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Mountain
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For other uses, see Mountain (disambiguation).

Mount Everest, the highest peak on Earth

Chimborazo, Ecuador. The point on Earth's surface farthest from its center.[1]

Aiguille du Dru in the French Alps

A mountain is a large landform that stretches above the surrounding land in
a limited area, usually in the form of a peak. A mountain is generally steeper
than a hill. Mountains are formed through tectonic forces or volcanism. These
forces can locally raise the surface of the earth. Mountains erode slowly
through the action of rivers, weather conditions, and glaciers. A few
mountains are isolated summits, but most occur in huge mountain ranges.
High elevations on mountains produce colder climates than at sea level.
These colder climates strongly affect the ecosystems of mountains: different
elevations have different plants and animals. Because of the less hospitable
terrain and climate, mountains tend to be used less for agriculture and more
for resource extraction and recreation, such as mountain climbing.
The highest mountain on Earth is Mount Everest in the Himalayas of Asia,
whose summit is 8,850m (29,035ft) above mean sea level. The highest
known mountain on any planet in the Solar System is Olympus Mons on Mars
at 21,171m (69,459ft).

Contents [hide]
1
Definition
2
Geology
2.1
Volcanoes
2.2
Fold mountains
2.3
Block mountains
2.4
Erosion
3
Climate
4
Ecology
5
In society
6
Superlatives
7
See also
8
Notes
9
References
10
 External links
Definition

The Matterhorn, Swiss Alps

Peaks of Mount Kenya

There is no universally accepted definition of a mountain. Elevation, volume,
relief, steepness, spacing and continuity have been used as criteria for
defining a mountain.[2] In the Oxford English Dictionary a mountain is defined
as "a natural elevation of the earth surface rising more or less abruptly from
the surrounding level and attaining an altitude which, relatively to the adjacent
elevation, is impressive or notable."[2]
Whether a landform is called a mountain may depend on local usage. The
highest point in San Francisco, California, is called Mount Davidson,
notwithstanding its height of 300m (980ft), which makes it twenty feet short
of the minimum for a mountain by American designations.[citation needed] Similarly,
Mount Scott outside Lawton, Oklahoma is only 251m (823ft) from its base to
its highest point. Whittow's Dictionary of Physical Geography[3] states "Some
authorities regard eminences above 600 metres (2,000ft) as mountains,
those below being referred to as hills."
In the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, a mountain is usually
defined as any summit at least 2,000 feet (or 610 metres) high,[4][5][6][7][8] whilst
the official UK government's definition of a mountain, for the purposes of
access, is a summit of 600 metres or higher.[9] In addition, some definitions
also include a topographical prominence requirement, typically 100 or 500
feet (30 or 152m).[10] For a while, the US defined a mountain as being 1,000
feet (300m) or taller. Any similar landform lower than this height was
considered a hill. However, today, the United States Geological Survey
(USGS) concludes that these terms do not have technical definitions in the
US.[11]
The UN Environmental Programme's definition of "mountainous environment"
includes any of the following:[12]
Elevation of at least 2,500m (8,200ft);
Elevation of at least 1,500m (4,900ft), with a slope greater than 2
degrees;
Elevation of at least 1,000m (3,300ft), with a slope greater than 5
degrees;
Elevation of at least 300m (980ft), with a 300m (980ft) elevation
range within 7km (4.3mi).
Using these definitions, mountains cover 33% of Eurasia, 19% of South
America, 24% of North America, and 14% of Africa.[13] As a whole, 24% of the
Earth's land mass is mountainous.[14]
Geology
Main articles: Mountain formation and List of mountain types

Jeff Davis Peak seen from the glacier-carved summit of Wheeler Peak, Nevada
There are three main types of mountains: volcanic, fold, and block.[15] All three
types are formed from plate tectonics: when portions of the Earth's crust
move, crumple, and dive. Compressional forces, isostatic uplift and intrusion
of igneous matter forces surface rock upward, creating a landform higher than
the surrounding features. The height of the feature makes it either a hill or, if
higher and steeper, a mountain. Major mountains tend to occur in long linear
arcs, indicating tectonic plate boundaries and activity.
Volcanoes
Main article: Volcano

