Physics HL Notes

Chapter 1: Measurements and Uncertainties

Fundamental Units:

Quantity SI unit Symbol

Mass Kilogram kg

Distance Meter m

Time Second s

Electric current Ampere A

Amount of substance Mole mol

Temperature Kelvin K

Derived units are combinations of fundamental units. Some examples are:

m/s (Unit for velocity)

N (kg*m/s^2) (Unit for force)
J (kg*m^2/s^2) (Unit for energy)

Significant figures
To express a value to a certain amount of significant figures means to arrange the
value in a way that it contains only a certain amount of digits which contribute to its
precision.
For example, if we were asked to state the value of an equation to three significant
figures and we found the result of that value to be 2.5423, we would state it as 2.54.

Note that 2.54 is accurate to three significant figures as we count both the digits
before and after the point.
The amount of significant figures includes all digits except:

leading and trailing zeros (such as 0.0024 (2 sig. figures) and 24000 (2 sig.
figures)) which serve only as placeholders to indicate the scale of the number.
 extra artificial digits produced when calculating to a greater accuracy than
that of the original data, or measurements reported to a greater precision than the
equipment used to obtain them supports.

Rules for identifying significant figures:

All non-zero digits are considered significant (such as 14 (2 sig. figures) and
12.34 (4 sig. figures)).

Zeros placed in between two non-zero digits (such as 104 (3 sig. figures) and
1004 (4 sig. figures))

Trailing zeros in a number containing a decimal point are significant (such as

2.3400 (5 sig. figures) note that a number 0.00023400 also has 5 sig. figures as
the leading zeros are not significant).

Note that a number such as 0.230 and 0.23 are technically the same number, but,
the former (0.230) contains three significant figures, which states that it is accurate to
three significant figures. On the other hand, the latter (0.23) could represent a
number such as 2.31 accurate to only two significant figures. The use of trailing
zeros after a decimal point as significant figures is is simply to state that the number
is accurate to that degree.

Another thing to note is that some numbers with no decimal point but ending in
trailing zeros can cause some confusion. For example, the number 200, this number
contains one significant figure (the digit 2). However, this could be a number that is
represented to three significant figures which just happens to end with trailing zeros.
Typically these confusions can be resolved by taking the number in context and if
that does not help, one can simply state the degree of significance (for example 200
(2 s.f.) , means that the two first digits are accurate and the second trailing zero is
just a place holder.
 1.2.6 Describe and give examples of random and systematic errors.

Random errors
A random error, is an error which affects a reading at random.
Sources of random errors include:

The observer being less than perfect

The readability of the equipment

External effects on the observed item

Systematic errors

A systematic error, is an error which occurs at each reading.

Sources of systematic errors include:

The observer being less than perfect in the same way every time

An instrument with a zero offset error

An instrument that is improperly calibrated

1.2.7 Distinguish between precision and accuracy.

Precision
A measurement is said to be accurate if it has little systematic errors.

Accuracy
A measurement is said to be precise if it has little random errors.

A measurement can be of great precision but be inaccurate (for example, if the

instrument used had a zero offset error).

1.2.8 Explain how the effects of random errors may be reduced.

The effect of random errors on a set of data can be reduced by repeating readings.
On the other hand, because systematic errors occur at each reading, repeating
readings does not reduce their affect on the data.

1.2.9 Calculate quantities and results of calculations to the appropriate number of

significant figures.
The number of significant figures in a result should mirror the precision of the input
data. That is to say, when dividing and multiplying, the number of significant figures
must not exceed that of the least precise value.

Example:
Find the speed of a car that travels 11.21 meters in 1.23 seconds.
11.21 x 1.13 = 13.7883

The answer contains 6 significant figures. However, since the value for time (1.23 s)
is only 3 s.f. we write the answer as 13.7 m s-1.
The number of significant figures in any answer should reflect the number of
significant figures in the given data.

