Red Scare.

Mustafa Kemal Atatrk

54
Full Name: Mustafa Kemal Ataturk

Birth: 19th May, 1881(Greece)

Death: 10th November, 1938 (aged 57), Dolmabahe Palace, Istanbul, Turkey

Birth Place: Salonica, SalonicaVilayet, Ottoman Empire (now Thessaloniki, Greece)

Nationality: Turkish

Family:

Mustafa Kemal Ataturk born in Greece, his fathers name Ali RzaEfendi and mother name
ZbeydeHanm and he had one sister name MakbuleAtadan. ZbeydeHanm's first child was
Fatma and then mer, later Ahmet was born. They all died in early childhood. Mustafa was the
fourth child. Makbule followed him in 1885. Their sister Naciye was born in 1889. Naciye was
lost to childhood tuberculosis.Mustafa Kemal's name is associated with four women:
EleniKarinte, FikriyeHanm, DimitrinaKovacheva and LatifeUaklgil. He married with
LatifeUaklgil.He had no biological children from this marriage but had seven adopted
daughters and one son. The names of his children were ZehraAylin, Sabiha (Gken), Rukiye
(Erkin), Afet(nan), Nebile (Bayyurt), Fikriye, lk (Doanay, later Adatepe), and Mustafa.
Additionally, he had two children under his protection, AbdurrahimTunak and hsan.

Vision:

55
Turkey at the beginning of the Turkish Independence War in 1919 and removed the enemy of
their country.

Key Activities:
In 1901, student joined at Ottoman War Academy as an army.
He participated in the Young Turk Revolution of July 1908, which successfully deposed
Sultan Abdlhamid II.
From 1909 to 1918, Mustafa Kemal held a number of posts in the Ottoman army. He
fought against Italy in the Italo-Turkish War in 1911 and from 1912-1913 he fought in the
Balkan Wars.
During the second Balkan War he became chief of staff before being posted at the
Turkish embassy in Bulgaria. He made a name for himself as the commander of the 19th
Division, where his bravery and strategic prowess helped thwart the Allied invasion of
the Dardanelles in 1915, and received repeated promotions until the Armistice of Mudros
ended the fighting in 1918.
In 1919, Ataturk organized resistance to these forces, and when the Treaty of Svres was
signed at the end of World War I, divvying up the Ottoman Empire, Mustafa Kemal
demanded complete independence for Turkey.
The Great National Assemblythe new Turkish parliamentengaged in a series of
battles with Greek and Armenian forces until Mustafa signed the Treaty of Lausanne on
October 29, 1923. This established the Republic of Turkey, and Mustafa Kemal became
the countrys first president.
Mustafa Kemal's first order of business was to modernize and secularize the country,
which he did by studying Western governments and adapting their structure for the
people of Turkey.
He replaced the Arabic alphabet with a Latin one, introduced the Gregorian calendar and
urged people to dress in Western clothes.
Mustafa industrialized the nation, establishing state-owned factories around the country
as well as a railway network.
New laws established legal equality between the sexes. Mustafa removed womens
veiling laws and gave women the right to vote.
His policy of state secularism was particularly controversial, and he was accused of
decimating important cultural traditions.

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Characteristics:
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk was born in 1881 in the former Ottoman Empire. As a young man he was
involved with the Young Turks, a revolutionary group that deposed the sultan in 1909. Ataturk
led the Turkish War of Independence and signed the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, which made
Turkey a republic. He was elected its first president and ushered in reforms that modernized
Turkey. He died in 1938.

Impact:
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk was a revolutionary who helped establish the Republic of Turkey. He
was Turkey's first president, and his reforms modernized the country.

Trait:
Proffered alone & independent
No patience taken advice from family
Either ignore them or obey them and both way right

Franklin D. Roosevelt

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Born: January 30, 1882

Birthplace: Hyde Park, New York, United States

Died: April 12, 1945

Sphere of Influence: Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, Middle East, North America

Type of Leader: Economic, Military, and Political

A lawyer, politician, statesmen, and president, Franklin Delano Roosevelt is best remembered for
his New Deal agenda during the Great Depression. He worked to bring economic stability with
Congressional cooperation that led to extensive economic reform. As the economy was
improving with deficit spending, the world erupted into war. Torn between neutrality and
growing fascism, Roosevelt used the Lend-Lease policy to assist Britain and France. After Pearl
Harbor, Roosevelt fought a two-front war. As a result of his diplomatic expertise, America
emerged from World War II as a world superpower.

Famous Quotation:
The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.

BIOGRAPHY

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Franklin D. Roosevelt was educated at Harvard and Columbia Law School. While working as an
attorney, he married Eleanor Roosevelt. He was elected to the New ork Senate in 1910, and then
served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under Woodrow Wilson.

Shortly after a failed attempt at the vice presidency in 1920, Roosevelt contracted polio. He
worked to prove himself capable for political service and gained two terms as the governor of
New York. After the 1929 stock market crash, Americans looking for a change, elected him
president in 1932.

Roosevelt started his term with the Hundred Days of unprecedented congressional and
presidential cooperation to alleviate the severe economic difficulties. Roosevelt mastered the use
of media with his regular fireside chats in which he encouraged Americans. During his second
term, the president fought with the Supreme Court as the justices declared several New Deal
programs unconstitutional.

When Hitler invaded Poland in 1939, Roosevelts increasingly rejected isolationism. He pushed
for legislation to aid Great Britain and France while speaking out against the expanding empire
of Japan. On December 7, 1941, Emperor Hirohito launched an attack on Pearl Harbor. The
attack caused the United States to plunge into the two-front war. Holding the Asian forces at bay,
while actively working to relieve Great Britain, Roosevelt worked closely with Winston
Churchill and Joseph Stalin.

Shortly before the final surrender of Germany, Roosevelt died. His legacy was shown in the rise
of the United States from a severe economic depression to superpower status.

WHAT MADE FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT A LEADER?

During the Great Depression, Roosevelt promised hope to Americans lifting their spirits with
his fireside chats and his economic reforms.

Using his fireside chats and receiving unmatched cooperation from Congress, Roosevelt led
the country through massive economic reform.

Although wishing to remain neutral, Roosevelt took aggressive action with his decision to
send war supplies to Europe.

Working with Winston Churchill, Roosevelt established the foundations of the United Nations
with the Atlantic Charter.

Eleanor Roosevelt

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Born: October 11, 1884, New York City, New York, United States

Died: November 7, 1962, Manhattan, New York City, New York, United States

Eleanor Roosevelt Leadership Style:

Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was given a name as the 1st Lady of the World through her husband,
Roosevelt Franklin Delano. She was also the niece of the former president Teddy Roosevelt.
Eleanor Roosevelt was born on the 11th of October 1884 to parents from famous families and
has an excellent and memorable childhood. Her mother died from diphtheria when she was eight
and 2 years later, her father also died. Eleanor was apparently unaffected of her moms death, but
her dads death had caused her to become withdrawn, refusing to interact with her friends. After
those incidents, she was taken care of by her aunt and grandmother. At the age of fifteen, she was
sent to finishing school in London and came back as a confident and mature woman who was
ready to make her debut in society. Her distant cousin, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, courted her
for three years and finally married him in year 1905.

Eleanor Roosevelt Political Impact

Eleanor Roosevelt did not plan to enter politics that after her husband decided to run for the New
York State Legislature. Roosevelt was a constant presence in her husbands political life. After
her husband was struck down by poliomyelitis, Roosevelt became much involved in traveling
extensively, state politics and working for political that made her considered important. For
many years that she has been engaged into politics, many people admired her for her
determination and passion to fulfill her husbands will and help out those in need. Eleanor
Roosevelt had shown a transformational leadership. She was a transformation leader since she
inspired other people to follow her in the womens movements and inspire her late husband to
follow her advice.

Moreover, Eleanor Roosevelt was able to lay out visions for numerous individuals for her ideas.
She executed and formulated plans to create child care centers for working women. She also
provided reports and memos of her ideas over dinner to the late president. One good thing about
the transformation leadership style used by Roosevelt is that she can actually follow through all

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her ideas excellently. Eleanor Roosevelt has her own charisma toward many people. She has
carried herself well and is likable in a particular way that many individuals wanted to hear what
she had to say.

A Transformational Leader:
Moreover to being a transformational leader, Eleanor Roosevelt has all the traits to be a great
leader. Organization skills are seen on her that she used to coordinate the womens movement
and civil rights. Creativity and cleverness are also Roosevelts traits. Her cleverness was seen
during her press conference. News teams need to hire women journalists in order for them to
attend the conference and get the scoop. As the first lady, she knew that it was part of a
traditional role, but she went beyond it. She created new opportunities and defined her role on
how she saw it. She created her own paths toward great leadership through her excellent ideas
presented. Many people are surprised and amazed by how Eleanor Roosevelt tends to go beyond
what they think and expected from her.

Eleanor Roosevelt: The Worlds First Lady

Internationally known as The Worlds First Lady, a title bestowed on her by President Harry S.
Truman, Eleanor Roosevelt rose to political prominence when her husband, Franklin Delano
Roosevelt, was first Governor of New York and then President of the United States for four
terms.
Her passion for politics and gift for leadership had begun to manifest itself in young adulthood.
Active early on in both the socially prominent Junior League and the Rivington Street Settlement
House in New York City as a teacher, Eleanor Roosevelt epitomized the rising political
consciousness of women in the early 20th century.

As First Lady of the United States for an unprecedented 12 years, Eleanor Roosevelt brilliantly
used her position in the White House to further political, social and humanitarian causes. Her
influence was especially keen in the construction of New Deal social programs where she
championed the rights of women, civil rights, workers, and youth programs. One historian has
suggested that Mrs. Roosevelt served as the conscience of the New Deal.
After the death of her husband in 1945, Eleanor Roosevelt continued her political activism on a
global scale as U.S. Delegate to the United Nations and head of its Human Rights Committee
where she remained for six years and helped draft the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human
Rights she demanded the replacement of the phrase all men with all human beings. Along
with Herbert Lehman, the former Governor of New York and Senator, in the 1950s and early
1960s, she led the reform movement against the Tammany Hall political machine in New York
City. They were victorious in 1961, when Mayor Robert Wagner was re-elected as a reformer.

By the time of her death in 1962, Eleanor Roosevelt had become a beloved and influential
politician whose power still influenced the White House. John F. Kennedy had actively sought

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her endorsement for his Presidential campaign; he named her chairperson of the Presidents
Commission on the Status of Women in 1961. She in turn pressed him to appoint women to
powerful positions in the administration. Indeed, her legacy remains strong today in national and
international politics.

Qualities of Leadership
It is near impossible to put the character of Eleanor Roosevelt in a box when it comes to
leadership characteristics. She strongly qualifies as a promoter, as she was deeply involved in the
lives of people she worked with and those who she served. She was very forceful and aggressive
when pursuing a cause which she believed in, and many described Eleanor as being warm and
friendly, as well as persuasive and enthusiastic. She always strived to please others, frequently
putting her own needs and desires on the back burner. This is an attribute of Eleanors secondary
characteristic, supporter, which also describers her very well. Eleanor was an excellent listener.
When she visited VA hospitals, she took the time to speak with every patient, asking for their
name and story, and making each feel they were important. She was willing to take charge when
needed, but was happy to acquiesce to the leadership of others. It was through the close, personal
friendships Eleanor developed throughout her life that she gained the courage and self-
confidence to be a leader. The combination of promoter and supporter attributes, along with
many characteristics of a controller, helped mold Eleanor in the successful and influential leader.

There were a number of major turning points in Eleanors life. Her interest in helping that in
need started when as a young child she helped to serve Thanksgiving dinner to homeless boys in
New York. This passion grew when as a young woman she worked as a Red Cross volunteer at a
canteen for American soldiers. Her interest in American government developed when she was
traveling in Scotland and realized she could not answer questions about American government or
politics. When she moved with her husband, Franklin, to Washington after his appointment as
Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Eleanor had an opportunity to join the political realm. Other
turning points were more directly related to family. When Eleanors grandmother, Mary Hall,
died in 1919, Eleanor, then 34, in considering Marys life, realized that a full life required doing
much more than being just a wife and mother. This inspired her to follow her own political
ambitions in addition to assisting her husbands. She was further strengthened through the
experience of helping her husband overcome polio and infantile paralysis (Fleming, 2005).

Failure and disappointments also helped to strengthen Eleanor and contribute to her growth as a
woman and as a leader. The death of her second son gave Eleanor an increased desire to be a
better mother to her children. When Franklin contracted polio, Eleanor seized the opportunity to
both be both mother and father to her children and also to continue relationships with Franklins
political contacts. I believe that her inability to secure visas for WWII refugees from Europe
influenced Eleanor later to fight for the Jewish state of Israel. The many political battles they lost

62
did not dissuade them but provided both Franklin and Eleanor incentive to keep working to
forward their ideals (Freedman, 1993).

Modern lesson from her

Choose a challenge instead of competence
Born into a prominent family, Eleanor Roosevelt could have lived a life that was expected of her
generation. Instead, she chose to dedicate her life to public service, and fought tirelessly until her
death to advance social equality and ensure that all people were granted basic human rights. Very
often, we are faced with a choice between the familiar path, and the challenging road ahead.
Choose the challenge.

Do what you feel in your heart to be right for youll be criticized anyway.

As leaders, sometimes it can be hard to make decisions that go against tide. It is critical to stick
to your convictions, recognizing that the outcome might be uncertain, but the risk is worth
taking. We regularly make decisions to air programming of significance recognizing that it may
not attract the largest audience, or the content may be provocative, but the work will play an
important role in civic discourse. This may lead to criticism from some, but I feel its extremely
important for public television to use its platform to tell important stories, not just popular ones.
Staying true to your mission and convictions makes it much easier to stand up to potential critics.

Light a candle instead of cursing the darkness.

Sometimes it can be tempting to be overwhelmed by the many things that seem to work against
us. But how powerful, and how important it can be, if we dont give in to this temptation. As a
woman born before women even had the right to vote, Eleanor Roosevelt chafed against the
limits placed on women. But instead of bemoaning womens second-place status, Eleanor
worked tirelessly to change it, holding press conferences open to female reporters only,
submitting a list of candidates for leadership positions to her husband, and tirelessly crusading
for equal rights and representation for women. There are many pockets of darkness in our world
today. Rather than feel that any change is hopeless, why not light a candle?

Here are leadership lessons from Eleanor Roosevelt:

Stand up for what you believe in take a stand:

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In 1939, Eleanor resigned her membership from the Daughters of the American Revolution after
they denied African American singer Marian Anderson from performing at Constitution Hall.
Eleanor also organized an alternate venue for the singer at Lincoln Memorial. In another
instance, she worked with officials from the National Association for the Advancement of
Colored People, supporting anti-lynching laws that her husband didnt endorse because he was
scared he would lose the votes of Southerners. The greatest leaders take a stand for what they
believe in even if it means taking a big risk.

Support those around them to facilitate their success:

Eleanors husband, Franklin Roosevelt contracted poliomyelitis which resulted in paralysis of his
legs. While he was rehabilitating, and after he was elected governor of New York, Eleanor
became her husbands surrogate by filling in for him at meetings, state inspections and public
appearances. Franklin would not have been a successful politician without the assistance of
Eleanor.

Have a pulse on what is going on around them:

A great leader listens carefully to know and understand what is going on in his or her
environment. Eleanor Roosevelt had some trusted advisers who kept her in the loop as well as
collaborated with her to affect change. Her close friend, journalist Lorena Hickok,
recommended that Eleanor hold weekly press conferences for women only, to ensure that media
organizations had women on staff in Washington D.C. This also ensured that some of the news in
the country was told from the perspective of women.

Use position of power and influence for social change:

Through her newspaper columns and radio broadcasts, she became the voice for those in need,
which included, working women, African Americans, youth and farmers. She created equal
opportunities for women and made sure that there were appropriate jobs for writers, artists,
musicians and theater people. Additionally, Eleanor Roosevelt was instrumental in shaping the
New Deal, which was a program aimed at bringing relief to those in need during the Great
Depression.

Adolf Hitler

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Born: April 20, 1889

Birthplace: Austria

Died: April 30, 1945; in his Berlin bunker

Type of Leader: Political

Childhood & Education:

Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary (in
present-day Austria), close to the border with the German Empire. He was the fourth of six
children to Alois Hitler and KlaraPlzl.

Alois had made a successful career in the customs bureau and wanted his son to follow in his
footsteps. Hitler later dramatized an episode from this period when his father took him to visit a
customs office, depicting it as an event that gave rise to an unforgiving antagonism between
father and son, who were both strong willed. Ignoring his son's desire to attend a classical high
school and become an artist, Alois sent Hitler to the Realschule in Linz in September 1900.Hitler
rebelled against this decision, and in Mein Kamp revealed that he intentionally did poorly in
school, hoping that once his father saw "what little progress I was making at the technical school
he would let me devote myself to my dream". After Alois's sudden death on 3 January 1903,
Hitler's performance at school deteriorated and his mother allowed him to leave. He enrolled at
the Realschule in Steyr in September 1904, where his behavior and performance showed some
improvement. In 1905, after passing a repeat of the final exam, Hitler left the school without any
ambitions for further education or clear plans for a career.

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World War I:
At the outbreak of World War I, Hitler was living in Munich and volunteered to serve in
the Bavarian Army as an Austrian citizen. Posted to the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment
16 (1st Company of the List Regiment),he served as a dispatch runner on the Western Front in
France and Belgium, spending nearly half his time at the regimental headquarters in Fournes-en-
Weppes, well behind the front lines.He was present at the First Battle of Ypres, the Battle of the
Somme, the Battle of Arras, and the Battle of Passchendaele, and was wounded at the
Somme. He was decorated for bravery, receiving the Iron Cross, Second Class, in 1914. On a
recommendation by Lieutenant Hugo Gutmann, Hitler's Jewish superior, he received the Iron
Cross, First Class on 4 August 1918, a decoration rarely awarded to one of
Hitler's Gefreiter rank. He received the Black Wound Badge on 18 May 1918. During his service
at headquarters, Hitler pursued his artwork, drawing cartoons and instructions for an army
newspaper. During the Battle of the Somme in October 1916,
he was wounded in the left thigh when a shell exploded in the
dispatch runners' dugout. Hitler spent almost two months in
hospital at Beelitz, returning to his regiment on 5 March 1917.

Entry into Politics:

After World War I, Hitler returned to Munich. With no formal
education or career prospects, he remained in the army. In July
1919 he was appointed Verbindungsmann (intelligence agent) of an Aufklrungskommando
(reconnaissance commando) of the Reichswehr, assigned to influence other soldiers and to
infiltrate the German Workers' Party (DAP). While monitoring the activities of the DAP, Hitler
was attracted to the founder Anton Drexler's anti-Semitic, nationalist, anti-capitalist, and anti-
Marxist ideas. Drexler favored a strong active government, a non-Jewish version of socialism,
and solidarity among all members of society. Impressed with Hitler's oratorical skills, Drexler
invited him to join the DAP. Hitler accepted on 12 September 1919, becoming party member 555
(the party began counting membership at 500 to give the impression they were a much larger
party than they actually were).

At the DAP, Hitler met Dietrich Eckart, one of the party's founders and a member of the occult
Thule Society. Eckart became Hitler's mentor, exchanging ideas with him and introducing him to
a wide range of Munich society. To increase its appeal, the DAP changed its name to the
Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers Party;
NSDAP). Hitler designed the party's banner of a swastika in a white circle on a red background.

In June 1921, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out
within the NSDAP in Munich. Members of its executive committee wanted to merge with the
rival German Socialist Party (DSP). Hitler returned to Munich on 11 July and angrily tendered
his resignation. The committee members realized that the resignation of their leading public
figure and speaker would mean the end of the party. Hitler announced he would rejoin on the

66
condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would
remain in Munich. The committee agreed, and he rejoined the party on 26 July as member 3,680.
Even still, Hitler faced some opposition within the NSDAP: Opponents of Hitler in the
leadership had Hermann Esser expelled from the party, and they printed 3,000 copies of a
pamphlet attacking Hitler as a traitor to the party. In the following days, Hitler spoke to several
packed houses and defended himself and Esser, to thunderous applause. His strategy proved
successful, and at a special party congress on 29 July, he was granted absolute powers as party
chairman, replacing Drexler, by a vote of 533 to 1.

Appointment as Chancellor:
The absence of an effective government prompted two influential politicians, Franz von Papen
and Alfred Hugenberg, along with several other industrialists and businessmen, to write a letter
to Hindenburg. The signers urged Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as leader of a government
"independent from parliamentary parties", which could turn into a movement that would
"enrapture millions of people. Hitler, at the window of the Reich Chancellery, receives an
ovation on the evening of his inauguration as chancellor, 30 January 1933

Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler as chancellor after two further parliamentary
elections in July and November 1932had not resulted in the formation of a majority government.
Hitler headed a short-lived coalition government formed by the NSDAP and Hugenberg's party,
the German National People's Party (DNVP). On 30 January 1933, the new cabinet was sworn in
during a brief ceremony in Hindenburg's office. The NSDAP gained three posts: Hitler was
named chancellor, Wilhelm Frick Minister of the Interior, and Hermann Gring Minister of the
Interior for Prussia. Hitler had insisted on the ministerial positions as a way to gain control over
the police in much of Germany.

Economy & Culture:

Henri Nestl

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Born: 10-Aug-1814

Birthplace: Frankfurt am Main, Germany

Died: 7-Jul-1890

Location of death: Glion, Switzerland

Cause of death: Heart Failure

Remains: Buried, Territet, Montreux, Switzerland

Gender: Male

Race or Ethnicity: White

Sexual orientation: Straight

Occupation: Business

Nationality: Switzerland

Executive summary: Invented infant formula

Henri Nestl (born Heinrich Nestle; 10 August 1814 7 July 1890) was a German-born Swiss
confectioner and the founder of Nestl, the world's largest food and beverage company,[1] as well
as one of the main creators of condensed milk.

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Early life

Heinrich Nestle was born on 10 August 1814, in Frankfurt am Main, Germany.[2] He was the
eleventh of fourteen children of Johann Ulrich Matthias Nestle and Anna-Maria Catharina
Ehemant. Nestle's father, by tradition, inherited the business of his father, Johann Ulrich Nestle,
and became a glazier in Tngesgasse. The later Lord Mayor of Frankfurt am Main, Gustav
Edmund Nestle, was his brother.[citation needed]

The Nestle family has its roots in western Swabia, predominantly in boroughs of the Black
Forest such as Dornstetten, Freudenstadt, Mindersbach, Nagold, and Sulz am Neckar. In the
Swabian dialect, "Nestle" is a small bird's nest. The name Nestle also has different variations,
including Nstlin, Nstlen, Nestlin, Nestlen, and Niestle.

The Nestle family tree began with three brothers (thus the three young birds in the nest being fed
by their mother on the family coat of arms) from Mindersbach, called Hans, Heinrich, and
Samuel Nestlin. The father of these three sons was born circa 1495. Hans, the eldest, was born in
1520 and had a son with the same name, who later became mayor of Nagold. His son Ulrich was
a barber and his fifth son was the first glazier in the family. For over five generations, this
profession was passed down from father to son. Additionally, the Nestles provided a number of
mayors for the boroughs of Dornstetten, Freudenstadt, Nagold, and Sulz am Necka

Career
Before Nestl turned 22 in 1836, he had completed a four-year apprenticeship with J. E. Stein, an
owner of a pharmacy. Although the exact date is unknown, at some stage between 1834 and 1839
he had migrated for reasons unknown to Switzerland. At the end of 1839, he was officially
authorized in Lausanne, Switzerland, to perform chemical experiments, make up prescriptions,
and sell medicines. During this time, he changed his name to Henri Nestl in order to adapt
better to the new social conditions in French-speaking Vevey, Switzerland, where he eventually
settled.

In 1843 Henri Nestl bought into one of the region's most progressive and versatile industries at
that time, the production of rapeseeds. He also became involved in the production of nut oils
(used to fuel oil lamps), liqueurs, rum, absinthe, and vinegar. He also began manufacturing and
selling carbonated mineral and lemonade, although during the crisis years from 1845 to 1847
Nestl gave up mineral water production. In 1857 he began concentrating on gas lighting and
fertilizers.

It is not known when Nestl started working on the infant formula project, although by 1867
Nestl was able to produce a viable powdered milk product. His interest is known to have been
spurred by several factors. Although Nestl and his wife were childless, they were aware of the
high death rate among infants. Nestl would have been aware of Justus von Liebig's work in
developing an infant formula.[2] In addition, fresh milk was not always available in large towns
and women in higher society were starting to view breast feeding as an "unfashionable" option.

69
Nestl combined cows milk with grain and sugar to produce a substitute for breast
milk.Moreover, he and his friend Jean Balthasar Schnetzler, a scientist in human nutrition,
removed the acid and the starch in wheat flour because they were difficult for babies to digest.
[citation needed]
Initially called "kindermehl" (children flour), his product had an advantage over
Liebig's "soup for infants" in that it was much easier to prepare, only needing to be boiled prior
to feeding, and it soon proved to be a viable option for infants who were unable to breast feed.
People quickly recognized the value of the new product and soon Farine Lacte Henri Nestl
(Henri Nestl's Milk Flour in French) was being sold in much of Europe. By the 1870s, Nestl's
Infant Food, made with malt, cow's milk, sugar, and wheat flour, was selling in the US for $0.50
a bottle

Lessons to learn from Henri Nestl:

Despite his failures, Nestle never gave up. We can put our abilities to good use and make a
difference in the lives of those around us. Whether or not our talents lead us to major success or
fame is irrelevant.

Simon Kuznets

70
Born: 30 April 1901, Pinsk, Russian Empire (now Belarus)

Died: 8 July 1985, Cambridge, MA, USA

Affiliation at the time of the award: Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA

Prize motivation: "for his empirically founded interpretation of economic growth which has led
to new and deepened insight into the economic and social structure and process of development"

Field: economic growth, economic history

Contribution:

Extensive research on the economic growth of nations, developed methods for calculating the
size of, and changes in, national income.

Simon Smith Kuznets was born in Belarus in the town of Pinsk to Belarusian-Jewish parents, in
the year 1901. He completed his schooling, first in Ukraine at the Kharkiv Commercial Institute
at the University of Kharkiv. There he began to study economics and became exposed to Joseph
Schumpeter's theory of innovation and the business cycle. In 1918, Kuznets entered the Kharkiv
Institute of Commerce where he studied economic sciences, statistics, history and mathematics
under the guidance of professors P. Fomin (political economy), A. Antsiferov (statistics), V.
Levitsky (economic history and economic thought), S. Bernstein (probability theory), V. Davats
(mathematics), and others. Basic academic courses at the Institute helped him to acquire
exceptional erudition in economics, as well as in history, demography, statistics and natural
sciences. According to the Institutes curriculum, development of the national economies had to
be analyzed in the wider context of changes in connected spheres and with involvement of
proper methods and empirical data.

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At the turn of 19201921 years, the normal course in the Institute was interrupted by the events
of the Civil War and reorganizations undertaken by the Soviet authorities in the sphere of the
higher education. There is no precise information whether Kuznets continued his studies at the
Institute, but it is known that he joined the Department of Labor of UZHBURO (South Bureau)
of the Central Council of Trade Unions. There he published his first scientific paper, "Monetary
wages and salaries of factory workers in Kharkiv in 1920"; he explored the dynamics of different
types of wages by industries in Kharkiv and income differentiation, depending on the wage
system. In 1922, the Kuznets family immigrated to the United States.

Kuznets then studied at Columbia University under the guidance of Wesley Clair Mitchell. He
graduated with a B.Sc. in 1923, M.A. in 1924, and Ph.D. in 1926. [11] As his magister thesis, he
defended the essay Economic system of Dr. Schumpeter, presented and analyzed, written in
Kharkiv. From 1925 to 1926, Kuznets spent time studying economic patterns in prices as the
Research Fellow at the Social Science Research Council. It was this work that led to his book
"Secular Movements in Production and Prices", defended as a doctoral thesis and published in
1930.

In 1927, he became a member of the research staff of the National Bureau of Economic Research
(NBER), where he worked until 1961. From 1931 until 1936, Kuznets was a part-time professor
at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1937 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical
Association. He was elected to the Pi Gamma Mu social science honor society chapter at the
University of Pennsylvania and actively served as a chapter officer in the 1940s; becoming a full-
time professor 1936 until 1954. In 1954, Kuznets moved to Johns Hopkins University, where he
was Professor of Political Economy until 1960. From 1961 until his retirement in 1970, Kuznets
taught at Harvard.

Apart from that, Kuznets collaborated with a number of research organizations and government
agencies. In 19311934, at Mitchells behest, Kuznets took charge of the NBERs work on U.S.
national income accounts, given the first official estimation of the US national income. In 1936,
Kuznets took the lead in establishing the Conference on Research Income and Wealth, which
brought together government officials and academic economists, engaged in the development of
the U.S. national income and product accounts, and in 1947 helped to establish its international
counterpart, the International Association for Research in Income and Wealth.

During the World War II, in 19421944 Kuznets became the associate director of the Bureau of
Planning and Statistics, War Production Board. He took part in works aimed to assess the
capacity to expand military production. Researchers used national income accounting together
with a rough form of linear programming to measure the potential for increased production and
the sources from which it would come and to identify the materials that were binding constraints
on expansion.

72
After the War, he worked as an advisor for the governments of China, Japan, India, Korea,
Taiwan, and Israel in the establishment of their national systems of economic information.
Kuznets cooperated with the Growth Center of Yale University, the Social Science Research
Council (SSRC). He guided extensive research holding a number of positions in research
institutions, such as the Chairman of the Falk Project for Economic Research in Israel, 1953
1963; member of the Board of Trustees and honorary chairman, Maurice Falk Institute for
Economic Research in Israel, from 1963; and Chairman, Social Science Research Council
Committee on the Economy of China, 19611970.

Kuznets was elected as the President of the American Economic Association (1954), President of
the American Statistical Association (1949), an honorable member of the Association of
Economic History, the Royal Statistical Society of England and a member of the Econometric
Society, the International Statistical Institute, the American Philosophical Society, the Royal
Swedish Academy, a corresponding member of the British Academy. He was awarded the Medal
of Francis Walker (1977).

Simon Kuznets died on July 8, 1985, at the age of 84.

In 2013 The Kharkiv National University of Economics where he studied in 19181921 was
named after him (Semen Kuznets Kharkiv National University of Economics).

His work and its impact on economics

His name is associated with the formation of the modern economic science such as an empirical
discipline, the development of statistical methods of research and the emergence of quantitative
economic history. Kuznets is credited with revolutionizing econometrics, and this work is
credited with fueling the so-called Keynesian revolution".

The views and the scientific methodology of Kuznets were influenced by methodological
settings received by him in Kharkov and fully shared by Mitchell for the statistical, inductive
construction of hypotheses in economics and its empirical testing. Kuznets treated a priori and
speculative conceptions with deep skepticism. At the same time, Kuznets tended to analyze
economy in connection and with the wider context of historical situation, demographic, social
processes that were peculiar for the Kharkov academics at the beginning of the 20th century.
Kuznets was influenced by the work of such leading theorists as Joseph A. Schumpeter (who
probed the relationship between technological change and business cycles), A. C. Pigou (who
identified circumstances under which markets failed to maximize economic welfare), and
Vilfredo Pareto (who propounded a law governing the distribution of income among
households). Kuznets was closely familiar with the economics of Russia and Ukraine of the early
20th century. In the 1920s, he reviewed and translated the little known in the West papers of
Kondratiev, Slutsky, Pervushin, and Weinstein.

73
Historical series of economic dynamics and Kuznets Cycles, or "long
swings"
The first major research project in which Kuznets was involved was the study of long series of
economic dynamics in the USA undertaken in the mid-1920s. The collected data covered the
period from 1865 to 1925, and for some indices achieved 1770. Applying for the analysis of time
series approximating Gompertz and logistic curves, Kuznets found that the characteristics of the
curves with reasonable accuracy described the majority of economic processes. Fitting trend
curves to data and analysis of the time series, comparison of theoretical and empirical levels,
allowed him to identify medium-term extended cycles of economic activity, which lasted 1525
years and had an intermediate position between the Kondratyev long waves" and short business
cycles. Aspiring to determine the nature of these cycles, Kuznets analyzed the dynamics of
population, the construction industry performance, capital, national income data and other
variables. These movements became known among economists and economic historians as
"Kuznets Cycles", and alternatively as "long swings" in the economy's growth rate (following the
work of Moses Abramovitz [1912-1999].

National income accounts

In 1931, at Mitchells behest, Kuznets took charge of the NBERs work on U.S. national income
accounts. In 1934, an assessment of the national income of the United States for the period
19291932 was given; further, it was extended to 19191938, and then, until 1869. Although
Kuznets was not the first economist to try this, his work was so comprehensive and meticulous
that it set the standard in the field.

Kuznets had success to solve numerous problems ranging from lack of sources of information
and bias assessments, to the development of the theoretical concept of national income. Kuznets
achieved a high precision in calculations. His works allowed us to analyze the structure of the
national income, and expose to detailed study a number of specific problems of the national
economy. Improved methods for calculating the national income and related indicators have
become classics and formed the basis of the modern system of national accounts. Having
analyzed the distribution of income among different social groups, Kuznets put forward the
hypothesis that in countries, which wereon the early stages of economic development, income
inequality increased first, but as far as national economy was growing, it tended to decrease. This
assumption formed the basis of so-called "Kuznets curve" empirical conception.

Kuznets helped the U.S. Department of Commerce to standardize the measurement of GNP. He
disapproved, however, of its use as a general indication of welfare, writing that "the welfare of a
nation can scarcely be inferred from a measure of national income.

Exploring the formation of the national income, Kuznets studied proportions between output and
income, consumption and savings, etc. After analyzing the long-term data sets of economic
conditions for 20 countries, Kuznets revealed long-term trends in capital / output ratios, shares of

74
net capital formation, net investment, and so on. Collected and systematized data allowed
exposing to empirical testing a number of existing hypotheses. In particular, this concerned
premises of the Keynes theory Keynes' 1936 Absolute Income Hypothesis.

The hypothesis gave birth to what would become the first formal consumption function.
However Kuznets shook the economic world by finding that Keynes' predictions, while
seemingly accurate in short-run cross-sections, broke down under more rigorous examination. In
his 1942 tome Uses of National Income in Peace and War, published by the National Bureau of
Economic Research, Kuznets became the first economist to show that the Absolute Income
Hypothesis gives inaccurate predictions in the long run (by using time-series data). Keynes had
predicted that as aggregate income increases, so will marginal savings. Kuznets used new data to
show that, over a longer span of time (1870's 1940's) the savings ratio remained constant,
despite large changes in income. This paved the way for Milton Friedman's Permanent Income
Hypothesis, and several more modern alternatives such as the Life cycle hypothesis and the
Relative Income Hypothesis.

Economic Growth:
By the end of the Second World War Kuznets moved into a new research area, related to the tie
between changes in income and growth. He proposed research program that involved extensive
empirical studies on the four key elements of economic growth. The elements were demographic
growth, growth of knowledge, in-country adaptation to growth factors, and external economic
relations between the countries. The general theory of economic growth should explain the
development of advanced industrial countries, and the reasons that prevent the development of
backward countries, include both market and planned economies, large and small, developed and
developing countries, consider the impact on growth of foreign economic relations.

He collected and analyzed statistical indicators of economic performance of 14 countries in

Europe, the U.S. and Japan for 60 years. Analysis of the materials led to the advancement of a
number of hypotheses relating to various aspects of the mechanism of economic growth,
concerning the level and variability of growth, structure of the GNP and distribution of labor, the
distribution of income between households, the structure of foreign trade. Kuznets founded the
historically grounded theory of economic growth. The central theme of these empirical studies is
that the growth of the aggregated product of the country necessarily implies a profound
transformation of the whole of its economic structure. This transformation affects many aspects
of economic life the structure of production, sectoral and occupational structure of
employment, the division of occupations among family and market activities, the income
structure, size, age structure and spatial distribution of the population, cross-country flows of
goods, capital, labor and knowledge, the organization of industry and governmental regulation.
Such changes, in his opinion, are essential for overall growth and, once started, shape, constrain
or support the subsequent economic development of the country. Kuznets made a profound
analysis of the impact on economic growth by demographic processes and characteristics.

75
His major thesis, which argued that underdeveloped countries of today possess characteristics
different from those that industrialized countries faced before they developed, helped put an end
to the simplistic view that all countries went through the same "linear stages" in their history and
launched the separate field of development economics which now focused on the analysis of
modern underdeveloped countries' distinct experiences.

