Introduction to AI

& Intelligent Agents

What is Intelligence?
Intelligence:
the capacity to learn and solve problems (Websters
dictionary)
in particular,
the ability to solve novel problems
the ability to act rationally
the ability to act like humans

Artificial Intelligence
build and understand intelligent entities or agents
2 main approaches: engineering versus cognitive modeling
What is Artificial Intelligence?
John McCarthy, who coined the term Artificial Intelligence in 1956,
defines it as "the science and engineering of making intelligent
machines", especially intelligent computer programs.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and
the branch of computer science that aims to create it.
Intelligence is the computational part of the ability to achieve
goals in the world. Varying kinds and degrees of intelligence occur
in people, many animals and some machines.
AI is the study of the mental faculties through the use of
computational models.
AI is the study of : How to make computers do things which,
at the moment, people do better.
AI is the study and design of intelligent agents, where an
intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and
takes actions that maximize its chances of success.
Whats involved in Intelligence?
Ability to interact with the real world
to perceive, understand, and act
e.g., speech recognition and understanding and synthesis
e.g., image understanding
e.g., ability to take actions, have an effect

Reasoning and Planning

modeling the external world, given input
solving new problems, planning, and making decisions
ability to deal with unexpected problems, uncertainties

Learning and Adaptation

we are continuously learning and adapting
our internal models are always being updated
e.g., a baby learning to categorize and recognize animals
AI Problems:

Mundane Tasks
Formal Tasks
Expert Tasks
 Academic Disciplines relevant to AI

Philosophy Logic, methods of reasoning, mind as physical

system, foundations of learning, language,
rationality.
Mathematics Formal representation and proof, algorithms,
computation, (un)decidability, (in)tractability
Probability/Statistics modeling uncertainty, learning from data
Economics utility, decision theory, rational economic agents
Neuroscience neurons as information processing units.
Psychology/ how do people behave, perceive, process cognitive
Cognitive Science information, represent knowledge.
Computer building fast computers
engineering
Control theory design systems that maximize an objective
function over time
Linguistics knowledge representation, grammars
Can we build hardware as complex as the brain?

How complicated is our brain?

a neuron, or nerve cell, is the basic information processing unit
estimated to be on the order of 10 12 neurons in a human brain
many more synapses (10 14) connecting these neurons
cycle time: 10 -3 seconds (1 millisecond)
How complex can we make computers?
108 or more transistors per CPU
supercomputer: hundreds of CPUs, 1012 bits of RAM
cycle times: order of 10 - 9 seconds
Conclusion
YES: in the near future we can have computers with as many basic
processing elements as our brain, but with
far fewer interconnections (wires or synapses) than the brain
much faster updates than the brain
but building hardware is very different from making a computer behave like a
brain!
Can Computers beat Humans at Chess?
Chess Playing is a classic AI problem
well-defined problem
very complex: difficult for humans to play well
3000
2800 Deep Blue
Human World Champion
2600
2400
Points Ratings

2200 Deep Thought Ratings

2000
1800
1600
Deep Fritz German
Deep Junior Israeli Prog.
1400
1200
1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1997
Conclusion:
YES: todays computers can beat even the best human
Can Computers Talk?
This is known as speech synthesis
translate text to phonetic form
e.g., fictitious -> fik-tish-es
use pronunciation rules to map phonemes to actual sound
e.g., tish -> sequence of basic audio sounds
Difficulties
sounds made by this lookup approach sound unnatural
sounds are not independent
e.g., act and action
modern systems (e.g., at AT&T) can handle this pretty well
a harder problem is emphasis, emotion, etc
humans understand what they are saying
machines dont: so they sound unnatural
Conclusion:
NO, for complete sentences
YES, for individual words
Can Computers Recognize Speech?
Speech Recognition:
mapping sounds from a microphone into a list of words
classic problem in AI, very difficult
Lets talk about how to wreck a nice beach

(I really said ________________________)

Recognizing single words from a small vocabulary

systems can do this with high accuracy (order of 99%)
e.g., directory inquiries
limited vocabulary (area codes, city names)
computer tries to recognize you first, if unsuccessful hands you over to a
human operator
saves millions of dollars a year for the phone companies
dialogues from big hero 6 movie

Baymax: [appears behind Hiro] Hiro?