1.2.10 State uncertainties as absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainties.

Absolute uncertainties
When marking the absolute uncertainty in a piece of data, we simply add 1 of the
smallest significant figure.

Example:
13.21 m 0.01
0.002 g 0.001
1.2 s 0.1
12 V 1

Fractional uncertainties
To calculate the fractional uncertainty of a piece of data we simply divide the
uncertainty by the value of the data.
Example:

1.2 s 0.1

Fractional uncertainty:

0.1 / 1.2 = 0.0625

Percentage uncertainties
To calculate the percentage uncertainty of a piece of data we simply multiply the
fractional uncertainty by 100.

Example:
1.2 s 0.1
Percentage uncertainty:

0.1 / 1.2 x 100 = 6.25 %

1.2.11 Determine the uncertainties in results.

Simply displaying the uncertainty in data is not enough, we need to include it in any
calculations we do with the data.
Addition and subtraction
When performing additions and subtractions we simply need to add together the
absolute uncertainties.

Example:
Add the values 1.2 0.1, 12.01 0.01, 7.21 0.01

1.2 + 12.01 + 7.21 = 20.42

0.1 + 0.01 + 0.01 = 0.12
20.42 0.12
Multiplication, division and powers
When performing multiplications and divisions, or, dealing with powers, we simply
add together the percentage uncertainties.

Example:
Multiply the values 1.2 0.1, 12.01 0.01

1.2 x 12.01 = 14
0.1 / 1.2 x 100 = 8.33 %
0.01 / 12.01 X 100 = 0.083%
8.33 + 0.083 = 8.413 %
14 8.413 %

Other functions
For other functions, such as trigonometric ones, we calculate the mean, highest and
lowest value to determine the uncertainty range. To do this, we calculate a result
using the given values as normal, with added error margin and subtracted error
margin. We then check the difference between the best value and the ones with
added and subtracted error margin and use the largest difference as the error margin
in the result.
Example:

Calculate the area of a field if it's length is 12 1 m and width is 7 0.2 m.

Best value for area:
12 x 7 = 84 m2

Highest value for area:

13 x 7.2 = 93.6 m2
Lowest value for area:
11 x 6.8 = 74.8 m2

If we round the values we get an area of:

84 10 m2
1.2.12 Identify uncertainties as error bars in graphs.

When representing data as a graph, we represent uncertainty in the data points by

adding error bars. We can see the uncertainty range by checking the length of the
error bars in each direction. Error bars can be seen in figure 1.2.1 below:

Figure 1.2.1 - A graph with error bars

1.2.13 State random uncertainty as an uncertainty range () and represent it

graphically as an "error bar".

In IB physics, error bars only need to be used when the uncertainty in one or both of
the plotted quantities are significant. Error bars are not required for trigonometric and
logarithmic functions.
To add error bars to a point on a graph, we simply take the uncertainty range
(expressed as " value" in the data) and draw lines of a corresponding size above
and below or on each side of the point depending on the axis the value corresponds
to.

Example:
Plot the following data onto a graph taking into account the uncertainty.
 Time 0.2 s Distance 2 m

3.4 13

5.1 36

7 64

Table 1.2.1 - Distance vs Time data

Figure 1.2.2 - Distance vs. time graph with error bars

In practice, plotting each point with its specific error bars can be time consuming as
we would need to calculate the uncertainty range for each point. Therefor, we often
skip certain points and only add error bars to specific ones. We can use the list of
rules below to save time:

Add error bars only to the first and last points

Only add error bars to the point with the worst uncertainty

Add error bars to all points but use the uncertainty of the worst point
 Only add error bars to the axis with the worst uncertainty

1.2.14 Determine the uncertainties in the gradient and intercepts of a straight- line
graph.

Gradient
To calculate the uncertainty in the gradient, we simply add error bars to the first and
last point, and then draw a straight line passing through the lowest error bar of the
one points and the highest in the other and vice versa. This gives two lines, one with
the steepest possible gradient and one with the shallowest, we then calculate the
gradient of each line and compare it to the best value. This is demonstrated in figure
1.2.3 below:

Figure 1.2.3 - Gradient uncertainty in a graph

Intercept
To calculate the uncertainty in the intercept, we do the same thing as when
calculating the uncertainty in gradient. This time however, we check the lowest,
highest and best value for the intercept. This is demonstrated in figure 1.2.4 below:
 Figure 1.2.4 - Intercept uncertainty in a graph

Note that in the two figures above the error bars have been exaggerated to improve
readability.
1.3.1 Distinguish between vector and scalar quantities, and give examples of each.

When expressing a quantity we give it a number and a unit (for example, 12 kg), this
expresses the magnitude of the quantity. Some quantities also have direction, a
quantity that has both a magnitude and direction is called a vector. On the other
hand, a quantity that has only a magnitude is called a scalar quantity. Vectors are
represented in print as bold and italicised characters (for example F). Below is a
table listing some vector and scalar quantities:

Scalars Vectors
Speed Velocity
Temperature Acceleration
Distance Displacement
Area Force
Entropy Momentum
Volume Drag
Table 1.3.1 - Vector and scalar quantites

1.3.2 Determine the sum or difference of two vectors by a graphical method.

The difference of two vectors

When adding vectors, we need to take both the magnitude and direction into
account. Often, we will have situations where two vectors have opposite directions, in
this case, we simply subtract the smallest magnitude from the largest one. This is
demonstrated in figure 1.3.1 below:
 Figure 1.3.1 - Resultant force of two opposing vectors

The sum of two vectors

Sometimes we will have situations where two forces are acting in the same direction.
In the situations we simply add together the magnitudes of both vectors. This is
demonstrated in figure 1.3.2 below:

Figure 1.3.2 - Resultant force of two concurrent vectors

Adjacent vectors
In certain situations, we will need to work out the angle between two adjacent
vectors. In order to do this graphically we draw a scale diagram with the tail of one
vector at the head of the other, we then draw a line connecting the other head and
tail. To get the magnitude of the new vector, we simply measure it. This is
demonstrated in the diagram below:
 Figure 1.3.3 - Graphical method of solving adjacent vectors

Alternatively, we can use trigonometry for a faster and more accurate result. This is
demonstrated in figure 1.3.4 below:

Figure 1.3.4 - Trigonometric method of solving adjacent vectors

Scalar multiplication
We can also multiply (and divide) vectors by scalars. When doing so we follow a set
of rules:

Multiplying by 1 does not change a vector 1 v = v

Multiplying by 0 gives the null vector 0 v = 0

Multiplying by -1 gives the additive inverse -1 v = -v

Left distributivity: (c + d)v = cv + dv

Right distributivity: c(v + w) = cv + cw

Associativity: (cd)v = c(dv)

Scalar multiplication is demonstrated in figure 1.3.5 below:

 Figure 1.3.5 - Scalar multiplication and division of vectors

1.3.3 Resolve vectors into perpendicular components along chosen axes.

When working with adjacent vectors that do not form a 90 angle, it is often useful to
brake certain vectors into component vectors so that they are concurrent with the
other vectors. To do this, we draw two vectors, one horizontal and the other vertical
to our plane of reference. We then use trigonometry to work out the magnitude of
each new vector and figure out the resulting force. This is shown in figure 1.3.6 and
1.3.7:

Figure below shows a diagram of the forces acting on a block being pushed along a
smooth surface:

Figure 1.3.6 - Forces acting on a block

Figure below shows the same diagram but with the surface and pushing forces
broken down into their components:
 Figure 1.3.7 - Forces acting on a block broken into their components
Sometimes the plane of reference will not be parallel to the page, such and example
is shown in figure below below:

Figure 1.3.8 - Component forces of a block on a slope

Chapter 2: Measurements and Uncertainties

2.1.1 Define displacement, velocity, speed and acceleration.

Displacement
Displacement is the distance moved in a particular direction. It is a vector quantity.