Ray Kroc

76
Born: October 5, 1902

Birthplace: Oak Park, Chicago, Illinois, United States

Died: January 14, 1984

Sphere of Influence: Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, Middle East, North America

Type of Leader: Economic, Social

Ray Kroc created Americas fast food industry. He built and then expanded the McDonalds
Corporation in the United States and abroad, making it one of the most successful multinational
corporations. His business prowess made the Golden Arches a highly recognized symbol of
American ingenuity and spirit.

Famous Quotation:
I guess to be an entrepreneur you have to have a large ego, enormous pride and an ability
to inspire others to follow your lead.

BIOGRAPHY
After volunteering to be an ambulance driver for the Red Cross during World War I,Ray Kroc
earned a meager living as a piano player and a milkshake mixer salesman. Facing dismal sales,
he ventured to San Bernardino, California in 1954 after Richard and Maurice McDonald, the
owners of a small hamburger stand, surprisingly bought eight mixers at once.

Kroc witnessed the high efficiency of a two-man crew with a small five-item menu and realized
that their success could be replicated on a larger scale with the proper management. Kroc started
the McDonalds Corporation and by 1960 bought exclusive rights from the McDonald brothers.

77
With the growth of the post-war economy, suburban sprawl expanded in the United States, along
with a newfound obsession with automobiles and increased consumerism. Convenience, quality,
and service became the cornerstone of Krocs marketing strategy. To accomplish this, Kroc
recruited franchisees and mentored and trained them through Hamburger University in order to
make a consistent, lowcost business protocol. Using Henry Fords assembly line style of
production, Kroc introduced mass production to the food industry. To make his production
practice seamless, he also needed to win the minds of his suppliers. Product reliability from one
location to another was essential, and Krocs McDonalds also influenced the homogenization of
the beef and vegetable industries and led to new, innovative food preparation practices.

WHAT MADE RAY KROC A LEADER?

Known for a shrewd leadership style, Ray Kroc streamlined his production process, making a
lasting impact on the present-day fast food industry.

Beyond the fast food industry, Kroc built a corporate empire that included real estate,
nationwide and later global advertising and marketing campaigns, and large-scale purchasing.

Amassing much wealth, Kroc gave millions to charity, paving the way for Ronald McDonald
House Charities.

Deng Xiaoping

78
Born: August 22, 1904

Birthplace: Paifang Village in Xiexing Township, Guangan County, Province of Sichuan, China

Died: February 19, 1997

Sphere of Influence: Asia

Type of Leader: Economic, Intellectual, Military, and Political

As the architect of Chinas economic revival, Deng Xiaoping is responsible for overseeing one
of the greatest economic turnarounds in world history. Within 30 years, China went from being a
nation with a troubled economy to the second largest economy in the world. Dengs
revolutionary model of combining a communist government with a capitalist economy created a
powerful instrument for change.

Political repression reigned in dissent, while Chinas entrepreneurs and foreign investors enjoyed
economic freedom. Dengs political influence shifted frequently before he assumed power in
1978 and drastically altered Chinas economic trajectory.

Famous Quotation:

"Why can't a socialist country have a market economy?"

Deng Xiaoping spent time in France and Russia, where he transformed from solely a nationalist
to a communist and joined the Communist Party. At age 23, Deng received appointment as chief
secretary of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, a position he soon
abandoned to pursue military affairs, most notably the Longzhou Uprising.

As a prominent veteran of Maos Long March, Dengs status, reputation, and ultimately
relationship with Mao saved him during Chinas darker days. Deng suffered numerous highs and
lows in his career due to his competence, intelligence, and independent spirit that often

79
conflicted from that of Mao. Under Mao, Deng vacillated from positions of prominence to
periods of relative exile, only to be called back again.

During the Cultural Revolution, he was a chief target of the Gang of Four and the Central
Committee called Deng "No.2 Capitalist Roader in China." He and family suffered greatly, yet
Mao continued to provide protection during this period of exile.

Following Maos death in 1976, Deng rose to the top, and after the passing of Premier Zhou
Enlai, Deng came to power. His vision was revolutionary. Dengs concept of "one country, two
systems" transformed China into a communist country with a capitalist economy. He encouraged
peasants to cultivate individual plots, allowed small businesses to operate for profit, rejuvenated
education, and even promoted study abroad. Doors to the west opened, and Deng even sought
out foreign investment. While the Chinese economy flourished, human rights suffered. Dengs
government limited families to one child in an effort to control population, imprisoned dissidents
to eliminate dissent, and sent in tanks to end the democracy movement centered in Tiananmen
Square in 1989.

WHAT MADE DENG XIAOPING A LEADER?

Deng Xiaoping transformed the Chinese economy from pure Marxist equality to government-
dominated capitalism, wherein individual initiative and the entrepreneurial spirit was
encouraged.

Dengs 1980 one-child per family policy drew harsh criticism from the West, but succeeded in
bringing Chinas population under control.

Dengs use of military force during the Tiananmen Square protest of 1989 crushed the
Chinese peoples hope for democracy.

Walter P. Reuther

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Name: Walter Reuther

Alternative Title: Walter Philip Reuther

Birth: September 1, 1907

Place: Wheeling, West Virginia.

Death: May 9, 1970

Place: Pellston, Michigan.

Family Background and Education:

Walter Reuther was born in Wheeling, W.V., on Sept. 1, 1907, the son of Valentine Reuther, a
German socialist, and his wife, Anna Stocker. Reuther received an early education in socialism
and union politics from his father. A visit to the prison where Socialist Party leader Eugene V.
Debs was being held for his resistance to World War I made an indelible impression on the young
Reuther, who became a committed Debasing socialist. Bored with his studies, Reuther dropped
out of Wheeling High School at 16 and eventually became an apprentice tool-and-die maker.

81
He subsequently traveled through Europe with Victor, including an extended stay working in the
Soviet Union. He later became notably anti-Communist in his ideology. After Reuther's return to
Detroit, he wed fellow activist May Wolf in 1936, with the couple going on to have two
daughters.

Philosophy of Walter Reuther:

"There is no greater calling than to serve your fellow men. There is no greater contribution than
to help the weak. There is no greater satisfaction than to do it well."

Key Activities:
Reuther was ambitious, but took pride in being the nations lowest-paid union president.
As head of the United Automobile Workers (UAW) from 1946 to 1970, he held enormous
economic power, but used it to better the lives of the union rank and file.
After an apprenticeship in tool-and-die work, Reuther left Wheeling in 1927 to find work
in Detroits booming automobile industry and was joined later by his younger brother,
Victor. A skilled worker, Walter easily found employment and eventually oversaw a team
of die makers for Ford Motor Company.
He characterized the industry at that time as a "social jungle" in which workers were
"nameless, faceless clock numbers."
In 1932 Walter was fired because of his campaign work for Socialist Party presidential
candidate Norman Thomas. The following year, Walter and Victor started out on a world
tour, hoping to work at the Soviet Unions Gorky automobile factory, which had been
equipped by Henry Ford.

Walter Reuther worked to combine several small Detroit local unions into the Westside
Local 174. He became president of the large local, and at the UAWs 1936 convention, he
was elected to the unions executive board.
Success came rapidly to the UAW in 1937.Reuther would soon discover the extent of
Fords anti-union tactics.

In 1939 Reuther was appointed the head of the General Motors department by UAW
President R. J. Thomas.
After Reuther was elected president of the UAW in 1946, he began to guide the union
down a new path and pledged to work for "a labor movement whose philosophy
demands that it fight for the welfare of the public at large."

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 Reuther introduced Supplemental unemployment benefits (SUB), introduced in 1955, and
helped to ease the economic pain caused by the cyclical nature of auto work. With SUB,
workers on layoff continued to receive a paycheck, which equaled 95 percent of their
regular take-home pay

Reuther hailed SUB as "the first time in the history of collective bargaining [that] great
corporations agreed to begin to accept responsibility" for their workers during layoff.
Walter Reuther reached the height of national labor leadership in 1952 when he was
elected president of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO).

With his rise to national prominence, Reuther worked to shape national policy on issues
of social equality and justice. "You cant opt out of life," he said in 1968.
Walter Reuther also demonstrated a personal commitment to civil rights and social
justice.

Reuther was a strong supporter of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and a
friend of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
The UAW financed the 1963 freedom marches in Detroit and Washington, DC. Reuther
was one of the few non-African American speakers at the Washington march.
Believing that labor had to organize internationally to counter multinational corporations,
Reuther forged ties with labor organizations worldwide.
He was a founding member of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions and
affiliated the UAW with the International Metalworkers Federation.
Walter Reuther was also an advocate for worker education. In the late 1960s the UAW
constructed an education center near Black Lake in northern Michigan.

Glorification:
Reuther received national attention for his plan to use factories in Michigan and
elsewhere to build five hundred military aircraft a day.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt was impressed by Reuthers aircraft proposal, which
complemented his Arsenal of Democracy programs. Reuther gained a reputation for
creative ideas and Roosevelt frequently consulted with his "young red-headed engineer"
on wartime production problems.

Walter Reuther was recognized as a labor leader of national stature when he led a strike
against General Motors at the end of 1945.

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 Reuthers drive to change the nature of work in the auto industry for Future Michigan
Governor George Romney, then with the Automobile Manufacturers Association, called
Reuther "the most dangerous man in Detroit" for the labor leaders skill.

Ironically, the left wing of the UAW characterized Reuther as the "bosss boy," ready to
do the Big Threes bidding.

Legacy:
Walter Reuther appears in Time magazine's list of the 100 most influential people of
the 20th century.
President Bill Clinton awarded Reuther the Presidential Medal of Freedom
posthumously in 1995.
Walter Reuther is the namesake for the largest labor archives in the United States,
home to over 75,000 linear feet of original documents related to the labor movement.
The Walter P. Reuther Library, Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs are located in
Detroit and are part of Wayne State University.
Interstate 696 In Metro Detroit is named the Walter P. Reuther Freeway.
A hospital in Westland, Michigan, is named for him.
Reuther Middle School, part of the Rochester Community Schools in Rochester Hills,
Michigan, is named for him.
Walter Reuther Central High School in Kenosha, Wisconsin is named for him, thanks
to the UAW's significant presence at the city's former American Motors Corporation
and Chrysler plants.

Henry Ford II added, "Walter Reuther was an extraordinarily effective advocate of labors
interest. His tough-minded dedication, his sense of social concern, his selflessness and his
eloquence all mark him as a central figure in the development of modern industrial history."
Indeed, Reuthers legacy is part of the day-to-day lives of many Americans. Millions of workers
enjoy a high standard of living because of advances won at the bargaining table by Walter
Reuther.

Mother Teresa

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Born: August 26, 1910

Birthplace: Skopje, modern-day Albania

Died: September 5, 1997

Sphere of Influence: Africa, Asia, Europe,Latin America, Middle East , North America

Type of Leader: Religious

Brief Description:
At the age of 18, Agnes Bojaxhiu left Skopje, Macedonia, to become a Catholic nun. She
traveled to India and took the name Mother Teresa when she had completed her training. She
remained in India to teach, but in September 1946 she was inspired to devote her life to serving
the poorest people of India.

At the time of her death over 4000 women In 1948 she went into the slums of Calcutta, India, to
help the poor. Within two years she had established a new order of nuns, the Missionaries of
Charity, who would help the poor and sick in Calcutta.

In the slums of Calcutta, Mother Teresa established an open-air school, a home for the dying, and
a childrens home for orphans. The disease Leprosy infected a large number of people in India,
and she established a number of mobile leprosy clinics to provide people medicine and bandages.
She later established a leper colony.

By the early 1960s Mother Teresa received permission to establish other houses elsewhere in
India. In 1965 she opened a Missionaries of Charity house in Venezuela. Other houses in in
Rome and Tanzania followed and presently there are houses on every continent.

85
Mother Teresa received much recognition for her work. In 1979 she received the Nobel Peace
Prize. In 1985 she spoke at the 40th anniversary of the United Nations.

While in New York she opened a hospice for AIDS patients.

had joined the Missionaries of Charity, and over 610 foundations in 123 countries

had been established to help the poor, sick, and elderly. Within two years after her

death the Catholic Church began the first steps to canonize Mother Teresa as a saint.

Family:
Her real name was Agnes Gionxhu Bojaxhiu (Gonca Boyac). She was the youngest child in her
family.Her parents were Nikolle and Drana. Five children were born to Nikola and Dronda
Bojaxhiu, yet only three survived. Gonxha was the youngest, with an older sister, Aga, and
brother, Lazar. The family lived in Skopje, Yugoslavia, and was of Albanian descent. The family
was devout Catholics and was deeply involved in the local church. Mother Teresa's father owned
his own construction business and was very successful. However, when she was just 8 years old,
her father died suddenly.

Vision:
A Catholic nun, Mother Teresa committed her life to working with the poor throughout the
world. She lived among impoverished people so that she could better serve them. She created a
new order of Catholic nuns, the Missionaries of Charity. She established orphanages, schools,
and homes for the elderly and terminally ill. Her work attracted the attention of the world and
earned her the Nobel Peace Prize She eventually established organizations to help people on
every continent.

Key Activities:
Mother Teresas deep religious faith prompted her to minister to the poor and sick of Calcutta,
India.

Mother Teresa demonstrated great courage in helping people with leprosy and other infectious
diseases which might have put herself at risk.

Mother Teresas message and work attracted a large following and allowed her to expand her
work to many countries.

Mother Teresa personified the potential for goodness in humans and in doing so became a role
model for people throughout the world.

Impacts:

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 Mother Teresa had a huge impact on society as a religious icon and philanthropist.

Mother Teresa continues to inspire people all over the world with her kindness and is seen as
a religious role model to young people, showing great ways to demonstrate their faith.

Traits:

Hard Worker

Deeply religious

Immense Patience

Prudent

Brave and Courageous

Gracious

Noble ambition

Self-belief

IndiraGandhi

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Full Name: Indira Gandhi

Birth: 19 November, 1917

Death: 31 October, 1984 (aged 64)

Birthplace: Allahabad, India

Nationality: Indian

Family:

Indira Gandhi was the only child of kamla and Jawaharlal Nehru. She spent part of her childhood
in Allahabad, where the Nehru had their family residence, and part in Switzerland, where her
mother kamla convalesced from her periodic illnesses. She received her college education at
Somerbille College, Oxford. Her father was first prime minister of India. She was married to
Feroze Gandhi at the age of 25, in 1942. Their marriage lasted for 18 years, until Feroze died
after a heart attack in 1960. They had two sons-Rajiv and Sanjay.

Vision:
To make a significant change to the practice of international relation among the Indian people.

Key Activities:

Indira Gandhi served as her fathers personal assistant and hostess during his tenure as
prime minister between 1947 and 1964
In 1959 she was elected as Congress President
In 1964 upon her fathers death, she refused to enter Congress party leadership contest.
In 1966 the Congress legislative party elected Indira Gandhi as the leader and at the same
time she became the prime minister of India.

88
 As the prime minister of India, Gandhi was known for political ruthlessness and
unprecedented centralization of power.
In the 1967 general election, Indira Gandhi started progressively moving to the left in
the political spectrum.
She was riding the crest of popularity after Indias triumph in the war of 1971 against
Pakistan.
In the time of the chronic food shortage, Indira Gandhi decided to increase crop
diversification and food exports as a way out of the problem and creating new jobs as
well as food for her countrymen.
She resolved the dispute of Kashmir by peaceful means by the Shimla agreement.
She was successful in protecting Indias interests without succumbing to the pressure of
superpowers.
During her regime India became an important regional power.
She made India strong and a leading country in the comity of nations.
She raised her voice against all kinds of exploitation.
She displayed rare statesmanship in tackling international disputes.
In early 1977, confident that she had debilitated her opposition, Mrs. Gandhi called for
fresh elections, and found herself trounced by a newly formed coalition of several
political parties. Her congress party lost badly at the polls. After three years she was to
return as prime minister of India.
In 1980, Sikh extremists held a campaign inside the Golden temple and Gandhi ordered
some 70000 soldiers to purge the sacred space. More than 450 people died.
In November of the same year, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated at her residence by two of
her own Sikh bodyguards.

Characteristics:

The charismatic and epoch-making personality of Indira Gandhi left her imprint not only in the
affairs of her own country but also in international affairs. She belonged to that noble galaxy of
great leaders who wielded extraordinary power. Indira Gandhi was an Indian to the core but at
the same time her vision went far beyond her own nation and embraced the entire human race.
By virtue of being the prime minister of India, the largest democracy in the world, she was able

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to make a significant contribution to the practice of international relations. She enjoyed well-
deserved prestige and profound respect on the international scene. She used the platform of the
Commonwealth, NAM and UN effectively. An attempt is being made here to highlight her role
as an international leader.

Impact:

Indira Gandhi led India into the modern world. During her term as prime minister, Gandhi
brought about a radical change in the countys economic, political, international and national
policies. The power of Indira Gandhis personality still influences Indian life today. Her ability to
walk a fine line politically in a country dominated by deeply rooted religious and social
traditions allowed her to be a representative for all of India.

Traits:
Charismatic Political Personality
Sociability
Confident Visage
High Influencing Capacity
Powerful and controversial leader
Legendary genius for silence
License to thrive
Ascent of woman in politics
Intelligence
Impressive Planner

John Fitzgerald Kennedy

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Full Name: John Fitzgerald Kennedy (JFK)

Birth Date: May 29, 1917 Brookline, Massachusetts, U.S.

Died: November 22, 1963 (aged 46) Dallas, Texas, U.S.

Family:
He was the son of Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr. and Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy. John F. Kennedy
(known as Jack) was the second of nine children. His parents, Joseph and Rose Kennedy, were
members of two of Bostons. Most prominent Irish Catholic political families.

Profession: Politician

Political Party: Democrat

Vision:

He spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens, famously saying, "Ask not what
your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." He asked the nations of the
world to join together to fight what he called the "common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty,
disease, and war itself.

Brief History:

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 John F. Kennedy is inaugurated as the thirty-fifth President of the United States. January
20, 1961
Kennedy, fulfilling a campaign pledge, issues andKennedy, fulfilling a campaign
pledge, issues and executive order creating a temporary Peace Corps and asks Congress
to authorize the program permanently. He appoints Sargent Shriver to head the
organization. March 01, 1961
A U.S.-sponsored invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs fails. With inadequate support and
facing an overwhelming force, the CIA-trained brigade of anti-Castro exiles is defeated
in a few days. Kennedy takes responsibility for the disaster. April 15, 1961 - April 20,
1961

John F. Kennedy - Bay of Pigs Invasion Begins:

On April 17, 1961, a brigade of about 1,500 Cuban exiles landed at Bahia de Cochinos (Bay of
Pigs) on the southern coast of Cuba. Their mission was to overthrow the government of Fidel
Castro by inciting revolt among the Cuban people.

Black and white youths supported by the Congress black and white youths supported by the
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) set out on the freedom rides to test the enforcement of
ICC rules against discrimination in interstate travel. May 04, 1961

In an address to Congress, Kennedy pledges that the Unites States will land a man on the moon
by the end of the decade. May 25, 1961

Kennedy Pledges to Support Space Programon May 25, 1961, committed to an aggressive
space program. Then, on February 20, 1962, Astronaut John Glenn aboard the Mercury
craft Friendship 7 became the first American to orbit the earth. Both the Kennedy administration
and the American people celebrated Glenn's space flight.

Kennedy meets with Soviet premier Nikita S. Khrushchev in Vienna. The conference fails to
resolve conflict over the status of Berlin. June 03, 1961

John F. Kennedy - Berlin Wall Started:

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On August 13, 1961, East Germany began constructing a wall between the two sections of
Berlin. On July 25, Kennedy addressed the American people explaining the Soviet threat to West
Berlin and the commitment of the United States to protect the city.

Kennedy halts virtually all trade with Cuba. February 03, 1962 .Kennedy announces the
reduction of U.S. import duties as part of an agreement to promote international trade. March 07,
1962 .Kennedy is informed of the existence of Soviet missile installations in Cuba. October 16,
1962. Kennedy signs a limited nuclear test-ban treaty with the Soviet Union and the United
Kingdom. October 07, 1963

Traits:

Humility
Motivation
Patience
Clarity
Religious
Enthusiasm

Nelson Mandela

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Born: July 18, 1918, Mvezo, South Africa

Died: December 5, 2013, Houghton Estate, Johannesburg, South Africa

Family& Childhood:

Nelson Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mzevo in Umtata, then a part of
South Africa's Cape Province. His mother was NonqaphiNosekeni and his father was
NkosiMphakanyiswa. He was named Rolihlahla, which means "troublemaker" in the Xhosa
language. Mandela's grandfather was the ruler of the Thembu people and his father was a local
chief.When he was 12 years old, his father died. Mandela was the first person in his family to
attend school. On the first day of school, a teacher at the Methodist mission school, Miss
Mdingane, re-named him Nelson. Nelson did well in school and went on to graduate from
college and attend law school at University of the Witwatersrand. Mandela was the only black
African student in his class.

Nelson Mandelas visions:

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Nelson Mandela had visions which lead him to fight for a better mankind. In the early years,
Mandela had a vision where he saw an Africa with apartheid being eliminated and man are being
free and equalized. It was this vision that pushed him to do what he was supposed to do and it
was also this vision that made him believe that he still has hope through the darkest days in
prison. Nelson Mandelas perseverance made him believe that one day he could succeed in
freeing the people from the prejudiced past. He never gave up even though he was imprisoned
for twenty-seven years before being elected to be the first president of South Africa.

Contributions:
Fought for the freedom of the blacks in South Africa Apartheid Separated the whites and the
blacks forced the blacks to live in slums with no sewage system or electricity Blacks had to work
in inhumane environments.

Key Activities:

In 1942, Mandela got involved with politics. He began attending meetings of the African
National Congress (ANC), a revolutionary group whose aim was to fight apartheid.

Mandela helped found the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) in 1944.
He organized boycotts and strikes to fight for voting rights and equality for black South
Africans.

In 1944, he married Evelyn NtokoMase.

In 1956, Mandela was arrested for treason.

Mandela divorced Evelyn in 1958, then again got married withNomzamo Winnie
Madikizela.

He was charged with capital offences in the 1963 Rivonia Trial.

In 1964, Mandala was sentenced to life in prison for fighting apartheid.

After spending 27 years in prison, Mandela was released in 1990.

For his work, Mandela won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993 & he shared the prize with F.
W. de Klerk, who was then the President of South Africa and had freed Mandela from
prison three years earlier & negotiated the end of APARTHEID.

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 In 1994, Mandel became South Africas first black president.

He served as president of South Africa till 1999 and refused a second term.

He formally left public life in June 2004.

Nelson Mandela died on December 5, 2013, at the age of 95.

Key Qualities of Nelson Mandela as a Leader:

He was a man of peace.

He had a powerful presence and disarmed enemies with his smile.

He showed the world what forgiveness looks like.

He was positive, thinking about what could be.

He was a visionary and could see the big picture.

He was focused on goals and a mission beyond himself.

He had remarkable endurance.

He showed grit and determination.

He was humble.

He was full of hope, not hate.

He was patient.

What makes Nelson Mandela a Leader?

He modeled the way (Non violence, Equality for all)

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 Inspired a shared vision (Equality and Integration)

Enabled others to act (Allowed others to emerge as leaders)

Challenged the process (Challenged the leadership style of the whites)

Encouraged the heart (connect, inspire and give courage)

Kind of leader Transformational

Inspirational motivation: Nelson Mandela was able to do this by inspiring the followers
campaigning for equal rights and against apartheid

Individualized consideration: Supportive behavior towards followers, showing concern for their
needs, encouraging and assisting development.

Idealized influenced: People perceived him as confident, competent and committed to higher
ideals and ethics.

Intellectual stimulation: Changing outlook on life. Mandela made his followers realized that their
sacrifices and decisions would lead South Africa to freedom.

Kind of Leader Charismatic

Situation of Crisis/Change: Apartheid

Vision: The democratic South Africa where everyone would have equal rights

Followers: He held strong emotional reactions towards his followers despite being in Prison his
followers believed in him to continue to fight for apartheid and pledged willing obedience to
him.

Validation through success: 1994 election, every South African has equal voting right
Involvement of both the blacks and whites in the functioning of the government

Kind of Leader Ethical

Mandela had strong ethical values through having a heart and soul of leadership by consistently
advising his followers to adopt a peaceful course of action and to avoid all violence.

Kind of leadership Servant

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Nelson Mandela lived to serve others .His achievements were not only to benefit himself or his
own goals, but also to achieve goals of the fellow man .Despite the personal cost, he stayed true
to his conviction that South Africa should be a democracy with one-person, one-vote equality for
all of its citizens.

He worked with those who had imprisoned him at Robben Island to bring about a peaceful
transition of power.

He walked away from power leaving the example for South Africa that dictatorships and royal
families are poor governing models. Six principles that made Nelson Mandela a renowned leader

Anticipated

Interpreted

Decided

Aligned

Learned

Challenged

Conclusion

Therefore in short, Nelson Mandela can show us many things about being better leaders. These
include: having integrity, vision and being tenacious; these are all useful ways in which we can
lead or our organizations to success in the face of unpredictable times.

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

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Born: March 17, 1920

Birthplace: Tungipara, Bengal Presidency, British India

(now in Bangladesh)

Died: August 15, 1975 in Dhanmondi, Dhaka.

Type of Leader: President, Political.

Brief Description:

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was the founding leader of Bangladesh. He served twice as the
country's President and was its strongman premier between 1972 and 1975.

Rahman was the leader of the Awami League. He is popularly known as the Bangabandhu
(Friend of Bengal). His daughter Sheikh Hasina Wajed is the current Prime Minister of
Bangladesh. He is credited as the central figure in Bangladesh's liberation movement and has
been compared with many populist founding fathers of the 20th century. An advocate of
socialism, Rahman rose with the ranks of the Awami League and East Pakistani politics as a
charismatic and forceful orator. He became popular for his opposition to the ethnic and
institutional discrimination of Bengalis in Pakistan, who compromised the majority of the state's
population. At the heightening of sectional tensions, he outlined a 6-point autonomy plan and
was jailed by the regime of Field Marshal Ayub Khan for treason. Rahman led the Awami League
to win the first democratic election of Pakistan in 1970. Despite gaining a majority, the League
was not invited by the ruling military junta to form a government. As civil disobedience erupted
across East Pakistan, Rahman announced the Bangladeshi struggle for independence during a
landmark speech on 7 March 1971. On 26 March 1971, the Pakistan Army responded to the mass

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protests with Operation Searchlight, in which Prime Minister-elect Rahman was arrested and
flown to solitary confinement in West Pakistan, while Bengali civilians, students, intellectuals,
politicians and military defectors were murdered as part of the 1971 Bangladesh genocide. After
Bangladesh's liberation, Rahman was released from Pakistani custody and returned to Dhaka in
January 1972. Rahman became the Prime Minister of Bangladesh under a parliamentary system
adopted by the new country. His government enacted a constitution proclaiming socialism and
secular democracy.

The Awami League won a huge mandate in the country's first general election in 1973. However,
Rahman faced challenges of rampant unemployment, poverty and corruption. A famine took
place in 1974. The government was criticized for denying constitutional recognition to
indigenous minorities and human rights violations by security forces, notably the National
Defense Force paramilitia. Amid rising political agitation, Rahman initiated one party socialist
rule in January 1975. Six months later, he and most of his family were assassinated by renegade
army officers during a coup. A martial law government was subsequently established.

In a 2004 BBC Bengali opinion poll, Rahman was voted as the "Greatest Bengali of All Time".

Family:

Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was born in Tungipara, a village in Gopalganj District in
the province of Bengal in British India,to Sheikh Lutfur Rahman, a serestadar, an officer
responsible for record-keeping at the Gopalganj civil court. He was born into a native Bengali
family as the third child in a family of four daughters and two sons.

Vision:

A big Dream for independent Bangladesh.

Key Activities:

Political Career- Mujib left the Muslim League to join Suhrawardy, Maulana Bhashani and
Yar Mohammad Khan in the formation of the Awami Muslim League, the predecessor of the
Awami League. He was elected joint secretary of its East Bengal unit in 1949. In 1953, he was
made the party's general secretary, and elected to the East Bengal Legislative Assembly on a
United Front coalition ticket in 1954 serving briefly as the minister for agriculture during A. K.
Fazlul Huq's government, Mujib was briefly arrested for organizing a protest of the central
government's decision to dismiss the United Front ministry. In 1956, Mujib entered a second
coalition government as minister of industries, commerce, labor, anti-corruption and village aid.
He resigned in 1957 to work full-time for the party organization.

1952 fighting for own language that means bangle is our mother tough.

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 Unrest over continuing denial of democracy spread across Pakistan and Mujib intensified
his opposition to the disbandment of provinces. In 1966, Mujib proclaimed a 6-point plan
titled Our Charter of Survival at a national conference of opposition political parties at
Lahore, in which he demanded self-government and considerable political, economic and
defense autonomy for East Pakistan in a Pakistani federation with a weak central
government. According to his plan:

-The federal government should deal with only two subjects: defense and foreign affairs, and all
other residuary subjects shall be vested in the federating states.

-Two separate, but freely convertible currencies for two wings should be introduced; or if this is
not feasible, there should be one currency for the whole country, but effective constitutional
provisions should be introduced to stop the flight of capital from East to West Pakistan.
Furthermore, a separate banking reserve should be established and separate fiscal and monetary
policy be adopted for East Pakistan.

-The power of taxation and revenue collection shall be vested in the federating units and the
federal centre will have no such power. The federation will be entitled to a share in the state taxes
to meet its expenditures.

-There should be two separate accounts for the foreign exchange earnings of the two wings; the
foreign exchange requirements of the federal government should be met by the two wings
equally or in a ratio to be fixed; indigenous products should move free of duty between the two
wings, and the constitution should empower the units to establish trade links with foreign
countries.

-East Pakistan should have a separate militia or paramilitary forces.

In 1969 Mass upsurge that basis planed for 7th March speech of Sheikh MujiburRahman
and 25th March arrested by West Pakistan.
In 1971 9 months war, he was in jail and their he planned delivered their key people and
that way cames our independence.

Leader of Pakistan- Following Suhrawardy's death in 1963, Mujib came to head the Awami
League, which became one of the largest political parties in Pakistan. The party had dropped the
word "Muslim" from its name in a shift towards secularism and a broader appeal to non-Muslim
communities. Mujib was one of the key leaders to rally opposition to President Ayub Khan's
Basic Democracies plan, the imposition of martial law and the one-unit scheme, which

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centralized power and merged theprovinces. According to his plan: Six point Plan Titled In
1966, Mujib proclaimed a 6-point plan titled Our Charter of Survival at a national conference of
opposition political parties at Lahore,[ in which he demanded self-government and considerable
political, economic and defence autonomy for East Pakistan in a Pakistani federation with a
weak central government.

1970 Elections and Independence- In the Pakistani general elections held on 7 December
1970, the Awami League under Mujib's leadership won a massive majority in the provincial
legislature, and all but two of East Pakistan's quota of seats in the new National Assembly, thus
forming a clear majority.

Liberation War, 1971- Following political deadlock, Yahya Khan delayed the convening of the
assembly a move seen by Bengalis as a plan to deny Mujib's party, which formed a majority,
from taking charge. It was on 7 March 1971 that Mujib called for independence and asked the
people to launch a major campaign of civil disobedience and organised armed resistance at a
mass gathering of people held at the Race Course Ground in Dhaka. The army launched
Operation Searchlight to curb the political and civil unrest, fighting the nationalist militias that
were believed to have received training in India. Speaking on radio even as the army began its
crackdown, Mujib asked his fellows to create resistance against Pakiskani Army of occupation
by a telegraph at midnight on 26 March 1971 Governing Bangladesh- Rahman briefly assumed
the provisional presidency and later took office as the prime minister. A new country Bangladesh
begins with a lot of 'rampage and rape of Bangladesh economy' by Pakistani occupation force.
The politicians elected in 1970 formed the provisional parliament of the new state. The Mukti
Bahini and other militias amalgamated to form a new Bangladeshi army to which Indian forces
transferred control on 17 March. Mujib described the fallout of the war as the "biggest human
disaster in the world," claiming the deaths of as many as 3 million people and the rape of more
than 200,000 women. After Bangladesh achieved recognition from major countries, Mujib
helped Bangladesh enter into the United Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement.[citation
needed] He travelled to the United States, the United Kingdom and other European nations to
obtain humanitarian and developmental assistance for the nation. He signed a treaty of friendship
with India, which pledged extensive economic and humanitarian assistance and began training
Bangladesh's security forces and government personnel. Mujib forged a close friendship with
Indira Gandhi, strongly praising India's decision to intercede, and professed admiration and
friendship for India. He charged the provisional parliament to write a new constitution, and
proclaimed the four fundamental principles of "nationalism, secularism, democracy and
socialism," which would come to be known as "Mujibism." Mujib nationalised hundreds of
industries and companies as well as abandoned land and capital and initiated land reform aimed
at helping millions of poor farmers.] Major efforts were launched to rehabilitate an estimated 10
million refugees. The economy began recovering and a famine was prevented. A constitution was
proclaimed in 1973 and elections were held, which resulted in Mujib and his party gaining power
with an absolute majority. He further outlined state programmers to expand primary education,

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sanitation, food, healthcare, water and electric supply across the country. A five-year plan
released in 1973 focused state investments into agriculture, rural infrastructure and cottage
industries. Although the state was committed to secularism, Mujib soon began moving closer to
political Islam through state policies as well as personal conduct. He revived the Islamic
Academy (which had been banned in 1972 for suspected collusion with Pakistani forces) and
banned the production and sale of alcohol and banned the practice of gambling, which had been
one of the major demands of Islamic groups. Mujib sought Bangladesh's membership in the
Organization of the Islamic Conference and the Islamic Development Bank and made a
significant trip to Lahore in 1974 to attend the OIC summit, which helped repair relations with
Pakistan to an extent. In his public appearances and speeches, Mujib made increased usage of
Islamic greetings, slogans and references to Islamic ideologies. In his final years, Mujib largely
abandoned his trademark "Joy Bangla" salutation for "Khuda Hafez" preferred by religious
Muslims. He also declared a common amnesty to the suspected war criminals in some conditions
to get the support of far right groups as the communists were not happy with Mujib's regime. He
declared, " I believe that the brokers, who assisted the Pakistanis during the liberation war has
realized their faults. I hope they will involve themselves in the development of the country
forgetting all their misdeeds. Those who were arrested and jailed in the Collaborator act should
be freed before the 16 December 1974." In 1974, Bangladesh experienced the deadliest famine
ever, which killed around 30,000 Bangladeshi people from hunger. The Bangladesh famine of
1974 is a major source of discontent against Mujib's government.

BAKSAL- Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League (BAKSAL) the only legally recognized
party of Bangladesh founded on 7 June 1975 following the Fourth Amendment to the
constitution of Bangladesh. Mujib's government soon began encountering increased
dissatisfaction and unrest. His programmers of nationalization and industrial socialism suffered
from lack of trained personnel, inefficiency, rampant corruption and poor leadership. Mujib
focused almost entirely on national issues and thus neglected local issues and government. The
party and central government exercised full control and democracy was weakened, with virtually
no elections organized at the grass roots or local levels. Political opposition included communists
as well as Islamic fundamentalists, who were angered by the declaration of a secular state. Mujib
was criticized for nepotism in appointing family members to important positions

Characteristics:

Sheikh MujiburRahman (17 March1920 15 August1975), also popularly known in Bangladesh

and West Bengal as Bangabandhu (Friend of Bengal) and Sheikh Mujib, was a Bengali politician
and the founding leader of Bangladesh. He is widely revered in the country as the Father of the
Nation. For made an independent country he struggled lot and faced different problems in his
life. Mujib served twice as the President of Bangladesh, including the first presidency of the
country and later during one party rule. He was assassinated by junior army officers in a military
coup on 15 August, 1975.

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What Made Sheikh Mujibur Rahman A leader?
Mujib proclaimed a 6-point plan titled Our Charter of Survival at a national conference of
opposition political parties at Lahore. in which he demanded self-government and considerable
political, economic and defense autonomy for East Pakistan in a Pakistani federation with a weak
central government.

Motivator for our freedom fighter for Bangladesh liberation war.

Reformation of new the peoples republic of Bangladesh Government.

Impact:

That reason we got an Independent country and Bangladeshi celebrate 26 th March as an

Independent day and 16th December as a Victory Day.