Geological cross-section of Fuji volcano

Volcanoes are formed when a plate is pushed below another plate, or at a
mid-ocean ridge or hotspot.[16] At a depth of around 100km, melting occurs in
rock above the slab (due to the addition of water), and forms magma that
reaches the surface. When the magma reaches the surface, it often builds a
volcanic mountain, such as a shield volcano or a stratovolcano.[17] Examples
of volcanoes include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Pinatubo in the
Philippines. The magma does not have to reach the surface in order to create
a mountain: magma that solidifies below ground can still form dome
mountains, such as Navajo Mountain in the US.
Fold mountains
Main article: Fold mountains
Fold mountains occur when two plates collide: shortening occurs along thrust
faults and the crust is overthickened.[18] Since the less dense continental crust
"floats" on the denser mantle rocks beneath, the weight of any crustal
material forced upward to form hills, plateaus or mountains must be balanced
by the buoyancy force of a much greater volume forced downward into the
mantle. Thus the continental crust is normally much thicker under mountains,
compared to lower lying areas.[19] Rock can fold either symmetrically or
asymmetrically. The upfolds are anticlines and the downfolds are synclines: in
asymmetric folding there may also be recumbent and overturned folds. The
Jura Mountains are an example of fold mountains.
Block mountains
Main article: Block mountains
 The Catskills in Upstate New York represent an eroded plateau.
Block mountains are caused by faults in the crust: a seam where rocks can
move past each other. When rocks on one side of a fault rise relative to the
other, it can form a mountain.[20] The uplifted blocks are block mountains or
horsts. The intervening dropped blocks are termed graben: these can be
small or form extensive rift valley systems. This form of landscape can be
seen in East Africa, the Vosges, the Basin and Range Province of Western
North America and the Rhine valley. These areas often occur when the
regional stress is extensional and the crust is thinned.
Erosion
Main article: Erosion
During and following uplift, mountains are subjected to the agents of erosion
(water, wind, ice, and gravity) which gradually wear the uplifted area down.
Erosion causes the surface of mountains to be younger than the rocks that
form the mountains themselves.[21] Glacial processes produce characteristic
landforms, such as pyramidal peaks, knife-edge artes, and bowl-shaped
cirques that can contain lakes. Plateau mountains, such as the Catskills, are
formed from the erosion of an uplifted plateau.
Climate
Main article: Alpine climate

A mountain in Carbon County, Utah

Valley of the Ten Peaks, Canadian Rockies
Climate on mountains become colder at high elevations, due an interaction
between radiation and convection. Sunlight in the visible spectrum hits the
ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation
were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse
effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly 333K
(60C; 140F), and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.[22]
However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus,
hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of
convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel at air at a given
altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of
heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is
known as an adiabatic process, which has a characteristic pressure-
temperature curve. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases.
The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic
lapse rate, which is approximately 9.8C per kilometer (or 5.4F per
1000feet) of altitude.[22]
Note that the presence of water in the atmosphere complicates the process of
convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As air rises and
cools, it eventually becomes saturated and cannot hold its quantity of water
vapor. The water vapor condenses (forming clouds), and releases heat, which
changes the lapse rate from the dry adiabatic lapse rate to the moist adiabatic
lapse rate (5.5C per kilometer or 3F per 1000feet)[23] The actual lapse rate
can vary by altitude and by location.
Therefore, moving up 100meters on a mountain is roughly equivalent to
moving 80kilometers (45miles or 0.75 of latitude) towards the nearest pole.
[24] This relationship is only approximate, however, since local factors such as

proximity to oceans (such as the Arctic Ocean) can drastically modify the
climate.[25] As the altitude increases, the main form of precipitation becomes
snow and the winds increase.[26]
The effect of the climate on the ecology at an elevation can be largely
captured through a combination of amount of precipitation, and the
biotemperature, as described by Leslie Holdridge in 1947.[27] Biotemperature
is the mean temperature; all temperatures below 0C (32F) are considered
to be 0C. When the temperature is below 0C, plants are dormant, so the
exact temperature is unimportant. The peaks of mountains with permanent
snow can have a biotemperature below 1.5C (34.7F).
Ecology
Main article: Montane ecology
 An alpine mire in the Swiss Alps
The colder climate on mountains affects the plants and animals residing on
mountains. A particular set of plants and animals tend to be adapted to a
relatively narrow range of climate. Thus, ecosystems tend to lie along
elevation bands of roughly constant climate. This is called altitudinal zonation.
[28] In regions with dry climates, the tendency of mountains to have higher

precipitation as well as lower temperatures also provides for varying

conditions, which enhances zonation.[29][30]
Some plants and animals found in altitudinal zones tend to become isolated
since the conditions above and below a particular zone will be inhospitable
and thus constrain their movements or dispersal. These isolated ecological
systems are known as sky islands.[31]
Altitudinal zones tend to follow a typical pattern. At the highest elevations,
trees cannot grow, and whatever life may be present will be of the alpine type,
resembling tundra.[30] Just below the tree line, one may find subalpine forests
of needleleaf trees, which can withstand cold, dry conditions.[32] Below that,
montane forests grow. In the temperate portions of the earth, those forests
tend to be needleleaf trees, while in the tropics, they can be broadleaf trees
growing in a rain forest.
In society
 Mountain climbers ascending Mount Rainier