SI unit: m
Symbol: s

Velocity
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. It is a vector quantity.
Velocity = (change in displacement / change in time)

SI unit: m s-1
Symbol: v or u

Speed
Speed is the rate of change of distance. It is a scalar quantity.
Speed = (change in distance / change in time)

SI unit: m s-1
Symbol: v or u

Note that speed and velocity are not the same thing. Velocity has a direction.

Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. It is a vector quantity.
Acceleration = (change in velocity / change in time)

SI unit: m s-2
Symbol: a

Note that acceleration is any change in velocity, meaning an increase or decrease in

velocity or a change in direction.

2.1.2 Explain the difference between instantaneous and average values of speed,
velocity and acceleration.
Instantaneous
An instantaneous value of speed, velocity or acceleration is one that is at a particular
point in time.

Average
An average value of speed, velocity or acceleration is one that is taken over a period
of time.

2.1.3 Outline the conditions under which the equations for uniformly accelerated
motion may be applied.

The equations of uniformly accelerated motion can only be under conditions where
the acceleration is constant.

The equations of uniformly accelerated motion are as follows:

Variable Symbol

t time taken

s distance travelled

u initial velocity

v final velocity

a acceleration

Table 1.2.1 - Variables used in uniformly accelerated motion equations

2.1.4 Identify the acceleration of a body falling in a vacuum near the Earth?s surface
with the acceleration g of free fall.
When we ignore the effect of air resistance on an object falling down to earth due to
gravity we say the object is in free fall. Free fall is an example of uniformly
accelerated motion as the only force acting on the object is that of gravity.

On the earths surface, the acceleration of an object in free fall is about 9.81 ms -1. We
can easily recognise the uniform acceleration in displacement - time, velocity - time
and acceleration - time graphs as shown below:

2.1.5 Solve problems involving the equations of uniformly accelerated motion.

A car accelerates with uniformly from rest. After 10s it has travelled 200 m.

Calculate:

Its average acceleration

S = ut + 1/2 at

200 = 0 x 10 + 1/2 x a x 10

200 = 50a

a = 4 m s-2

Its instantaneous speed after 10s

v = u + 2as

= 0 + 2 x 4 x 10

= 80

V= 8.9 m s-1

2.1.6 Describe the effects of air resistance on falling objects.

Air resistance eventually affects all objects that are in motion. Due to the effect of air
resistance objects can reach terminal velocity. This is a point by which the velocity
remains constant and acceleration is zero.
In the absence of air resistance all objects have the same acceleration irrespective of
its mass.

2.1.7 Draw and analyze distance? time graphs, displacement? Time graphs,
velocity? Time graphs and acceleration? Time graphs.
2.1.8 Calculate and interpret the gradients of displacement?time graphs and
velocity?time graphs, and the areas under velocity?time graphs and acceleration?
time graphs.
Determining its velocity
We know that the gradient of a displacement time graph gives us its velocity.
Therefore for the first 5 seconds the speed is:

25/5 =5ms?

After the first 5 s the object is stationary for 3 s. For these 3s its velocity is zero.

After 8s the object starts to return at a faster speed then before. From the graph we
find the speed to be:

25/2 =12.5ms?

Figure 2.1.5 Velocity -Time graph

Determine its acceleration

We know that the gradient of a velocity- Time graph gives us its acceleration.
Therefore for the first 5 s the acceleration is:

50/5 =10 ms?

When the object is at constant speed from 5s to 7s its acceleration is zero. During
the last second of the objects journey the object is decelerating at:

50/1 =50 ms?

Determine its displacement

The area under a velocity-time graph is the displacement. During the first 5 s the
object has travelled:

x 5 x 50 = 125m
Determine the change in velocity
The area under the acceleration- Time graph gives us the change in velocity

From the graph we find that the change in velocity is 10 x 3 = 30 ms?