Traits:
Strong
Fearless
Intelligent
Secular
Charismatic Political Personality
Intelligence
Self-confidence
Sociability
Will (initiative, persistence, ambition)
Dominance
Surgency (i.e., talkativeness, cheerfulness and originality)
Confident Visage
Impressive Planner
A Dedicated Leader
An Understanding Comrade

Lee Kuan Yew

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Born: September 16, 1923

Birthplace: Singapore

Died: March 23, 2015

Sphere of Influence: Asia

Type of Leader: Economic, Intellectual, and Political

As the founding father of the independent city-state of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew transformed a
third-world economy to one of the strongest in the world. He served as prime minister from 1959
to 1990, and his uninterrupted reign facilitated fulfillment of his vision. From the beginning, Lee
recognized that Singapore needed a strong economy in order to survive as an independent
country, and he launched a program to industrialize Singapore and transform it into a major
exporter of finished goods. Within 30 years, Lee fulfilled his goal of industrializing, urbanizing,
and educating his country.

BIOGRAPHY

Born into a wealthy Chinese family, Lee Kuan Yew attended law school at Cambridge in Britain,
and afterward he returned to Singapore to practice law.

As an advocate of independence, Lee formed the Peoples Action Party (PAP), traveled to
London, and eventually helped negotiate Singapores independence from Great Britain. After
Lees party won the first election in 1959, Lee assumed the office of Prime Minister, a position
he held until 1990, in part because the main opposition party boycotted elections for years.

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Realizing that political autonomy depended on economic survival, Lee focused on building a
strong, industrialized, export-oriented economy. Due to Singapores lack of natural resources,
Lee faced challenges in his quest to lead Singapore to economic greatness. He began by
encouraging foreign investment and expecting the people of Singapore to embrace austerity.
However, he also instituted programs to ensure that the working class benefitted. The nations
sacrifices yielded results; by 1980 the citizens of Singapore had the second highest per capita
income in Asia, second only to Japan.

Lee credited Singapores success to the cultural traits of the Singaporean people: hard work,
thriftiness, and strong family values, along with a solid education system and Singapores open
intellectual climate. Lee advocated for orderly society. He spoke out against the guns, drugs, and
improper public behavior present in the United States, and he drew criticism for promoting
corporal punishment for seemingly minor offenses, such as graffiti. Ultimately, Lees vision
came to fruition. Some would assert that the Singaporean people sacrificed democracy for
economic prosperity by submitting to Lees authoritarian leadership. However, Lee Kuan Yews
model has become an inspiration for nations throughout Asia and beyond, and after retirement,
Lee has actively consulted with other Asian leaders concerning how to invigorate their own
economies.

WHAT MADE LEE KUAN YEW A LEADER?

Lee Kuan Yew governed Singapore for three decades (1959-1990) becoming the longest-
serving Prime Minister in history.

Lee Kuan Yew transformed Singapores economy from largely agricultural to one of the
strongest industrial societies in the world.

Under the leadership of Lee Kuan Yew, Singapore became one of the safest countries in the
world thanks to use of corporal and capital punishment.

Margaret Thatcher

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Born: October 13, 1925

Birthplace: Grantham, Lincolnshire, Great Britain

Died: April 8, 2013

Sphere of Influence: Europe, Latin America

Type of Leader: Economic, Political

Margaret Thatcher served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom for more than a decade. As
the first elected female leader of a Western nation, she restructured her nations economy.
Thatcher also led a foreign policy that both asserted Britains independence and its ability to
work effectively with other nations. Though many of her policies generated controversy, some
political scientists credit her actions with creating a stronger and more assertive Britain after
years of decline.

Famous Quotation:

"In politics, if you want anything said, ask a man; if you want anything done, ask a
woman."

BIOGRAPHY

Margaret Thatcher entered politics in the late 1950s, first winning a seat in the House of
Commons in 1959. She quickly rose through the ranks of the Conservative (Tory) Party. She

107
became a member of Prime Minister Edward Heaths government in 1970. In 1975, she won
election as the Conservative Partys leader and led that party to victory in the 1979 general
elections. This victory earned Thatcher the title of Prime Minister of Great Britain, a position she
held until 1990. Thatchers political leadership contrasted significantly with that of her
predecessors. Her policies promoted individualism and free enterprise. She enacted measures
designed to reduce the role of government by cutting taxes and returning to private ownership
many businesses (including the telephone system and airlines).

Thatcher also confronted powerful trade unions (such as steelworkers, coal miners, and teachers)
during a time of frequent strikes. Some economists credit her changes with stimulating growth in
Britains economy in the 1980s. However, resentment toward her policies led to her ouster as
leader of the Conservative party in 1990 when she was replaced by John Major. Thatchers
foreign policy also distinguished her from British leaders of her time. She opposed efforts to
integrate Britain more deeply into the European Union, asserting an independent course. She led
Britain into a short but very successful war against Argentina for control of the Falkland Islands.

Thatcher also earned her nickname as the Iron Lady from the Soviet press as a result of her
steadfast opposition to the Soviet Union. Thatcher worked closely with American President
Ronald Reagan to promote shared foreign policy goals. She helped foster the relationship
between Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev that many historians credit with ending
the Cold War.

WHAT MADE MARGARET THATCHER A LEADER?

Margaret Thatcher was the first woman to serve as Prime Minister of Great Britain or of any
other European nation. She was also the first woman elected to be the leader of a major political
party in Britain.

Thatcher persevered as prime minister for more than a decade despite the unpopularity of
some of her programs. She often risked short-term unpopularity to accomplish long-term
political and economic goals.

Thatcher was a vocal opponent of Soviet expansionism in the late 1970s, when many other
world leaders embraced the more passive policy of dtente.

Thatcher formed a strong alliance with Ronald Reagan, despite disagreeing with him on
several significant issues.

Che Guevara

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Born: June 14, 1928

Birthplace: Rosario, Argentina

Died: October 9, 1967

Sphere of Influence: Africa, Latin America, North America

Type of Leader: Intellectual, Military, Political

As a leader of the Cuban Revolution, author of a manual on guerilla warfare, and protagonist of
communist movements worldwide, Ernesto Che Guevara developed a cult following and
remains an icon of the revolutionary-minded worldwide. While Guevara realized a successful
revolution in Cuba, his effort to overhaul the Cuban economy failed miserably, as did his
revolutionary campaign in the Congo. However, his greatest disaster and ultimate downfall came
when he attempted to lead a continent-wide revolution in South America, where he failed to gain
support from the Bolivians and ultimately met his death.

BIOGRAPHY

Ernesto Che Guevara hailed from a leftist, middle-class Argentinean background. He attended
medical school and later traveled throughout South America. Witnessing the poverty that
enveloped the rest of the continent had a huge impact on him.

He went on to work in the progressive government of Jacobo rbenz in Guatemala until it was
overthrown by a CIA-supported coup supported in 1953. In Guatemala, Guevara met his first
wife, Hilda Gadea, a Peruvian communist. The following year, the couple moved to Mexico City,
where Guevara joined the revolutionary movement led by Fidel Castro.

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Ches innate sense on how to wage a successful rural guerilla war, along with his medical
knowledge, made him indispensable to Castro as the war waged on in the Sierra Maestra
Mountains in Cuba. After they achieved victory over the forces of U.S.-supported dictator
Fulgencio Batista, Castro placed Guevara in charge of economic development. His stints as
president of the National Bank, leader of INRA (National Institute of Agrarian Reform), and
Minister of Industry all failed. After initiating the relationship with the Soviet Union which
culminated with the Cuban Missile Crisis, Guevara became an outspoken critic of the Soviet
Union. Since the Soviets supported the Cuban economy, Guevara became a distinct liability to
Castro, who eagerly supported Guevaras ambitions to export the revolution abroad.

Initially, Guevara joined rebels in the Congo, and when his efforts failed there, he set out to
spread communism throughout South America. In 1967, the Bolivian military captured and
executed Guevara, photographed the corpse to dispel rumors of an escape, and buried him in a
secret grave.

WHAT MADE CHE GUEVARA A LEADER?

Ernesto Che Guevara played a lead role in the Cuban Revolution, second only to Fidel
Castro.

Guevara is an iconic symbol of revolutionary movements worldwide.

Guevara wrote a book on guerrilla warfare, but ultimately failed to follow much of the advice
he espoused in Guerrilla Warfare (Guerra de Guerrillas) when he attempted to spread
communism from his hub of Bolivia throughout South America.

Martin Luther King, Jr.

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Born: January 15, 1929

Birthplace: Atlanta, Georgia, United States

Died: April 4, 1968

Sphere of Influence: North America

Type of Leader: Intellectual, Religious, Social

Awards: Nobel Peace Prize (1964), Presidential Medal of Freedom (1977, posthumous)

Congressional Gold Medal (2004, posthumous)

Known for: African-American Civil Rights Movement, Peace movement

BIOGRAPHY

A century after the Civil War, Americans America continued to face racial injustice and
inequality. State and local ordinances, particularly in the South, upheld segregation in schools,
housing, work places, stores, restaurants, public space, mass transit, sidewalks and drinking
fountains. Laws, as well as customs, prevented many African Americans from voting or owning
property in certain areas and prevented interracial marriages.

Raised in this segregated environment, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. first stepped out into public
spotlight when he was asked by the NAACP to be the spokesman for the Montgomery Bus
Boycott, which lasted 382 days. After a Supreme Court decision outlawed the practice, the city
prohibited segregation on public transportation. While continuing in his role as a minister, King
led the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), founded in 1957, until his death. The
SCLC and the other organization devoted to the Civil Rights Movement organized sit-ins,
freedom rides, marches, and rallies to challenge unjust laws and to bring further awareness for
the need of more federal civil rights legislation.

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King was a key force behind the 1963 Birmingham Campaign. He helped the movement obtain
nationwide media coverage of the police brutality. His iconic I

Have a Dream speech, given on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial that summer, influenced the
passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Though beaten, threatened with death, arrested, and even stabbed, his convictions and actions
have impacted the lives of millions. The day after he spoke on behalf of striking Memphis
sanitation workers in 1968, King was assassinated while standing on a balcony of the Lorraine
Motel.

The impact of Kings social activism is evident today with the naming of a national holiday and
numerous locations in his honor. King is best known as one who fought for justice.

Family:

King was born on January 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia, to Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr.,
and Alberta Williams King. King's legal name at birth was Michael King, and his father was also
born Michael King, but the elder King changed his and his son's names following a 1934 trip to
Germany to attend the Fifth Baptist World Alliance Congress in Berlin. It was during this time he
chose to be called Martin Luther King in honor of the German reformer Martin Luther. King had
Irish ancestry through his paternal great-grandfather. King married Coretta Scott, on June 18,
1953, on the lawn of her parents' house in her hometown of Heiberger, Alabama. They became
the parents of four children: Yolanda King (b. 1955), Martin Luther King III (b. 1957), Dexter
Scott King (b. 1961), and Bernice King (b. 1963).

Key Activities:

Southern Christian Leadership Conference:

In 1957, King, Ralph Abernathy, Fred Shuttlesworth, Joseph Lowery, and other civil rights
activists founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The group was created
to harness the moral authority and organizing power of black churches to conduct nonviolent
protests in the service of civil rights reform. One of the group's inspirations was the crusades of
evangelist Billy Graham, who befriended King after he attended a Graham crusade in New York
City in 1957. King led the SCLC until his death.

Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955:

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In March 1955, a fifteen-year-old school girl in Montgomery, Claudette Colvin, refused to give
up her bus seat to a white man in compliance with Jim Crow laws, laws in the US South that
enforced racial segregation. King was on the committee from the Birmingham African-American
community that looked into the case; because Colvin was pregnant and unmarried, E.D. Nixon
and Clifford Durr decided to wait for a better case to pursue.

On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat. The
Montgomery Bus Boycott, urged and planned by Nixon and led by King, soon followed. The
boycott lasted for 385 days, and the situation became so tense that King's house was bombed.
King was arrested during this campaign, which concluded with a United States District Court
ruling in Browder v. Gayle that ended racial segregation on all Montgomery public buses. King's
role in the bus boycott transformed him into a national figure and the best-known spokesman of
the civil rights movement.

Albany Movement:

The Albany Movement was a desegregation coalition formed in Albany, Georgia, in November
1961. In December, King and the SCLC became involved. The movement mobilized thousands
of citizens for a broad-front nonviolent attack on every aspect of segregation within the city and
attracted nationwide attention.

March on Washington, 1963:

The march originally was conceived as an event to dramatize the desperate condition of blacks in
the southern U.S. and an opportunity to place organizers' concerns and grievances squarely
before the seat of power in the nation's capital. Organizers intended to denounce the federal
government for its failure to safeguard the civil rights and physical safety of civil rights workers
and blacks. However, the group acquiesced to presidential pressure and influence, and the event
ultimately took on a far less strident tone. As a result, some civil rights activists felt it presented
an inaccurate, sanitized pageant of racial harmony; Malcolm X called it the "Farce on
Washington", and the Nation of Islam forbade its members from attending the march. The march
did, however, make specific demands: an end to racial segregation in public schools; meaningful
civil rights legislation, including a law prohibiting racial discrimination in employment;
protection of civil rights workers from police brutality; a $2 minimum wage for all workers; and
self-government for Washington, D.C., then governed by congressional committee.King
delivered a 17-minute speech, later known as "I Have a Dream".

Selma Voting Rights Movement and "Bloody Sunday", 1965:

Acting on James Bevel's call for a march from Selma to Montgomery, King, Bevel, and the
SCLC, in partial collaboration with SNCC, attempted to organize the march to the state's capital.

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The first attempt to march on March 7, 1965, was aborted because of mob and police violence
against the demonstrators. This day has become known as Bloody Sunday, and was a major
turning point in the effort to gain public support for the Civil Rights Movement. It was the
clearest demonstration up to that time of the dramatic potential of King's nonviolence strategy.

Opposition to the Vietnam War:

King long opposed American involvement in the Vietnam War, but at first avoided the topic in
public speeches in order to avoid the interference with civil rights goals that criticism of
President Johnson's policies might have created. However, at the urging of SCLC's former
Director of Direct Action and now the head of the Spring Mobilization Committee to End the
War in Vietnam, James Bevel, King eventually agreed to publicly oppose the war as opposition
was growing among the American public. King also opposed the Vietnam War because it took
money and resources that could have been spent on social welfare at home.

Poor People's Campaign, 1968:

In 1968, King and the SCLC organized the "Poor People's Campaign" to address issues of
economic justice. King traveled the country to assemble "a multiracial army of the poor" that
would march on Washington to engage in nonviolent civil disobedience at the Capitol until
Congress created an "economic bill of rights" for poor Americans.

Characteristic:

Martin Luther King, Jr. (January 15, 1929 April 4, 1968) was an American Baptist minister,
activist, humanitarian, and leader in the African-American Civil Rights Movement. He is best
known for his role in the advancement of civil rights using nonviolent civil based on his
Christian beliefs. King became a civil rights activist early in his career.

Kings Famous Speech:

I have a dream

I say to you today, my friends, so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I
still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream.
I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: 'We
hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal.'
I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of
former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.

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I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of
injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom
and justice.

I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be
judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today. I
have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having
his lips dripping with the words of interposition and nullification; one day right there in
Alabama, little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and
white girls as sisters and brothers. I have a dream today.

Famous Quotation:

"Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere. Therefore, no American can afford to

be apathetic about the problem of racial justice. It is a problem that meets every man at his
front door.

WHAT MADE MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.A LEADER?

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was awarded the Noble Peace Prize in 1964, illustrating his
influential and inspiring role as a charismatic, nonviolent leader.

Kings words ignited a nationwide movement which pressured the government into action,
leading to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Leading by example, King embodied the love, hope, and understanding that he expressed in
his sermons and speeches.

Kings involvement in the Civil Rights Movement inspired other minority groups, such as the
Chicano, Native American, and Womens Movements, to rally for reform during the late 1960s
and 1970s.

Neil Armstrong

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Full Name: Neil Alden Armstrong

Birth: 5th August, 1930

Death: 25th August, 2012

Birth Place: Wapakoneta Ohio, America

Family:

Neil Armstrong was born on August 5, 1930 to Srephen Koenig Armstrong and Viola Louise
Engel in Auglaize country, near Wapakoneta, Ohio. He was of Scottish, Irish and German
ancestry and had two younger siblings, June and Dean. His family moved around the state
repeatedly after his birth, living in 20 towns. He married Janet Shearon on January 28, 1956. The
couple soon added to their family. Son Eric arrived in 1957, followed daughter Karen in 1959.
Sadly, Karen died of complications related to an inoperable brain tumor in January 1962. The
following year, the Armstrong welcomes their third child, son Mark.

Education:

Armstrong attended Blume High School and took flying lessons at the Grassy Wapakoneta
airfield. He earned a student flight certificate on his 16 th birthday, then soloed later in August, all
before he had a drivers license. In 1947, at age 17, Armstrong began studying aeronautical
engineering at Purdue University. He was also accepted to the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT). Armstrong was active in the boy scouts and earned the rank of Eagle Scout.

Key Activities:
Armstrong was a naval aviator from 1949 to 1952. He served in the
Korean War.

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 Well before he made spaceflight history, Armstrong got a Bachelor of
Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering from Purdue University in
1955.

Armstrongs first flight in a rocket plane was on August 15, 1957,in the
Bell X-1B, to an altitude of 11.4 miles (18.3 km). The nose landing gear
broke on landing, which had happened on about a dozen previous
flights of the Bell X-1B due to the aircrafts design.

Armstrong was involved in several incidents that went down in

Edwardss folklore and were chronicled in the memories of colleagues.
The first occurred during his sixth X-15 flight on April 20, 1962, while
Armstrong tested a self-adjusting control system. He flew to a height of
over 207, 000 feet (63km).

Armstrong made seven flights in the X-15 from November 1960 to July
1962. He reached a top altitude of 207,500 feet (63.2km) in the X-15-3
and a top speed of Mach 5.74.

Armstrong was the pilot of the Gemini 8 mission, launched March 16,
1966. He performed the first successful docking of 2 vehicles in space.

After Armstrong served as backup commander for Apollo-8, Slayton

offered him the post of commander of Apollo-11 on December 23,
1968, as Apollo-8 orbited the Moon.

He was the first person on the Moon in July 21, 1977.

From 1971-1979, he was professor of Aerospace of Engineering at the

University of Cincinnati.

From 1982-1992, Armstrong was chairman of computer technologies

for aviation, Inc., Charlottesville, VA.

Characteristics:

As a space craft commander for Apollo-11, the first manned lunar landing
mission, Armstrong gained the distinction of being the first man to land a
craft on the moon and first to step on its surface. He was also an aerospace
Engineer, Naval aviator, test pilot and University professor. Despite being
one of the most famous astronauts in history, Armstrong has largely shied

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away from the public eye. Neil Armstrong personified the essential qualities
and core values of a superlative human being.

Impact:
People see Moon from large distance but they cannot think to reach it. But
Neil Armstrong makes it possible and proves that man can do everything.

Traits:
Extraordinary levels of commitment

Dedicated personality

Innovative

Thirst for knowledge

Self-confidence

Toughness

Decisive

Honest

Loyal

Positive attitude

Integrity

Judicious

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 Buzz Aldrin

Full Name: Edwin Eugene Aldrin Jr. Buzz

Birth: 20th January, 1930

Birth Place: Montclair, New Jersey

Family:

Aldrin would make it his legal first name in 1988.His mother, Marion Moon, was the daughter of
an Army chaplain. His father, Edwin Eugene Aldrin, was a colonel in the U.S. Air Force. Aldrin
has been married three times. His first marriage was to Joan Archer, the mother of his three
children (James, Janice and Andrew). His second marriage was to Beverly Zile. His third
marriage was to Lois Driggs Cannon, from whom he filed for divorce on June 15, 2011, in Los
Angeles, citing irreconcilable differences. The divorce was finalized on December 28, 2012.
He has one grandson, Jeffrey Schuss, born to his daughter, Janice.

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Education:

In 1947, Buzz graduated from Montclair High School in Montclair, New Jersey, and headed to
West Point Military Academy in New York. He took well to the discipline and strict regimens,
and was the first in his class his freshman year. He graduated third in his class in 1951 with a BS
in mechanical engineering.

Key Activities:
Joined in militarily and their build up career an air force division of
fighter pilot.

NASA career and there was the third selection group in 1963.

Buzz Aldrin is an American engineer and former astronaut, and the

second person to walk on the Moon. He was the Lunar Module Pilot on
Apollo 11, the first manned lunar landing in history. He set foot on the
Moon at 03:15:16 on July 21, 1969 (UTC), following mission commander
Neil Armstrong.

In July 1971, Aldrin was assigned as the Commandant of the U.S. Air
Force Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base, California.

In March 1972, Aldrin retired from active duty after 21 years of

service, and returned to the Air Force in a managerial role

In 1985, Aldrin proposed the existence of a special spacecraft

trajectory now known as the Aldrin cycler. Aldrin's system of cycling
spacecraft makes travel to Mars possible using far less propellant than
conventional means, with an expected five and a half month journey
from the Earth to Mars, and a return trip to Earth of about the same
duration on a twin-cycler. Aldrin is still working on this with engineers
from Purdue University.

In 2012, he made a cameo appearance in Japanese drama film Space

Brothers. Aldrin appeared as himself in the Big Bang Theory episode,
"The Holographic Excitation", which aired on October 25, 2012. Aldrin
also lent his voice talents to the 2012 video game Mass Effect 3,
playing a stargazer who appears in the game's final scene.

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 Sir Fazle Hasan Abed

Born: 27 April 1936 (age 80)

Baniachong, Bengal Presidency,
British Raj

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 (now Habiganj, Sylhet Division,
Bangladesh)

Nationality: Bangladeshi

Occupation: Social worker

Known for: Founder and chairman of BRAC

Awards: World Food Prize (2015)

Sir FazleHasan Abed is a Bangladeshi social worker and the founder chairman of BRAC
(formerly, Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee). For his outstanding contributions to
social improvement, he has received the Ramon Magsaysay Award, the UNDP Mahbub-ul-Haq
Award, the inaugural Clinton Global Citizen Award and the inaugural WISE Prize for Education.
He was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) in the
2010 New Year Honors for services in tackling poverty and empowering the poor in Bangladesh
and globally.

Sir Fazle was born in 1936 in Bangladesh. He was educated both at Dhaka and Glasgow
Universities. He was a professional accountant in his thirties, working as a senior corporate
executive at Shell Oil, when the 1971 Liberation War had a profound effect on him, dramatically
changing the direction of his life. He left his job, moved to London and devoted himself to
Bangladeshs War of Independence. There, he helped initiate a campaign called Help
Bangladesh to organize funds in raising awareness about the war.

Early life
Abed was born into the esteemed Hasan family, Baniachong, British India (now Habiganj,
Bangladesh). He passed the matriculation exam from Pabna Zilla School and went on to
complete his higher secondary education from Dhaka College.

He left home to attend University of Glasgow, where, and in an effort to break away from
tradition and do something radically different - he studied Naval Architecture. But there was little
work in ship building in Pakistan and a career in Naval Architecture would make returning home

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difficult. With that in mind, Abed joined the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants in
London, completing his professional education in 1962.

Abed returned to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) to join Shell Oil Company and quickly rose to
head its finance division. His time at Shell exposed Abed to the inner workings of a large
conglomerate and provided him with insight into corporate management, which would become
invaluable to him later in life.

It was during his time at Shell that the devastating cyclone of 1970 hit the south and south-
eastern coastal regions of the country, killing 300,000 people. The cyclone had a profound effect
on Abed - in the face of such devastation, the comforts and perks of a corporate executive's life
ceased to have any attraction for him. Together with friends, Abed created HELP, an organization
that provided relief and rehabilitation to the worst affected in the island of Manpura, which had
lost three quarters of its population in the disaster.

Soon after, Bangladeshs own struggle for independence from Pakistan began and circumstances
forced Abed to leave the country. He found refuge in England, where he set up Action
Bangladesh to lobby for his countrys independence with the governments of Europe.

Formation of BRAC:
When the war ended in December 1971, Abed sold his flat in London and returned to the newly
independent Bangladesh to find his country in ruins. In addition, the 10 million refugees who had
sought shelter in India during the war had started to return home. Their relief and rehabilitation
called for urgent efforts. Abed decided to use the funds he had generated from selling his flat to
initiate his own. He selected the remote region of Sulla in northeastern Bangladesh to start his
work. This work led him and the organization he founded, BRAC, to deal with the long-term task
of improving the living conditions of the rural poor.

In a span of only three decades, BRAC grew to become the largest development organization in
the world in terms of the scale and diversity of its interventions. As BRAC grew, Abed ensured
that it continued to target the landless poor, particularly women, a large percentage of who live
below the poverty line with little or no access to resources or conventional development efforts.

BRAC now operates in more than 69 thousand villages of Bangladesh and covers an estimated
110 million people through its development interventions that range from primary education,
essential healthcare, agricultural support and human rights and legal services to microfinance and
enterprise development. It is now considered the largest non-profit in the world - both by
employees and people served.

In 2002, BRAC went international by taking its range of development interventions to

Afghanistan. Since then, BRAC has expanded to a total of 10 countries across Asia and Africa,

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successfully adapting its unique integrated development model across varying geographic and
socioeconomic contexts and covering an additional 16 million people.

Professional positions
Abed has held the following positions:

2013 - present - Chairman, Board of Directors, BRAC Bank Limited.

2012-present - Member, UN Secretary Generals Lead Group of the Scaling Up Nutrition (SUN)
Movement

2010-2011 - UN Secretary Generals Group of Eminent Persons for Least Developed Countries
(LDCs)

2005-present Commissioner, UN Commission on Legal Empowerment of the Poor (CLEP)

2002-08 - Global Chairperson, International Network of Alternative Financial Institutions

(INAFI) International.

2001-08 - Chairman, Board of Directors, BRAC Bank Limited.

2001-present - Chairperson, Board of Trustees, BRAC University.

2000-present - Chairman, Governing Body, BRAC.

2000-2005 - Chair, Finance & Audit Committee, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI),
Los Banos, Philippines.

1999-2005 - Member, Board of Governors, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los
Banos, Philippines.

1998-2005 - Member, Policy Advisory Group, The Consultative Group to Assist the Poorest
(CGAP), The World Bank, Washington, DC.

1994-present - Member, Board of Trustees, Centre for Policy Dialogue (CPD), Dhaka

1993-2011 - Chairperson, Ain O Salish Kendra (ASK), a human rights organization

1992-2009 - Chairman, NGO Forum for Drinking Water Supply & Sanitation

1990-2009 - Chairman, Campaign for Popular Education (CAMPE), an NGO network on

education.

1981-82 Visiting Scholar, Harvard Institute of International Development, Harvard University,

Cambridge, Mass.

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1982-86 Senior Fellow, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS).

1982-86 Member, Board of Trustees, BIDS.

1982-86 Chairman, Association of Development Agencies in Bangladesh (ADAB).

1986-91 Member, World Bank NGO Committee, Geneva, Switzerland.

1987-90 Chairman, South Asia Partnership.

1987-90 Member, International Commission on Health Research for Development, Harvard

University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

1992-93 Member, Independent South Asian Commission on Poverty Alleviation

1998-2004 Member, Board of Governors, Institute of Development Studies (IDS), Sussex

University, U.K.

Honorary degrees:
2012 - Doctor of Laws honoriscausa, The University of Manchester, UK

2010- Honorary degree of Doctor of Laws, University of BATH, UK

2009 Honorary Doctorate of Letters, University of Oxford, UK

2009 - Honorary Doctorate in Humane letters, Rikkyo University, Japan

2008 Honorary Doctorate of Laws, Columbia University

2007 Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters, Yale University

2003 Honorary Doctorate of Education, University of Manchester

1994 Honorary Doctorate of Laws, Queens University, Canada

Awards:
1. The Ramon Magsaysay Award for Community Leadership, 1980
2. The Alan Shawn Feinstein World Hunger Award, 1990
3. The Maurice Pate Award by UNICEF, 1992
4. The Olof Palme Prize, 2001
5. The Social Entrepreneurship Award by the Schwab Foundation, 2002
6. The International Activist Award by the Gleitsman Foundation, 2003
7. The UNDP MahbubulHaq Award, 2004
8. The Henry R. Kravis Prize in Leadership, 2007

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 9. The inaugural Clinton Global Citizen Award, 2007
10. Palli Karma Shahayak Foundation (PKSF) Lifetime Achievement in Social Development
and Poverty Alleviation, 2007
11. The David Rockefeller Bridging Leadership Award, 2008
12. Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG), 2010
13. The WISE Prize for Education, 2011

Amazing facts about Sir Fazle Hasan Abed

1-Sir Fazle Hasan Abed worked as a professional accountant in his thirties, working as a senior
corporate executive at Shell Oil

2-Before starting Brac, he created HELP, an organization that provided relief and rehabilitation
to the worst affected people of the devastating cyclone of 1970 in the island of Manpura.

3-He left Shell to start Brac in 1972

4-He sold his home in London to start the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee and make
it work.

5-He went to University of Glasgow and studied naval architecture in an attempt to break away
from tradition and do something out of convention.

6-He was ranked 32 in the list of Fortunes The Worlds 50 Greatest Leaders in 2014

7-He was born in 1936 and now at his 79 and works harder than many young people

8-He is recognized by Ashoka as one of the global greats and is a founding member of its
prestigious Global Academy for Social Entrepreneurship.

9-In 2009, he was appointed Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of St. Michael
and St. George (KCMG) by the British Crown in recognition of his services to reducing poverty

10-He has been awarded 2015 World Food prize for reducing poverty

11-Brac is the world largest and most bold NGO

12-Brac has operations in 10 more countries other than Bangladesh

13-Today Brac has a staff of 110,000

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14-BRAC first went international in 2012. Their first international operation started in
Afghanistan.

15-Brac owns Brac Bank, Brac University, Aarong, and a number of very popular brands in
Bangladesh

16-Launched in 1972, BRACs primary objectives emerged as alleviation of poverty and

empowerment of the poor. It took Brac 43 years to become a leader in its field

Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani

12 December 1880
Born: Sirajganj, British India (modern day
Bangladesh) & lived in Joypurhat

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 17 November 1976 (aged 95)
Died:
Dhaka, Bangladesh

Early life:

In 1880 Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani was born in Dhangara village in Sirajganj, Bengal
Presidency. He was the son of Sharafat Ali Khan. Between 1907 and 1909 he received religious
education at the Deoband Madrasah. The association of Mahmudul Hasan (known as Shaikhul
Hind) and other progressive Islamic thinkers inspired Bhasani against British imperialism. In
1909 he started teaching in a primary school at Kagmaree, Tangail. From 1909 to 1913 he
worked with political extremists. In 1914 he revolted against the Christian missionaries in the
Netrakona and Sherpur areas of East Bengal. Because of his educational background he received
the title Maulana.

A catalyst of Muslim nationalism, Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani did for the masses of
the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent what Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
accomplished for the teeming down-trodden people of north, central, and south India.
Unswerving in his belief in God and human dignity, Bhashani crusaded, at times singlehandedly,
against the vested interests in Assam, Bengal, and later Bangladesh in favor of the deprived
landless peasants, workers, and hapless migrants.

Like Gandhi, Bhashani succeeded in institutionalizing political dissent and making opposition
politics viable and respected. Also like Gandhi, he never accepted any position in government
although he was elected to Assam, Bengal, and East Bengal assemblies and was himself the
founder of the most effective political parties in Pakistan and Bangladesh. Ideologically,
Bhashani was a Marxist and Islamist, at the same time both admiring the People's Republic of
China and regretting that the Chinese lacked faith in God. Enigmatic, uncompromising, and
candid, Bhashani was a charismatic leader who could motivate ordinary people to join his
movement for social and economic justice.

A Life of Protest:

Born in 1880 in the village of Dhangara, within the province of Bengal in British India, Abdul
Hamid Khan Bhashani received his early education in a Madrasa, one of the religious schools for
Muslim boys. As a boy of 12 he moved to Tangail, about 60 miles from Dhaka, now the capital
of Bangladesh. After completing his religious schooling at Tangail and becoming a Muslim
religious mentor, or Maulana, Bhashani enrolled in the Islamic Center in the United Provinces,
known as the intellectual seat of militant Islam in British India. Before he could complete the
course he joined a politico-religious movement advocating militancy for Islam. A decade and a

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half later Bhashani became one of the most ardent followers of another politico-religious
movement of the Islamic Worldthe Khalifate movement in 1919. Protesting the dissolution in
Turkey of the Khalifate (Caliphate) by Kemal Ataturk landed Bhashani in jail for ten months.

Long before he joined the Khalifate movement Bhashani had been a crusader for peasant rights
in Tangail against the oppressive landlords. Following a peasant uprising against the King of
Santosh in which Bhashani played the leading role, he was expelled by the British from the
Mymensing district which included Tangail. Uprooted but undiscouraged, Bhashani continued to
organize peasant movements in northern Bengal.

In 1904, at the age of 24, Bhashani journeyed to Assam, the northeastern frontier province of
British India, where he was moved by the suffering of the 2.5 million Bengali Muslim peasants,
particularly the new settlers among them. He organized peasants against the prevalent usury
system which led to pauperization and economic enslavement. His successful organization of a
mammoth protest rally of different peasant groups in Sirajganj, known as All Bengal Kissan
Sammelon (All Bengal Peasant Conference), led to the abolition of the much hated usury system.

During this period Bhashani tried to organize another peasant rally at Kagmari village in Tangail
to mobilize resistance against oppressive practices of the landlords of Mymensing. With the help
of British civil and law enforcement officials, the landlords prevented Bhashani from holding the
meeting and, at the same time, forced him to leave Mymensing within six hours.

Return to Assam

In the early 1930s Bhashani again went to Assam with the hope of alleviating the suffering of
Bengali Muslim peasantry. Unlike the earlier time, Bhashani was now an astute politician and an
effective organizer of reform movements. Mobilizing the Muslim population of Assam, Bhashani
established the provincial branch of the Muslim League and was elected its president in 1934.

His historic stand against political injustice made him popularly known as the religious leader of
Bhashan Char or, in Bengali, Bhashan Charer Maulana. From that time, the
title Bhashani, derived from the word Bhashan, stuck to him. For his uncompromising
commitment to the cause of Muslim peasantry, Bhashani was arrested eight times during his 15
years of political leadership in Assam.

From 1934, when he established the Assam branch of Mohammad Ali Jinnah's Muslim League
Party, to 1937, Bhashani completely immersed himself in the mass movement. He provided a
much needed leadership to the Muslim peasantry, particularly the migrants from the neighboring
provinces, for their struggle against repressive measures. His movement politics was perceived
as a major threat not only by the Hindu landlords in Assam but by Muslim landlords as well.

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In the mid 1940s the new congress government in Assam arrested Bhashani, fearing that he
might transform the peasant movement into a political movement for the merger of Assam with
the would-be Pakistan. Only after the partition of India in 1947, when most of Assam (with the
exception of the district of Sylhet) became a part of India, was Bhashani released by the Assam
government on condition that he leave India. Immediately he returned to East Bengal, which
comprised the eastern flank of Pakistan.

Campaign for Bengali Language

After his return to East Bengal in 1948, the Maulana became one of the vanguards of the
students' language movement demanding that Bengali be accorded equal recognition with Urdu,
the language of West Pakistan, as one of the two official languages of the new Muslim nation of
Pakistan. The same year, Bhashani dissociated himself from the Muslim League Party and
formed a counter party, the Awami (nationalist) Muslim League Party, with himself as president
and Shamsul Huq as general secretary. In essence, Bhashani founded the first organized
opposition party in Pakistan.

Bhashani's opposition party was further strengthened when Hussain Shahid Suhrawardy, the last
chief minister of undivided Bengal, and Sheik Mujibur Rahman, a prominent leader of the
language movement who was later to become the charismatic leader of Bangladesh, joined the
Awami Muslim League in 1949.

Late 1949 also saw the arrest of Bhashani, his tenth, but the first in Pakistan. He had organized a
hunger march in Dhaka demonstrating against the food policies of the government which
coincided with the visit to East Bengal of Liaquat Ali Khan, the first prime minister of Pakistan.
In jail Bhashani, like Gandhi, went on a hunger strike and was released on health grounds the
next year. When the language movement peaked in 1952 Bhashani was arrested once again.