The summit of Ben Nevis, the British Isles' highest, has a memorial
Mountains are generally less preferable for human habitation than lowlands,
because of harsh weather and little level ground suitable for agriculture. While
7% of the land area of Earth is above 2,500 metres (8,200ft),[13] only 140
million people live above that altitude[33] and only 20-30 million people above
3,000 metres (9,800ft) elevation.[34] The decreasing atmospheric pressure
with increasing elevation means that less oxygen is available for breathing,
and there is less protection against solar radiation (UV).[29] Due to decreasing
oxygen, the highest known permanent habitation in the world is at 5,100
metres (16,700ft), while the highest known permanently tolerable altitude is
at 5,950 metres (19,520ft).[35] Above 8,000 metres (26,000ft) elevation, there
is not enough oxygen to support human life. This is known as the "death
zone".[36] The summits of Mount Everest and K2 are in the death zone.
About half of mountain dwellers live in the Andes, Central Asia, and Africa.[14]
Traditional mountain societies rely on agriculture, with higher risk of crop
failure than at lower elevations. Minerals often occur in mountains, with
mining being an important component of the economics of some montane
societies. More recently, tourism supports mountain communities, with some
intensive development around attractions such as national parks or ski
resorts.[37] About 80% of mountain people live below the poverty line.[14]
Most of the world's rivers are fed from mountain sources, with snow acting as
a storage mechanism for downstream users.[38] More than half of humanity
depends on mountains for water.[39][40]
Mountaineering, mountain climbing, or alpinism is the sport, hobby or
profession of hiking, skiing, and climbing mountains. While mountaineering
began as attempts to reach the highest point of unclimbed big mountains it
has branched into specializations that address different aspects of the
mountain and consists of three areas: rock-craft, snow-craft and skiing,
depending on whether the route chosen is over rock, snow or ice. All require
experience, athletic ability, and technical knowledge to maintain safety.[41]
Superlatives
Main article: List of highest mountains

The Zugspitze, the highest mountain in Germany

Maat Mons of Venus (22.5x exaggeration)

Heights of mountains are typically measured above sea level. Using this
metric, Mount Everest is the highest mountain on Earth, at 8,848 metres
(29,029ft).[42] There are at least 100 mountains with heights of over 7,200
metres (23,622ft) above sea level, all of which are located in central and
southern Asia. The highest mountains above sea level are generally not the
highest above the surrounding terrain. There is no precise definition of
surrounding base, but Denali,[43] Mount Kilimanjaro and Nanga Parbat are
possible candidates for the tallest mountain on land by this measure. The
bases of mountain islands are below sea level, and given this consideration
Mauna Kea (4,207m (13,802ft) above sea level) is the world's tallest
mountain and volcano, rising about 10,203m (33,474ft) from the Pacific
Ocean floor.[44]
The highest mountains are not generally the most voluminous. Mauna Loa
(4,169m or 13,678ft) is the largest mountain on Earth in terms of base area
(about 2,000sqmi or 5,200km2) and volume (about 18,000cumi or
75,000km3).[45] Mount Kilimanjaro is the largest non-shield volcano in terms of
both base area (245sqmi or 635km2) and volume (1,150cumi or
4,793km3). Mount Logan is the largest non-volcanic mountain in base area
(120sqmi or 311km2).
The highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest
from the centre of the Earth, because the figure of the Earth is not spherical.
Sea level closer to the equator is several miles farther from the centre of the
Earth. The summit of Chimborazo, Ecuador's tallest mountain, is usually
considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the
southern summit of Peru's tallest mountain, Huascarn, is another contender.
[46] Both have elevations above sea level more than 2 kilometres (6,600ft)

less than that of Everest.