Note: The gradient of the acceleration - time graph is actually the rate of change of
acceleration. However it isnt often useful.
2.2.1 Calculate the weight of a body using the expression W = mg.

In general terms one can describe any force as 'the cause of a deformation or a
velocity change'. A force is a vector quantity and the SI units for the measurement of
force are Newtons (N).

Weight
The weight of a body is the gravitational force experienced by that body. On earth the
formula give is:

W = mg

m - The mass of the body measured in kilograms (kg)

g - the gravitational field strength of the earth which is measured in Newtons per
kilogram (N kg-1) or sometimes m s-2. On the surface of the earth g= 9.81 N kg -1.

2.2.2 Identify the forces acting on an object and draw free-body diagrams
representing the forces acting.

Tension
A string that is taut is said to be under tension. Therefore we can say tension (T) is
the force that arises in any body when it is stretched. (Note that a string or rope that
is not taut has zero tension in it).

Normal Reaction force:

If a body touches another body, there is a reaction force(R) between the two bodies.
This force is perpendicular to the body exerting the force: arrows

Drag Force:

Drag forces are forces that oppose the motion of a body through a fluid (gas or
liquid). They are directed opposite to the velocity of the body and generally depend
on the speed of that body. Higher speed equals higher drag force.

Up thrust:
An object placed in a fluid medium will experience up thrust. If the up thrust force on
a body is equal to the weight, the body will float in the fluid.
Frictional Forces:
Frictional forces (f) are forces that oppose the motion of a body f.

Hookes Law:

Hookes law states that up to the elastic limit, the extension, x of a spring is
proportional to the tension force, F. The constant of proportionality k is called
the spring constant. SI units of spring constant are N m-1.

Mathematically,

Fx

F = Kx
2.2.3 Determine the resultant force in different situations.

The resultant force is the overall force acting on an object when all the individual
forces acting on that object have been added together.

In order to determine the resultant force acting upon an object, we need to add the
individual forces. Consider figure 2.2.7 below:

Figure 2.2.7 - Forces acting on an object

Figure 2.2.7 shows the free body diagram of an object with three forces acting upon
it. In order to determine the resultant force we must add these forces together. This is
shown in figure 2.2.8 below:

Figure 2.2.8 - The resultant force

Figure 2.2.8 shows the resultant force attained through simple vector addition, for
more on vector addition see section 1.3.2.

Free-body diagrams

On a free body diagram, forces acting on an object are represented as arrows which
stem from a point mass.

The length and direction of the arrows corresponds to the magnitude and the
direction of the forces acting on the body of interest.
Determining the resultant force

1. Resolve all acting forces into horizontal and vertical components

2. Add up the horizontal components

3. Add up the vertical components

4. Combine the sum of horizontal components and the sum of vertical components
2.3 Work, energy and power

Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy of a body due to its motion and is given by the
equation

Gravitational potential energy

The gravitational potential energy (GPE) of an object changes with its height and is
given by the equation

Elastic potential energy

Elastic energy is potential energy stored as a result of the deformation of an elastic

object such as the stretching of a spring and is given by the equation
 Work done as energy transfer

Work done measures the transfer of energy due to a force and is a scalar quantity.

The work done W by a force F on an object is given by the equation

In a force-displacement graph, work done is the area under the curve.

Power as rate of energy transfer

Power (P) is the work done or the energy output per time given by the equation:

For constant force acting on an object with constant velocity, the power is given by
the equation: P=Fv.

Principle of conservation of energy

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be changed from one form
to another. For example:

An electrical heater transforms electrical energy to thermal energy.

A falling object transforms potential energy to kinetic energy.

Total energy of an isolated body remains constant. In other words, KE+PE=0

Efficiency

Efficiency is the ratio of useful energy output to energy input as a percentage given
by the equation

Chapter 3: Thermal Physics

3.1 Thermal concepts

Molecular theory of solids, liquids and gases

Molecules are held together by intermolecular forces.