Founds Two New Parties

In 1953, immediately after his release from jail, Bhashani organized a United (Jutka) Front, a
coalition of opposition parties, along with A.K. Fazlul Huq, H.S. Suhrawardy, and Sheik Mujibur
Rahman to contest the election of 1954. In that election the Jutka Front won a landslide victory
over the provincial Muslim League Party, winning 290 of 300 Assembly seats. However, within
two months the Front ministry, with Fazlul Huq as chief minister, was dismissed by the central
government under pressure from the Muslim League. East Bengal was put under the governor's
rule and Huq under house arrest.

In order to make his party appealing to the minority Hindu community, most of whom were
peasants; Bhashani dropped the word "Muslim" from the Awami Muslim League. However, at
the party's annual conference the following year Bhashani decided to start a new party because of

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serious disagreement with H.S. Suhrawardy, who was then the prime minister of Pakistan. The
new partythe National Awami Partylinked not only ant establishmentarian associates in East
Pakistan but also prominent progressive leaders from West Pakistan.

After the abrogation of the constitution in 1958 by Gen. Iskander Mirza and the subsequent
military takeover by Gen. Ayub Khan, Bhashani was arrested and held in prison for four years
and ten months. He was released from detention only after he went on a hunger strike. In 1963 he
led a Pakistani goodwill delegation to the People's Republic of China where he had meetings
with Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) and Chou En-Lai.

In 1964 Bhashani challenged the Ayub regime by engineering the nomination for president of
Fatima Jinnah, the sister and confidante of M.A. Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan. But the
insurgents were beaten by Ayub Khan.

Bhashani's National Awami Party then split into two factions: a pro-Moscow and a pro-Beijing
one, with the former headed by Muzaffar Ahmad and the latter by Bhashani. Bhashani now
introduced "Gherao," a form of sit-in designed to encircle the official against whom a protest was
directed. This strategy created increasing momentum in his movement politics against the Ayub
regime, ultimately contributing to the nation-wide mass movement causing the downfall of Ayub
Khan.

Struggle for Justice Continued

Bhashani opposed not only Ayub and his successor, Yahya Khan, but also the charismatic leader
of independent Bangladesh, Sheik Mujibur Rahman. His unyielding pursuit of public good was
demonstrated when he lent his support during the march movement of 1971 to Sheik Mujib as
the elected leader of the Bengalis fighting for state rights. He did this in spite of the fact that he
still had reservations about Sheik Mujib, whose party won its first landslide victory in 1970.

During most of the nine-months-long Bengali liberation war in 1971, Bhashani lived in India
convalescing from a serious illness. He irked Indira Gandhi and her government by reviving his
old demand for uniting the peasantry of Assam, Bengal, and East Pakistan in a continued
struggle for social and economic justice.

Toward the middle of November 1971, when India's intention to involve itself directly in the
Bengali-Pakistani war became apparent, Bhashani advocated that Bengalis be given the chance
to win their own war even if it meant prolonging their guerrilla struggle against the Pakistani
military. This stand, along with his known pro-Beijing leanings and coupled with his pre-
partition advocacy of a united front of peasantry cutting across national boundaries, made him
suspect in the eyes of Indian leaders. After his return to the new nation of Bangladesh in March

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1972, he led a hunger strike (1974) against Mujib's presidency and a long hunger march the same
year.

After the assassination of Mujib in 1975, the Indian leadership's image of the Maulana worsened,
particularly when he attracted world attention by organizing a long march of millions of Bengalis
in protest against India's 1976 withdrawal of water from the international river, the Ganges, at
Farrakka in West Bengal. As always, the Maulana inevitably took recourse (as did Gandhi) to
direct action through non-violent civil disobedience.

On November 17, 1976, at the age of 96, Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani died in Dhaka.
Millions of Bengalis mourned for him and took pride in the legacies he left behind as a selfless,
principled, and courageous leader of the Third World. His "Islamic Socialism" may have been
puzzling to many, but his tangible contributions to political, social, economic, and religious
reforms were beyond any doubt.

A.K. Fazlul Huq

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 Abul Kasem Fazlul Huq
26 October 1873
Born:
Bakerganj, British India
(now Jhalokati, Bangladesh)

27 April 1962 (aged 88)

Died: Dacca, East Pakistan, Pakistan
(now Dhaka, Bangladesh)

Sher-e-Bangla, an Urdu phrase meaning The Tiger of Bengal, Abul Kasem Fazlul
Huq (Bengali: ; 26 October 187327 April 1962) was named as the Tiger
of Bengal by the then rulers. Mr. Huq, the legendary politician of the then British India and a
pioneer of nationalistic politics in the early 20th century was the first democratically elected
Muslim Statesman of that era.

Abul Kasem Fazlul Huq founded the Krishak Praja Party (KPP), which championed the rights of
the Bengali peasantry. Mr. Huq served twice as the Prime Minister of Bengal in British India and
was the key figure of religious unity especially for Hindu-Muslim unity.

After the end of colonial rule, he became one of the leading statesmen of East Pakistan, serving
as its Chief Minister and Governor, and was instrumental in pushing through the first major land
reforms in the subcontinent.

Mr. Huq supported the Bengali Language Movement of 1952 and established the landmark
Bangla Academy at Dhaka in 1954.

He held different influential political posts and positions including those of the Mayor of
Calcutta (1935), Chief Minister of undivided Bengal (19371943) and East Bengal (1954),
Home Minister of Pakistan (1955) and Governor of East Pakistan (195658).

With due respect and gratitude, Bangladesh remembers today a great hero, a giant of the history
of Bengal and Bangladesh, who was born on this red-letter day in 1873. The whole nation
honors, respects and admires the brave son of Bengal and Bangladesh because he loved peace
and did everything in his power to avert dire calamities; because he has merited the high and
exalted positions to which the suffrage of a grateful nation elevated him; because he was
regardless of personal gains and cheerfully endured all toil and hardship so that he might elevate
the masses of mankind; because he had a high sense of honour, respected the rights of
conscience, and nobly advocated equality of privileges and the universal brotherhood of
humankind; because he had an unshakable faith in Islam but never utter any disrespect for any
other religions and because he was a man of the people. And Bangladeshis believes that he was

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one of us and that he was for us. Yes, Sher-e-Bangla A.K. Fazlul Huq, whose birth anniversary
we are celebrating today, who really gave enormously of himself to the people, and he loved the
people of his country very much.

He came right from the heart of Bengal, not from its geographical heart but from its spiritual
heart. He has illustrated the image that millions of parent hopes their sons would be: strong and
courageous, intelligent and erudite, honest and compassionate. He has personified integrity,
personified honor, personified modesty, personified dignity, personified dedication, and
personified loyalty and above all personified the patriotism. And with his qualities with his head
and heart, he has personified himself as the best in Bengal.

He indeed had an eventful life with multi-faced personality with his many achievements. In
many roles he had filled with distinction. At one time or another, he was one of the greatest legal
luminaries that the Indian subcontinent had ever produced, an unparalleled ambassador of
religious (Hindu-Muslim) unity, a great constitutionalist, a distinguished parliamentarian, a top-
notch politician, an indefatigable freedom fighter, a fiery orator of the first water, a political
strategist of the highest order, an educationist of rare caliber, a social reformer with foresight and
acumen, and above all an indomitable champion of truth and justice.

No wonder the people loved him with all the warmth and sincerity under the sun, and every trust
that the people of this country had in their power to bestow, he was given. And yet, he always
retained a saving humility. His was the humility not of feat but of confidence. He brushed
shoulders with the greats of both the subcontinent and Great Britain, and he knew that the
greats were human. Yes, he was the humility of man before Allah and before the truth. His was
the humility of a man too proud to be arrogant.

Early life:

Abul Kasem Fazlul Huq was the only son of Muhammad Wazid and Saidunnissa Khatun. Huqs
father was a reputed civil and criminal lawyer of the Barisal Bar, and his grandfather Kazi Akram
Ali, a good Arabic and Persian scholar, was a prominent muktear of Barisal.

After receiving traditional Islamic teaching at home and achieving triple Honours degree in
Chemistry, Mathematics and Physics (1894) from the Presidency College, and Masters in
Mathematics from the University of Calcutta, A.K. Fazlul Huq gained his law degree from
University Law College, Calcutta and was the only second Muslim in the Indian subcontinent
to obtain a law degree.

Fazlul Huq started legal practice as an apprentice under Sir Asutosh Mookerjee who would later
encourage him to use his talent politically.

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Founding member of All India Muslim League:

Fazlul Huq took an active part in finding the All India Muslim League in Dhaka (30 December
1906). The Muslim movement had already gained momentum thanks notably to Sir Syed Ahmed
Khan and became known as the Aligarh Movement; The All India Muslim League party was
formed to protect the interest of Indian Muslims and believed in cooperating with the colonial
British government in encouraging illiterate Muslims to be more education minded thereby
enjoying the benefits that was deprived to them. In contrast, the Indian Congress Party (formed
1885) believed an independent India would be better suited to protect the interest of its people.

Fazlul Huq, a man highly respected for his efforts to develop the backward Muslim community,
absorbed with the thought of the progress of the entire Bengali nation and at the same time
nurturing the dream of united independent India, would struggle throughout his political career to
balance all three. Naturally, it was not possible for him to pursue a consistent policy throughout
his long political career. He, therefore, remained a political enigma.

Founder of Krishak Praja Party (KPP):

In 1934 Mohammed Ali Jinnah became the president of All India Muslim League a move
which caused much displeasure to Fazlul Huq. Jinnah was a strong minded controversial figure
who believed in the two nations of Hindus and Muslims which was in contrast to Fazlul Huqs
communal thinking.

Fazlul Huq founded the Krishak Praja Party (KPP) in 1935 in retaliation with the objectives of
the restoration of peasant rights, relieving the peasants of the oppressions of moneylenders and
Zamindars, and making Raiyats proprietors of land by abolishing the Zamindari system. The
KPP won the Bengal election in 1937 by beating the All India Muslim Leagues representative
Khwaja Nazimuddin, but were forced to make a coalition with them as, to Fazlul Huqs dissmay,
the India Congress Party declined to work alongside the KPP.

On April 1, 1937, as the leader of the Huq-League Coalition Party, Fazlul Huq was installed as
the Chief Minister of the Government of Bengal. This party also had ten other influential figures
five Hindus five Muslims including Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy (commerce and labour)
whose diverse views were crafted and held together by the leadership skill of the charismatic
Fazlul Huq who enjoyed the confidence of both the communities.

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He resigned from the party in December 1941 and became the focal point of attack for Jinnahs
Muslim League who accused him of being anti-Islamic.

The battle between Jinnah and Fazlul Huq intensified over the years and Fazlul Huq retired from
politics in 1958 but not after helping the neediest the farmers.

Fighting for the poor:

The greatest contribution of Sher-e-Bangla for the economic emancipation of the poor peasants
of East bengal/East Pakistan, now Bangladesh was the formation of the Rin Salishi (Debt
Review) Board, which helped numerous peasants to get their lands back from the ravenous
usurers. To free the peasants from the exploitation of the usurers, he founded nearly 11,000 such
boards around the country.

He also introduced new laws (Bengali Shop Worker bill) to protect the poor shop (retail) workers
ensuring better employment conditions and holiday pay.

Father of Bengali education:

Sher-e-Bangla founded several educational and technical institutions for the Bengali Muslims,
including:

Adina Fazlul Huq College in Rajshahi

Eliot Hostel

Tyler Hostel

Medical College Hostel

Engineering College Hostel

Muslim Institute Building

Dhaka Eden Girls College Building

Fazlul Huq College at Chakhar

Fazlul Huq Hall (Dhaka University)

136
 Tejgaon Agriculture College (Now Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University(SAU) is the
oldest agricultural institution in Bangladesh and South Asia, situated in Sher-e-Bangla
Nagar,Dhaka. It was established on December 11, 1938 as Bengal Agricultural Institute
(BAI) and later upgraded to university in 2001 renaming Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural
University.

Bulbul Music Academy

Central Womens College

Sher-e-Bangla also had significant contribution for founding the leading University in
Bangladesh Dhaka University

During Fazlul Huqs premiership as the Chief Minister, Bangla Academy was founded and
Bengali New Years (Pohela Baishakh) was declared as a public holiday. Throughout
Bangladesh, various educational institutions (e.g. Barisal Sher-e-Bangla Medical College), roads,
neighborhoods (Sher-e-Bangla Nagor), and stadiums (Sher-e-Bangla Mirpur Stadium) Sher e
Bangla Adricultural University (SAU) Dhaka, have been named after him. This depicts the
respect of the people for Sher-e-Bangla AK Fazlul Huq.

Campaigned for Bangladeshs rights:

He soon got involved with Bengali Language Movement. Mr. Huq was injured with many people
by the police lathi charged on the demonstrating students. On 27 July 1953, Shere-e-Bangla
founded the Sramik-Krishak Dal. Fazlul Huq along with Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhasani
and Suhrawardy formed the United Front to contest the election of 1954, in which they had a
landslide victory. After holding various posts he retired from active politics in 1961.

Political career:

After alienation from the Congress party where he served as its General Secretary in 1916-1918,
it was up to the Muslims to nominate a mayor in Calcutta. It was in 1935 that, with the Congress
support, he was chosen and elected the first Muslim Mayor of Calcutta. Afterward he became the
Chief Minister (also called Premier) of undivided Bengal (19371943) when the Midnapore,
Bengal Famine took place, and of East Bengal (1954) with his political party, the Krishak Praja
Party. In 1955 he was the Home Minister of Pakistan and from 1956-1958 he was the Governor
of East Pakistan. He drafted and moved the Lahore Resolution of 1940 that established Muslim
Leagues demand for a homeland for Muslims that ultimately resulted in the nation of Pakistan.
He was buried in Dhaka.

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When Sher-e-Bangla was born in 1873, Bengal lay prostrate at the feet of the British, groaning
from the wounds inflicted upon it. The Great Mutiny of 1857 had been ruthlessly quelled and the
ancient ruling classes had either been wiped out or lay cringing in the dust. The poor and helpless
people of Bengal were so hungry, ragged and unhappy that they thought with their stomach, saw
with their nakedness and felt with their misery.

The Tiger of Bengal genuinely believed that he was one of them and that he was for them. He
was driven by a mission to serve, to improve and uplift the toiling masses. He inspired them to
go forward, to take their lives in their hands, fully and joyfully as he himself did. And the
hundreds and thousands of hapless and downtrodden have-nots, who stood in awe of the mighty,
very easily gave their heart to this person who renounced personal advantages and dedicated
himself of the general welfare. It is true some differed with him, but all respected his sincerity,
his wisdom, his kindness for the toiling masses and his passion for truth and justice.

No one who knew Sher-e-Bangla A.K. Fazlul Huq would attempt to describe him in a nutshell.
He was many-sided, complex, full of conflicting enthusiasms and burdened by many sorrows.
Yet, there has seldom been a public hero who was more open with his problems and his thoughts,
in private letters and public prints, in speeches and conversations with friends and colleagues. He
always seemed to talk fully and freely, to say just what he thought and felt, to make every effort
to see that his listeners understood his viewpoint, regardless of what they might think of its
merits.

Some remember the mastery of language, the gift of oratory that placed him in a class with
Edmund Burke and Winston Churchill. Some remember that he was human and humane, a fully
developed person who responded so keenly to the joy of life as he did to the cry of human
distress. Some remember that he was a lover of people, a lover whose loyalty was pledged to all
mankind. Some remember that all his life he pleaded and strove for social justice, for the right of
the lowly to dignity, of the poor to material well-being, of the citizen of self-government, of the
ignorant to knowledge, of the child to unfettered development, of the chained Bengalees to
consciousness and freedom.

Some remember how he truly loved problems, and with an exuberant confidence that few
politicians could match he thought that he could solve some of them, though not single-handedly.
He delighted in leading and managing and inspiring people, all kinds of people, people in every
walk of life, in every domain of thought. As he could persuade, he could also be persuaded. He
had respect for others points if he was persuaded that he had been wrong. Tolerance and
sympathy were elements of his character, and that character gained him the affection and esteem
of millions of his countrymen. But let none forget even for a moment the single quality that made
him unique, the quality that made him powerful, the quality that endeared him to the common
masses: the qualities of head and heart, the quality of character. His greatness derived not from
his office, but from his character, from a unique moral force that transcended national

138
boundaries, even as his deep concern for humanity transcended international boundaries.
Some remember the mastery of language, the gift of oratory that placed him in a class with
Edmund Burke and Winston Churchill. Some remember that he was human and humane, a fully
developed man who responded so keenly to the joy of life as he did to the cry of human distress.
Some remember that he was a lover of people, a lover whose loyalty was pledged to all mankind.
Some remember that all his life he pleaded and strove for social justice, for the right of the lowly
to dignity, of the poor to material well-being, of the citizen to self-government, of the ignorant to
knowledge, of the child to unfettered development, of the chained Bengalees to consciousness
and freedom. Some remember how he truly loved problems, and with an exuberant confidence
that few politicians could match he thought that he could solve some of them.

He delighted in leading and managing and inspiring people, all kinds of people, people in every
walk of life, in every domain of thought. As he could persuade, he could also be persuaded. His
respect for others points of view lent weight to his own point of view. He was never afraid to
change his position if he was persuaded that he had been wrong. Tolerance and sympathy were
elements of his character and that character gained him the affection and esteem of millions of
his countrymen.

But let none forget even for a moment the single quality that made him unique, the quality that
made him powerful, the quality that endeared him to the common masses, the qualities of head
and heart and the quality of character. His greatness derived not from his office, but from his
character, from a unique moral force that transcended national boundaries, even as his deep
concern for humanity transcended international boundaries.

23rd March resolution day is celebrated in memory of the historic event, when the demand for a
separate homeland for the Muslims of the subcontinent was passed by Sher-E-Bangla A.K
Fazlul-Haq, thus paving the way for the Pakistan movement which ultimately led to the
independence of East & West Pakistan in the Indo-Pak subcontinent

Janazah (funeral prayer) attended by over half a million:

His dead body was kept at his 27 K. M. Das Lane residence at Tikatuli till 10:30 am of 28 April
on a customized ice-bed. Then his Salat al-Janazah prayer was held at the Paltan Maidan. The
funeral of this popular leader drew a crowd of over half a million. All educational institutions of
Pakistan were declared closed on 30 April to pay tribute to him. All important officials of
Pakistan attended his Janazah. In the words of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto He was a man of action,
tact and kindness. A true Muslim, a proud Bengali, a patriotic Pakistani and a committed
Socialist, Abu al-Kazem Haq, Inna Lillahi wa Inna Ilayhi Rajioon Sher-e-Bangla was buried in
Dhaka. His tomb is situated at the southern end of the Kazi Nazrul Islam Avenue, to the west of
the Shishu Academy. In his historical book Understanding the Muslim Mind Gandhi (2000),
concluded his account of Fazlul Huq with the following comment: He who in 1943 had wanted

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to see Nazimuddin and Suhrawardy bite the dust now shares the same stretch of earth with
them. All three are buried, side by side, in the grounds of the Dhaka High Court. For a while,
the two of them were called Prime Minister of Pakistan. Fazlul Huq was not. But only he was
spoken of as the Royal Bengal Tiger.

Sher-e-Bangla, the beloved Tiger of Bengal, is a part of history now he has shaded himself, in
the words of Omar Khayyam, with yesterdays seven thousand years. Once again we observe
today the death anniversary of the Doyen of Bengal, once again the whole nation salutes the
great personality, a fond salute to a man whose extraordinary life was dedicated to service, a
profound respectful salute to a man larger than life who by any standard was one of the giants of
all times. The beautiful eulogy of John Maid stone aptly applies to him: A larger soul hath
seldom dwelt in a house of clay.

Sher-e-Bangla A K Fazlul Haque was vocal till the last day of his life to realize the rights of
countrys people. Hell ever be remembered in the history for his strong role in the anti-British
Movement and half-a-century struggle for economic freedom of the peasants of this country. It
was because of him that the Bengali peasants were freed from feudal exploitation. His love for
the poor and underprivileged and hoped it would inspire people of this country for years to come.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah

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 Mahomedali Jinnahbhai
Born: 25 December 1876
Karachi, British India

11 September 1948 (aged 71)

Died: Karachi, Federal Capital Territory,
Dominion of Pakistan[1]

Lawyer
Profession
Politician

Background
Jinnah's given name at birth was Mahomedali Jinnahbhai, and was born most likely in 1876, to
Jinnahbhai Poonja and his wife Mithibai, in a rented apartment on the second floor of Wazir
Mansion, Karachi[7] now in Sind, Pakistan, but then within the Bombay Presidency of British
India. Jinnah's family was from a Gujarati, Khoja (Shia) Ismaili background, though Jinnah later
followed the Twelver Shi'a teachings. Jinnah was from a middle-income background, his father
was a merchant and was born to a family of weavers in the village of Paneli in the princely state
of Gondal (Kathiawar, Gujarat); his mother was also of that village. They had moved to Karachi

141
in 1875, having married before their departure. Karachi was then enjoying an economic boom:
the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 meant it was 200 nautical miles closer to Europe for
shipping than Bombay Jinnah was the second child; he had three brothers and three sisters,
including his younger sister Fatima Jinnah. The parents were native Gujarati speakers, and the
children also came to speak Kutchi and English. Except for Fatima, little is known of his
siblings, where they settled or if they met with their brother as he advanced in his legal and
political careers.

As a boy, Jinnah lived for a time in Bombay with an aunt and may have attended the Gokal Das
Tej Primary School there, later on studying at the Cathedral and John Connon School. In
Karachi, he attended the Sindh-Madrasa-tul-Islam and the Christian Missionary Society High
School. He gained his matriculation from Bombay University at the high school. In his later
years and especially after his death, a large number of stories about the boyhood of Pakistan's
founder were circulated: that he spent all his spare time at the police court, listening to the
proceedings, and that he studied his books by the glow of street lights for lack of other
illumination. His official biographer, Hector Bolitho, writing in 1954, interviewed surviving
boyhood associates, and obtained a tale that the young Jinnah discouraged other children from
playing marbles in the dust, urging them to rise up, keep their hands and clothes clean, and play
cricket instead.

in 1892, Sir Frederick Leigh Croft, a business associate of Jinnahbhai Poonja, offered young
Jinnah a London apprenticeship with his firm, Graham's Shipping and Trading Company. He
accepted the position despite the opposition of his mother, who before he left, had him enter an
arranged marriage with his cousin, two years his junior from the ancestral village of Paneli,
Emibai Jinnah. Jinnah's mother and first wife both died during his absence in England. Although
the apprenticeship in London was considered a great opportunity for Jinnah, one reason for
sending him overseas was a legal proceeding against his father, which placed the family's
property at risk of being sequestered by the court. In 1893, the Jinnahbhai family moved to
Bombay.

Soon after his arrival in London, Jinnah gave up the apprenticeship in order to study law,
enraging his father, who had, before his departure, given him enough money to live for three
years. The aspiring barrister joined Lincoln's Inn, later stating that the reason he chose Lincoln's
over the other Inns of Court was that over the main entrance to Lincoln's Inn were the names of
the world's great lawgivers, including Muhammad. Jinnah's biographer Stanley Wolpert notes
that there is no such inscription, but instead inside is a mural showing Muhammad and other
lawgivers, and speculates that Jinnah may have edited the story in his own mind to avoid
mentioning a pictorial depiction which would be offensive to many Muslims. [23] Jinnah's legal
education followed the pupilage (legal apprenticeship) system, which had been in force there for
centuries. To gain knowledge of the law, he followed an established barrister and learned from

142
what he did, as well as from studying law books. During this period, he shortened his name to
Muhammad Ali Jinnah.

During his student years in England, Jinnah was influenced by 19th-century British liberalism,
like many other future Indian independence leaders. This political education included exposure
to the idea of the democratic nation, and progressive politics. He became an admirer of the Parsi
Indian political leaders Dadabhai Naoroji and Sir Pherozeshah Mehta. Naoroji had become the
first British Member of Parliament of Indian extraction shortly before Jinnah's arrival,
triumphing with a majority of three votes in Finsbury Central. Jinnah listened to Naoroji's
maiden speech in the House of Commons from the visitor's gallery.

The Western world not only inspired Jinnah in his political life, but also greatly influenced his
personal preferences, particularly when it came to dress. Jinnah abandoned Indian garb for
Western-style clothing, and throughout his life he was always impeccably dressed in public. He
came to own over 200 suits, which he wore with heavily starched shirts with detachable collars,
and as a barrister took pride in never wearing the same silk tie twice. Even when he was dying,
he insisted on being formally dressed, "I will not travel in my pyjamas. In his later years he was
usually seen wearing a Karakul hat which subsequently came to be known as the "Jinnah cap"

Dissatisfied with the law, Jinnah briefly embarked on a stage career with a Shakespearean
company, but resigned after receiving a stern letter from his father. In 1895, at age 19, he became
the youngest Indian to be called to the bar in England. Although he returned to Karachi, he
remained there only a short time before moving to Bombay.

Legal and early political career

At the age of 20, Jinnah began his practice in Bombay, the only Muslim barrister in the city.
English had become his principal language and would remain so throughout his life. His first
three years in the law, from 1897 to 1900, brought him few briefs. His first step towards a
brighter career occurred when the acting Advocate General of Bombay, John Molesworth
MacPherson, invited Jinnah to work from his chambers. In 1900, P. H. Dastoor, a Bombay
presidency magistrate, left the post temporarily and Jinnah succeeded in getting the interim
position. After his six-month appointment period, Jinnah was offered a permanent position on a
1,500 rupee per month salary. Jinnah politely declined the offer, stating that he planned to earn
1,500 rupees a daya huge sum at that timewhich he eventually did. Nevertheless, as
Governor-General of Pakistan, he would refuse to accept a large salary, fixing it at 1 rupee per
month.

As a lawyer, Jinnah gained fame for his skilled handling of the 1907 "Caucus Case". This
controversy arose out of Bombay municipal elections, which Indians alleged were rigged by a
"caucus" of Europeans to keep Sir Pherozeshah Mehta out of the council. Jinnah gained great
esteem from leading the case for Sir Pherozeshah, himself a noted barrister. Although Jinnah did

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not win the Caucus Case, he posted a successful record, becoming well known for his advocacy
and legal logic. In 1908, his factional foe in the Indian National Congress, Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
was arrested for sedition. Before Tilak unsuccessfully represented himself at trial, he engaged
Jinnah in an attempt to secure his release on bail. Jinnah did not succeed, but obtained an
acquittal for Tilak when he was charged with sedition again in 1916.

One of Jinnah's fellow barristers from the Bombay High Court remembered that "Jinnah's faith in
him was incredible"; he recalled that on being admonished by a judge with "Mr. Jinnah,
remember that you are not addressing a third-class magistrate", Jinnah shot back, "My Lord,
allow me to warn you that you are not addressing a third-class pleader. Another of his fellow
barristers described him, saying:

He was what God made him, a great pleader. He had a sixth sense: he could see around corners.
That is where his talents lay ... he was a very clear thinker ... But he drove his points home
points chosen with exquisite selectionslow delivery, word by word.

Rising leader
In 1857, many Indians had risen in revolt against British rule. In the aftermath of the conflict,
some Anglo-Indians, as well as Indians in Britain, called for greater self-government for the
subcontinent, resulting in the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885. Most founding
members had been educated in Britain, and were content with the minimal reform efforts being
made by the government. Muslims were not enthusiastic about calls for democratic institutions in
British India, as they constituted a quarter to a third of the population, outnumbered by the
Hindus. Early meetings of the Congress contained a minority of Muslims, mostly from the elite.

Jinnah devoted much of his time to his law practice in the early 1920s, but remained politically
involved. Jinnah began political life by attending the Congress's twentieth annual meeting, in
Bombay in December 1904. He was a member of the moderate group in the Congress, favoring
HinduMuslim unity in achieving self-government, and following such leaders as Mehta,
Naoroji, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale. They were opposed by leaders such as Tilak and Lala
Lajpat Rai, who sought quick action towards freedom. In 1906, a delegation of Muslim leaders
headed by the Aga Khan called on the new Viceroy of India, Lord Minto, to assure him of their
loyalty and to ask for assurances that in any political reforms they would be protected from the
"unsympathetic [Hindu] majority". Dissatisfied with this, Jinnah wrote a letter to the editor of the
newspaper Gujarati, asking what right the members of the delegation had to speak for Indian
Muslims, as they were unelected and self-appointed.[45] When many of the same leaders met in
Dacca in December of that year to form the All-India Muslim League to advocate for their
community's interests, Jinnah was again opposed. The Aga Khan later wrote that it was
"freakishly ironic" that Jinnah, who would lead the League to independence, "came out in bitter
hostility toward all that I and my friends had done ... He said that our principle of separate
electorates was dividing the nation against itself. In its earliest years, however, the League was

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not influential; Minto refused to consider it as the Muslim community's representative, and it was
ineffective in preventing the 1911 repeal of the partition of Bengal, an action seen as a blow to
Muslim interests.

Although Jinnah initially opposed separate electorates for Muslims, he used this means to gain
his first elective office in 1909, as Bombay's Muslim representative on the Imperial Legislative
Council. He was a compromise candidate when two older, better-known Muslims who were
seeking the post deadlocked. The council, which had been expanded to 60 members as part of
reforms enacted by Minto, recommended legislation to the Viceroy. Only officials could vote in
the council; non-official members, such as Jinnah, had no vote. Throughout his legal career,
Jinnah practised probate law (with many clients from India's nobility), and in 1911 introduced
the Wakf Validation Act to place Muslim religious trusts on a sound legal footing under British
Indian law. Two years later, the measure passed, the first act sponsored by non-officials to pass
the council and be enacted by the Viceroy. Jinnah was also appointed to a committee which
helped to establish the Indian Military Academy in Dehra Dun.

In December 1912, Jinnah addressed the annual meeting of the Muslim League, although he was
not yet a member. He joined the following year, although he remained a member of the Congress
as well and stressed that League membership took second priority to the "greater national cause"
of a free India. In April 1913, he again went to Britain, with Gokhale, to meet with officials on
behalf of the Congress. Gokhale, a Hindu, later stated that Jinnah "has true stuff in him, and that
freedom from all sectarian prejudice which will make him the best ambassador of Hindu
Muslim Unity". Jinnah led another delegation of the Congress to London in 1914, but due to the
start of the First World War found officials little interested in Indian reforms. By coincidence, he
was in Britain at the same time as a man who would become a great political rival of his,
Mohandas Gandhi, a Hindu lawyer who had become well known for advocating satyagraha,
non-violent non-cooperation, while in South Africa. Jinnah attended a reception for Gandhi, and
returned home to India in January 1915.

Break from the Congress

Jinnah's moderate faction in the Congress was undermined by the deaths of Mehta and Gokhale
in 1915; he was further isolated by the fact that Naoroji was in London, where he remained until
his death in 1917. Nevertheless, Jinnah worked to bring the Congress and League together. In
1916, with Jinnah now president of the Muslim League, the two organizations signed the Luck
now Pact, setting quotas for Muslim and Hindu representation in the various provinces. Although
the pact was never fully implemented, its signing ushered in a period of cooperation between the
Congress and the League.

During the war, Jinnah joined other Indian moderates in supporting the British war effort, hoping
that Indians would be rewarded with political freedoms. Jinnah played an important role in the
founding of the All India Home Rule League in 1916. Along with political leaders Annie Besant

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and Tilak, Jinnah demanded "home rule" for Indiathe status of a self-governing dominion in
the Empire similar to Canada, New Zealand and Australia, although, with the war, Britain's
politicians were not interested in considering Indian constitutional reform. British Cabinet
minister Edwin Montagu recalled Jinnah in his memoirs, "young, perfectly mannered,
impressive-looking, armed to the teeth with dialectics, and insistent on the whole of his scheme".

In 1918, Jinnah married his second wife Rattanbai Petit ("Ruttie"), 24 years his junior. She was
the fashionable young daughter of his friend Sir Dinshaw Petit, and was part of two of the elite
Parsi families of India, the Petit baronets and the Tata family. There was great opposition to the
marriage from Rattanbai's family and the Parsi community, as well as from some Muslim
religious leaders. Rattanbai defied her family and nominally converted to Islam, adopting
(though never using) the name Maryam Jinnah, resulting in a permanent estrangement from her
family and Parsi society. The couple resided at South Court Mansion in Bombay, and frequently
travelled across India and Europe. The couple's only child, daughter Dina, was born on 15
August 1919. The couple separated prior to Ruttie's death in 1929, and subsequently Jinnah's
sister Fatima looked after him and his child.

Relations between Indians and British were strained in 1919 when the Imperial Legislative
Council extended emergency wartime restrictions on civil liberties; Jinnah resigned from it when
it did. There was unrest across India, which worsened after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in
Amritsar, in which British troops fired upon a protest meeting, killing hundreds. In the wake of
Amritsar, Gandhi, who had returned to India and become a widely respected leader and highly
influential in the Congress, called for satyagraha against the British. Gandhi's proposal gained
broad Hindu support, and was also attractive to many Muslims of the Khilafat faction. These
Muslims, supported by Gandhi, sought retention of the Ottoman caliphate, which supplied
spiritual leadership to many Muslims. The caliph was the Ottoman Emperor, who would be
deprived of both offices following his nation's defeat in the First World War. Gandhi had
achieved considerable popularity among Muslims because of his work during the war on behalf
of killed or imprisoned Muslims. Unlike Jinnah and other leaders of the Congress, Gandhi did
not wear western-style clothing, did his best to use an Indian language instead of English, and
was deeply rooted in Indian culture. Gandhi's local style of leadership gained great popularity
with the Indian people. Jinnah criticised Gandhi's Khilafat advocacy, which he saw as an
endorsement of religious zealotry. Jinnah regarded Gandhi's proposed satyagraha campaign as
political anarchy, and believed that self-government should be secured through constitutional
means. He opposed Gandhi, but the tide of Indian opinion was against him. At the 1920 session
of the Congress in Nagpur, Jinnah was shouted down by the delegates, who passed Gandhi's
proposal, pledging satyagraha until India was free. Jinnah did not attend the subsequent League
meeting, held in the same city, which passed a similar resolution. Because of the action of the
Congress in endorsing Gandhi's campaign, Jinnah resigned from it, leaving all positions except
in the Muslim League.

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Wilderness years; interlude in England
The alliance between Gandhi and the Khilafat faction did not last long, and the campaign of
resistance proved less effective than hoped, as India's institutions continued to function. Jinnah
sought alternative political ideas, and contemplated organizing a new political party as a rival to
the Congress. In September 1923, Jinnah was elected as Muslim member for Bombay in the new
Central Legislative Assembly. He showed much skill as a parliamentarian, organizing many
Indian members to work with the Swaraj Party, and continued to press demands for full
responsible government. In 1925, as recognition for his legislative activities, he was offered a
knighthood by Lord Reading, who was retiring from the Viceroyalty. He replied: "I prefer to be
plain Mr. Jinnah.

In 1927, the British Government, under Conservative Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin,
undertook a decennial review of Indian policy mandated by the Government of India Act 1919.
The review began two years early as Baldwin feared he would lose the next election (which he
did, in 1929). The Cabinet was influenced by Minister Winston, who strongly opposed self-
government for India, and members hoped that by having the commission appointed early, the
policies for India which they favored would survive their government. The resulting commission,
led by Liberal MP John Simon, though with a majority of Conservatives, arrived in India in
March 1928. They were met with a boycott by India's leaders, Muslim and Hindu alike, angered
at the British refusal to include their representatives on the commission. A minority of Muslims,
though, withdrew from the League, choosing to welcome the Simon Commission and
repudiating Jinnah. Most members of the League's executive council remained loyal to Jinnah,
attending the League meeting in December 1927 and January 1928 which confirmed him as the
League's permanent president. At that session, Jinnah told the delegates that "A constitutional
war has been declared on Great Britain. Negotiations for a settlement are not to come from our
side ... By appointing an exclusively white Commission; [Secretary of State for India] Lord
Birkenhead has declared our unfitness for self-government.

Birkenhead in 1928 challenged Indians to come up with their own proposal for constitutional
change for India; in response, the Congress convened a committee under the leadership of
Motilal Nehru. The Nehru Report favored constituencies based on geography on the ground that
being dependent on each other for election would bind the communities closer together. Jinnah,
though he believed separate electorates, based on religion, necessary to ensure Muslims had a
voice in the government, was willing to compromise on this point, but talks between the two
parties failed. He put forth proposals that he hoped might satisfy a broad range of Muslims and
reunite the League, calling for mandatory representation for Muslims in legislatures and cabinets.
These became known as his Fourteen Points. He could not secure adoption of the Fourteen
Points, as the League meeting in Delhi at which he hoped to gain a vote instead dissolved into
chaotic argument.