See also
Latin names of mountains
List of mountain ranges
List of peaks by prominence
List of ski areas and resorts
Lists of mountains
Mountain hut
Notes
1 Jump up
^ "The 'Highest' Spot on Earth". Npr.org. 7 April 2007. Retrieved 31 July
2012.
2 ^ Jump up to:
a b Gerrard 1990.

3 Jump up
^ Whittow, John (1984). Dictionary of Physical Geography. London: Penguin.
p.352. ISBN0-14-051094-X.
4 Jump up
^ Nuttall, John & Anne (2008). England. The Mountains of England & Wales.
2 (3rd ed.). Milnthorpe, Cumbria: Cicerone. ISBN1-85284-037-4.
5 Jump up
^ "Survey turns hill into a mountain". BBC. Retrieved 3 February 2013.
6 Jump up
^ "A Mountain is a Mountain isn't it?". www.go4awalk.com. Retrieved 3
February 2013.
7 Jump up
^ "mountain". dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 3 February 2013.
8 Jump up
^ Wilson, Peter (2001). "Listing the Irish hills and mountains". Irish
Geography. Coleraine: University of Ulster. 34 (1): 89. doi:
10.1080/00750770109555778. Archived from the original (PDF) on
2013-06-27.
9 Jump up
^ "What is a "Mountain"? Mynydd Graig Goch and all that...". Metric Views.
Retrieved 3 February 2013.
10 Jump up
^ Helman, Adam (2005). The Finest Peaks - Prominence and Other Mountain
Measures. Trafford Publishing. ISBN978-1412059954.
11 Jump up
^ "What is the difference between lake and pond; mountain and hill; or river
and creek?". USGS. Archived from the original on 2013-02-12. Retrieved 11
February 2013.
12 Jump up
^ Blyth 2002, p.74.
13 ^ Jump up to:
a b Blyth 2002, p.14.

14 ^ Jump up to:
a b c Panos (2002). "High Stakes" (PDF). Retrieved 17 February 2009.

15 Jump up
^ "Chapter 6: Mountain building". Science matters: earth and beyond; module
4. Pearson South Africa. 2002. p.75. ISBN0-7986-6059-7.
16 Jump up
^ Butz, Stephen D (2004). "Chapter 8: Plate tectonics". Science of Earth
Systems. Thompson/Delmar Learning. p.136. ISBN0-7668-3391-7.
17 Jump up
^ Gerrard 1990, p.194.
18 Jump up
^ Searle, Michael P (2007). "Diagnostic features and processes in the
construction and evolution of Oman-, Zagros-, Himalayan-, Karakoram-, and
Tibetan type orogenic belts". In Robert D. Hatcher Jr.; MP Carlson; JH
McBride; JR Martinez Cataln. 4-D framework of continental crust.
Geological Society of America. p.41 ff. ISBN0-8137-1200-9.
19 Jump up
^ Press, Frank; Siever, Raymond (1985). Earth (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman.
p.413. ISBN978-0-7167-1743-0.
20 Jump up
^ Ryan, Scott (2006). "Figure 13-1". CliffsQuickReview Earth Science. Wiley.
ISBN0-471-78937-2.
21 Jump up
^ Fraknoi, Morrison & Wolff 2004, p.160.
22 ^ Jump up to:
a b Goody, Richard M.; Walker, James C.G. (1972). "Atmospheric

Temperatures" (PDF). Atmospheres. Prentice-Hall.

23 Jump up
^ "Dry Adibatic Lapse Rate". tpub.com. Retrieved 2016-05-02.
24 Jump up
^ Blyth 2002, p.15.
25 Jump up
^ "Factors affecting climate". The United Kingdom Environmental Change
Network. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011.
26 Jump up
^ Blyth 2002, p.12.
27 Jump up
^ Lugo, Ariel E.; Brown, Sandra L.; Dodson, Rusty; Smith, Tom S.; Shugart,
Hank H. (1999). "The Holdridge Life Zones of the conterminous United States
in relation to ecosystem mapping". Journal of Biogeography. 26 (5): 1025
1038. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2699.1999.00329.x. Archived from the original on
2013-02-12.
28 Jump up
^ Daubenmire, R.F. (June 1943). "Vegetational Zonation in the Rocky
Mountains". Botanical Review. 9 (6): 325393. doi:10.1007/BF02872481.
29 ^ Jump up to:
a b Blyth 2002.