Hiro: [screams, then sees who it is] You gave me a heart attack!

Baymax: [rubs his hands together] My hands are equipped with

defibrillators.

[He moves his hands toward Hiro]

Baymax: Clear.

Hiro: [alarmed] STOP, STOP, STOP, STOP! It's just an expression!

Recognizing human speech (ctd.)
Recognizing normal speech is much more difficult
speech is continuous: where are the boundaries between words?
e.g., Johns car has a flat tire
large vocabularies
can be many thousands of possible words
we can use context to help figure out what someone said
e.g., hypothesize and test
try telling a waiter in a restaurant:
I would like some dream and sugar in my coffee
background noise, other speakers, accents, colds, etc
on normal speech, modern systems are only about 60-70% accurate

Conclusion:
NO, normal speech is too complex to accurately recognize
YES, for restricted problems (small vocabulary, single speaker)
Can Computers Understand speech?
Understanding is different to recognition:
Time flies like an arrow
assume the computer can recognize all the words
how many different interpretations are there?
1. time passes quickly like an arrow?
2. command: time the flies the way an arrow times the flies
3. command: only time those flies which are like an arrow
4. time-flies are fond of arrows
only 1. makes any sense,
but how could a computer figure this out?
clearly humans use a lot of implicit commonsense knowledge in
communication

Conclusion: NO, much of what we say is beyond the

capabilities of a computer to understand at present
Can Computers Learn and Adapt ?
Learning and Adaptation
consider a computer learning to drive on the freeway
we could teach it lots of rules about what to do
or we could let it drive and steer it back on course when it heads
for the embankment
systems like this are under development (e.g., Daimler Benz)
e.g., RALPH at CMU
in mid 90s it drove 98% of the way from Pittsburgh to San Diego without any
human assistance
machine learning allows computers to learn to do things without
explicit programming
many successful applications:
requires some set-up: does not mean your PC can learn to forecast the
stock market or become a brain surgeon

Conclusion: YES, computers can learn and adapt, when presented

with information in the appropriate way
Can Computers see?
Recognition v. Understanding (like Speech)
Recognition and Understanding of Objects in a scene
look around this room
you can effortlessly recognize objects
human brain can map 2d visual image to 3d map

Why is visual recognition a hard problem?

Conclusion:
mostly NO: computers can only see certain types of objects under limited
circumstances
YES for certain constrained problems (e.g., face recognition)
Can computers plan and make optimal decisions?

Intelligence
involves solving problems and making decisions and plans
e.g., you want to take a holiday in Brazil
you need to decide on dates, flights
you need to get to the airport, etc
involves a sequence of decisions, plans, and actions

What makes planning hard?

the world is not predictable:
your flight is canceled or theres a backup on the 405
there are a potentially huge number of details
do you consider all flights? all dates?
no: commonsense constrains your solutions

AI systems are only successful in constrained planning problems

Conclusion: NO, real-world planning and decision-making is still beyond
the capabilities of modern computers
exception: very well-defined, constrained problems
Summary of State of AI Systems in Practice
Speech synthesis, recognition and understanding
very useful for limited vocabulary applications
unconstrained speech understanding is still too hard
Computer vision
works for constrained problems (hand-written zip-codes)
understanding real-world, natural scenes is still too hard
Learning
adaptive systems are used in many applications: have their limits
Planning and Reasoning
only works for constrained problems: e.g., chess
real-world is too complex for general systems
Overall:
many components of intelligent systems are doable
there are many interesting research problems remaining
 Intelligent Systems in Your Everyday Life

Post Office
automatic address recognition and sorting of mail
Banks
automatic check readers, signature verification systems
automated loan application classification
Customer Service
automatic voice recognition
The Web
Identifying your age, gender, location, from your Web surfing
Automated fraud detection
Digital Cameras
Automated face detection and focusing
Computer Games
Intelligent characters/agents
Hard or Strong AI

Generally, artificial intelligence research aims to create AI that can replicate

human intelligence completely.

Strong AI refers to a machine that approaches or supersedes human

intelligence,
If it can do typically human tasks,
If it can apply a wide range of background knowledge and
If it has some degree of self-consciousness.