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After Baldwin was defeated at the 1929 British parliamentary election, Ramsay MacDonald of
the Labor Party became prime minister. MacDonald desired a conference of Indian and British
leaders in London to discuss India's future, a course of action supported by Jinnah. Three Round
Table Conferences followed over as many years, none of which resulted in a settlement. Jinnah
was a delegate to the first two conferences, but was not invited to the last. He remained in Britain
for most of the period 1930 through 1934, practicing as a barrister before the Privy Council,
where he dealt with a number of Indian-related cases. His biographers disagree over why he
remained so long in BritainWolpert asserts that had Jinnah been made a Law Lord, he would
have stayed for life, and that Jinnah alternatively sought a parliamentary seat. Early biographer
Hector Bolitho denied that Jinnah sought to enter the British Parliament, while Jaswant Singh
deems Jinnah's time in Britain as a break or sabbatical from the Indian struggle. Bolitho called
this period "Jinnah's years of order and contemplation, wedged in between the time of early
struggle, and the final storm of conquest.

In 1931, Fatima Jinnah joined her brother in England. From then on, Muhammad Jinnah would
receive personal care and support from her as he aged and began to suffer from the lung ailments
which would kill him. She lived and travelled with him, and became a close advisor. Muhammad
Jinnah's daughter, Dina, was educated in England and India. Jinnah later became estranged from
Dina after she decided to marry a Christian, Neville Wadia from a prominent Parsi business
family. When Jinnah urged Dina to marry a Muslim, she reminded him that he had married a
woman not raised in his faith. Jinnah continued to correspond cordially with his daughter, but
their personal relationship was strained, and she did not come to Pakistan in his lifetime, but only
for his funeral.

Iqbal's influence on Jinnah

The well documented influence of Muhammad Iqbal on Jinnah, with regards to taking the lead in
creating Pakistan, has been described as "significant", "powerful" and even "unquestionable" by
scholars. He's also cited as an influential force in convincing Jinnah to end his self-imposed exile
in London and re-enter the politics of India. Initially, however, Iqbal and Jinnah were opponents,
as Iqbal believed Jinnah was aloof from the crises facing the Muslim community in India.
According to Akbar S. Ahmed, this began to change in Iqbal's last days, before his death in 1938.
Iqbal gradually succeeded in converting Jinnah over to his view, who eventually accepted Iqbal
as his "mentor". Ahmed comments that in his notes to Iqbal's letters, Jinnah expressed unanimity
with Iqbal's views: That Muslims required a separate homeland.

Iqbal's influence also brought about a deeper appreciation for Muslim identity within Jinnah.
Ahmed states that this unanimity Jinnah expressed with Iqbal did not only extend to his politics
but his general convictions. The evidence of this influence began to be revealed from 1937
onwards. Jinnah began to echo Iqbal in his speeches, he started using Islamic symbolism and
speaking to the underprivileged. According to Ahmed, "something had clearly changed" in
Jinnah's words and deeds. While Jinnah still advocated freedom of religion and protection of the

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minorities, the model he was now aspiring to was that of the Prophet Muhammad. Ahmed further
claims that those scholars who have painted a secular picture of Jinnah have misread his
speeches which, he argues, must be read in the context of Islamic History and culture. As such,
the homeland Jinnah asked for following his "conversion" was of an "unequivocal Islamic
nature." This change has been seen to last for the rest of Jinnah's life, who continued to
frequently borrow ideas "directly from Iqbal- including his thoughts on Muslim unity, on Islamic
ideals of liberty, justice and equality, on economics, and even on practices such as prayers.

In a public speech in 1940 following the death of Iqbal, Jinnah expressed his preference for
implementing Iqbal's vision even at the expense of becoming a ruler. He stated: "If I live to see
the ideal of a Muslim state being achieved in India, and I was then offered to make a choice
between the works of Iqbal and the ruler ship of the Muslim state, I would prefer the former."

Return to politics
In 1933, Indian Muslims, especially from the United Provinces, began to urge Jinnah to return to
India and take up again his leadership of the Muslim League, an organization which had fallen
into inactivity. He remained titular president of the League, [c] but declined to travel to India to
preside over its 1933 session in April, writing that he could not possibly return there until the end
of the year.

Among those who met with Jinnah to seek his return was Liaquat Ali Khan, who would be a
major political associate of Jinnah in the years to come and the first Prime Minister of Pakistan.
At Jinnah's request, Liaquat discussed the return with a large number of Muslim politicians and
confirmed his recommendation to Jinnah. In early 1934, Jinnah relocated to the subcontinent,
though he shuttled between London and India on business for the next few years, selling his
house in Hampstead and closing his legal practice in Britain.

Muslims of Bombay elected Jinnah, though then absent in London, as their representative to the
Central Legislative Assembly in October 1934. The British Parliament's Government of India
Act 1935 gave considerable power to India's provinces, with a weak central parliament in New
Delhi, which had no authority over such matters as foreign policy, defense, and much of the
budget. Full power remained in the hands of the Viceroy, however, which could dissolve
legislatures and rule by decree. The League reluctantly accepted the scheme, though expressing
reservations about the weak parliament. The Congress was much better prepared for the
provincial elections in 1937, and the League failed to win a majority even of the Muslim seats in
any of the provinces where members of that faith held a majority. It did win a majority of the
Muslim seats in Delhi, but could not form a government anywhere, though it was part of the
ruling coalition in Bengal. The Congress and its allies formed the government even in the North-
West Frontier Province (N.W.F.P.), where the League won no seats despite the fact that almost all
residents were Muslim.

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According to Singh, "the events of 1937 had a tremendous, almost a traumatic effect upon
Jinnah. Despite his beliefs of twenty years that Muslims could protect their rights in a united
India through separate electorates, provincial boundaries drawn to preserve Muslim majorities,
and by other protections of minority rights, Muslim voters had failed to unite, with the issues
Jinnah hoped to bring forward lost amid factional fighting. Singh notes the effect of the 1937
elections on Muslim political opinion, "when the Congress formed a government with almost all
of the Muslim MLAs sitting on the Opposition benches, non-Congress Muslims were suddenly
faced with this stark reality of near-total political powerlessness. It was brought home to them,
like a bolt of lightning, that even if the Congress did not win a single Muslim seat ... as long as it
won an absolute majority in the House, on the strength of the general seats, it could and would
form a government entirely on its own.

In the next two years, Jinnah worked to build support among Muslims for the League. He
secured the right to speak for the Muslim-led Bengali and Punjabi provincial governments in the
central government in New Delhi ("the centre"). He worked to expand the League, reducing the
cost of membership to two annas ( of a rupee), half of what it cost to join the Congress. He
restructured the League along the lines of the Congress, putting most power in a Working
Committee, which he appointed. By December 1939, Liaquat estimated that the League had
three million two-anna members.

Struggle for Pakistan

Until the late 1930s, most Muslims of the British Raj expected, upon independence, to be part of
a unitary state encompassing all of British India, as did the Hindus and others who advocated
self-government. Despite this, other nationalist proposals were being made. In a speech given at
Allahabad to a League session in 1930, Sir Muhammad Iqbal called for a state for Muslims in
India. Choudhary Rahmat Ali published a pamphlet in 1933 advocating a state "Pakistan" in the
Indus Valley, with other names given to Muslim-majority areas elsewhere in India. Jinnah and
Iqbal corresponded in 1936 and 1937; in subsequent years, Jinnah credited Iqbal as his mentor,
and used Iqbal's imagery and rhetoric in his speeches.

Although many leaders of the Congress sought a strong central government for an Indian state,
some Muslim politicians, including Jinnah, were unwilling to accept this without powerful
protections for their community. Other Muslims supported the Congress, which officially
advocated a secular state upon independence, though the traditionalist wing (including politicians
such as Madan Mohan Malaviya and Vallabhbhai Patel) believed that an independent India
should enact laws such as banning the killing of cows and making Hindi a national language. The
failure of the Congress leadership to disavow Hindu communalists worried Congress-supporting
Muslims. Nevertheless, the Congress enjoyed considerable Muslim support up to about 1937.

Events which separated the communities included the failed attempt to form a coalition
government including the Congress and the League in the United Provinces following the 1937

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election. According to historian Ian Talbot, "The provincial Congress governments made no
effort to understand and respect their Muslim populations' cultural and religious sensibilities. The
Muslim League's claims that it alone could safeguard Muslim interests thus received a major
boost. Significantly it was only after this period of Congress rule that it [the League] took up the
demand for a Pakistan state

Balraj Puri in his journal article about Jinnah suggests that the Muslim League president, after
the 1937 vote, turned to the idea of partition in "sheer desperation".Historian Akbar S. Ahmed
suggests that Jinnah abandoned hope of reconciliation with the Congress as he "rediscover his
own [Islamic] roots, his own sense of identity, of culture and history, which would come
increasingly to the fore in the final years of his life. Jinnah also increasingly adopted Muslim
dress in the late 1930s. In the wake of the 1937 balloting, Jinnah demanded that the question of
power sharing be settled on an all-India basis, and that he, as president of the League, be
accepted as the sole spokesman for the Muslim community.

Second World War and Lahore Resolution

On 3 September 1939, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain announced the
commencement of war with Nazi Germany. The following day, the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow,
without consulting Indian political leaders, announced that India had entered the war along with
Britain. There were widespread protests in India. After meeting with Jinnah and with Gandhi,
Linlithgow announced that negotiations on self-government were suspended for the duration of
the war.[118] The Congress on 14 September demanded immediate independence with a
constituent assembly to decide a constitution; when this was refused, its eight provincial
governments resigned on 10 November and governors in those provinces thereafter ruled by
decree for the remainder of the war. Jinnah, on the other hand, was more willing to accommodate
the British, and they in turn increasingly recognized him and the League as the representatives of
India's Muslims. Jinnah later stated, "after the war began, I was treated on the same basis as Mr.
Gandhi. I was wonderstruck why I was promoted and given a place side by side with Mr.
Gandhi." Although the League did not actively support the British war effort, neither did they try
to obstruct it.

With the British and Muslims to some extent cooperating, the Viceroy asked Jinnah for an
expression of the Muslim League's position on self-government, confident that it would differ
greatly from that of the Congress. To come up with such a position, the League's Working
Committee met for four days in February 1940 to set out terms of reference to a constitutional
sub-committee. The Working Committee asked that the sub-committee return with a proposal
that would result in "independent dominions in direct relationship with Great Britain" where
Muslims were dominant. On 6 February, Jinnah informed the Viceroy that the Muslim League
would be demanding partition instead of the federation contemplated in the 1935 Act. The
Lahore Resolution (sometimes called the "Pakistan Resolution", although it does not contain that
name), based on the sub-committee's work, embraced the Two-Nation Theory and called for a

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union of the Muslim-majority provinces in the northwest of British India, with complete
autonomy. Similar rights were to grant the Muslim-majority areas in the east, and unspecified
protections given to Muslim minorities in other provinces. The resolution was passed by the
League session in Lahore on 23 March 1940.

Jinnah makes a speech in New Delhi, 1943

Gandhi's reaction to the Lahore Resolution was muted; he called it "baffling", but told his
disciples that Muslims, in common with other people of India, had the right to self-
determination. Leaders of the Congress were more vocal; Jawaharlal Nehru referred to Lahore as
"Jinnah's fantastic proposals" while Chakravarti Rajagopalachari deemed Jinnah's views on
partition "a sign of a diseased mentality". Linlithgow met with Jinnah in June 1940, soon after
Winston Churchill became the British prime minister, and in August offered both the Congress
and the League a deal whereby in exchange for full support for the war, Linlithgow would allow
Indian representation on his major war councils. The Viceroy promised a representative body
after the war to determine India's future, and that no future settlement would be imposed over the
objections of a large part of the population. This was satisfactory to neither the Congress nor the
League, though Jinnah was pleased that the British had moved towards recognizing Jinnah as the
representative of the Muslim community's interests. Jinnah was reluctant to make specific
proposals as to the boundaries of Pakistan, or its relationships with Britain and with the rest of
the subcontinent, fearing that any precise plan would divide the League.

The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 brought the United States into the war.
In the following months, the Japanese advanced in Southeast Asia, and the British Cabinet sent a
mission led by Sir Stafford Cripps to try to conciliate the Indians and cause them to fully back
the war. Cripps proposed giving some provinces what was dubbed the "local option" to remain
outside of an Indian central government either for a period of time or permanently, to become
dominions on their own or be part of another confederation. The Muslim League was far from
certain of winning the legislative votes that would be required for mixed provinces such as
Bengal and Punjab to secede, and Jinnah rejected the proposals as not sufficiently recognizing
Pakistan's right to exist. The Congress also rejected the Cripps plan, demanding immediate
concessions which Cripps was not prepared to give. Despite the rejection, Jinnah and the League
saw the Cripps proposal as recognizing Pakistan in principle.

The Congress followed the failed Cripps mission by demanding, in August 1942, that the British
immediately "Quit India", proclaiming a mass campaign of satyagraha until they did. The British
promptly arrested most major leaders of the Congress and imprisoned them for the remainder of
the war. Gandhi, however, was placed on house arrest in one of the Aga Khan's palaces prior to
his release for health reasons in 1944. With the Congress leaders absent from the political scene,
Jinnah warned against the threat of Hindu domination and maintained his Pakistan demand
without going into great detail about what that would entail. Jinnah also worked to increase the

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League's political control at the provincial level. He helped to found the newspaper Dawn in the
early 1940s in Delhi; it helped to spread the League's message and eventually became the major
English-language newspaper of Pakistan.

In September 1944, Jinnah and Gandhi, who had by then been released from his palatial prison,
met for the very first time at the Muslim leader's home on Malabar Hill in Bombay. Two weeks
of talks followed, which resulted in no agreement. Jinnah insisted on Pakistan being conceded
prior to the British departure, and to come into being immediately on their departure, while
Gandhi proposed that plebiscites on partition occur sometime after a united India gained its
independence. In early 1945, Liaquat and the Congress leader Bhulabhai Desai met, with
Jinnah's approval and agreed that after the war, the Congress and the League should form an
interim government and that the members of the Executive Council of the Viceroy should be
nominated by the Congress and the League in equal numbers. When the Congress leadership was
released from prison in June 1945, they repudiated the agreement and censured Desai for acting
without proper authority.

Postwar
Field Marshal Viscount Wavell succeeded Linlithgow as Viceroy in 1943. In June 1945,
following the release of the Congress leaders, Wavell called for a conference, and invited the
leading figures from the various communities to meet with him at Simla. He proposed a
temporary government along the lines which Liaquat and Desai had agreed. However, Wavell
was unwilling to guarantee that only the League's candidates would be placed in the seats
reserved for Muslims. All other invited groups submitted lists of candidates to the Viceroy.
Wavell cut the conference short in mid-July without further seeking an agreement; with a British
general election imminent, Churchill's government did not feel it could proceed.

The British people returned Clement Attlee and his Labor Party later in July. Attlee and his
Secretary of State for India, Lord Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, immediately ordered a review of
the Indian situation. Jinnah had no comment on the change of government, but called a meeting
of his Working Committee and issued a statement calling for new elections in India. The League
held influence at the provincial level in the Muslim-majority states mostly by alliance, and
Jinnah believed that, given the opportunity, the League would improve its electoral standing and
lend added support to his claim to be the sole spokesman for the Muslims. Wavell returned to
India in September after consultation with his new masters in London; elections, both for the
centre and for the provinces, were announced soon after. The British indicated that formation of a
constitution-making body would follow the votes.

The Muslim League declared that they would campaign on a single issue: Pakistan. Speaking in
Ahmedabad, Jinnah echoed this, "Pakistan is a matter of life or death for us. In the December
1945 elections for the Constituent Assembly of India, the League won every seat reserved for
Muslims. In the provincial elections in January 1946, the League took 75% of the Muslim vote,

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an increase from 4.4% in 1937. According to his biographer Bolitho, "This was Jinnah's glorious
hour: his arduous political campaigns, his robust beliefs and claims, were at last justified."
Wolpert wrote that the League election showing "appeared to prove the universal appeal of
Pakistan among Muslims of the subcontinent. The Congress dominated the central assembly
nevertheless, though it lost four seats from its previous strength. During this time Muhammad
Iqbal introduced Jinnah to Ghulam Ahmed Pervez, whom Jinnah appointed to edit a magazine,
Tolu-e-Islam, to propagate the idea of a separate Muslim state.

In February 1946, the British Cabinet resolved to send a delegation to India to negotiate with
leaders there. This Cabinet Mission included Cripps and Pethick-Lawrence. The highest-level
delegation to try to break the deadlock, it arrived in New Delhi in late March. Little negotiation
had been done since the previous October because of the elections in India. The British in May
released a plan for united Indian state comprising substantially autonomous provinces, and called
for "groups" of provinces formed on the basis of religion. Matters such as defense, external
relations and communications would be handled by a central authority. Provinces would have the
option of leaving the union entirely, and there would be an interim government with
representation from the Congress and the League. Jinnah and his Working Committee accepted
this plan in June, but it fell apart over the question of how many members of the interim
government the Congress and the League would have, and over the Congress's desire to include a
Muslim member in its representation. Before leaving India, the British ministers stated that they
intended to inaugurate an interim government even if one of the major groups was unwilling to
participate.

The Congress soon joined the new Indian ministry. The League was slower to do so, not entering
until October 1946. In agreeing to have the League join the government, Jinnah abandoned his
demands for parity with the Congress and a veto on matters concerning Muslims. The new
ministry met amid a backdrop of rioting, especially in Calcutta. The Congress wanted the
Viceroy to immediately summon the constituent assembly and begin the work of writing a
constitution and felt that the League ministers should either join in the request or resign from the
government. Wavell attempted to save the situation by flying leaders such as Jinnah, Liaquat, and
Jawaharlal Nehru to London in December 1946. At the end of the talks, participants issued a
statement that the constitution would not be forced on any unwilling parts of India. On the way
back from London, Jinnah and Liaquat stopped in Cairo for several days of pan-Islamic
meetings.

The Congress endorsed the joint statement from the London conference over the angry dissent
from some elements. The League refused to do so, and took no part in the constitutional
discussions. Jinnah had been willing to consider some continued links to Hindustan (as the
Hindu-majority state which would be formed on partition was sometimes referred to), such as a
joint military or communications. However, by December 1946, he insisted on a fully sovereign
Pakistan with dominion status.

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Following the failure of the London trip, Jinnah was in no hurry to reach an agreement,
considering that time would allow him to gain the undivided provinces of Bengal and Punjab for
Pakistan, but these wealthy, populous provinces had sizeable non-Muslim minorities,
complicating a settlement. The Attlee ministry desired a rapid British departure from India, but
had little confidence in Wavell to achieve that end. Beginning in December 1946, British
officials began looking for a viceregal successor to Wavell, and soon fixed on Admiral Lord
Mountbatten of Burma, a war leader popular among Conservatives as the great-grandson of
Queen Victoria and among Labor for his political views.

Mountbatten and independence

Main articles: Pakistan Movement and Partition of India
On 20 February 1947, Attlee announced Mountbatten's appointment, and that Britain would
transfer power in India not later than June 1948. Mountbatten took office as Viceroy on 24
March 1947, two days after his arrival in India. By then, the Congress had come around to the
idea of partition. Nehru stated in 1960, "the truth is that we were tired men and we were getting
on in years ... The plan for partition offered a way out and we took it. Leaders of the Congress
decided that having loosely tied Muslim-majority provinces as part of a future India was not
worth the loss of the powerful government at the centre which they desired. [156] However, the
Congress insisted that if Pakistan were to become independent, Bengal and Punjab would have to
be divided.

Mountbatten had been warned in his briefing papers that Jinnah would be his "toughest
customer" who had proved a chronic nuisance because "no one in this country [India] had so far
gotten into Jinnah's mind. The men met over six days beginning on 5 April. The sessions began
lightly when Jinnah, photographed between Louis and Edwina Mountbatten, quipped "A rose
between two thorns" which the Viceroy took, perhaps gratuitously, as evidence that the Muslim
leader had pre-planned his joke but had expected the vicereine to stand in the middle.
Mountbatten was not favorably impressed with Jinnah, repeatedly expressing frustration to his
staff about Jinnah's insistence on Pakistan in the face of all argument.

Jinnah feared that at the end of the British presence in India, they would turn control over to the
Congress-dominated constituent assembly, putting Muslims at a disadvantage in attempting to
win autonomy. He demanded that Mountbatten divide the army prior to independence, which
would take at least a year. Mountbatten had hoped that the post-independence arrangements
would include a common defense force, but Jinnah saw it as essential that a sovereign state
should have its own forces. Mountbatten met with Liaquat the day of his final session with
Jinnah, and concluded, as he told Attlee and the Cabinet in May, that "it had become clear that
the Muslim League would resort to arms if Pakistan in some form were not conceded. The
Viceroy was also influenced by negative Muslim reaction to the constitutional report of the
assembly, which envisioned broad powers for the post-independence central government.

155
On 2 June, the final plan was given by the Viceroy to Indian leaders: on 15 August, the British
would turn over power to two dominions. The provinces would vote on whether to continue in
the existing constituent assembly or to have a new one, that is, to join Pakistan. Bengal and
Punjab would also vote, both on the question of which assembly to join, and on the partition. A
boundary commission would determine the final lines in the partitioned provinces. Plebiscites
would take place in the North-West Frontier Province (which did not have a League government
despite an overwhelmingly Muslim population), and in the majority-Muslim Sylhet district of
Assam, adjacent to eastern Bengal. On 3 June, Mountbatten, Nehru, Jinnah and Sikh leader
Baldev Singh made the formal announcement by radio. Jinnah concluded his address with
"Pakistan zindabad " (Long live Pakistan), which was not in the script. In the weeks which
followed Punjab and Bengal cast the votes which resulted in partition. Sylhet and the N.W.F.P.
voted to cast their lots with Pakistan, a decision joined by the assemblies in Sind and
Baluchistan.

On 4 July 1947, Liaquat asked Mountbatten on Jinnah's behalf to recommend to the British king,
George VI, that Jinnah be appointed Pakistan's first governor-general. This request angered
Mountbatten, who had hoped to have that position in both dominionshe would be India's first
post-independence governor-generalbut Jinnah felt that Mountbatten would be likely to favor
the new Hindu-majority state because of his closeness to Nehru. In addition, the governor-
general would initially be a powerful figure, and Jinnah did not trust anyone else to take that
office. Although the Boundary Commission, led by British lawyer Sir Cyril Radcliffe, had not
yet reported, there were already massive movements of populations between the nations-to-be, as
well as sectarian violence. Jinnah arranged to sell his house in Bombay and procured a new one
in Karachi. On 7 August, Jinnah, with his sister and close staff, flew from Delhi to Karachi in
Mountbatten's plane, and as the plane taxied, he was heard to murmur, "That's the end of that. On
11 August, he presided over the new constituent assembly for Pakistan at Karachi, and addressed
them, "You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to
any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan. You may belong to any religion or caste or
creedthat has nothing to do with the business of the State. I think we should keep that in front
of us as our ideal and you will find that in course of time Hindus would cease to be Hindus and
Muslims would cease to be Muslims, not in the religious sense, because that is the personal faith
of each individual, but in the political sense as citizens of the State. On 14 August, Pakistan
became independent; Jinnah led the celebrations in Karachi. One observer wrote, "here indeed is
Pakistan's King Emperor, Archbishop of Canterbury, Speaker and Prime Minister concentrated
into one formidable Quaid-e-Azam.

Governor-General
The Radcliffe Commission, dividing Bengal and Punjab, completed its work and reported to
Mountbatten on 12 August; the last Viceroy held the maps until the 17th, not wanting to spoil the
independence celebrations in both nations. There had already been ethnically charged violence

156
and movement of populations; publication of the Radcliffe Line dividing the new nations sparked
mass migration, murder, and ethnic cleansing. Many on the "wrong side" of the lines fled or were
murdered, or murdered others, hoping to make facts on the ground which would reverse the
commission's verdict. Radcliffe wrote in his report that he knew that neither side would be happy
with his award; he declined his fee for the work. Christopher Beaumont, Radcliffe's private
secretary, later wrote that Mountbatten "must take the blamethough not the sole blamefor
the massacres in the Punjab in which between 500,000 to a million men, women and children
perished. As many as 14,500,000 people relocated between India and Pakistan during and after
partition. Jinnah did what he could for the eight million people who migrated to Pakistan;
although by now over 70 and frail from lung ailments, he travelled across West Pakistan and
personally supervised the provision of aid. According to Ahmed, "What Pakistan needed
desperately in those early months was a symbol of the state, one that would unify people and
give them the courage and resolve to succeed.

Jinnah had a troublesome ordeal with NWFP. The referendum of NWFP July 1947, whether to
be a part of Pakistan or India, had been tainted with low electoral turnout as less than 10% of the
total population was allowed to partake in the referendum. On 22 August 1947, just after a week
of becoming governor General Jinnah dissolved the elected government of Dr. Khan Abdul
Jabbar Khan. Later on, Abdul Qayyum Khan was put in place by Jinnah in the Pashtun
dominated province despite him being a Kashmiri. On 12 August 1948 the Babrra massacre in
Charsadda was ordered resulting in the death of 400 people aligned with the Khudai Khidmatgar
movement.

Along with Liaquat and Abdur Rab Nishtar, Jinnah represented Pakistan's interests in the
Division Council to appropriately divide public assets between India and Pakistan. Pakistan was
supposed to receive one-sixth of the pre-independence government's assets, carefully divided by
agreement, even specifying how many sheets of paper each side would receive. The new Indian
state, however, was slow to deliver, hoping for the collapse of the nascent Pakistani government,
and reunion. Few members of the Indian Civil Service and the Indian Police Service had chosen
Pakistan, resulting in staff shortages. Crop growers found their markets on the other side of an
international border. There were shortages of machinery, not all of which was made in Pakistan.
In addition to the massive refugee problem, the new government sought to save abandoned
crops, establish security in a chaotic situation, and provide basic services. According to
economist Yasmeen Niaz Mohiuddin in her study of Pakistan, "although Pakistan was born in
bloodshed and turmoil, it survived in the initial and difficult months after partition only because
of the tremendous sacrifices made by its people and the selfless efforts of its great leader.

The Indian Princely States, of which there were several hundred, were advised by the departing
British to choose whether to join Pakistan or India. Most did so prior to independence, but the
holdouts contributed to what have become lasting divisions between the two nations. Indian
leaders were angered at Jinnah's courting the princes of Jodhpur, Bhopal and Indore to accede to

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Pakistanthese princely states did not border Pakistan, and each had a Hindu-majority
population. The coastal princely state of Junagadh, which had a majority-Hindu population, did
accede to Pakistan in September 1947, with its ruler's dewan, Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, personally
delivering the accession papers to Jinnah. The Indian army occupied the principality in
November, forcing its former leaders, including Bhutto, to flee to Pakistan, beginning the
politically powerful Bhutto family.

The most contentious of the disputes was, and continues to be, that over the princely state of
Kashmir. It had a Muslim-majority population and a Hindu maharaja, Sir Hari Singh, who stalled
his decision on which nation to join. With the population in revolt in October 1947, aided by
Pakistani irregulars, the maharaja acceded to India; Indian troops were airlifted in. Jinnah
objected to this action, and ordered that Pakistani troops move into Kashmir. The Pakistani Army
was still commanded by British officers, and the commanding officer, General Sir Douglas
Gracey, refused the order, stating that he would not move into what he considered the territory of
another nation without approval from higher authority, which was not forthcoming. Jinnah
withdrew the order. This did not stop the violence there, which has broken into war between
India and Pakistan from time to time since.

Some historians allege that Jinnah's courting the rulers of Hindu-majority states and his gambit
with Junagadh are evidence of ill-intent towards India, as Jinnah had promoted separation by
religion, yet tried to gain the accession of Hindu-majority states. In his book Patel: A Life,
Rajmohan Gandhi asserts that Jinnah hoped for a plebiscite in Junagadh, knowing Pakistan
would lose, in the hope the principle would be established for Kashmir. However, when
Mountbatten proposed to Jinnah that, in all the princely States where the ruler did not accede to a
Dominion corresponding to the majority population (which would have included Junagadh,
Hyderabad and Kashmir), the accession should be decided by an `impartial reference to the will
of the people', Jinnah rejected the offer. Despite the United Nations Security Council Resolution
47, issued at India's request for a plebiscite in Kashmir after the withdrawal of Pakistani forces,
this has never occurred.

In January 1948, the Indian government finally agreed to pay Pakistan its share of British India's
assets. They were impelled by Gandhi, who threatened a fast until death. Only days later, Gandhi
was assassinated by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist, who believed that Gandhi was pro-
Muslim. Jinnah made a brief statement of condolence, calling Gandhi "one of the greatest men
produced by the Hindu community.

In March, Jinnah, despite his declining health, made his only post-independence visit to East
Pakistan. In a speech before a crowd estimated at 300,000, Jinnah stated (in English) that Urdu
alone should be the national language, believing a single language was needed for a nation to
remain united. The Bengali-speaking people of East Pakistan strongly opposed this policy, and in
1971 the official language issue was a factor in the region's secession to form Bangladesh.

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159
 Gary Stanley Becker

Gary Stanley Becker

Born: December 2, 1930
Pottsville, Pennsylvania, U.S.

May 3, 2014 (aged 83)

Died:
Chicago, Illinois, U.S.

Field: Social economics

Gary Stanley Becker (December 2, 1930 May 3, 2014) was an American economist. He was a
professor of economics and sociology at the University of Chicago. Described as the most
important social scientist in the past 50 years by the New York Times, Becker was awarded the
Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1992 and received the United States Presidential
Medal of Freedom in 2007.

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Becker was one of the first economists to branch into what were traditionally considered topics
belonging to sociology, including racial discrimination, crime, family organization, and drug
addiction (see rational addiction). He was known for arguing that many different types of human
behavior can be seen as rational and utility maximizing. His approach included altruistic
behavior of human behavior by defining individuals' utility appropriately. He was also among the
foremost exponents of the study of human capital. Becker was also credited with the "rotten kid
theorem."

Born to a Jewish family in Pottsville, Pennsylvania, Becker earned a B.A. at Princeton

University in 1951, and a Ph.D. at the University of Chicago in 1955 with thesis titled The
Economics of Racial Discrimination. At Chicago, Becker was influenced by Milton Friedman,
whom Becker called "by far the greatest living teacher I have ever had. He taught at Columbia
University from 1957 to 1968, and then returned to the University of Chicago. In 1965 he was
elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association. Becker was a founding partner of
TGG Group, a business and philanthropy consulting company. Becker won the John Bates Clark
Medal in 1967. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1972,
and was a member (and for a time the President) of the Mont Pelerin Society. Becker also
received the National Medal of Science in 2000.
A political conservative, he wrote a monthly column for Business Week from 1985 to 2004,
alternating with liberal Princeton economist Alan Blinder. In December 2004, Becker started a
joint weblog with Judge Richard Posner entitled The Becker-Posner Blog."The Becker-Posner
Blog".uchicagolaw. University of Chicago Law School.
Becker's first wife was Doria Slote, from 1954 until her death in 1970. [12][13] The marriage
produced two daughters, Catherine Becker and Judy Becker. In 1980 Becker married Guity
Nashat, a historian of the Middle East whose research interests overlapped his own. Becker had
two stepsons, Cyrus Claffey and Michael Claffey, from his second marriage.
Becker died in Chicago, Illinois, aged 83, on May 3, 2014, after complications from surgery at
Northwestern Memorial Hospital. He was survived by his second wife, two daughters, two
stepsons, and four grandchildren.

Nobel Memorial Prize

Becker received the Nobel Prize in 1992 "for having extended the domain of microeconomic
analysis to a wide range of human behavior and interaction, including nonmarket behavior".

Discrimination

Discrimination as defined by Kenneth Arrow is "the valuation in the market place of personal
characteristics of the worker that are unrelated to worker productivity. Personal characteristics

161
can be physical features such as sex or race, or other characteristics such as a person's religion,
caste, or national origin.
Becker often included a variable of taste for discrimination in explaining behavior. He believes
that people often mentally increase the cost of a transaction if it is with a minority against which
they discriminate. His theory held that competition decreases discrimination. If firms were able
to specialize in employing mainly minorities and offer a better product or service, such a firm
could bypass discrepancy in wages between equally productive blacks and whites or equally
productive females and males. His research found that when minorities are a very small
percentage the cost of discrimination mainly falls on the minorities. However, when minorities
represent a larger percentage of society, the cost of discrimination falls on both the minorities
and the majority. He also pioneered research on the impact of self-fulfilling prophecies of
teachers and employers on minorities. Such attitudes often lead to less investment in productive
skills and education of minorities.
Becker recognized that people (employers, customers, and employees) sometimes do not want to
work with minorities because they have preference against the disadvantaged groups. He goes on
to say that discrimination increases the cost of the firm because in discriminating against certain
workers, the employer would have to pay more so that work can proceed without them. If the
employer employs the minority, low wages can be provided, but more people can be employed,
and productivity can be increased.

Politics

Becker is also famous for his economic analysis of democracy. He asked what determines the
extent to which one interest group can exploit another. He considered this exploitation to be
deadweight loss, meaning a failure to reach efficiency. As Palda (2013) explains "According to
Becker, political equilibrium exists even in non-democratic societies. It arises out of a simple
calculation that predatory interest groups and their taxpaying victims make: what return on my
investment can I get by lobbying government? Beckers insight is that the gains to predators are
linear, but the losses to prey are exponential, thereby stiffening the resistance of victims as the
aggression of predators plods on without similarly increased vigor. Think of a gang of robbers
taking half the crop from peasants. They then return for the second half. The gain to the gang of
the second half cut is the same as in their first extortion. Yet for peasants to lose the last half of
their crops means possible starvation and the certain loss of seed corn. They can be expected to
resist violently, as they did in the Hollywood movie The Magnificent Seven and in the Japanese
movie on which it was based, The Seven Samurai.
Becker's insight was to recognize that deadweight losses put a brake on predation. He took the
well-known insight that deadweight losses are proportional to the square of the tax, and used it to
argue that a linear increase in takings by a predatory interest group will provoke a non-linear
increase in the deadweight losses its victim suffers. These rapidly increasing losses will prod

162
victims to invest equivalent sums in resisting attempts on their wealth. The advance of predators,
fueled by linear incentives slows before the stiffening resistance of prey outraged by non-linear
damages.

Crime and punishment

Jurist Richard Posner has stressed the enormous influence of Becker's work "has turned out to be
a fount of economic writing on crime and its control.
Becker's interest in criminology arose when he was rushed for time one day. He had to weigh the
cost and benefits of legally parking in an inconvenient garage versus in an illegal but convenient
spot. After roughly calculating the probability of getting caught and potential punishment,
Becker rationally opted for the crime. Becker surmised that other criminals make such rational
decisions. However, such a premise went against conventional thought that crime was a result of
mental illness and social oppression.
While Becker acknowledged that many people operate under a high moral and ethical constraint,
criminals rationally see that the benefits of their crime outweigh the cost such as the probability
of apprehension, conviction, and punishment, and their current set of opportunities. From the
public policy perspective, since the cost of increasing the fine is trivial in comparison to the cost
of increasing surveillance, one can conclude that the best policy is to maximize the fine and
minimize surveillance. However, this conclusion has limits, not the least of which includes
ethical considerations.
One of the main differences between this theory and Jeremy Bentham's rational choice theory,
which had been abandoned in criminology, is that if Bentham considered it possible to annihilate
crime completely (through the panoptic on), Becker's theory acknowledged that a society could
not eradicate crime beneath a certain level. For example, if 25% of a supermarket's products
were stolen, it would be very easy to reduce this rate to 15%, quite easy to reduce it until 5%,
difficult to reduce it under 3%, and nearly impossible to reduce it to 0% (a feat that would be so
costly to the supermarket that it would outweigh the benefit, if it is even possible).

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 Warren Edward Buffett

Warren Edward Buffett

Born: August 30, 1930 (age 86)
Omaha, Nebraska, U.S.

Chairman & CEO of Berkshire

Occupation:
Hathaway

Political party: Democratic

Warren Edward Buffett (born August 30, 1930) is an American business magnate, investor and
philanthropist. He is considered by some to be one of the most successful investors in the world.
Buffett is the chairman, CEO and largest shareholder of Berkshire Hathaway, and is consistently
ranked among the world's wealthiest people. He was ranked as the world's wealthiest person in
2008 and as the third wealthiest in 2015. In 2012 Time named Buffett one of the world's most
influential people.