Temperature and absolute temperature

Temperatures describe how hot or cold an object is and determines the direction of
heat flow between two bodies.

Thermal energy transfers from an object with higher temperature to another object
with lower temperature. The energy transfer is called heat (the flow of energy due to
temperature difference). Objects which are in thermal equilibrium have the same
temperature.
Temperatures in Kelvin can be calculated by deducting the temperatures in Celsius
by 273.15.

The absolute temperature of a body in the Kelvin scale is directly proportional to the
average kinetic energy per molecule inside the body.

Absolute zero is 0K or -273 degrees Celsius.

Temperatures cannot be lower than absolute zero. It is the temperature where

particles have zero average kinetic energy (no random motion).

Internal energy

Internal energy is the sum of total kinetic energy (total thermal energy) and total
potential energy.
Kinetic energy is energy associated with the random/translational rotational motions
of molecules.

Potential energy is associated with forces between molecules.

Specific heat capacity and Thermal Capacity

The specific heat capacity of a material is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1kg of the material by 1C. Unit: J kg 1 C1 or J kg1 K1.

Whereas, The thermal capacity (C) of a body is the amount of heat needed to raise
its temperature by 1C. Unit: JC1 or J K1.

Phase change

Change of phase Process Kinetic energy Potential energy

Solid to liquid Melting Unchanged Increases

Liquid to solid Freezing Unchanged Decreases

Liquid to gas Boiling Unchanged Increases

Gas to liquid Condensation Unchanged Decreases

During a phase change, temperature and kinetic energy remain constant and
potential energy changes (which increases as molecules spread out and vice versa).

FYI

Boiling: Only occurs at the boiling point (a specific temperature depending on

substance) and occurs throughout the liquid.

Evaporation: Can occur at any temperature and only occurs at the surface of the
liquid. The fastest moving particles evaporate, decreasing the average KE of the
remaining particles. As a result, temperature drops.

Specific Latent Heat

The specific latent heat of a material is the amount of heat required to change the
state of

1kg of the material without change of

temperature. Unit: J kg 1
Specific latent heat of fusion: The amount of heat required to change 1kg of a
substance from solid to liquid without any change in temperature.

Specific latent heat of vaporization: The amount of heat required to change 1kg of a
substance from liquid to gas without any change in temperature.
3.2 Modelling a gas

Pressure

Pressure is defined as the normal force per unit area and is given by the equation

Equation of state for an ideal gas

where R=8.31(J/mol/K)

Kinetic model of an ideal gas

Assumptions:

The collisions between molecules are perfectly elastic.

The molecules are identical spheres.
The volume of molecules is negligible compared to the volume of the gas.
Molecules do not interact with each other except when they are in constant.
Implications:

Absolute temperature is directly proportional to the average KE and average speed

of the molecules of an ideal gas.
 Mole, molar mass and the Avogadro constant

Mole:
Like the word dozon, a mole is a unit of quantity. It is used to measure the
number of atoms or molecules.
A mole of any material contains 6.022*10^23 atoms or molecules. The value
6.022*10^23 is called the Avogadro constant.
The number of moles of a substance can be calculated by dividing the number
of molecules of that substance by the Avogadro constant.
Molar Mass:
The molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of any element or compound.
Different materials/elements have different molar masses which can be found
as the Mr in the periodic table.
Avogadro constant:
6.022*10^23

Differences between real and ideal gases

The ideal gas is based on a list of assumptions stated previously. However, in real
gases, such assumptions may not be true.

Forces exist between gas molecules in real gases (intermolecular forces).

The volume of molecules is not negligible compared to the volume of gas in
real gases.
Real gases may behave similarly to ideal gases under high temperatures and low
pressure
Chapter 5: Waves

4.1.1 Define the terms displacement, amplitude, frequency, period and phase
difference.

Displacement - The instantaneous distance of the moving object from its mean
position

Amplitude - The maximum displacement achievable from the mean position

Frequency - The number of oscillations completed per unit time

F = 1/t

Period - the time taken for a complete oscillation

T = 1/f

Phase difference - the measure of how "in step" different particles are. If they are
moving together they are said to be in phase. If not they are said to be out of phase.