Strong AI aims to build machines whose overall intellectual ability is

indistinguishable from that of a human being.
Soft or Weak AI
Weak AI refers to the use of software to study or accomplish specific
problem solving or reasoning tasks that do not encompass the full range of
human cognitive abilities.

Example : a chess program such as Deep Blue.

Weak AI does not achieve self-awareness; it demonstrates wide range of

human-level cognitive abilities; it is merely an intelligent, a specific problem-
solver.
What is Artificial Intelligence?
Thought processes vs. behavior
Human-like vs. rational-like
How to simulate humans intellect and behavior by a
machine.
Mathematical problems (puzzles, games, theorems)
Common-sense reasoning
Expert knowledge: lawyers, medicine, diagnosis
Social behavior
Web and online intelligence
Planning for assembly and logistics operations
Things we call intelligent if done by a human.
What is AI?
Views of AI fall into four categories:
Thinking humanly:The Thinking rationally: The
cognitive modeling laws of thought
approach approach

Acting humanly:The Acting rationally: The

Turing Test approach rational agent approach

The textbook advocates acting rationally

 What is Artificial Intelligence
(John McCarthy , Basic Questions)

What is artificial intelligence?

It is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent
computer programs. It is related to the similar task of using computers to understand
human intelligence, but AI does not have to confine itself to methods that are
biologically observable.

Yes, but what is intelligence?

Intelligence is the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the world.
Varying kinds and degrees of intelligence occur in people, many animals and some
machines.

Isn't there a solid definition of intelligence that doesn't depend on relating it to human
intelligence?
Not yet. The problem is that we cannot yet characterize in general what kinds of
computational procedures we want to call intelligent. We understand some of the
mechanisms of intelligence and not others.

More in: http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/whatisai/node1.html

What is Artificial Intelligence
Thought processes
The exciting new effort to make computers think ..
Machines with minds, in the full and literal sense
(Haugeland, 1985)
Behavior
The study of how to make computers do things at which,
at the moment, people are better. (Rich, and Knight, 1991)
Activities
The automation of activities that we associate with human
thinking, activities such as decision-making, problem solving,
learning (Bellman)
AI as Raisin Bread
Esther Dyson [predicted] AI would [be] embedded in main-stream,
strategically important systems, like raisins in a loaf of raisin bread.

Time has proven Dyson's prediction correct.

Emphasis shifts away from replacing expensive human experts with

stand-alone expert systems toward main-stream computing systems that
create strategic advantage.

Many of today's AI systems are connected to large data bases, they deal
with legacy data, they talk to networks, they handle noise and data
corruption with style and grace, they are implemented in popular
languages, and they run on standard operating systems.

Humans usually are important contributors to the total solution.

Adapted from Patrick Winston, Former Director, MIT AI Laboratory

The Turing Test
(Can Machine think? A. M. Turing, 1950)

Requires:
Natural language
Knowledge representation
Automated reasoning
Machine learning
(vision, robotics) for full test
Acting humanly: Turing test
Turing (1950) "Computing machinery and intelligence

"Can machines think?" "Can machines behave intelligently?

Operational test for intelligent behavior: the Imitation Game

Suggests major components required for AI:

- knowledge representation
- reasoning,
- language/image understanding,
- learning

* Question: is it important that an intelligent system act like a human?

 3 rooms contain: a person, a computer, and an interrogator.

The interrogator can communicate with the other 2 by teletype (to

avoid the machine imitate the appearance or voice of the person).

The interrogator tries to determine which is the person and which is

the machine.

The machine tries to fool the interrogator to believe that it is the

human, and the person also tries to convince the interrogator that it
is the human.