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Buffett is often referred to as the "Wizard of Omaha" or "Oracle of Omaha, or the "Sage of
Omaha," and is noted for his adherence to value investing and for his personal frugality despite
his immense wealth. Buffett is a notable philanthropist, having pledged to give away 99 percent
of his fortune to philanthropic causes, primarily via the Gates Foundation. On April 11, 2012, he
was diagnosed with prostate cancer, for which his doctors successfully completed treatment in
September 2012. Buffett is also active in contributing to political causes, having endorsed
Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton for president during the 2016 campaign season.

Buffett was born in 1930 in Omaha, Nebraska. He was the second of three children and the only
son of Leila (ne Stahl) and Congressman Howard Buffett, Buffett began his education at Rose
Hill Elementary School. In 1942, his father was elected to the first of four terms in the United
States Congress, and after moving with his family to Washington, D.C., Warren finished
elementary school, attended Alice Deal Junior High School and graduated from Woodrow
Wilson High School in 1947, where his senior yearbook picture reads: "likes math; a future
stockbroker. After finishing high school and finding success with his side entrepreneurial and
investment ventures, Buffett wanted to skip college to go directly into business but was overruled
by his father.

Buffett displayed an interest in business and investing at a young age. Much of Buffett's early
childhood years were enlivened with entrepreneurial ventures. One of his first business ventures,
Buffett sold chewing gum, Coca-Cola bottlers, or weekly magazines door to door. He worked in
his grandfather's grocery store. While still in high school, he made money delivering newspapers,
selling golf balls and stamps, and detailing cars, among other means. On his first income tax
return in 1944, Buffett took a $35 deduction for the use of his bicycle and watch on his paper
route. In 1945, as a high school sophomore, Buffett and a friend spent $25 to purchase a used
pinball machine, which they placed in the local barber shop. Within months, they owned several
machines in three different barber shops across Omaha. The business was sold later in the year
for $1,200 to a war veteran.

Buffett's interest in the stock market and investing dated to schoolboy days he spent in the
customers' lounge of a regional stock brokerage near his father's own brokerage office. On a trip
to New York City at age ten, he made a point to visit the New York Stock Exchange. At 11, he
bought three shares of Cities Service Preferred for himself, and three for his sister Doris Buffett
(founder of The Sunshine Lady Foundation. At the age of 15, Warren made more than $175
monthly delivering Washington Post newspapers. In high school, he invested in a business
owned by his father and bought a 40-acre farm worked by a tenant farmer. He bought the land
when he was 14 years old with $1,200 of his savings. By the time he finished college, Buffett
had accumulated more than $90,000 in savings measured in 2009 dollars.

In 1947, Buffett entered the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. He would have
preferred to focus on his business ventures; however, he enrolled due to pressure from his father.

165
Warren studied there for two years and joined the Alpha Sigma Phi fraternity. He then transferred
to the University of NebraskaLincoln where at 19; he graduated with a Bachelor of Science in
Business Administration. After being rejected by Harvard Business School, Buffett enrolled at
Columbia Business School upon learning that Benjamin Graham taught there. He earned a
Master of Science in Economics from Columbia in 1951. Buffett also attended the New York
Institute of Finance.

The basic ideas of investing are to look at stocks as business, use the market's fluctuations to
your advantage, and seek a margin of safety. That's what Ben Graham taught us. A hundred years
from now they will still be the cornerstones of investing.

Warren Buffett

Business career
Buffett worked from 1951 to 1954 at Buffett-Falk & Co. as an investment salesman; from 1954
to 1956 at Graham-Newman Corp. as a securities analyst; from 1956 to 1969 at Buffett
Partnership, Ltd. as a general partner and from 1970, as Chairman and CEO of Berkshire
Hathaway Inc.

By 1950, at 20, Buffett had made and saved $9,800 (over $96,000 inflation adjusted for the 2014
USD). In April 1952, Buffett discovered that Graham was on the board of GEICO insurance.
Taking a train to Washington, D.C. on a Saturday, he knocked on the door of GEICO's
headquarters until a janitor admitted him. There he met Lorimer Davidson, Geico's Vice
President, and the two discussed the insurance business for hours. Davidson would eventually
become Buffett's lifelong friend and a lasting influence and would later recall that he found
Buffett to be an "extraordinary man" after only fifteen minutes. Buffett wanted to work on Wall
Street; however, both his father and Ben Graham urged him not to. He offered to work for
Graham for free, but Graham refused.

Buffett returned to Omaha and worked as a stockbroker while taking a Dale Carnegie public
speaking course. Using what he learned, he felt confident enough to teach an "Investment
Principles" night class at the University of Nebraska-Omaha. The average age of his students
was more than twice his own. During this time he also purchased a Sinclair Texaco gas station as
a side investment. However, this was not successful.

In 1952, Buffett married Susan Thompson at Dundee Presbyterian Church. The next year they
had their first child, Susan Alice. In 1954, Buffett accepted a job at Benjamin Graham's
partnership. His starting salary was $12,000 a year (approximately $105,000 inflation adjusted
for the 2012 USD). There he worked closely with Walter Schloss. Graham was a tough boss. He
was adamant that stocks provide a wide margin of safety after weighing the trade-off between
their price and their intrinsic value. The argument made sense to Buffett but he questioned

166
whether the criteria were too stringent and caused the company to miss out on big winners that
had other appealing features. That same year the Buffetts had their second child, Howard
Graham. In 1956, Benjamin Graham retired and closed his partnership. At this time Buffett's
pers

In 1957, Buffett operated three partnerships. He purchased a five-bedroom stucco house in

Omaha, where he still lives, for $31,500. In 1958 the Buffetts' third child, Peter Andrew, was
born. Buffett operated five partnerships that year. In 1959, the company grew to six partnerships
and Buffett met future partner Charlie Munger. By 1960, Buffett operated seven partnerships.
[
He asked one of his partners, a doctor, to find ten other doctors willing to invest $10,000 each in
his partnership. Eventually eleven agreed, and Buffett pooled their money with a mere $100
original investment of his own. In 1961, Buffett revealed that Sanborn Map Company accounted
for 35% of the partnership's assets. He explained that in 1958 Sanborn stock sold at only $45 per
share when the value of the Sanborn investment portfolio was $65 per share. This meant that
buyers valued Sanborn stock at "minus $20" per share and were unwilling to pay more than 70
cents on the dollar for an investment portfolio with a map business thrown in for nothing which
earned him a spot on Sanborn's board.

In 1949, Buffett was infatuated by a young woman whose current boyfriend had a ukulele. In an
attempt to compete, he bought one of the diminutive instruments and has been playing it ever
since. Though the attempt was unsuccessful, his music interest was a key part of his becoming a
part of Susan Thompson's life and led to their marriage. Buffett often plays the instrument at
stock holder meetings and other opportunities. His love of the instrument led to the
commissioning of two custom Dairy Queen Ukuleles by Dave Talsma, one of which was
auctioned for charity.

Buffett married Susan Buffett (ne Thompson) in 1952. They had three children, Susie, Howard
and Peter. The couple began living separately in 1977, although they remained married until
Susan Buffett's death in July 2004. Their daughter, Susie, lives in Omaha, is a national board
member of Girls, Inc., and does charitable work through the Susan A. Buffett Foundation.

In 2006, on his 76th birthday, Buffett married his longtime companion, Astrid Menks, who was
then 60 years oldshe had lived with him since his wife's departure to San Francisco in 1977.
Susan had arranged for the two to meet before she left Omaha to pursue her singing career. All
three were close and Christmas cards to friends were signed "Warren, Susie and Astrid". Susan
briefly discussed this relationship in an interview on the Charlie Rose Show shortly before her
death, in a rare glimpse into Buffett's personal life.

Buffett disowned his son Peter's adopted daughter, Nicole, in 2006 after she participated in the
Jamie Johnson documentary The One Percent. Although his first wife referred to Nicole as one
of her "adored grandchildren, Buffett wrote her a letter stating, "I have not emotionally or

167
legally adopted you as a grandchild, nor have the rest of my family adopted you as a niece or a
cousin.

His 2006 annual salary was about US$100,000, which is small compared to senior executive
remuneration in comparable companies. In 2007 and 2008, he earned a total compensation of
$175,000, which included a base salary of just $100,000. He continued to live in the same house
in the central Dundee neighborhood of Omaha that he bought in 1958 for $31,500, a fraction of
today's value. He also owns a $4 million house in Laguna Beach, California. In 1989, after
spending nearly $6.7 million of Berkshire's funds on a private jet, Buffett named it "The
Indefensible". This act was a break from his past condemnation of extravagant purchases by
other CEOs and his history of using more public transportation.

Bridge is such a
sensational game that I
wouldn't mind being in
jail if I had three
cellmates who were
decent players and who
were willing to keep the
game going twenty-four
hours a day.

Buffett on bridge
Buffett is an avid bridge player, which he plays with fellow fan Gateshe allegedly spends 12
hours a week playing the game. In 2006, he sponsored a bridge match for the Buffett Cup.
Modeled on the Ryder Cup in golfheld immediately before it in the same citythe teams are
chosen by invitation, with a female team and five male teams provided by each country.

He is a dedicated, lifelong follower of Nebraska football, and attends as many games as his
schedule permits. He supported the hire of Bo Pelini, following the 2007 season, stating, "It was
getting kind of desperate around here". He watched the 2009 game against Oklahoma from the
Nebraska sideline, after being named an honorary assistant coach.

Buffett worked with Christopher Webber on an animated series called "Secret Millionaires Club"
with Chief Andy Heyward of DiC Entertainment. The series features Buffett and Munger, and
teaches children healthy financial habits.

Buffett was raised as a Presbyterian, but has since described himself as agnostic. In December
2006, it was reported that Buffett does not carry a mobile phone, does not have a computer at his
desk, and drives his own automobile, a Cadillac DTS. In 2013 he had an old Nokia flip phone

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and had sent one email in his entire life. Buffett reads five newspapers every day, beginning with
the Omaha World Herald, which his company acquired in 2011.

A September 2014 Fast Company article featured Buffett's avoid at all cost practice, used to
prioritize personal goals. Buffett advises people to first create a list of the top 25
accomplishments that they would like to complete over the next few years of their life, and to
then pick the five most-important list items. Buffett stated that people need to avoid at all cost
the initial, longer list, as it would hinder the achievement of the top-five.

Health
On April 11, 2012, Buffett was diagnosed with stage I prostate cancer during a routine test. He
announced he would begin two months of daily radiation treatment from mid-July; however, in a
letter to shareholders, Buffett said he felt "great - as if I were in my normal excellent health - and
my energy level is 100 percent". On September 15, 2012, Buffett announced that he had
completed the full 44-day radiation treatment cycle, saying "it's a great day for me" and "I am so
glad to say that's over".

Recognition
In 1999, Buffett was named the top money manager of the Twentieth Century in a survey by the
Carson Group, ahead of Peter Lynch and John Templeton. In 2007, he was listed among
Time's100 Most Influential People in the world. In 2011, President Barack Obama awarded him
the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Most recently, Buffett, along with Bill Gates, was named the
most influential global thinker in Foreign Policy's 2010 report.

Politics
In addition to political contributions over the years, Buffett endorsed and made campaign
contributions to Barack Obama's presidential campaign. On July 2, 2008, Buffett attended a
$28,500 per plate fundraiser for Obama's campaign in Chicago. Buffett intimated that John
McCain's views on social justice were so far from his own that McCain would need a
"lobotomy" for Buffett to change his endorsement. During the second 2008 U.S. presidential
debate, McCain and Obama, after being asked first by presidential debate mediator Tom Brokaw,
both mentioned Buffett as a possible future Secretary of the Treasury. Later, in the third and final
presidential debate, Obama mentioned Buffett as a potential economic advisor. Buffett was also
finance advisor to California Republican Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger during his 2003
election campaign.

On December 16, 2015, Buffett endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton for president. On
August 1, 2016, Buffett challenged Donald Trump to release his tax returns. On October 10,
2016, after another reference to him in the 2nd 2016 presidential debate, Buffet released his own
tax return. He said he had paid $1.85 million in federal income taxes in 2015 on an adjusted

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gross income of $11.6 million, meaning he had an effective federal income tax rate of around 16
percent. Buffett also said he had made more than $2.8 billion worth of donations last year.
Buffett said, "I have been audited by the IRS multiple times and am currently being audited. I
have no problem in releasing my tax information while under audit. Neither would Mr. Trump --
at least he would have no legal problem." This was a measured response to Trump saying he was
unable to release his tax information due to being under audit.

Writings
Warren Buffett's writings include his annual reports and various articles. Buffett is recognized by
communicators as a great story-teller, as evidenced by his annual letters to shareholders. He
warned about the pernicious effects of inflation:

The arithmetic makes it plain that inflation is a far more devastating tax than anything that has
been enacted by our legislatures. The inflation tax has a fantastic ability to simply consume
capital. It makes no difference to a widow with her savings in a 5 percent passbook account
whether she pays 100 percent income tax on her interest income during a period of zero inflation,
or pays no income taxes during years of 5 percent inflation.

In his article "The Superinvestors of Graham-and-Doddsville", Buffett rebutted the academic

efficient-market hypothesis, that beating the S&P 500 was "pure chance", by highlighting the
results achieved by a number of students of the Graham and Dodd value investing school of
thought. In addition to himself, Buffett named Walter J. Schloss, Tom Knapp, Ed Anderson
(Tweedy, Brown Inc.), William J. Ruane (Sequoia Fund, Inc.), Charles Munger (Buffett's own
business partner at Berkshire), Rick Guerin (Pacific Partners, Ltd.), and Stan Perlmeter
(Perlmeter Investments). In his November 1999 Fortune article, he warned of investors'
unrealistic expectations:

Let me summarize what I've been saying about the stock market: I think it's very hard to come up
with a persuasive case that equities will over the next 17 years perform anything likeanything
likethey've performed in the past 17. If I had to pick the most probable return, from
appreciation and dividends combined, that investors in aggregaterepeat, aggregatewould
earn in a world of constant interest rates, 2% inflation, and those ever hurtful frictional costs, it
would be 6%!

Style
Buffett's speeches are known for mixing business discussions with attempts at humor. Each year,
Buffett presides over Berkshire Hathaway's annual shareholder meeting in the Qwest Center in
Omaha, Nebraska, an event drawing over 20,000 visitors from both United States and abroad,
giving it the nickname "Woodstock of Capitalism". Berkshire's annual reports and letters to
shareholders, prepared by Buffett, frequently receive coverage by the financial media. Buffett's

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writings are known for containing quotations from sources as varied as the Bible and Mae West,
as well as advice in a folksy Midwestern style and numerous jokes.

Wealth
Buffett, Kathy Ireland and Bill Gates at the 2015 Berkshire Hathaway shareholders meeting

In 2008 he was ranked by Forbes as the richest person in the world with an estimated net worth
of approximately US$62 billion. In 2009, after donating billions of dollars to charity, Buffett was
ranked as the second richest man in the United States with a net worth of US$37 billionwith only
Bill Gates ranked higher than Buffett. His net worth had risen to $58.5 billion as of September
2013.

Philanthropy
Buffett has written several times of his belief that, in a market economy, the rich earn outsized
rewards for their talents. His children will not inherit a significant proportion of his wealth. He
once commented, "I want to give my kids just enough so that they would feel that they could do
anything, but not so much that they would feel like doing nothing".

Buffett had long stated his intention to give away his fortune to charity, and in June 2006, he
announced a new plan to give 83% of it to the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. He pledged
about the equivalent of 10 million Berkshire Hathaway Class B shares to the Bill & Melinda
Gates Foundation (worth approximately US$30.7 billion as of June 23, 2006), making it the
largest charitable donation in history, and Buffett one of the leaders of philanthrocapitalism. The
foundation will receive 5% of the total each July, beginning in 2006. (The pledge is conditional
upon the foundation's giving away each year, beginning in 2009, an amount that is at least equal
to the value of the entire previous year's gift from Buffett, in addition to 5% of the foundation's
net assets.) Buffett joined the Gates Foundation's board, but did not plan to be actively involved
in the foundation's investments.

This represented a significant shift from Buffett's previous statements, to the effect that most of
his fortune would pass to his Buffett Foundation The bulk of the estate of his wife, valued at
$2.6 billion, went there when she died in 2004. He also pledged $50 million to the Nuclear
Threat Initiative, in Washington, where he began serving as an adviser in 2002.

In 2006, he auctioned his 2001 Lincoln Town Car on eBay to raise money for Girls, Inc. In 2007,
he auctioned a luncheon with himself that raised a final bid of $650,100 for the Glide
Foundation. Later auctions raised $2,110,100, $1.68 million and $3,456,789. The winners
traditionally dine with Buffett at New York's Smith and Wollensky steak house. The restaurant
donates at least $10,000 to glide each year to host the meal.

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On December 9, 2010, Buffett, Bill Gates, and Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg signed a
promise they called the "Gates-Buffett Giving Pledge", in which they promise to donate to
charity at least half of their wealth, and invite other wealthy people to follow suit.

Public policy

Health care
Buffett described the health care reform under President Barack Obama as insufficient to deal
with the costs of health care in the US, though he supports its aim of expanding health insurance
coverage. Buffett compared health care costs to a tapeworm, saying that they compromise US
economic competitiveness by increasing manufacturing costs. Buffett thinks health care costs
should head towards 13 to 14% of GDP (Under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act,
the CMS actuary has projected health care costs will reach almost 20% of GDP by 2020.) . Buffett
said "If you want the very best, I mean if you want to spend a million dollars to prolong your life
3 months in a coma or something then the US is probably the best", but he also said that other
countries spend much less and receive much more in health care value (visits, hospital beds,
doctors and nurses per capita).

Buffett faults the incentives in the US medical industry, that payers reimburse doctors for
procedures (fee-for-service) leading to unnecessary care (overutilization), instead of paying for
results He cited Atul Gawande's 2009 article in the New Yorker as a useful consideration of US
health care, with its documentation of unwarranted variation in Medicare expenditures between
McAllen, Texas and El Paso, Texas. Buffett raised the problem of lobbying by the medical
industry, saying that they are very focused on maintaining their income.

Taxes
Buffett stated that he only paid 19% of his income for 2006 ($48.1 million) in total federal taxes
(due to their source as dividends and capital gains, although the figure excluded the taxes on that
income paid by the corporations that provided it), while his employees paid 33% of theirs,
despite making much less money. How can this be fair? Buffett asked, regarding how little he
pays in taxes compared to his employees. "How can this be right?" He also added, "There's class
warfare, all right, but it's my class, the rich class, that's making war, and we're winning."After
Donald Trump accused him of taking "massive deductions," Buffet countered, "I have copies of
all 72 of my returns and none uses a carry forward.

Buffett favors the inheritance tax, saying that repealing it would be like "choosing the 2020
Olympic team by picking the eldest sons of the gold-medal winners in the 2000 Olympics". In
2007, Buffett testified before the Senate and urged them to preserve the estate tax so as to avoid a
plutocracy. Some critics argued that Buffett (through Berkshire Hathaway) has a personal interest
in the continuation of the estate tax, since Berkshire Hathaway benefited from the estate tax in
past business dealings and had developed and marketed insurance policies to protect policy

172
holders against future estate tax payments. Buffett believes government should not be in the
business of gambling, or legalizing casinos, calling it a tax on ignorance.

Trade deficit
Buffett viewed the United States' expanding trade deficit as a trend that will devalue the US
dollar and US assets. He predicted that the US dollar will lose value in the long run, as a result of
putting a larger portion of ownership of US assets in the hands of foreigners. In his letter to
shareholders in March 2005, he predicted that in another ten years' time the net ownership of the
U.S. by outsiders would amount to $11 trillion.

Americans ... would chafe at the idea of perpetually paying tribute to their creditors and owners
abroad. A country that is now aspiring to an 'ownership society' will not find happiness in and
I'll use hyperbole here for emphasis a 'sharecropping society.

Dollar and gold

The trade deficit induced Buffett to enter the foreign currency market for the first time in 2002.
He substantially reduced his stake in 2005 as changing interest rates increased the costs of
holding currency contracts. Buffett remained bearish on the dollar, stating that he was looking to
acquire companies with substantial foreign revenues. Buffett emphasized the non-productive
aspect of a gold standard for the USD in 1998 at Harvard:

It gets dug out of the ground in Africa, or someplace. Then we melt it down, dig another hole,
bury it again and pay people to stand around guarding it. It has no utility. Anyone watching from
Mars would be scratching their head.

In 1977, about stocks, gold, farmland and inflation, he stated:

Stocks are probably still the best of all the poor alternatives in an era of inflation at least they
are if you buy in at appropriate prices.

China
Buffett invested in PetroChina Company Limited and in a rare move, posted a commentary on
Berkshire Hathaway's website stating why he would not divest over its connection with the
Sudanese civil war that caused Harvard to divest. He sold this stake soon afterwards, sparing him
the billions of dollars he would have lost had he held on to the company in the midst of the steep
drop in oil prices beginning in the summer of 2008.

In October 2008, Buffett invested $230 million for 10% of battery maker BYD Company
(SEHK: 1211), which runs a subsidiary of electric automobile manufacturer BYD Auto. In less
than one year, the investment reaped over 500% return

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Tobacco
During the RJR Nabisco, Inc. hostile takeover fight in 1987, Buffett was quoted as telling John
Gutfreund.

I'll tell you why I like the cigarette business. It costs a penny to make. Sell it for a dollar. It's
addictive. And there's fantastic brand loyalty.

Buffett, quoted in Barbarians at the Gate: The Fall of RJR Nabisco

Speaking at Berkshire Hathaway Inc.'s 1994 annual meeting, Buffett said investments in tobacco
are:

Fraught with questions that relate to societal attitudes and those of the present administration. I
would not like to have a significant percentage of my net worth invested in tobacco businesses.
The economy of the business may be fine, but that doesn't mean it has a bright future.

Coal
In 2007, Buffett's PacifiCorp, a subsidiary of his MidAmerican Energy Company, canceled six
proposed coal-fired power plants. These included Utah's Intermountain Power Project Unit 3,
Jim Bridger Unit 5, and four proposed plants previously included in PacifiCorp's Integrated
Resource Plan. The cancellations came in the wake of pressure from regulators and citizen
groups.

Renewable energy
American Indian tribes and salmon fishermen sought to win support from Buffett for a proposal
to remove four hydroelectric dams from the Klamath River. David Sokol responded on Buffett's
behalf, stating that the FERC would decide the question.

In December 2011, Buffett's MidAmerican Energy Holdings agreed to buy a $2 billion solar
energy project under development in California and a 49 percent stake in a $1.8 billion plant in
Arizona, his first investments in solar power. He already owned wind farms.

Expensing of stock options

He has been a strong proponent of stock option expensing on corporate Income Statements. At
the 2004 annual meeting, he lambasted a bill before the United States Congress that would
consider only some company-issued stock options compensation as an expense, likening the bill
to one that was almost passed by the Indiana House of Representatives to change the value of Pi
from 3.14159 to 3.2 through legislative fiat.

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When a company gives something of value to its employees in return for their services, it is
clearly a compensation expense. And if expenses don't belong in the earnings statement, where in
the world do they belong?

Google and Facebook

In May 2012, Buffett said he had avoided buying stock in new social media companies such as
Facebook and Google because it is hard to estimate future value. He also stated that initial public
offering (IPO) of stock are almost always bad investments. Investors should be looking to
companies that will have good value in ten years.

3 Leadership Qualities of Warren Buffet:

Frugality
Humility
Patient

HAJI SHARIATULLAH

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EARLY LIFE

Shariatullah was born in 1781 into a petty Talukdar family at the village Shamail under the
then Madaripur sub-district of greater Faridpur District in Bengal. His father, Abdul Jalil
Talukdar, was a farmer who was not very well off. He died when Shariatullah was 8 years old.
After his primary education he went to Calcutta and was admitted to Barasat Alia Madrasa. He
then received education from famous madrassa of Furfura Sharif, Murshidabad.

LIFE IN ARABIA

In 1799, Haji Shariatullah travelled to Arabia. He stayed there until 1818 and got his religious
education. He learnt Arabic and Persian from his teacher, Maulana Basharat. During his stay in
Arabia, he was influenced by the Najdi da'wah started by Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab.
Through Tahir al-Sumbal Makki. He even is said to have visited Al Azhar.

176
THE FARAIZI MOVEMENT

The Faraizi Movement essentially a religious reform movement had emerged forth during the
19th century, founded by Haji Shariatullah by the Bengali Muslims. The term Faraizi has been
deduced from fard, standing for compulsory and mandatory duties ordained by Allah. The
Faraizis are, thus, those bunches of men whose only objective is to implement and impose these
mandatory religious duties. The promoter and initiator of the Faraizi Movement, Haji
Shariatullah, however had represented the term in a different light and sense, implying to
assimilate every religious duty ordained by the Quran as well as by the Sunnah of the Prophet,
while remaining firmly in the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence.

After his return to Bengal under British Indian rule, Haji Shariatullah had remained a continuous
witness to the appalling and degenerating conditions of his brotherhood, calling them forth to
give up un-Islamic practices (Bidah) and execute their honest duties as Muslims (Faraiz). Due to
various accumulating historical reasons, the Muslims of Bengal had been merrily complying
with umpteen local customs, rituals and observances, which were almost unimaginable and
displaced from the principles of Islam. Most Bengali Muslims did not even abide by the basic
principles of Islam and adhered to these Hindu customs.

Haji Shariatullah then and there had sworn to bring the Bengali Muslims back in the true path of
Islam, which later had churned into the gargantuan Faraizi Movement. He had assayed to lay
paramount accentuation on the five fundamentals of Islam, insisted on the complete acceptance
and strict observation of virginal monotheism and reprobated all digressions from the original
doctrines as shirk(polytheism) and bid`at (sinful conception). Umpteen rituals and ceremonies
affiliated with birth, marriage and death like Chuttee- Puttee, Chilla, Shabgasht
procession, Fatihah, Milad and Urs were heavily prohibited by Shariatullah saint-worship,
demonstrating unnecessary admiration to the pir, lifting of the taziah during Muharram were also
adjudged shirk. Haji Shariatullah indeed had laid gross emphasis upon justice, social equality
and universal fraternity of Muslims. Haji Shariatullah deemed British domination in Bengal as
exceedingly detrimental to the religious life of Muslims. Travelling in earnest quest of the Hanafi
law, he spoke up that the complete non-existence of a lawfully-appointed Muslim caliph or
representative administrator in Bengal had stripped the Muslims of the privilege of observing
congregational prayers. To the Faraizis, Friday congregation was inexcusable in a predominantly
non-Muslim state like Bengal.

RECEPTION

The Faraizi movement thus began to circulate with astonishing promptness in the districts
of Dhaka, Faridpur, Madaripur, Barisal, Mymensingh and Comilla.

177
Some Muslims, on the other hand, particularly the landlords of Dhaka, hence, reacted sharply
against him and this caused a riot in Noyabari, Dhaka District. Due to the reaction of these
landlords and Hindu landlords and European indigo planters, this movement swelled into a
socio-economic issue.

The landlords levied numerous Abwabs (plural form of the Arabic term bab, signifying a door, a
section, a chapter, a title). During Mughal India, all temporary and conditional taxes and
impositions levied by the government over and above regular taxes were referred to as abwabs.
More explicitly, abwab stood for all irregular impositions on Raiyats above the established
assessment of land in the Pargana) over and above normal rent and such abwabs were horribly
dishonest in the eye of law. Several abwabs were of religious nature. Haji Shariatullah then
intervened to object to such a practice and commanded his disciples not to pay these dishonest
cesses to the landlords. The landlords had even inflicted a ban on the slaughter of cow, especially
on the occasion of Eid-ul-Azha. The Faraizis ordained their peasant followers not to cling and
stick by to such a ban. All these heated instances added up to tensed and stressed relationships
amongst the Faraizies and the landlords, who were nearly all Hindus. This was another major
communal cause, which in the long run, had induced these two religious factions to stand against
each other, leading to the Faraizi Movement.

Gradually gathering up incidents under the Islamic-led Faraizi movement could be witnessed in
various parts of Bengal, with overwhelming English-Bengali agreement for perhaps the very first
time. The outraged landlords built up a propaganda campaign with the British officials,
incriminating the Faraizis with mutinous mood. In 1837, these Hindu landlords indicted Haji
Shariatullah of attempting to build up a monarchy of his own, similar in lines to Titu Mir. They
also brought several lawsuits against the Faraizis, in which they benefitted dynamic cooperation
of the European indigo planters. Shariatullah was placed under the detention of the police in
more than one instance, for purportedly inciting agrarian turbulences in Faridpur.

LEGACY

After the death of Haji Shariatullah in 1840, leadership of the Faraizi movement passed to his
only son, Muhsinuddin Ahmad Dudu Miyan.

Palong thana of Madaripur, a district in the Dhaka Division of Bangladesh was named Shariatpur
District in honor of Haji Shariatullah. Bangladesh issued a postage stamp commemorating him
on 10 March 1993. The 450 metres (1,480 ft) Hazi Shariatullah Bridge over the Arial Khan River
on the Mawa-Bhanga highway is named after him.

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SYED MIR NISAR ALI TITUMIR

179
Syed Mir Nisar Ali Titumir (Bengali: ; 17821831) was an Islamic preacher who led
a peasant uprsing against the zamindarsand the British colonial authorities in Bengal, British
India during the 19th century. He along with his followers, he built a bamboo fort (Bansher-
Kella- in Bengali) which passed into Bengali folk legend. After the storming of the fort
by British soldiers, Titumir died of his wounds on 19 November 1831.

EARLY LIFE

Titumir was born as Syed Mir Nisar Ali on 27 January 1782 (14 Magh 1182 in the Bengali
calendar), in Chandpur village, in North 24 Parganas district (currently in West Bengal, India).
His father was Syed Mir Hassan Ali and mother was Abida Ruqayya Khatun. His ancestor Saiyid
Shahadat Ali came to Bengal from Arabia to preach Islam. Saiyid Abdullah, son of Shahadat Ali,
was appointed the chief qazi of Jafarpur by the emperor of Delhi and was invested with the title
of "Mir Insaaf." They claimed descent from Ali, the fourth caliph of Islam.

Titu Mirs education began in his village school, after which he moved to a local madrassa. By
the time he was 18 years of age, he had become a Hafiz of the Qur'an and a scholar of
the hadith and Muslim traditions. He was also accomplished with the Bengali, Arabic,
and Persian languages. During this time he met Syed Ahmad Barelvi in Kolkataand became a
preacher with the Tariqah-i-Muhammadiya movement.

RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL ACTIVISM

In 1822, Titu Mir went on a pilgrimage to Mecca, the Hajj enjoined upon all Muslims, and on his
return he commenced organizing the Muslim peasants of his native village against the landlords
or Zamindars and the British colonialists. He also began wearing the tahband, a tube shaped
garment worn around the waist, in preference to the dhoti, seen as more overtly Hindu. On his
return from Makkah in 1827, Titu Mir started preaching among the Muslims of 24
Parganas and Nadia, advising them to refrain from practicing shirk and bidah.

CONFRONTATIONS WITH THE ZAMINDARS

Titu Mir opposed a number of discriminatory measures in force at that time which included taxes
on mosques and the wearing of beards. This brought him into conflict with
Hindu zamindar Krishnadeva Rai of Purha, Kaliprasanna Mukhopadhyay of Gobardanga,

180
Rajnarayan of Taragonia, Gauri Prasad Chowdhury of Nagpur and Devanath Rai of Gobra-
govindpur.

Titu Mir had himself belonged to a "peyada" or martial family and himself had served under a
Zamindar as a 'lathial or 'lethel', a fighter with a quarterstaff or lathi, (which in Bengal is made of
bamboo, not wood) and he trained his men in hand-to-hand combat and the use of the lathi. Titu
Mir formed a "Mujahid" consisting of lathials. The increasing strength of Titu Mir alarmed
the zamindars who attempted to involve the British in their fight against him. Being instigated by
the Zamindar of Gobardanga, Davis, the English kuthial (factor) of Mollahati, advanced with his
force against Titu Mir, but were routed.

Titu Mir filed a complaint to the East India Company against the oppression of the Zamindars,
but to no result.

He fought against local Zaminder Krishna Dev Roy. who fearing his growing forces, took help of
the British to attack Titumir's followers.

CONFRONTATIONS WITH THE BRITISH

The followers of Titu Mir, believed to have grown to 15,000 by that time, readied themselves for
armed conflict, and they built a fort of bamboo at Narikelbaria, near the town of Barasat. This
was surrounded by a high double curtain wall of bamboo stakes filled in with mud cladding and
sun-baked bricks.

Titu Mir declared independence from the British, and regions comprising the current districts
of 24 Parganas, Nadia and Faridpur came under his control. The private armies of the Zamindars
and the forces of the British met with a series of defeats at the hands of his men as a result of his
strike-and-retreat guerrilla tactics.

Finally, the British forces, led by Lieutenant Colonel Stewart consisting of 100 cavalry, 300
native infantry and artillery with two cannons, mounted concerted attacks on 19 November 1831,
on Titu Mir and his followers. Armed with nothing more than the bamboo quarterstaff
and Lathi and a few swords and spears, Titu Mir and his forces could not withstand the might of
modern weapons, and were overwhelmed. The bamboo castle was destroyed, and Titu Mir was
killed along with several of his followers. The commanding officer of the British forces noted his
opponent's bravery in dispatches, and also commented on the strength and resilience of bamboo
as a material for fortification, since he had had to pound it with artillery for a surprisingly long
time before it gave way.

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After a long-drawn trial, Golam Rasul, Titumir's nephew and second in command was hanged
and some 350 others were sentenced to transportation for life.

LEGACY

Titu Mir has been a source of inspiration in the liberation for the people of Bangladesh.

In 2004, listeners of the BBC's Bengali service voted Titu Mir 11 on a list of 20 "Greatest
Bengalis." The survey produced well over 100 names, and the top 20 was compiled on points
awarded according to listeners' order of preference.

In Dhaka, Jinnah College was renamed to Titumir College in 1971. Titumir Hall is also a
dormitory of Dhaka's Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology.

Bangladesh Navy has its principal base in Khulna named after him as 'BNS Titumir'.

On 19 November 1992, the Government of Bangladesh issued a commemorative stamp honoring

Titumir on the 161st anniversary of his death.

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU

182
Jawaharlal Nehru (14 November 1889 27 May 1964) was the firstPrime Minister of India and
a central figure in Indian politics before and after independence. He emerged as the paramount
leader of the Indian independence movement under the tutelage of Mahatma Gandhi and ruled
India from its establishment as an independent nation in 1947 until his death in 1964. He is
considered to be the architect of the modern Indian nation-state: a sovereign, socialist, secular,
and democratic republic. He was also known as Pandit Nehru due to his roots with the Kashmiri
Panditcommunity while many Indian children knew him as "Uncle Nehru" (Chacha Nehru).

The son of Motilal Nehru, a prominent lawyer and nationalist statesman and Swaroop Rani,
Nehru was a graduate of Trinity College, Cambridge and the Inner Temple, where he trained to
be a barrister. Upon his return to India, he enrolled at the Allahabad High Court, and took an
interest in national politics, which eventually replaced his legal practice. A committed nationalist
since his teenage years, he became a rising figure in Indian politics during the upheavals of the
1910s. He became the prominent leader of the left-wing factions of the Indian National

183
Congress during the 1920s, and eventually of the entire Congress, with the tacit approval of his
mentor, Gandhi. As Congress President in 1929, Nehru called for complete independence from
the British Raj and instigated the Congress's decisive shift towards the left.

Nehru and the Congress dominated Indian politics during the 1930s as the country moved
towards independence. His idea of a secular nation-state was seemingly validated when the
Congress, under his leadership, swept the 1937 provincial elections and formed the government
in several provinces; on the other hand, the separatist Muslim League fared much poorer. But
these achievements were seriously compromised in the aftermath of the Quit India Movement in
1942, which saw the British effectively crush the Congress as a political organization. Nehru,
who had reluctantly heeded Gandhi's call for immediate independence, for he had desired to
support the Allied war effort during the Second World War, came out of a lengthy prison term to
a much altered political landscape. The Muslim League under his old Congress colleague and
now bte noire, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, had come to dominate Muslim politics in India.
Negotiations between Nehru and Jinnah for power sharing failed and gave way to the
independence and bloody partition of India in 1947.