Simple harmonic oscillations

Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is a special type of oscillation. For example:

The simple pendulum

The vibration of strings in a violin
The spring-mass system, where the mass is initially displaced to produce a
periodic motion around the equilibrium position

An object undergoes SHM if it experiences a force which is proportional and opposite

of the displacement from its equilibrium position.

The period is independent of the amplitude of the SHM and can be given by the
following equation for a pendulum and for a spring-mass system
[downloads 2-12-shm-011]

[downloads 2-12-shm-0141]

Time period, frequency, amplitude, displacement and phase difference

Displacement (x) Amplitude Period (T) Frequency (f) Phase difference

The difference
between two
Number of times
SHMs with the
the object
Displacement of same frequency
oscillates per
the oscillating in terms of their
unit time (usually
object at a Maximum Time taken for relative position
one second)
specific time from displacement of one complete in a cycle
its equilibrium the oscillating oscillation (in f=1/T measured in
position object seconds) radian
 Conditions for simple harmonic motion

When the body is displaced from equilibrium, there must exist a restoring
force (a force that wants to pull the body back to equilibrium).
The magnitude of the restoring force must be proportional to the displacement
of the body and acts towards the equilibrium.

4.2 Travelling waves

Travelling waves

A travelling wave is a continuous disturbance in a medium characterized by repeating

oscillations. For example:

A rope that is flicked up and down continuously creates a repeating

disturbance similar to the shape of a sine/cosine wave.

Energy is transferred by waves.

Matter is not transferred by waves.

The direction of a wave is defined by the direction of the energy transfer.

Wavelength, frequency, period and wave speed

Wavelength, frequency, and period follow the same rules of SHM.

Wave speed can be calculated by the following equation

Transverse and longitudinal waves

Transverse wave Longitudinal wave

The direction of oscillation is perpendicular to

the direction of the wave

The direction of oscillation is parallel to the direction

of the wave

Example: Example:

Water waves Wave produced in a spring

Wave in a string flicked up and down Sound waves

Light (electromagnetic waves) Earthquake P-waves

 The nature of electromagnetic waves

All EM waves travel in vacuum at the same speed of 3*10^8m/s.

EM waves are transverse waves.

4.3 Wave characteristics

Wavefronts and rays

Wavefronts:

Lines joining points which vibrate in phase.

Can be straight lines or curves.
The distance between successive wavefronts is the wavelength of the wave.

Rays:

Lines which indicate the direction of wave propagation.

Rays are perpendicular to wavefronts.
 Amplitude and intensity

The amplitude and intensity of a wave depends on its energy.

The intensity of a wave is proportional to the square of its amplitude (IA^2).

Transverse and longitudinal waves

See previous section with the same title.

Superposition

The principle of superposition states that the net displacement of the underlying
medium for a wave is equal to the sum of the individual wave displacements.
The left shows constructive interference (superposition) where the two waves add up
(e.g. 1+1=2). The right shows deconstructive interference (superposition) where the
two waves cancel each other (e.g. 1+(-1)=0).

Polarization

Light is a transverse wave (polarization only occur to transverse waves).

The polarization of light refers to the orientation of the oscillation in the underlying
electric field.

Light is plane polarized if the electric field oscillates in one plane.

Left shows unpolarized light and right shows polarized light.

Polarization by reflection

When light is transmitted across a boundary between two mediums with different
refractive indexes, part of the light is reflected and the remaining part is refracted (for
further explanation, see section 4.4).

The light reflected is partially polarized, meaning that it is a mixture of polarized light
and unpolarized light.

The extent to which the reflected light is polarized depends on the angle of incidence
and the refractive index of the two mediums.