If the machine succeeds in fooling the interrogator, then conclude

that the machine is intelligent.
Goal is to develop systems that are human-like.
Acting/Thinking
Humanly/Rationally
Acting Humanly: Turing test (1950)
Methods for Thinking Humanly:
Introspection, the general problem solver (Newell and
Simon 1961)
Cognitive sciences
through psychological experiments
through brain imaging
Thinking rationally:
Logic
Problems: how to represent and reason in a domain
Acting rationally:
Agents
Operate autonomously
Perceive their environment
Persist over prolonged time period
Adapt to change
Create and pursue goals
Thinking humanly: Cognitive modeling
Cognitive Science approach
Try to get inside our minds
E.g., conduct experiments with people to try to reverse-
engineer how we reason, learning, remember, predict

Problems
Humans dont behave rationally

The reverse engineering is very hard to do

The brains hardware is very different to a computer program

Thinking rationally: "laws of thought"
Represent facts about the world via logic

Use logical inference as a basis for reasoning about these facts

Can be a very useful approach to AI

E.g., theorem-provers

Limitations
Does not account for an agents uncertainty about the world
E.g., difficult to couple to vision or speech systems

Has no way to represent goals, costs, etc (important aspects of real-world environments)
Acting rationally: rational agent
Decision theory/Economics
Set of future states of the world
Set of possible actions an agent can take
Utility = gain to an agent for each action/state pair
The right thing: that which is expected to maximize goal
achievement, given the available information
An agent acts rationally if it selects the action that maximizes its
utility
Or expected utility if there is uncertainty

Emphasis is on autonomous agents that behave rationally

(make the best predictions, take the best actions)
on average over time
within computational limitations (bounded rationality)
Agents and environments

Compare: Standard Embedded System

Structure

ADC microcontroller DAC

sensors actuators

ASIC FPGA

ASIC: application-specific integrated circuit

FPGA: field programmable gate array
Agents

An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its

environment through sensors and acting upon that
environment through actuators

Human agent:
eyes, ears, and other organs for sensors;
hands, legs, mouth, and other body parts for
actuators

Robotic agent:
cameras and infrared range finders for sensors; various
motors for actuators
Agents and environments

Percept: agents perceptual inputs at an instant

The agent function maps from percept sequences to

actions:
[f: P* A]
The agent program runs on the physical architecture to
produce f

agent = architecture + program

Vacuum-cleaner world

Percepts: location and state of the environment, e.g.,

[A,Dirty], [B,Clean]

Actions: Left, Right, Suck, NoOp

Rational agents
Rational Agent: For each possible percept sequence, a rational
agent should select an action that is expected to maximize its
performance measure, based on the evidence provided by the
percept sequence and whatever built-in knowledge the agent
has.

Performance measure:An objective criterion for success of an

agent's behavior

E.g., performance measure of a vacuum-cleaner agent could be

amount of dirt cleaned up, amount of time taken, amount of
electricity consumed, amount of noise generated, etc.
Rational agents
Rationality is distinct from omniscience (all-knowing
with infinite knowledge)

Agents can perform actions in order to modify future

percepts so as to obtain useful information
(information gathering, exploration)

An agent is autonomous if its behavior is determined

by its own percepts & experience (with ability to
learn and adapt)
without depending solely on build-in knowledge
Task Environment
Before we design an intelligent agent, we must specify
its task environment:

PEAS:

Performance measure
Environment
Actuators
Sensors
PEAS
Example: Agent = taxi driver

Performance measure: Safe, fast, legal, comfortable trip,

maximize profits

Environment: Roads, other traffic, pedestrians, customers

Actuators: Steering wheel, accelerator, brake, signal, horn

Sensors: Cameras, sonar, speedometer, GPS, odometer,

engine sensors, keyboard
PEAS
Example: Agent = Medical diagnosis system

Performance measure: Healthy patient, minimize costs,

lawsuits

Environment: Patient, hospital, staff

Actuators: Screen display (questions, tests, diagnoses,

treatments, referrals)

Sensors: Keyboard (entry of symptoms, findings, patient's

answers)
PEAS
Example: Agent = Part-picking robot

Performance measure: Percentage of parts in correct bins

Environment: Conveyor belt with parts, bins

Actuators: Jointed arm and hand

Sensors: Camera, joint angle sensors

Environment types
Fully observable (vs. partially observable): An agent's
sensors give it access to the complete state of the
environment at each point in time.

Deterministic (vs. stochastic): The next state of the

environment is completely determined by the current state
and the action executed by the agent. (If the environment is
deterministic except for the actions of other agents, then
the environment is strategic)

Episodic (vs. sequential): An agents action is divided into

atomic episodes. Decisions do not depend on previous
decisions/actions.
Environment types
Static (vs. dynamic): The environment is unchanged while an
agent is deliberating. (The environment is semidynamic if the
environment itself does not change with the passage of time
but the agent's performance score does)

Discrete (vs. continuous): A limited number of distinct, clearly

defined percepts and actions.
How do we represent or abstract or model the world?