Nehru was elected by the Congress to assume office as independent India's first Prime Minister,
although the question of leadership had been settled as far back as 1941, when Gandhi
acknowledged Nehru as his political heir and successor. As Prime Minister, he set out to realize
his vision of India. The Constitution of India was enacted in 1950, after which he embarked on
an ambitious program of economic, social and political reforms. Chiefly, he oversaw India's
transition from a colony to a republic, while nurturing a plural, multi-party democracy. In foreign
policy, he took a leading role in Non-Alignment while projecting India as a regional hegemony
in South Asia.

Under Nehru's leadership, the Congress emerged as a catch-all party, dominating national and
state-level politics and winning consecutive elections in 1951, 1957, and 1962. He remained
popular with the people of India in spite of political troubles in his final years and failure of
leadership during the 1962 Sino-Indian War. In India, his birthday is celebrated as Children's
Day.

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 KWAME NKRUMAH

EARLY LIFE

Kwame Nkrumah was born in about 1909 in Nkroful, Gold Coast. Although his mother, whose
name was Nyanibah, later stated his year of birth was 1912, Nkrumah wrote that he was born on
18 September 1909, a Saturday. By the naming customs of the Akan people, he was given the
name Kwame, the name given to males born on a Saturday. During his years as a student in the
United States, though, he was known as Francis Nwia Kofi Nkrumah - Kofi is the name given to
males born on Friday. The name of his father is not known; most accounts say he was a
goldsmith. According to Ebenezer Obiri Addo in his study of the future president, the name
"Nkrumah", a name traditionally given to a ninth child, indicates that Kwame likely held that
place in the house of his father, who had several wives. Kwame was the only child of his mother

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Nkrumah completed a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics and sociology in 1939. Lincoln then
appointed him an assistant lecturer in philosophy, and he began to receive invitations to be a
guest preacher in Presbyterian churches in Philadelphia and New York. In 1939, Nkrumah
enrolled at Lincoln's seminary and at the Ivy League University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia.
He gained a Bachelor of Theology degree from Lincoln in 1942, the top student in the course. He
earned from Penn the following year a Master of Arts degree in philosophy and a Master of
Science in education. While at Penn, Nkrumah worked with the linguist William Everett
Welmers, providing the spoken material that formed the basis of the first descriptive grammar of
his native Fante dialect of the Akan language.

Nkrumah was an activist student, organizing a group of expatriate African students in

Pennsylvania and building it into the African Students Association of America and Canada,
becoming its president. Some members felt that the group should aspire for each colony to gain
independence on its own; Nkrumah urged a Pan-African strategy. Nkrumah played a major role
in the Pan-African conference held in New York in 1944, which urged the United States, at the
end of the Second World War, to help ensure Africa became developed and free.

Nkrumah spent his time on political organizing. He and Padmore were among the principal
organizers, and co-treasurers of the Fifth Pan-African Congress in Manchester (October 1519,
1945). The congress elaborated a strategy for supplanting colonialism with African socialism.
They agreed to pursue a federal United States of Africa, with interlocking regional organizations,
governing through separate states of limited sovereignty. They planned to pursue a new African
culture without tribalism, democratic within a socialist or communist system, synthesizing
traditional aspects with modern thinking, and for this to be achieved by nonviolent means if
possible. Among those who attended the congress was the venerable W.E.B. Dubois along with
some who later took leading roles in leading their nations to independence, including Hastings
Banda of Nyasaland (which became Malawi), Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya Obafemi Awolowo of
Nigeria and C.LR. James.

UNITED GOLD COAST CONVENTION

The 1946 Gold Coast constitution gave Africans a majority on the Legislative Council for the
first time. Seen as a major step towards self-government, the new arrangement prompted the
colony's first true political party, founded in August 1947, the United Gold Coast
Convention (UGCC). The UGCC sought self-government as quickly as possible. Since the
leading members were all successful professionals, they needed to pay someone to run the party,
and their choice fell on Nkrumah at the suggestion of Ako Adjei. Nkrumah hesitated, realising
the UGCC was controlled by conservative interests, but decided that the new post gave him huge
political opportunities, and accepted. After being questioned by British officials about his

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communist affiliations, Nkrumah boarded the MV Accra at Liverpool in November 1947 for the
voyage home.

After brief stops in Sierra Leone, Liberia, and the Ivory Coast, he arrived in the Gold Coast, and
after a brief stay and reunion with his mother in Tarkwa, began work at the party's headquarters
in Saltpond on 29 December 1947. Nkrumah quickly submitted plans for branches of the UGCC
to be established colony-wide, and for strikes if necessary to gain political ends. This activist
stance divided the party's governing committee, which was led by J.B. Danquah. Nkrumah
embarked on a tour to gain donations for the UGCC and establish new branches.

GHANAIAN INDEPENDENCE

Ghana became independent on 6 March 1957. As the first of Britain's African colonies to gain
majority-rule independence, the celebrations in Accra were the focus of world attention; over 100
reporters and photographers covered the events. United States President Dwight D.
Eisenhower sent congratulations and his vice president, Richard Nixon, to represent the U.S. at
the events. The Soviet delegation urged Nkrumah to visit Moscow as soon as possible. Ralph
Bunche, an African American, was there for the United Nations, while the Duchess of
Kent represented Queen Elizabeth. Offers of assistance poured in from across the world. Even
without them, the country seemed prosperous, with cocoa prices high and the potential of new
resource development.

As the fifth of March turned to the sixth, Nkrumah stood before tens of thousands of supporters
and proclaimed, "Ghana will be free forever". He spoke at the first session of the Ghana
Parliament that Independence Day, telling his new country's citizens that "we have a duty to
prove to the world that Africans can conduct their own affairs with efficiency and tolerance and
through the exercise of democracy. We must set an example to all Africa."

Nkrumah was hailed as the Osagyefo - which means "redeemer" in the Akan language. This
independence ceremony included the Duchess of Kent and Governor General Charles Arden-
Clarke. With more than 600 reporters in attendance, Ghanaian independence became one of the
most internationally reported news events in modern African history.

The flag of Ghana designed by Theodosia Okoh, inverting Ethiopia's green-yellow-red Lion of
Judah flag and replacing the lion with a black star. Red symbolizes bloodshed; green stands for

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beauty, agriculture, and abundance; yellow represents mineral wealth; and the Black
Star represents African freedom. The country's new coat of arms, designed by Amon Kotei,
includes eagles, a lion, a St. George's Cross, and a Black Star, with copious gold and gold trim.
Philip Gbeho was commissioned to compose the new national anthem, God Bless Our
Homeland Ghana.

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION

Nkrumah had only a short honeymoon before there was unrest among his people. There was
trouble in Togoland that required the moving of troops there. A serious bus strike in Accra
stemmed from resentments among the Ga people, who believed members of other tribes were
getting preferred treatment in government promotion, and this led to riots there in August.
Nkrumah's response was to repress local movements by the Avoidance of Discrimination Act (6
December 1957), which banned regional or tribally-based political parties. Another strike at
tribalism fell in Ashanti, where Nkrumah and the CPP got most local chiefs who were not party
supporters destooled. These repressive actions concerned the opposition parties, who came
together to form the United Party under Kofi Abrefa Busia.

In 1958, an opposition MP was arrested on charges of trying to obtain arms abroad for a planned
infiltration of the Ghana Army (GA). Nkrumah was convinced there had been an assassination
plot against him, and his response was to have the parliament pass the Preventive Detention Act,
allowing for incarceration for up to five years without charge or trial, with only Nkrumah
empowered to release prisoners early. According to Nkrumah's biographer, David Birmingham,
"no single measure did more to bring down Nkrumah's reputation than his adoption of
internment without trial for the preservation of security."Nkrumah intended to bypass the British-
trained judiciary, which he saw as opposing his plans when they subjected them to constitutional
scrutiny.

Another source of irritation was the regional assemblies, which had been organized on an interim
basis pending further constitutional discussions. The opposition, which was strong in Ashanti and
the north, proposed significant powers for the assemblies; the CPP wanted them to be more or
less advisory. In 1959, Nkrumah used his majority in the parliament to push through the
Constitutional Amendment Act, which abolished the assemblies and allowed the parliament to
amend the constitution with a simple majority.

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ECONOMIC POLICY

The Gold Coast had been among the wealthiest and most socially advanced areas in Africa, with
schools, railways, hospitals, social security and an advanced economy.

Nkrumah attempted to rapidly industrialize Ghana's economy. He reasoned that if Ghana escaped
the colonial trade system by reducing dependence on foreign capital, technology, and material
goods, it could become truly independent. However, overspending on capital projects caused the
country to be driven into debtestimated as much as $1 billion USD by the time he was ousted
in 1966.

After the Ten Year Development Plan, Nkrumah brought forth the Second Development Plan in
1959. This plan called for the development of manufacuturing: 600 factories producing 100
varieties of product.

The Statutory Corporations Act, passed in November 1959 and revised in 1961 and 1964, created
the legal framework for public corporations, which included state enterprises. This law placed
the country's major corporations under the direction of government ministers. The State
Enterprises Secretariat office was located in Flagstaff House and under the direct control of the
president.

After visiting the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China in 1961, Nkrumah apparently became
still more convinced of the need for state control of the economy.

Nkrumah's time in office began successfully: forestry, fishing, and cattle-breeding expanded,
production of cocoa (Ghanas main export) doubled, and modest deposits of bauxite and gold
were exploited more effectively. The construction of a dam on the Volta River (launched in 1961)
provided water for irrigation and hydro-electric power, which produced enough electricity for the
towns and for a new aluminum plant. Government funds were also provided for village projects
in which local people built schools and roads, while free health care and education were
introduced.

A Seven-Year Plan introduced in 1964 focused on further industrialization, emphasizing

domestic substitutes for common imports, modernization of the building materials industry,
machine making, electrification, and electronics.

ENERGY PROJECTS

Nkrumah's advocacy of industrial development, with help of longtime friend and Minister of
Finance, Komla Agbeli Gbedema, led to Volta River Project: the construction of a hydroelectric

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power plant, the Akosombo Dam on the Volta River in eastern Ghana. The Volta River Project
was the centrepiece of Nkrumah's economic program. On February 20, 1958, he told the
National Assembly: "It is my strong belief that the Volta River Project provides the quickest and
most certain method of leading us towards economic independence". Ghana invoked assistance
from the United States, Israel, and the World Bank in constructing the dam.

Kaiser Aluminum agreed to build the dam for Nkrumah, but restricted what could be produced
using the power generated. Nkrumah borrowed money to build the dam, and placed Ghana in
debt. To finance the debt, he raised taxes on the cocoa farmers in the south. This accentuated
regional differences and jealousy. The dam was completed and opened by Nkrumah amidst world
publicity on 22 January 1966.

Nkrumah initiated the Ghana Nuclear Reactor Project in 1961, created the Ghana Atomic Energy
Commission in 1963, and in 1964 laid the first stone in the building of an atomic energy facility.

FOREIGN AND MILITARY POLICY

Nkrumah actively promoted a policy of Pan-Africanism from the beginning of his presidency.
This entailed the creation of a series of new international organizations, which held their
inaugural meetings in Accra. These were:

the First Conference of Independent States, in April 1958;

the more inclusive All-African Peoples' Conference, with representatives from 62

nationalist organizations from across the continent, in December 1958;

the All-African Trade Union Federation, meeting in November 1959, to coordinate the
African labor movement;

the Positive Action and Security in Africa conference, in April 1960, discussing Algeria,
South Africa, and French nuclear weapons testing; and

the Conference of African Women, on 18 July 1960.

Meanwhile, Ghana withdrew from colonial organizations including West Africa Airways
Corporation, the West African Currency Board, the West African Cocoa Research Institute, and
the West African Court of Appeal.

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In the Year of Africa, 1960, Nkrumah negotiated the creation of a Union of African States, a
political alliance between Ghana, Guinea, and Mali. Immediately there formed a women's group
called Women of the Union of African States.

Nkrumah was a leading figure in the short-lived Casablanca Group of African leaders, which
sought to achieve pan-African unity and harmony through deep political, economic and military
integration of the continent in the early 1960s prior to the establishment of the Organisation of
African Unity (OAU)

POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

Nkrumah called himself a scientific socialist and a Marxist and is considered relatively
orthodox in his MarxismLeninism. He generally took a non-aligned Marxist perspective on
economics, and believed capitalism had malignant effects that were going to stay with Africa for
a long time. Although he was clear on distancing himself from the African socialism of many of
his contemporaries, Nkrumah argued that socialism was the system that would best
accommodate the changes that capitalism had brought, while still respecting African values. He
specifically addresses these issues and his politics in a 1967 essay entitled "African Socialism
Revisited":

"We know that the traditional African society was founded on principles of egalitarianism. In its
actual workings, however, it had various shortcomings. Its humanist impulse, nevertheless, is
something that continues to urge us towards our all-African socialist reconstruction. We postulate
each man to be an end in him, not merely a means; and we accept the necessity of guaranteeing
each man equal opportunities for his development. The implications of this for socio-political
practice have to be worked out scientifically, and the necessary social and economic policies
pursued with resolution. Any meaningful humanism must begin from egalitarianism and must
lead to objectively chosen policies for safeguarding and sustaining egalitarianism.

OVERTHROW

In February 1966, while Nkrumah was on a state visit to North Vietnam and China, his
government was overthrown in a military coup led by Emmanuel Kwasi Kotoka and the National
Liberation Council. President Nkrumah himself alluded to possible American complicity in the

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coup in his 1969 memoir Dark Days in Ghana, though he may have based this conclusion on
falsified documents shown to him by the KGB.

In 1978 John Stockwell, former Chief of the CIA's Angola Task Force, wrote that agents at the
CIA's Accra station "maintained intimate contact with the plotters as a coup was hatched."
Afterward, "inside CIA headquarters the Accra station was given full, if unofficial credit for the
eventual coup None of this was adequately reflected in the agency's written records."Later the
same year, Seymour Hersh of the New York Times, citing "first hand intelligence sources",
defended Stockwell's account, claiming that "many CIA operatives in Africa considered the
agency's role in the overthrow of Mr. Nkrumah to have been pivotal."These claims have never
been verified, though declassified MI5 documents have indicated that a British espionage agent
known as "Swift" had managed to infiltrate the inner circles of the Nkrumah government.

Following the coup, Ghana realigned itself internationally, cutting its close ties to Guinea and the
Eastern Bloc, accepting a new friendship with the Western Bloc, and inviting the International
Monetary Fund and World Bank to take a lead role in managing the economy. With this reversal,
accentuated by the expulsion of immigrants and a new willingness to negotiate
with apartheid South Africa, Ghana lost a good deal of its stature in the eyes of African
nationalists.

EXILE, DEATH, TRIBUTES AND LEGACY

Nkrumah never returned to Ghana, but he continued to push for his vision of African unity. He
lived in exile in Conakry, Guinea, as the guest of President Ahmed Skou Tour, who made him
honorary co-president of the country. He read, wrote, corresponded, gardened, and entertained
guests. Despite retirement from public office, he felt that he was still threatened by western
intelligence agencies. When his cook died mysteriously, he feared that someone would poison
him, and began hoarding food in his room. He suspected that foreign agents were going through
his mail, and lived in constant fear of abduction and assassination. In failing health, he flew
to Bucharest, Romania, for medical treatment in August 1971. He died of prostate cancer in April
1972 at the age of 62.

Nkrumah was buried in a tomb in the village of his birth, Nkroful, Ghana. While the tomb
remains in Nkroful, his remains were transferred to a large national memorial tomb and park in
Accra.

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Over his lifetime, Nkrumah was awarded honorary doctorates by Lincoln University, Moscow
StateUniversity; Cairo University in Cairo, Egypt; Jagiellonian
University in Krakw, Poland; Humboldt University in East Berlin; and many other universities.

In 2000, he was voted Africa's man of the millennium by listeners to the BBC World Service,
being described by the BBC as a "Hero of Independence", and an "International symbol of
freedom as the leader of the first black African country to shake off the chains of colonial rule."

According to intelligence documents released by the American Office of the Historian,

"Nkrumah was doing more to undermine [U.S. government] interests than any other black
African."

In September 2009, President John Atta Mills declared 21 September (the 100th anniversary of
Kwame Nkrumah's birth) to be Founder's Day, a statutory holiday in Ghana to celebrate the
legacy of Kwame Nkrumah.

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 JOMO KENYATTA

Jomo Kenyatta (1891 22 August 1978) was a Kenyan politician and the first President of
Kenya. Kenyatta was the leader of Kenya from independence in 1963 to his death in 1978,
serving first as Prime Minister (196364) and then as President (196478). He is considered
the founding father of the Kenyan nation. Kenyatta was a well-educated intellectual who
authored several books, and is remembered as a Pan-Africanist. He is also the father of Kenya's
fourth and current President, Uhuru Kenyatta.

Numerous institutions and locations are named after Kenyatta, including Nairobi's Jomo
Kenyatta International Airport, Kenyatta International Conference Centre, Nairobi's main street
and main streets in many Kenyan cities and towns, numerous schools, two universities (Kenyatta
University and Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology), the country's main
referral hospital, markets and housing estates. A statue in Nairobi's centre and monuments all
over Kenya stand in his honour. Kenya observed a public holiday every 20 October in his honour
until the 2010 constitution abolished Kenyatta Day and replaced it with Mashujaa (Heroes') day.

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Before the enactment of the new constitution, Kenyatta's face adorned Kenyan currency notes
and coins of all denominations except the 40 shilling coin.

EARLY LIFE

Jomo Kenyatta was born in Kiambu to parents Muigai wa Kung'u and Wambui in the village
of Gatundu, in British East Africa (now Kenya), a member of the Kikuyu. His date of birth,
sometime in the early to mid-1890s, was unclear even to him, as birth records were not
traditionally kept. However, at least one biography gives his date of birth as 20 October 1891, a
date so precise as to likely be apocryphal. His father died while Kamau was very young, after
which, as was the custom, he was adopted by his uncle Ngengi, who also inherited his mother, to
become Kamau wa Ngengi. When his mother died during childbirth, young Kamau moved from
Ng'enda to Muthiga to live with his medicine man grandfather Kng wa Magana, to whom he
became very close.

He left home to become a resident pupil at the Church of Scotland Mission (CSM) at Thogoto,
close to Kikuyu, about 12 miles north-west of Nairobi. He studied amongst other subjects: the
Bible, English, mathematics and carpentry. He paid the school fees by working as a houseboy
and cook for a white settler living nearby.

In his late teens, having completed his mission school education, he became an apprentice
carpenter. The following year he underwent initiation ceremonies, including circumcision, to
become a member of the kihiu-mwiri age group. In 1914, he converted to Christianity, assuming
the name John Peter, which he then changed to Johnstone Kamau. He left the mission later that
year to seek employment.

He first worked as an apprentice carpenter on a sisal farm in Thika, under the tutelage of John
Cook, who had been in charge of the building programme at Thogoto. During the First World
War, Kikuyu were forced into work by the British authorities. To avoid this, he lived
with Kamba relatives in Narok, where he worked as a clerk for an Asian contractor.

In 1920 he married Grace Wahu, under Kikuyu customs. When Grace got pregnant, his church
elders ordered him to get married before a European magistrate, and undertake the appropriate
church rites. On 20 November 1920 Kamau's first son Peter Muigai, was born. Kamau served as
an interpreter in the Nairobi High Court, and ran a store out of his Dagoretti home during this
period. He eventually married Grace Wahu in a civil ceremony in 1922. Grace Wahu lived in the
Dagoretti home until her death in April 2007 at the age of around 100.

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In 1922 Kamau began working, as a store clerk and water-meter reader for the Nairobi Municipal
Council Public Works Department, once again under John Cook who was the Water
Superintendent. Meter reading helped him meet many Kenyan-Asians at their homes who would
become important allies later on.

He entered politics after taking interest in the political activities of James Beauttah and Joseph
Kang'ethe the leaders of the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA). He joined KCA in 1924 and
rose up the ranks of the association. Eventually he began to edit the movement's Kikuyu
newspaper. By 1928 he had become the KCA's general secretary.

In 1928 he launched a monthly Kikuyu-language newspaper called Mugwithania (Reconciler)

which aimed to unite all sections of the Kikuyu. The paper, supported by an Asian-owned
printing press, had a mild and unassuming tone, and was tolerated by the colonial government.
He also made a presentation on Kikuyu land problems before the Hilton Young
Commission in Nairobi in the same year.

TRIAL AND IMPRISONMENT

Kenyatta was arrested in October 1952 and indicted with five others on the charges of "managing
and being a member" of the Mau Mau Society, a radical anti-colonial movement engaged in
rebellion against Kenya's British rulers. The accused were known as the "Kapenguria Six".

The trial lasted five months: Rawson Macharia, the main prosecution witness, turned out to have
perjured himself; the judge who had only recently been awarded an unusually large pension, and
who maintained secret contact with the then colonial Governor of Kenya Evelyn Baringduring
the trial was openly hostile to the defendants' cause.

The defence, led by British barrister D. N. Pritt and legal expert and barrister H._O._Davies ,
argued that the white settlers were trying to scapegoat Kenyatta and that there was no evidence
tying him to the Mau Mau. The court sentenced Kenyatta on 8 April 1953 to seven years'
imprisonment with hard labour and indefinite restriction thereafter. The subsequent appeal was
refused by the British Privy Council in 1954.

Kenyatta remained in prison until 1959, after which he was detained in Lodwar, a remote part of
Kenya.

The state of emergency was lifted on 12 January 1960.

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On 28 February 1960, a public meeting of 25,000 in Nairobi demanded his release. On 15 April
1960, over a million signatures for a plea to release him were presented to the Governor. On 14
May 1960, he was elected KANU President in absentia. On 23 March 1961, Kenyan leaders,
including Daniel arap Moi, later his longtime Vice President and successor as president, visited
him at Lodwar. On 11 April 1961, he was moved to Maralal with daughter Margaret where he
met world press for the first time in eight years. On 14 August 1961, he was released and brought
to Gatundu.

While contemporary opinion linked Kenyatta with the Mau Mau, historians have questioned his
alleged leadership of the radical movement. Kenyatta was in truth a political moderate. His
marriage of Colonial Chief's daughters, his post-independence Kikuyu allies mainly being
former colonial collaborators (though also from his tribe), and his short shrift treatment of former
Mau Mau fighters after he came to power, all suggest a lack of strong ties to the Mau Mau.

LEADERSHIP
PRE-INDEPENDENCE

Kenyatta was admitted into the Legislative Council after his release in 1961, after Kariuki Njiiri
(son of late Chief Njiiri) gave up his Kigumo seat for him.

In 1961 and 1963, he led the KANU delegation to first and second Lancaster Conference in
London where Kenya's independence constitution was negotiated.

Elections were then held in May 1963, pitting Kenyatta's KANU (Kenya African National
Union- which advocated for Kenya to be a unitary state) against KADU (Kenya African
Democratic Union which advocated for Kenya to be an ethnic-federal state). KANU beat
KADU by winning 83 seats out of 124. On 1 June 1963, Kenyatta became prime minister of the
autonomous Kenyan government. After independence, Queen Elizabeth II remained as Head of
State (after Independence, styled as Queen of Kenya), represented by a Governor-General. He
consistently asked white settlers not to leave Kenya and supported reconciliation.

POST-INDEPENDENCE

Kenyatta retained the role of prime minister after independence was declared and jubilantly
celebrated on 12 December 1963.

On 1 June 1964, he had Parliament amend the Constitution to make Kenya a republic. The office
of prime minister was replaced by a president with wide executive and legislative powers.

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Elected by the National Assembly, he was head of State, head of Government and Commander-
in-Chief of the armed forces. Under the provisions of the amendment, Kenyatta automatically
became president.

His policy was that of continuity and gradual Africanisation of the government, keeping many
colonial civil servants in their old jobs as they were gradually replaced by Kenyans. He asked for
British troops' help against Somali rebels, Shiftas, in the northeast and in ending an army mutiny
in Nairobi in January 1964.

On 10 November 1964, KADU officially dissolved and its representatives joined KANU,
forming a single party.

Kenyatta was re-elected un-opposed in 1966, and the next year had the Constitution amended to
expand his powers. This term featured border conflicts with Somalia, and more political
opposition. He consolidated his power greatly, and placed several of his Kikuyu tribesmen in
most of the powerful state and security offices and posts. State security forces harassed dissidents
and were suspected of complicity in several murders of prominent personalities deemed threats
to his regime, including Pio Gama Pinto, Tom Mboya and J.M. Kariuki. MP and Lawyer C.M.G.
Argwings-Kodhek and former Kadu Leader and minister Ronald Ngala, also died in suspicious
car accidents.

In 1968 he published his biography Suffering Without Bitterness.

In the 1969 elections, Kenyatta banned the only other party, the Kenya People's Union (formed
and led by his former vice president, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, who had been forced to quit
KANU along with his left leaning allies), detained its leaders, and called elections in which only
KANU was allowed to participate. For all intents and purposes, Kenya was now a one-party
state, though it would not be formally declared the only legally permitted party until 1982.

On 29 January 1970 he was sworn in as President for a further term. For the remainder of his
presidency, Kenyatta held complete political control of the country. He made use of detention,
appeals to ethnic loyalties, and careful appointment of government jobs to maintain his
commanding position in Kenya's political system. However, as the 1970s wore on, advancing
age kept him from the day-to-day management of government affairs. He intervened only when
necessary to settle disputed issues. His relative isolation resulted in increasing domination of
Kenya's affairs by well-connected Kikuyu who acquired great wealth as a result.

Kenyatta was re-elected as President in 1974, again as the only candidate. On 5 November 1974,
he was sworn in as President for a third term. His increasingly feeble health meant that his inner
circle effectively ruled the country, and greatly enriched themselves, in his name. He remained
president until his death four years later in 1978.

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DEATH

President Kenyatta suffered a heart attack in 1966. In the mid-1970s, he lapsed into periodic
comas lasting from a few hours to a few days from time to time. On 14 August 1978, he hosted
his entire family, including his son Peter Magana who flew in from Britain with his family, at a
reunion in Mombasa. On 22 August 1978, President Kenyatta died in Mombasa of natural causes
attributable to old age; he was about 86 at the time of his death. He was buried on 31 August
1978 in Nairobi in a state funeral at a mausoleum on Parliament grounds.

He was succeeded as President after his death by his vice-president, Daniel arap Moi, who in
turn ruled over Kenya until his retirement in 2002.

LEGACY

Mzee Jomo Kenyatta, as he was popularly known, was an important and influential statesman in
Africa. He is credited with leading Kenya to independence and setting up the country as a
relatively prosperous capitalist state. He pursued a moderate pro-Western, anti-Communist
economic philosophy and foreign policy. He oversaw a peaceful land reform process, oversaw
the setting up of the institutions of independent Kenya, and also oversaw Kenya's admission into
the United Nations.

However, Kenyatta was not without major flaws, and did also bequeath Kenya some major
problems which continue to bedevil the country to date, hindering her development, and
threatening her existence as a peaceful unitary multi-ethnic state.

He failed to mould Kenya, being its founding father, into a homogeneous multi-ethnic state.
Instead, the country remains a de facto confederation of competing tribal interests.

His authoritarian style, characterized by patronage, favouritism, tribalism and/or nepotism drew
criticism and dissent, and set an example followed by his successors. He had the Constitution
amended to expand his powers, consolidating executive power.

He is also criticised for having ruled through a group consisting largely of his relatives, other
Kikuyus, mostly from his native Kiambu district, offspring of former colonial chiefs, and African
Kikuyu colonial collaborators and their offspring, while giving scant reward to those whom
many consider the real fighters for Kenya's independence. This clique became the wealthiest,
most powerful and most influential class in Kenya.

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Kenyatta has further been criticised for encouraging the culture of wealth accumulation by public
officials using the power and influence of their offices, thereby entrenching corruption in Kenya.
He is regularly charged with having accumulated huge land holdings in Kenya. "The regime of
Kenya's first president, Jomo Kenyatta, was riddled with land grabbing which was perpetrated by
him for his benefit and members of his family between 1964 and 1966, one-sixth of European
settlers lands that were intended for settlement of landless and land-scarce Africans were
cheaply sold to the then President Kenyatta and his wife Ngina as well as his children throughout
the years of President Kenyatta's administration, his relatives friends and officials in his
administration also benefited from the vice with wanton impunity." a report by Kenya's Truth,
Justice and Reconciliation Commission was recently quoted as saying.

His policies are also criticised for perpetuating a large income and development inequality gap in
the country. Development and resource allocation in the country during his reign was seen to
have favoured some regions of the country over others. His resettlement of many Kikuyu
tribesmen in the country's Rift Valley province is widely considered to have been done unfairly

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 GAMAL ABDEL NASSER HUSSEIN

Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein (15 January 1918 28 September 1970) was the second President
of Egypt, serving from 1956 until his death. Nasser led the 1952 overthrow of the monarchy and
introduced far-reaching land reforms the following year. Following a 1954 attempt on his life by
a Muslim Brotherhood member, he cracked down on the organization, put President Muhammad
Naguib under house arrest, and assumed executive office, officially becoming president in June
1956.

Nasser's popularity in Egypt and the Arab world skyrocketed after his nationalization of the Suez
Canal and his political victory in the subsequent Suez Crisis. Calls for pan-Arab unity under his
leadership increased, culminating with the formation of the United Arab
Republic with Syria (19581961). In 1962, Nasser began a series of major socialist measures and
modernization reforms in Egypt. Despite setbacks to his pan-Arabist cause, by 1963 Nasser's
supporters gained power in several Arab countries, but he became embroiled in the North Yemen
Civil War. He began his second presidential term in March 1965 after his political opponents
were banned from running. Following Egypt's defeat by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War, Nasser

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resigned, but he returned to office after popular demonstrations called for his reinstatement. By
1968, Nasser had appointed himself prime minister, launched the War of Attrition to regain lost
territory, began a process of depoliticizing the military, and issued a set of political liberalization
reforms. After the conclusion of the 1970 Arab League summit, Nasser suffered a heart attack
and died. His funeral in Cairo drew five million mourners and an outpouring of grief across the
Arab world.

Nasser remains an iconic figure in the Arab world, particularly for his strides towards social
justice and Arab unity, modernization policies, and anti-imperialist efforts. His presidency also
encouraged and coincided with an Egyptian cultural boom, and launched large industrial
projects, including the Aswan Dam and Helwan City. Nasser's detractors criticize his
authoritarianism, his government's human rights violations, his populist relationship with the
citizenry, and his failure to establish civil institutions, blaming his legacy for future dictatorial
governance in Egypt.

EARLY LIFE

Gamal Abdel Nasser was born on 15 January 1918 in Bakos, Alexandria, the first son of Fahima
and Abdel Nasser Hussein. Nasser's father was a postal worker born in Beni Mur in Upper
Egypt and raised in Alexandria, and his mother's family came from Mallawi, el-Minya. His
parents married in 1917, and later had two more boys, Izz al-Arab and al-Leithi. Nasser's
biographers Robert Stephens and Said Aburish wrote that Nasser's family believed strongly in
the "Arab notion of glory", since the name of Nasser's brother, Izz al-Arab, translates to "Glory
of the Arabs"a rare name in Egypt.

Nasser's family traveled frequently due to his father's work. In 1921, they moved to Asyut and, in
1923, to Khatatba, where Nasser's father ran a post office. Nasser attended a primary school for
the children of railway employees until 1924, when he was sent to live with his paternal uncle
in Cairo, and to attend the Nahhasin elementary school.

Nasser exchanged letters with his mother and visited her on holidays. He stopped receiving
messages at the end of April 1926. Upon returning to Khatatba, he learned that his mother had
died after giving birth to his third brother, Shawki, and that his family had kept the news from
him. Nasser later stated that "losing her this way was a shock so deep that time failed to remedy".
He adored his mother and the injury of her death deepened when his father remarried before the
year's end.

In 1928, Nasser went to Alexandria to live with his maternal grandfather and attend the city's
Attarin elementary school. He left in 1929 for a private boarding school in Helwan, and later

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returned to Alexandria to enter the Ras el-Tin secondary school and to join his father, who was
working for the city's postal service. It was in Alexandria that Nasser became involved in
political activism. After witnessing clashes between protesters and police in Manshia Square, he
joined the demonstration without being aware of its purpose. The protest, organized by
the ultranationalist Young Egypt Society, called for the end of colonialism in Egypt in the wake
of the 1923 Egyptian constitution's annulment by Prime Minister Isma'il Sidqi. Nasser was
arrested and detained for a night before his father bailed him out.

When his father was transferred to Cairo in 1933, Nasser joined him and attended al-Nahda al-
Masria school. He took up acting in school plays for a brief period and wrote articles for the
school's paper, including a piece on French philosopher Voltaire titled "Voltaire, the Man of
Freedom". On 13 November 1935, Nasser led a student demonstration against British rule,
protesting against a statement made four days prior by UK foreign minister Samuel Hoare that
rejected prospects for the 1923 Constitution's restoration. Two protesters were killed and Nasser
received a graze to the head from a policeman's bullet. The incident garnered his first mention in
the press: the nationalist newspaper Al Gihad reported that Nasser led the protest and was among
the wounded. On 12 December, the new king, Farouk, issued a decree restoring the constitution.

Nasser's involvement in political activity increased throughout his school years, such that he only
attended 45 days of classes during his last year of secondary school. Despite it having the almost
unanimous backing of Egypt's political forces, Nasser strongly objected to the 1936 Anglo-
Egyptian Treaty because it stipulated the continued presence of British military bases in the
country. Nonetheless, political unrest in Egypt declined significantly and Nasser resumed his
studies at al-Nahda, where he received his leaving certificate later that year.

MILITARY CAREER

In 1937, Nasser applied to the Royal Military Academy for army officer training, but his police
record of anti-government protest initially blocked his entry. Disappointed, he enrolled in the law
school at King Fuad University, but quit after one semester to reapply to the Military Academy.
From his readings, Nasser, who frequently spoke of "dignity, glory, and freedom" in his youth,
became enchanted with the stories of national liberators and heroic conquerors; a military career
became his chief priority.

Convinced that he needed a wasta, or an influential intermediary to promote his application

above the others, Nasser managed to secure a meeting with Under-Secretary of War Ibrahim
Khairy Pasha, the person responsible for the academy's selection board, and requested his help.
Khairy Pasha agreed and sponsored Nasser's second application, which was accepted in late

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1937. Nasser focused on his military career from then on, and had little contact with his family.
At the academy, he met Abdel Hakim Amer and Anwar Sadat, both of whom became important
aides during his presidency. After graduating from the academy in July 1938, he was
commissioned a second lieutenant in the infantry, and posted to Mankabad. It was here that
Nasser and his closest comrades, including Sadat and Amer, first discussed their dissatisfaction at
widespread corruption in the country and their desire to topple the monarchy. Sadat would later
write that because of his "energy, clear-thinking, and balanced judgement", Nasser emerged as
the group's natural leader.

In 1941, Nasser was posted to Khartoum, Sudan, which was part of Egypt at the time. Nasser
returned to Sudan in September 1942 after a brief stay in Egypt, then secured a position as an
instructor in the Cairo Royal Military Academy in May 1943. In 1942, the British
Ambassador Miles Lampson marched into King Farouk's palace and ordered him to dismiss
Prime Minister Hussein Sirri Pasha for having pro-Axis sympathies. Nasser saw the incident as a
blatant violation of Egyptian sovereignty and wrote, "I am ashamed that our army has not reacted
against this attack", and wished for "calamity" to overtake the British. Nasser was accepted into
the General Staff College later that year. He began to form a group of young military officers
with strong nationalist sentiments who supported some form of revolution. Nasser stayed in
touch with the group's members primarily through Amer, who continued to seek out interested
officers within the Egyptian Armed Force's various branches and presented Nasser with a
complete file on each of them.

1948 ARABISRAELI WAR

Nasser's first battlefield experience was in Palestine during the 1948 ArabIsraeli War. He
initially volunteered to serve with the Arab Higher Committee (AHC) led by Mohammad Amin
al-Husayni. Nasser met with and impressed al-Husayni, but was ultimately refused entry to the
AHC's forces by the Egyptian government for reasons that were unclear.

In May 1948, following the British withdrawal, King Farouk sent the Egyptian army into
Palestine, with Nasser serving in the 6th Infantry Battalion. During the war, he wrote of the
Egyptian army's unpreparedness, saying "our soldiers were dashed against fortifications". Nasser
was deputy commander of the Egyptian forces that secured the Faluja pocket. On 12 July, he was
lightly wounded in the fighting. By August, his brigade was surrounded by the Israeli Army.
Appeals for help from Jordan's Arab Legion went unheeded, but the brigade refused to surrender.
Negotiations between Israel and Egypt finally resulted in the ceding of Faluja to Israel.
According to veteran journalist Eric Margolis, the defenders of Faluja, "including young army
officer Gamal Abdel Nasser, became national heroes" for enduring Israeli bombardment while
isolated from their command.