The angle of incidence at which the reflected light is totally polarized is called the
Brewsters angle () given by the equation
where n1 and n2 are the refractive indexes for their respective mediums

When the angle of incidence is equal to Brewsters angle, the reflected ray is totally
polarized and the reflected ray is perpendicular to the refracted ray.

Polarizers and Analyzers

Polarizer:

A polarizer is a sheet of material which polarizes light.

When unpolarized light passes through a polarizer, its intensity is reduced by
50%.

Analyzer:

When polarized light passes through a polarizer, its intensity will be reduced
by a factor dependent on the orientation of the polarizer. This property allows us
to deduce the polarization of light by using a polarizer.
A polarizer used for this purpose is called an analyzer.

Malus Law relates the incident intensity and transmitted intensity of light passing
through a polarizer and an analyzer.
where I is the transmitted intensity, I0 is the initial light intensity upon the analyzer,
is the angle between the transmission axis and the analyzer.

When light passes through an optically active substance, the plane of polarization
rotates.
4.4 Wave behaviour

Reflection and refraction

Reflection

Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection

Reflection of waves from a fixed end is inverted.

Reflection of waves from a free end is not inverted.

Refraction

Refraction is the change in direction of a wave when it transmits from one medium to
another.

The angle of incidence and the angle of refraction can be determined by Snells law
given by the following formula
where n1 and n2 are the refractive indexes for their respective mediums

Fast-to-slow: towards normal; slow-to-fast: away from normal

In addition, the refractive index n1 and n2 are related by the following equation
where v1 and v2 are the speed of the waves in their respective mediums and 1 and
2 are the wavelength of the waves of their respective mediums

Snells law, critical angle and total internal reflection

See previous section (Reflection and refraction) for Snells law.

The refractive index and the critical angle are related by the following equation

Total internal reflection only occurs when the light ray

propagates from a optically denser medium to an optically less dense medium.

Diffraction through a single-slit and around objects

Diffraction through a single-slit

Single-slit equations are not required for the standard level course.

Diffraction around objects

 Interference patterns

Maximums form at constructive interference (the maximum is shown by 1-2) and

minimums form at deconstructive interference (the first minimum is shown by 3-4).
 Double-slit interference

Like single-slit diffraction, double-slit diffraction occurs via the same methods of
interference and has a similar diffraction pattern.
 Path difference
4.5 Standing waves

The nature of standing waves

Standing waves (stationary) waves result from the superposition of two opposite
waves which are otherwise identical.

Energy is not transferred by standing waves.

A wave hits a wall and is reflected identically opposite.

The black wave shows the wave created by the superposition of the blue and green
waves.
 Boundary conditions

Air particles can oscillate and create standing waves in pipes with open or closed
ends.

Antinodes are positioned at open ends and nodes are positioned at closed ends.

Standing waves on a string is equivalent to that in a pipe which is closed on both

ends (nodes-node).

The following table summarizes the behavior of standing waves in pipes and strings:

One closed end and one open

end Two closed ends Two open ends

1st Harmonic

2nd Harmonic
 3rd Harmonic

nth Harmonic

=4L/n

(Note that even harmonics do nth Harmonic nth Harmonic

not exist for pipes with one
closed end and one open end) =2L/n =2L/n

Nodes and antinodes

Positions along the wave which are fixed are called nodes (minimum) and those with
the largest displacement are called antinodes (maximum).

For standing waves, the distance between adjacent nodes = the distance between
adjacent antinodes = /2.

FYI

Difference between standing waves and travelling waves

Standing waves Travelling waves

No energy is propagated along a standing Energy is propagated in a travelling wave

wave
A travelling wave has neither nodes nor
A standing wave has nodes and antinodes
antinodes

The amplitude of the standing wave varies The amplitude of the travelling wave is
along the wave constant throughout the wave

Particles between two adjacent nodes The phase difference between two
oscillate in phase and particles separated by particles of a travelling wave can take any
exactly one node oscillate in antiphase. value between 0 and 2