Single agent (vs. multi-agent): An agent operating by itself in an

environment. Does the other agent interfere with my
performance measure?
task observable determ./ episodic/ static/ discrete/ agents
environm. stochastic sequential dynamic continuous
crossword fully determ. sequential static discrete single
puzzle
chess with fully strategic sequential semi discrete multi
clock
poker

back
gammon
taxi partial stochastic sequential dynamic continuous multi
driving
medical partial stochastic sequential dynamic continuous single
diagnosis
image fully determ. episodic semi continuous single
analysis
partpicking partial stochastic episodic dynamic continuous single
robot
refinery partial stochastic sequential dynamic continuous single
controller
interact. partial stochastic sequential dynamic discrete multi
Eng. tutor
task observable determ./ episodic/ static/ discrete/ agents
environm. stochastic sequential dynamic continuous
crossword fully determ. sequential static discrete single
puzzle
chess with fully strategic sequential semi discrete multi
clock
poker partial stochastic sequential static discrete multi

back
gammon
taxi partial stochastic sequential dynamic continuous multi
driving
medical partial stochastic sequential dynamic continuous single
diagnosis
image fully determ. episodic semi continuous single
analysis
partpicking partial stochastic episodic dynamic continuous single
robot
refinery partial stochastic sequential dynamic continuous single
controller
interact. partial stochastic sequential dynamic discrete multi
Eng. tutor
task observable determ./ episodic/ static/ discrete/ agents
environm. stochastic sequential dynamic continuous
crossword fully determ. sequential static discrete single
puzzle
chess with fully strategic sequential semi discrete multi
clock
poker partial stochastic sequential static discrete multi

back fully stochastic sequential static discrete multi

gammon
taxi partial stochastic sequential dynamic continuous multi
driving
medical partial stochastic sequential dynamic continuous single
diagnosis
image fully determ. episodic semi continuous single
analysis
partpicking partial stochastic episodic dynamic continuous single
robot
refinery partial stochastic sequential dynamic continuous single
controller
interact. partial stochastic sequential dynamic discrete multi
Eng. tutor
Agent types
Table Driven agents

Simple reflex agents

Model-based reflex agents

Goal-based agents

Utility-based agents

Learning agents
Table Driven Agent. current state of decision process

table lookup
for entire history
Table Driven Agent.
 Simple reflex agents

NO MEMORY
Fails if environment
is partially observable

example: vacuum cleaner world

Simple reflex agents
Example 1:

Example 2:
if car-in-front-is-braking then initiate-braking
Simple reflex agents
 Model-based reflex agents
Model the state of the world by:
modeling how the world changes
description of how its actions change the world
current world state

This can work even with partial information

Its is unclear what to do without a clear goal
 Model-based reflex agents

Example:
how the world evolves independently of the agent
an overtaking car generally will be closer behind than it was a moment
ago
how the agents own actions affect the world
when the agent turns the steering clockwise, the car turns to the right.
After driving for five minutes northbound on the freeway, one is usually
about five miles north of where one was five minutes ago.

The details of how models and states are represented vary widely
depending on the type of environment and the particular technology used
in the agent design.
Model-based reflex agents
Goal-based agents
Goals provide reason to prefer one action over the other.
We need to predict the future: we need to plan & search
Utility-based agents

Some solutions to goal states are better than others.

Which one is best is given by a utility function.
Which combination of goals is preferred?
Learning agents
How does an agent improve over time?
By monitoring its performance and suggesting
better modeling, new action rules, etc.

Evaluates
current
world
state

changes
action
rules
old agent=
model world
and decide on
actions
to be taken
suggests
explorations
Summary
Conceptions of AI span two major axes:
Thinking vs. Acting; Human-like vs. Rational
Textbook (and this course) adopt Acting Rationally
Esther Dyson: AI as raisin bread
Small sweet nuggets of intelligent control points
Embedded in the matrix of an engineered system
Rational Agent as the organizing theme
Acts to maximize expected performance measure
Task Environment: PEAS
Environment types:Yield design constraints