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The Egyptian singer Umm Kulthum hosted a public celebration for the officers' return despite
reservations from the royal government, which had been pressured by the British to prevent the
reception. The apparent difference in attitude between the government and the general public
increased Nasser's determination to topple the monarchy. Nasser had also felt bitter that his
brigade had not been relieved despite the resilience it displayed. He started writing his
book Philosophy of the Revolution during the siege.

REVOLUTION
FREE OFFICERS

Nasser's return to Egypt coincided with Husni al-Za'im's Syrian coup d'tat. Its success and
evident popular support among the Syrian people encouraged Nasser's revolutionary pursuits.
Soon after his return, he was summoned and interrogated by Prime Minister Ibrahim Abdel
Hadi regarding suspicions that he was forming a secret group of dissenting officers. According to
secondhand reports, Nasser convincingly denied the allegations. Abdel Hadi was also hesitant to
take drastic measures against the army, especially in front of its chief of staff, who was present
during the interrogation, and subsequently released Nasser. The interrogation pushed Nasser to
speed up his group's activities.

After 1949, the group adopted the name "Association of Free Officers" and advocated "little else
but freedom and the restoration of their countrys dignity". Nasser organized the Free Officers'
founding committee, which eventually comprised fourteen men from different social and
political backgrounds, including representation from Young Egypt, the Muslim Brotherhood, the
Egyptian Communist Party, and the aristocracy. Nasser was unanimously elected chairman of the
organization.

In the 1950 parliamentary elections, the Wafd Party of el-Nahhas gained a victorymostly due
to the absence of the Muslim Brotherhood, which boycotted the electionsand was perceived as
a threat by the Free Officers as the Wafd had campaigned on demands similar to their own.
Accusations of corruption against Wafd politicians began to surface, however, breeding an
atmosphere of rumor and suspicion that consequently brought the Free Officers to the forefront
of Egyptian politics. By then, the organization had expanded to around ninety members;
according to Khaled Mohieddin, "nobody knew all of them and where they belonged in the
hierarchy except Nasser". Nasser felt that the Free Officers were not ready to move against the
government and, for nearly two years, he did little beyond officer recruitment and underground
news bulletins.

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REVOLUTION OF 1952

On 25 January 1952, a confrontation between British forces and police at Ismailia resulted in the
deaths of 40 Egyptian policemen, provoking riots in Cairo the next day which left 76 people
dead. Afterwards, Nasser published a simple six-point program in Rose al-Ysufto
dismantle feudalism and British influence in Egypt. In May, Nasser received word that Farouk
knew the names of the Free Officers and intended to arrest them; he immediately entrusted Free
Officer Zakaria Mohieddin with the task of planning the government takeover by army units
loyal to the association.

The Free Officers' intention was not to install themselves in government, but to re-establish a
parliamentary democracy. Nasser did not believe that a low-ranking officer like himself
(a lieutenant colonel) would be accepted by the Egyptian people, and so selected General Naguib
to be his "boss" and lead the coup in name. The revolution they had long sought was launched on
22 July and was declared a success the next day. The Free Officers seized control of all
government buildings, radio stations, and police stations, as well as army headquarters in Cairo.
While many of the rebel officers were leading their units, Nasser donned civilian clothing to
avoid detection by royalists and moved around Cairo monitoring the situation. In a move to stave
off foreign intervention two days before the revolution, Nasser had notified the American and
British governments of his intentions, and both had agreed not to aid Farouk. Under pressure
from the Americans, Nasser had agreed to exile the deposed king with an honorary ceremony.

ROAD TO PRESIDENCY
DISPUTES WITH NAGUIB

In January 1953, Nasser overcame opposition from Naguib and banned all political parties,
creating a one-party system under the Liberation Rally, a loosely structured movement whose
chief task was to organize pro-RCC rallies and lectures, with Nasser its secretary-general.
Despite the dissolution order, Nasser was the only RCC member who still favored holding
parliamentary elections, according to his fellow officer Abdel Latif Boghdadi. Although
outvoted, he still advocated holding elections by 1956. In March 1953, Nasser led the Egyptian
delegation negotiating a British withdrawal from the Suez Canal.

When Naguib began showing signs of independence from Nasser by distancing himself from the
RCC's land reform decrees and drawing closer to Egypt's established political forces, namely the
Wafd and the Brotherhood, Nasser resolved to depose him. In June, Nasser took control of the
interior ministry post from Naguib loyalist Sulayman Hafez, and pressured Naguib to conclude
the abolition of the monarchy.

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On 25 February 1954, Naguib announced his resignation after the RCC held an official meeting
without his presence two days prior. On 26 February, Nasser accepted the resignation; put
Naguib under house arrest, and the RCC proclaimed Nasser as both RCC chairman and prime
minister. As Naguib intended, a mutiny immediately followed, demanding Naguib's
reinstatement and the RCC's dissolution. While visiting the striking officers at Military
Headquarters (GHQ) to call for the mutiny's end, Nasser was initially intimidated into accepting
their demands. However, on 27 February, Nasser's supporters in the army launched a raid on the
GHQ, ending the mutiny. Later that day, hundreds of thousands of protesters, mainly belonging
to the Brotherhood, called for Naguib's return and Nasser's imprisonment. In response, a sizable
group within the RCC, led by Khaled Mohieddin, demanded Naguib's release and return to the
presidency.Nasser acquiesced, but delayed Naguib's reinstatement until 4 March, allowing him to
promote Amer to Commander of the Armed Forcesa position formerly occupied by Naguib.

ASSUMING CHAIRMANSHIP OF RCC

On 26 October 1954, Muslim Brotherhood member Mohammed Abdel Latif attempted to

assassinate Nasser while he was delivering a speech in Alexandria to celebrate the British
military withdrawal. The speech was broadcast to the Arab world via radio. The gunman was 25
feet (7.6 m) away from him and fired eight shots, but all missed Nasser. Panic broke out in the
mass audience, but Nasser maintained his posture and raised his voice to appeal for calm. With
great emotion he exclaimed the following:

My countrymen, my blood spills for you and for Egypt. I will live for your sake and die for the
sake of your freedom and honor. Let them kill me; it does not concern me so long as I have
instilled pride, honor, and freedom in you. If Gamal Abdel Nasser should die, each of you shall
be Gamal Abdel Nasser, Gamal Abdel Nasser is of you and from you and he is willing to
sacrifice his life for the nation.

1956 CONSTITUTION AND PRESIDENCY

With his domestic position considerably strengthened, Nasser was able to secure primacy over
his RCC colleagues and gained relatively unchallenged decision-making authority, particularly
over foreign policy.

In January 1956, the new Constitution of Egypt was drafted, entailing the establishment of a
single-party system under the National Union (NU), a movement Nasser described as the "cadre
through which we will realize our revolution". The NU was a reconfiguration of the Liberation

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Rally, which Nasser determined had failed in generating mass public participation. In the new
movement, Nasser attempted to incorporate more citizens, approved by local-level party
committees, in order to solidify popular backing for his government. The NU would select a
nominee for the presidential election whose name would be provided for public approval.

Nasser's nomination for the post and the new constitution were put to public referendum on 23
June and each was approved by an overwhelming majority. A 350-member National
Assembly was established, elections for which were held in July 1957. Nasser had ultimate
approval over all the candidates. The constitution granted women's suffrage, prohibited gender-
based discrimination, and entailed special protection for women in the workplace. Coinciding
with the new constitution and Nasser's presidency, the RCC dissolved itself and its members
resigned their military commissions as part of the transition to civilian rule. During the
deliberations surrounding the establishment of a new government, Nasser began a process of
sidelining his rivals among the original Free Officers, while elevating his closest allies to high-
ranking positions in the cabinet.

SIX-DAY WAR

In mid May 1967, the Soviet Union issued warnings to Nasser of an impending Israeli attack on
Syria, although Chief of Staff Mohamed Fawzi considered the warnings to be "baseless".
According to Kandil, without Nasser's authorization, Amer used the Soviet warnings as a pretext
to dispatch troops to Sinai on 14 May, and Nasser subsequently demanded UNEF's withdrawal.
Earlier that day, Nasser received a warning from King Hussein of Israeli-American collusion to
drag Egypt into war. The message had been originally received by Amer on 2 May, but was
withheld from Nasser until the Sinai deployment on 14 May. Although in the preceding months,
Hussein and Nasser had been accusing each other of avoiding a fight with Israel, Hussein was
nonetheless wary that an Egyptian-Israeli war would risk the West Bank's occupation by Israel.
Nasser still felt that the US would restrain Israel from attacking due to assurances that he
received from the US and Soviet Union. In turn, he also reassured both powers that Egypt would
only act defensively.

On 21 May, Amer asked Nasser to order the Straits of Tiran blockaded, a move Nasser believed
Israel would use as a casus belli. Amer reassured him that the army was prepared for
confrontation, but Nasser doubted Amer's assessment of the military's readiness. According to
Nasser's vice president Zakaria Mohieddin, although "Amer had absolute authority over the
armed forces, Nasser had his ways of knowing what was really going on". Moreover, Amer
anticipated an impending Israeli attack and advocated a preemptive strike. Nasser refused the call
upon determination that the air force lacked pilots and Amer's handpicked officers were
incompetent. Still, Nasser concluded that if Israel attacked, Egypt's quantitative advantage in

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manpower and arms could stave off Israeli forces for at least two weeks, allowing for diplomacy
towards a ceasefire. Towards the end of May, Nasser increasingly exchanged his positions of
deterrence for deference to the inevitability of war, under increased pressure to act by both the
general Arab populace and various Arab governments. On 26 May Nasser declared, "our basic
objective will be to destroy Israel". On 30 May, King Hussein committed Jordan in
an alliance with Egypt and Syria.

On the morning of 5 June, the Israeli Air Force struck Egyptian air fields, destroying much of the
Egyptian Air Force. Before the day ended, Israeli armored units had cut through Egyptian
defense lines and captured the town of el-Arish. The next day, Amer ordered the immediate
withdrawal of Egyptian troops from Sinaicausing the majority of Egyptian casualties during
the war. Israel quickly captured Sinai and the Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West Bank from
Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria.

FINAL YEARS OF PRESIDENCY

DOMESTIC REFORMS AND GOVERNMENTAL CHANGES

Nasser appointed himself the additional roles of prime minister and supreme commander of the
armed forces on 19 June 1967. Angry at the military court's perceived leniency with air force
officers charged with negligence during the 1967 war, workers and students launched protests
calling for major political reforms in late February 1968. Nasser responded to the
demonstrations, the most significant public challenge to his rule since workers' protests in March
1954, by removing most military figures from his cabinet and appointing eight civilians in place
of several high-ranking members of the Arab Socialist Union (ASU). By 3 March, Nasser
directed Egypt's intelligence apparatus to focus on external rather than domestic espionage, and
declared the "fall of the mukhabarat state".

On 30 March, Nasser proclaimed a manifesto stipulating the restoration of civil liberties, greater
parliamentary independence from the executive, major structural changes to the ASU, and a
campaign to rid the government of corrupt elements. A public referendum approved the proposed
measures in May, and held subsequent elections for the Supreme Executive Committee, the
ASU's highest decision-making body. Observers noted that the declaration signaled an important
shift from political repression to liberalization, although its promises would largely go
unfulfilled.

Nasser appointed Sadat and Hussein el-Shafei as his vice presidents in December 1969. By then,
relations with his other original military comrades, namely Khaled and Zakaria Mohieddin and
former vice president Sabri, had become strained. By mid-1970, Nasser pondered replacing
Sadat with Boghdadi after reconciling with the latter.

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WAR OF ATTRITION AND REGIONAL DIPLOMATIC INITIATIVES

Meanwhile, in January 1968, Nasser commenced the War of Attrition to reclaim territory
captured by Israel, ordering attacks against Israeli positions east of the then-blockaded Suez
Canal. In March, Nasser offered Yasser Arafat's Fatah movement arms and funds after their
performance against Israeli forces in the Battle of Karameh that month. He also advised Arafat to
think of peace with Israel and the establishment of a Palestinian state comprising the West Bank
and the Gaza Strip. Nasser effectively ceded his leadership of the "Palestine issue" to Arafat.

Israel retaliated against Egyptian shelling with commando raids, artillery shelling and air strikes.
This resulted in an exodus of civilians from Egyptian cities along the Suez Canal's western bank.
Nasser ceased all military activities and began a program to build a network of internal defenses,
while receiving the financial backing of various Arab states. The war resumed in March 1969. In
November, Nasser brokered an agreement between the PLO and the Lebanese military that
granted Palestinian guerrillas the right to use Lebanese territory to attack Israel.

In June 1970, Nasser accepted the US-sponsored Rogers Plan, which called for an end to
hostilities and an Israeli withdrawal from Egyptian territory, but it was rejected by Israel, the
PLO, and most Arab states except Jordan. Nasser had initially rejected the plan, but conceded
under pressure from the Soviet Union, which feared that escalating regional conflict could drag it
into a war with the US. He also determined that a ceasefire could serve as a tactical step toward
the strategic goal of recapturing the Suez Canal. Nasser forestalled any movement toward direct
negotiations with Israel. In dozens of speeches and statements, Nasser posited the equation that
any direct peace talks with Israel were tantamount to surrender. Following Nasser's acceptance,
Israel agreed to a ceasefire and Nasser used the lull in fighting to move SAM missiles towards
the Canal Zone.

Meanwhile, tensions in Jordan between an increasingly autonomous PLO and King Hussein's
government had been simmering following the Dawson's Field hijackings, a military
campaign was launched to root out PLO forces. The offensive elevated risks of a regional war
and prompted Nasser to hold an emergency Arab League summit on 27 September in Cairo,
where he forged a ceasefire.

DEATH AND FUNERAL

As the summit closed on 28 September 1970, hours after escorting the last Arab leader to leave,
Nasser suffered a heart attack. He was immediately transported to his house, where his

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physicians tended to him. Nasser died several hours later, around 6:00 p.m. Heikal, Sadat, and
Nasser's wife Tahia were at his deathbed. According to his doctor, al-Sawi Habibi, Nasser's likely
cause of death was arteriosclerosis, varicose veins, and complications from long-
standing diabetes. Nasser was a heavy smoker with a family history of heart diseasetwo of his
brothers died in their fifties from the same condition. The state of Nasser's health was not known
to the public prior to his death. He had previously suffered heart attacks in 1966 and September
1969.

Following the announcement of Nasser's death, Egypt and the Arab world were in a state of
shock. Nasser's funeral procession through Cairo on 1 October was attended by at least five
million mourners. The 10-kilometer (6.2 mi) procession to his burial site began at the old RCC
headquarters with a flyover by MiG-21 jets. His flag-draped coffin was attached to a gun
carriage pulled by six horses and led by a column of cavalrymen. All Arab heads of state
attended, with the exception of Saudi King Faisal. King Hussein and Arafat cried openly,
and Muammar Gaddafi of Libya fainted from emotional distress twice. A few major non-
Arab dignitaries were present, including Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin and French Prime
Minister Jacques Chaban-Delmas.

Almost immediately after the procession began, mourners engulfed Nasser's coffin chanting,
"There is no God but Allah, and Nasser is God's beloved Each of us is Nasser."Police
unsuccessfully attempted to quell the crowds and, as a result, most of the foreign dignitaries were
evacuated. The final destination was the Nasr Mosque, which was afterwards renamed Abdel
Nasser Mosque, where Nasser was buried.

Because of his ability to motivate nationalistic passions, "men, women, and children wept and
wailed in the streets" after hearing of his death, according to Nutting. The general Arab reaction
was one of mourning, with thousands of people pouring onto the streets of major cities
throughout the Arab world. Over a dozen people were killed in Beirut as a result of the chaos,
and in Jerusalem, roughly 75,000 Arabs marched through the Old City chanting, "Nasser will
never die."As a testament to his unchallenged leadership of the Arab people, following his death,
the headline of the Lebanese Le Jour read, "One hundred million human beingsthe Arabsare
orphans."Sherif Hetata, a former political prisoner and later member Nasser's ASU, said that
"Nasser's greatest achievement was his funeral. The world will never again see five million
people crying together."

LEGACY

Nasser made Egypt fully independent of British influence, and the country became a major
power in the developing world under his leadership. One of Nasser's main domestic efforts was

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to establish social justice, which he deemed a prerequisite to liberal democracy. During his
presidency, ordinary citizens enjoyed unprecedented access to housing, education, jobs, health
services and nourishment, as well as other forms of social welfare, while feudalistic influence
waned. By the end of his presidency, employment and working conditions improved
considerably, although poverty was still high in the country and substantial resources allocated
for social welfare had been diverted to the war effort.

The national economy grew significantly through agrarian reform, major modernization projects
such as the Helwan steel works and the Aswan Dam, and nationalization schemes such as that of
the Suez Canal. However, the marked economic growth of the early 1960s took a downturn for
the remainder of the decade, only recovering in 1970. Egypt experienced a "golden age" of
culture during Nasser's presidency, according to historian Joel Gordon, particularly in film,
television, theater, radio, literature, fine arts, comedy, poetry, and music. Egypt under Nasser
dominated the Arab world in these fields, producing cultural icons.

During Mubarak's presidency, Nasserist political parties began to emerge in Egypt, the first being
the Arab Democratic Nasserist Party (ADNP). The party carried minor political influence, and
splits between its members beginning in 1995 resulted in the gradual establishment of splinter
parties, including Hamdeen Sabahi's 1997 founding of Al-Karama. Sabahi came in third place
during the 2012 presidential election. Nasserist activists were among the founders of Kefaya, a
major opposition force during Mubarak's rule. On 19 September 2012, four Nasserist parties (the
ADNP, Karama, the National Conciliation Party, and the Popular Nasserist Congress Party)
merged to form the United Nasserist Party.

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 GOLDA MEIR

Golda Meir (born Golda Mabovitch, Golda Meyerson/Myerson between 19171956; May 3,
1898 December 8, 1978) was an Israeliteacher, kibbutznik, stateswoman and politician and
the fourth elected Prime Minister of Israel.

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Meir was elected Prime Minister of Israel on March 17, 1969, after serving as Minister of Labour
and Foreign Minister. The world's fourth and Israel's first and only woman to hold such an office,
she has been described as the "Iron Lady" of Israeli politics, though her tenure ended before that
term was applied to British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. Former Prime Minister David
Ben-Gurionused to call Meir "the best man in the government"; she was often portrayed as the
"strong-willed, straight-talking, grey-bunned grandmother of the Jewish people".

Meir resigned as prime minister in 1974, the year following the Yom Kippur War. She died in
1978 of lymphoma.

EARLY LIFE

Golda Mabovitch (Ukrainian) was born on May 3, 1898, in Kiev, Russian Empire, present-
day Ukraine, to Blume Neiditch (died 1951) and Moshe Mabovitch (died 1944), a carpenter.
Meir wrote in her autobiography that her earliest memories were of her father boarding up the
front door in response to rumours of an imminent pogrom. She had two sisters, Sheyna (1889
1972) and Tzipke (19021981), as well as five other siblings who died in childhood. She was
especially close to Sheyna.

Moshe Mabovitch left to find work in New York City in 1903. In his absence, the rest of the
family moved to Pinsk to join her mother's family. In 1905, Moshe moved
to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in search of higher-paying work and found employment in the
workshops of the local railroad yard. The following year, he had saved up enough money to
bring his family to the United States.

Blume ran a grocery store on Milwaukee's north side, where by age eight Golda had been put in
charge of watching the store when her mother went to the market for supplies. Golda attended
the Fourth Street Grade School (now Golda Meir School) from 1906 to 1912. A leader early on,
she organised a fund raiser to pay for her classmates' textbooks. After forming the American
Young Sisters Society, she rented a hall and scheduled a public meeting for the event. She went
on to graduate as valedictorian of her class.

At 14, she studied at North Division High School and worked part-time. Her mother wanted her
to leave school and marry, but she demurred. She bought a train ticket to Denver, Colorado, and
went to live with her married sister, Sheyna Korngold. The Korngolds held intellectual evenings
at their home, where Meir was exposed to debates on Zionism, literature, women's suffrage, trade
unionism, and more. In her autobiography, she wrote: "To the extent that my own future
convictions were shaped and given form those talk-filled nights in Denver played a considerable
role." In Denver, she also met Morris Meyerson (also 'Myerson'; December 17, 1893 May 25,
1951), a sign painter, whom she later married on December 24, 1917.

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RETURN TO MILWAUKEE, ZIONIST ACTIVISM AND TEACHING

In 1913 she returned to North Division High, graduating in 1915. While there, she became an
active member of Young Poale Zion, which later became Habonim, the Labor Zionist youth
movement. She spoke at public meetings, embraced Socialist Zionism and hosted visitors
from Palestine.

She attended the teachers college Milwaukee State Normal School (now University of
WisconsinMilwaukee), in 1916, and probably part of 1917. After graduating from Milwaukee
Normal, she taught in Milwaukee public schools.

In 1917 she took a position at a Yiddish-speaking Folks Schule in Milwaukee. While at the Folks
Schule, she came more closely into contact with the ideals of Labor Zionism. In 1913 she had
begun dating Morris Meyerson (Myerson). She was a committed Labor Zionist and he was a
dedicated socialist. Together, they left their jobs to join a kibbutz in Palestine in 1921.

When Golda and Morris married in 1917, settling in Palestine was her precondition for the
marriage. Golda had intended to make aliyah straight away but her plans were disrupted when all
transatlantic passenger services were canceled due to the outbreak of World War I. Instead she
threw her energies into Poale Zion activities. A short time after their wedding, she embarked on a
fund raising campaign for Poale Zion that took her across the United States. The couple moved
to Palestine in 1921 together with her sister Sheyna.

IMMIGRATION TO MANDATE PALESTINE

In the British Mandate of Palestine, she and her husband joined a kibbutz. Their first application
to kibbutz Merhavia in the Jezreel Valley was rejected, but later on they were accepted. Her
duties included picking almonds, planting trees, working in the chicken coops, and running the
kitchen. Recognizing her leadership abilities, the kibbutz chose her as its representative to
the Histadrut, the General Federation of Labor.

In 1924, the couple left the kibbutz and lived briefly in Tel Aviv before settling in Jerusalem.
There they had two children, their son Menachem (19242014) and their daughter Sarah (1926
2010).

In 1928, Meir was elected secretary of Moetzet HaPoalot (Working Women's Council), which
required her to spend two years (193234) as an emissary in the United States. The children went

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with her, but Morris stayed in Jerusalem. Morris and Golda grew apart, but never divorced.
Morris died in 1951.

HISTADRUT ACTIVITIES

In 1934, when Meir returned from the United States, she joined the Executive Committee of the
Histadrut and she moved up the ranks to become the head of its Political Department. This
appointment was important training for her future role in Israeli leadership.

In July 1938, Meir was the Jewish observer from Palestine at the vian Conference, called by
President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the United States to discuss the question of Jewish refugees'
fleeing Nazi persecution. Delegates from the 32 invited countries repeatedly expressed their
sorrow for the plight of the European Jews, but they made excuses as to why their countries
could not help by admitting the refugees.

The only exception was by the Dominican Republic, which pledged to accept 100,000 refugees
on generous terms.[11] Meir was disappointed at the outcome and she remarked to the press,
"There is only one thing I hope to see before I die and that is that my people should not need
expressions of sympathy anymore."

PRESTATE POLITICAL ROLE

In June 1946, the British Government cracked down on the Zionist movement in Palestine,
arresting many leaders of the Yishuv (see Black Sabbath). Meir took over as acting head of the
Political Department of the Jewish Agency during the incarceration of Moshe Sharett. Thus she
became the principal negotiator between the Jews in Palestine and the British Mandatory
authorities. After his release, Sharett went to the United States to attend talks on the UN Partition
Plan, leaving Meir to head the Political Department until the establishment of the state in 1948.

In January 1948, the treasurer of the Jewish Agency was convinced that Israel would not be able
to raise more than seven to eight million dollars from the American Jewish community. Meir
traveled to the United States, and she raised $50,000,000, which was used to purchase arms in
Europe for the young country. Ben-Gurion wrote that Meir's role as the "Jewish woman who got
the money which made the state possible" would go down one day in the history books.

On May 10, 1948, four days before the official establishment of Israel, Meir traveled to Amman,
Jordan, disguised as an Arab woman for a secret meeting with King Abdullah I of Transjordan at
which she urged him not to join the other Arab countries in attacking the Jews. Abdullah asked

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her not to hurry to proclaim a state. Meir replied: "We've been waiting for 2,000 years. Is that
hurrying?"

As the head of the Jewish Agency Political Department, Meir called the mass exodus of
Arabs before the War of Independence in 1948 "dreadful", and she likened it to what had
befallen the Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe.

DIPLOMATIC AND MINISTERIAL CAREER

Meir was one of 24 signatories (including two women) of the Israeli Declaration of
Independence on May 14, 1948. She later recalled, "After I signed, I cried. When I studied
American history as a schoolgirl and I read about those who signed the U.S. Declaration of
Independence, I couldn't imagine these were real people doing something real. And there I was
sitting down and signing a declaration of establishment." Israel was attacked the next day by the
joint armies of neighboring countries in what became the 1948 ArabIsraeli War. During the war,
Israel stopped the combined Arab assault, and then it launched a series of military offensives to
defeat the invading Arab armies and to end the war.

MINISTER PLENIPOTENTIARY TO MOSCOW

Carrying the first Israeli-issued passport, Meir was appointed Israel's minister plenipotentiary to
the Soviet Union, with her term beginning on September 2, 1948, and ending in March 1949. At
the time, good relations with the Soviet Union were important for Israel's ability to secure arms
from Eastern European countries for the struggle that accompanied its independence,
while Joseph Stalinand Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov sought to cultivate a strong
relationship with Israel as a means of furthering the Soviet position in the Middle East. Soviet
Israeli relations were complicated by Soviet policies against religious institutions and nationalist
movements, made manifest in moves to shut down Jewish religious institutions as well as the ban
on Hebrew language study and the prohibition of the promotion of emigration to Israel.

During her brief stint in the USSR, Meir attended Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur services at
the Moscow Choral Synagogue, where she was mobbed by thousands of Russian Jews chanting
her name. The Israeli 10,000 shekel banknote issued in November 1984 bore a portrait of Meir
on one side and the image of the crowd that turned out to cheer her in Moscow on the other.

LABOR MINISTER

In 1949 Meir was elected to the Knesset as a member of Mapai and served continuously until
1974. From 1949 to 1956, she served as Minister of Labor. While serving in this position, Meir

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carried out welfare state policies, orchestrated the integration of immigrants into Israels
workforce, and introduced major housing and road construction projects. From 1949 to 1956,
200,000 apartments and 30,000 houses were built, large industrial and agricultural developments
were initiated, and new hospitals, schools, and roads were built. Meir also helped in the
development of the National Insurance Act of 1954, which introduced Israels system of social
security, together with the countrys maternity benefits programmed and other welfare measures.

In 1955, on Ben-Gurion's instructions, she stood for the position of mayor of Tel Aviv. She lost
by the two votes of the religious bloc who withheld their support on the grounds that she was a
woman. (Mayors then were elected by the city council, rather than directly as now, see Municipal
elections in Israel.)

FOREIGN MINISTER

In 1956, she became Foreign Minister under Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion. Her
predecessor, Moshe Sharett, had asked all members of the Foreign Service to Hebraicize their
last names. Upon her appointment as foreign minister, she shortened "Meyerson/Myerson" to
"Meir", which means "illuminate". As foreign minister, Meir promoted ties with the newly
established states in Africa in an effort to gain allies in the international community. But she also
believed that Israel had experience in nation-building that could be a model for the Africans. In
her autobiography, she wrote: "Like them, we had shaken off foreign rule; like them, we had to
learn for ourselves how to reclaim the land, how to increase the yields of our crops, how to
irrigate, how to raise poultry, how to live together, and how to defend ourselves." Israel could be
a role model because it "had been forced to find solutions to the kinds of problems that large,
wealthy, powerful states had never encountered".

Meir's first months as Foreign Minister coincided with the Suez Crisis, which is also known as
the Second Arab-Israeli War, the Tripartite aggression (in Arab countries), Sinai Campaign and
Operation Kadesh (by the Israeli government) and others. It involved an invasion of Egypt in late
1956 by Israel, followed by Britain and France. The aims were to regain Western control of the
Suez Canal, remove Egyptian president Nasser, and provide a more secure western border and
freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran for Israel. Meir was involved in planning and
coordination with the French government and military prior to the start of military action. During
United Nations debates about the crisis, Meir took charge of the Israeli delegation. After the
fighting had started, the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations forced the three
invaders to withdraw. As a result of the conflict, the United Nations created the UNEF military
peacekeeping force to police the EgyptianIsraeli border.

On October 29, 1957, she was slightly injured in the foot when a Mills bomb was thrown into the
debating chamber of the Knesset. David Ben-Gurion and Moshe Carmel were more seriously
injured. The attack was carried out by 25-year-old Moshe Dwek. Born in Aleppo, his motives

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were attributed to a dispute with the Jewish Agency, though he was also described as being
"mentally unbalanced".

In 1958, Meir was recorded as having praised the work of Pope Pius XII on behalf of the Jewish
people shortly after the pontiff's death. Pope Pius's legacy as a wartime pope were controversial
into the 21st century.

The same year, during the wave of Jewish migration from Poland to Israel, Meir sought to
prevent disabled and sick Polish Jews from immigrating to Israel. In a letter sent to Israel's
ambassador in Warsaw, Katriel Katz, she wrote: "A proposal was raised in the coordination
committee to inform the Polish government that we want to institute selection in aliyah, because
we cannot continue accepting sick and handicapped people. Please give your opinion as to
whether this can be explained to the Poles without hurting immigration."

In the early 1960s, Meir was diagnosed with lymphoma. In January 1966, she retired from the
Foreign Ministry, citing exhaustion and ill health, but soon returned to public life as secretary-
general of Mapai, supporting Prime Minister Levi Eshkol in party conflicts.

PREMIERSHIP

After Levi Eshkol's sudden death on February 26, 1969, the party elected Meir as his
successor. Meir came out of retirement to take office on March 17, 1969, serving as prime
minister until 1974. Meir maintained the national unity government formed in 1967, after
the Six-Day War, in which Mapai merged with two other parties (Rafi and Ahdut HaAvoda) to
form the Israeli Labor party.

Six months after taking office, Meir led the reconfigured Alignment,
comprising Labor and Mapam, into the 1969 general election. The Alignment managed what is
still the best showing for a single party or faction in Israeli history, winning 56 seatsthe only
time a party or faction has even approached winning an outright majority in an election. The
national unity government was retained.

In 1969 and the early 1970s, Meir met with many world leaders to promote her vision of peace in
the Middle East, including Richard Nixon (1969), Nicolae Ceauescu (1972) and Pope
Paul VI (1973). In 1973, she hosted the chancellor of West Germany, Willy Brandt, in Israel.

In August 1970, Meir accepted a U.S. peace initiative that called for an end to the War of
Attrition and an Israeli pledge to withdraw to "secure and recognized boundaries" in the

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framework of a comprehensive peace settlement. The Gahal party quit the national unity
government in protest, but Meir continued to lead the remaining coalition.

On 28 February 1973, during a visit in Washington, D.C., Golda agreed with Henry Kissinger's
peace proposal based on "security versus sovereignty": Israel would accept Egyptian sovereignty
over all Sinai, while Egypt would accept Israeli presence in some of Sinai strategic positions.

YOM KIPPUR WAR

In the days leading up to the Yom Kippur War, Israeli intelligence could not conclusively
determine that an attack was imminent. However, on October 5, 1973, Meir received official
news that Syrian forces were massing on the Golan Heights. The prime minister was alarmed by
the reports, and felt that the situation reminded her of what happened before the Six Day War.
Her advisers, however, assured her not to worry, saying that they would have adequate notice
before a war broke out. This made sense at the time, since after the Six Day War, most Israelis
felt it unlikely that the Arabs would attack. Consequently, although a resolution was passed
granting her power to demand a full-scale call-up of the military (instead of the typical cabinet
decision), Meir did not mobilize Israel's forces early. Soon, though, war became very clear. Six
hours before the outbreak of hostilities, Meir met with Minister of Defense Moshe Dayan and
general David Elazar. While Dayan continued to argue that war was unlikely and thus was in
favor of calling up the air force and only two divisions, Elazar advocated full scale army
mobilization and the launch of a full-scale preemptive strike on Syrian forces.

Meir approved full scale mobilizing but sided with Dayan against a preemptive strike, citing
Israel's need for foreign aid. She believed that Israel could not depend on European countries to
supply Israel with military equipment, and the only country that might come to Israel's assistance
was the United States. Fearing that the United States would be wary of intervening if Israel were
perceived as initiating the hostilities, Meir decided early on October 6 against a preemptive
strike. She made it a priority to inform Washington of her decision. U.S. Secretary of State Henry
Kissinger later confirmed Meir's assessment by stating that if Israel had launched a preemptive
strike, Israel would not have received "so much as a nail".

RESIGNATION

Following the Yom Kippur War, Meir's government was plagued by infighting and questions
over Israel's lack of preparation for the war. The Agranat Commission appointed to investigate
the war cleared her of "direct responsibility", and related to her actions on Yom Kippur morning;

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She decided wisely, with common sense and speedily, in favor of the full mobilization of the
reserves, as recommended by the chief-of-staff, despite weighty political considerations, thereby
performing a most important service for the defense of the state.

Her party won the elections in December 1973, but she resigned on April 11, 1974, bowing to
what she felt was the "will of the people" and what she felt was a sufficient premiership as well
as the pending pressures of forming a coalition; "Five years are sufficient...It is beyond my
strength to continue carrying this burden." Rabin succeeded her on June 3, 1974.

In 1975 she published her autobiography, My Life.

DEATH

On December 8, 1978, Meir died of lymphatic cancer in Jerusalem at the age of 80. Four days
later, on December 12, Meir was buried on Mount Herzl in Jerusalem.

AWARDS

In 1975, Meir was awarded the Israel Prize for her special contribution to society and the State of
Israel. In 1974, Meir was awarded the honor of World Mother by American Mothers. In 1974
Meir was awarded the James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service by Princeton
University's American WhigCliosophic Society.

LEGACY

Meir's story has been the subject of many fictionalized portrayals. In 1977, Anne
Bancroft played Meir in William Gibson's Broadway play Golda. The Australian actress Judy
Davis played a young Meir in the television film A Woman Called Golda (1982),
opposite Leonard Nimoy. Ingrid Bergman played the older Meir in the same film. In
2003, American Jewish actress Tovah Feldshuh portrayed her on Broadway in Golda's Balcony,
Gibson's second play about Meir's life. The one-woman show was controversial in its implication
that Meir considered using nuclear weapons during the Yom Kippur War.

Valerie Harper portrayed her in the touring company production and in the film version
of Golda's Balcony. Actress Colleen Dewhurst portrayed her in the 1986 TV movie Sword of
Gideon. In 2005 actress Lynn Cohen portrayed Meir in Steven Spielberg's film Munich.

Tovah Feldshuh assumed the role of Meir once again in the 2006 English-speaking French
movie O Jerusalem. She was played by the Polish actress Beata Fudalej in the 2009 film The
Hope by Mrta Mszros.

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Conclusion:
Finally conclude that, leadership is the individuals who are the leaders in an organization,
regarded collectively and The activity of leading a group of people or an organization or the
ability to do this. Leadership involves that establishing a clear vision, sharing that vision with
others so that they will follow willingly, providing the information, knowledge and methods to
realize that vision, and coordinating and balancing the conflicting interests of all members and
stakeholders. A leader steps up in times of crisis, and is able to think and act creatively in
difficult situations. A leader will successful when their followers listen to him/her and
influencing capability and also defeat to their own feet and handle the challenging situation and
give the proper suggestions.

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Referrence
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

http://millercenter.org/president/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haji_Shariatullah viewed on 12 Nov 2016

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titumir viewed on 11 Nov 2016
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru viewed on 13 Nov 2016
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah viewed on 15 Nov 2016
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jomo_Kenyatta viewed on 14 Nov 2016
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser viewed on 16 Nov 2016
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golda_Meir viewed on 16 Nov 2016

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