30 ^ Jump up to:
a b "Biotic Communities of the Colorado Plateau: C. Hart Merriam and the Life

Zones Concept". Archived from the original on 2013-02-04. Retrieved 30

January 2010.
31 Jump up
^ Tweit, Susan J. (1992). The Great Southwest Nature Factbook. Alaska
Northwest Books. pp.209210. ISBN0-88240-434-2.
32 Jump up
^ "Tree". Microsoft Encarta Reference Library 2003. Microsoft Corporation.
2002 [1993]. 60210-442-1635445-74407.
33 Jump up
^ Moore, Lorna G. (2001). "Human Genetic Adaptation to High Altitude". High
Alt Med Biol. 2 (2): 257279. doi:10.1089/152702901750265341.
PMID11443005.
 34 Jump up
^ Cook, James D.; Boy, Erick; Flowers, Carol; del Carmen Daroca, Maria
(2005). "The influence of high-altitude living on body iron". Blood. 106 (4):
14411446. doi:10.1182/blood-2004-12-4782. PMID15870179.
35 Jump up
^ West, JB (2002). "Highest permanent human habitation". High Altitude
Medical Biology. 3 (4): 4017. doi:10.1089/15270290260512882.
PMID12631426.
36 Jump up
^ "Everest:The Death Zone". Nova. PBS. 24 February 1998.
37 Jump up
^ Blyth 2002, p.17.
38 Jump up
^ Blyth 2002, p.22.
39 Jump up
^ "International Year of Freshwater 2003". Archived from the original on 7
October 2006. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
40 Jump up
^ "The Mountain Institute". Archived from the original on 9 July 2006.
Retrieved 7 December 2006.
41 Jump up
^ Cox, Steven M.; Fulsaas, Kris, eds. (2009) [2003]. Mountaineering: The
Freedom of the Hills (7 ed.). Seattle: The Mountaineers.
ISBN0-89886-828-9.
42 Jump up
^ "Nepal and China agree on Mount Everest's height". BBC News. 8 April
2010. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
43 Jump up
^ Helman, Adam (2005). The Finest Peaks: Prominence and Other Mountain
Measures. Trafford. p.9. ISBN1412236649. the base to peak rise of Denali
is the largest of any mountain that lies entirely above sea level, some 18,000
feet.
44 Jump up
^ "Mountains: Highest Points on Earth". National Geographic Society.
Retrieved 19 September 2010.
45 Jump up
^ Kaye, G.D. (2002). "Using GIS to estimate the total volume of Mauna Loa
Volcano, Hawaii". 98th Annual Meeting. Geological Society of America.
46 Jump up
^ Krulwich, Robert (7 April 2007). "The 'Highest' Spot on Earth?". Retrieved
21 March 2009.
References
Blyth, S.; Groombridge, B.; Lysenko, I.; Miles, L.; Newton, A. (2002).
"Mountain Watch" (PDF). UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre,
Cambridge, UK. Retrieved 17 February 2009.[dead link]
 Fraknoi, A.; Morrison, D.; Wolff, S. (2004). Voyages to the Planets (3rd ed.).
Belmont: Thomson Books/Cole. ISBN9780534395674.
Gerrard, A.J. (1990). Mountain Environments: An Examination of the Physical
Geography of Mountains. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
ISBN978-0262071284.
External links
"Mountain". Encyclopdia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). 1911.
Media related to Mountains at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Mountains at Wikiquote
[hide]
vte
Earth's landforms

List of landforms

Mountainous
Table Butte Flat Hill Mountain Mountain range Plateau Ridge Valley

Continental plain
Ice sheet Plain Steppe Tundra

Fluvial
Alluvial fan Beach Canyon Cave Channel Cliff Floodplain Lake Levee Meander
Oasis Pond Rapids River River delta River mouth River valley Strait Swamp
Waterfall

Glacial
Arte Cirque Esker Fjord Glacier Tunnel valley

Oceanic and
coastal landforms
Atoll Bay Cape Channel Coast Continental shelf Coral reef Estuary High island
Island Isthmus Lagoon Mid-ocean ridge Oceanic trench Peninsula Seamount

Volcanic
Caldera Crater lake Geyser High island Mid-ocean ridge Lava dome
Lava field Lava plateau Submarine volcano Guyot Volcanic crater Volcanic plug
Volcano Wall rock

Aeolian
Desert Dry lake Dune Sandhill Tundra

Artificial
Artificial island Artificial reef Bridge Building Canal (man-made) Dam Ditch Land
reclamation Levee Polder Quarry Reservoir Road Tunnel

See also: Geographical feature

Mountains portal Environment portal Ecology portal

 Authority control
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