FINAL EXAM NOTES

THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Piaget
children active & motivated learners
construct knowledge from experiences
interaction with physical & social environments essential for cognitive
development
cognitive development can proceed only after certain genetically controlled
neurological changes occur

Organization
scheme: organized group of similar actions or thoughts
basic blocks of thinking
children organize what the learn and do into schemes

Adaption
schemes change over time
assimilation: dealing with a new event in a way that is consistent with an
existing scheme
accommodation: dealing with a new event by modifying an existing
scheme/forming new one assimilation & accommodation typically
work together

Equilibration
equilibrium: state of being able to explain new events by using existing
schemes
disequilibrium: an inability to explain new events by using existing
schemes
equilibration: movement from equilibrium to disequilibrium & back to
equilibrium o promotes development of more complex forms of thought &
knowledge
4 Stages of Cognitive Development
sensorimotor stage (birth until age 2) o schemes based
on behaviour & perceptions (5 senses) no mental
schemes o develop object permanence: realization
objects continue to exist even after they are removed
from view
o cause-effect relationships
preoperational stage (2-7 years) o semiotic function
(ability to use symbols) o think about objects beyond
immediate view o schemes independent of immediate
perceptions & behaviours o language skills explode o
one-way logic
o difficulty with principle of conservation: realization if nothing is
added or taken away amount stays the same regardless of
alternations in shape/arrangement
o egocentrism: inability to view situations from another persons
perspective collective monologue
concrete operations stage (7-11 years) o concrete
thinking (hands on thinking)
o identity o compensation o reversibility o multiple classification:
recognition that objects may belong to several categories at once
o seriation
formal operations stage (12+) o scientific reasoning o
abstract thinking o hypothetico-deductive reasoning o
adolescent egocentrism: inability of individuals to
separate their own abstract logic from the perspectives
of others and from practical considerations
o imaginary audience (not reached by all)

Implications for Teachers

gives understanding of how students think (match teaching approach to
cognitive stage)
since learners construct knowledge teachers can build on what is learned
learners learn through play
disequilibrium motivates learning

Teaching the Preoperational Child

use concrete props & visual aids
make instruction short; use actions & words
dont expect students to be consistent in ability to see world from another
point of view
 be sensitive to possibility children may have different meanings for same
word or different words for same meaning
provide hands on practice
provide wide variety of experiences to build foundation for concept learning
& language

Teaching the Concrete Operational Child

continue using props & visual aids
continue giving students change to manipulate & test objects
keep presentations/readings brief & well organized
use familiar examples
give opportunity to classify & group objects/ideas
present problems with logical & analytical thinking

Helping Students Use Formal Operations

continue to use concrete operational teaching strategies & materials
give opportunity to explore many hypothetical questions
give opportunity to solve problems & reason scientifically
teach broad concepts & not just facts
use materials/ideas relevant to students lives

Teachers Casebook
The provincial curriculum guide calls for a unit on symbolism in poems. You
are concerned that any of your grade 5 students may not be ready to
understand this abstract concept. To test the waters you ask a few students
to describe a symbol. Its sorts like a big metal thing that you bang
together. My sister plays one in the high school band Sean adds. You
realize that they are on the wrong track here so you try again, I was
thinking of a different kind of symbol . . . like a heart as a symbol of love.
You are met with blank stares. Trevor ventures, You mean like the Olympic
torch? And what does that symbolizes, Trevor? you ask. I said the torch.
Trevor wonders how you could be so dense.
*+ To develop the concept of symbol I would first design activities in
which students could engage independently or in small groups. For example,
I might engage students in a matching activity that requires them to identify
the symbolic meaning of concrete or real-life objects. I might create a
worksheet that includes two lists: one list would include real-world objects,
such as a dove or a heart (this list might be presented as pictures); the
second list would include descriptions of the symbolic meaning of each
object. Students would match the picture of the dove with peace. I might
ask the students to generate their own symbols
Vygotsky
social interactions shape learning
knowledge is co-constructed
adults and peers scaffold

Private Speech and Self Talk

private speech: when thought and language merge
self talk: talking to oneself as a way of guiding oneself through a task
Piaget Vygotsky
Developmental not yet able to externalized thinking
Significance converse
Course of increases in youth, then
declines with age
Development is internalized
Relationship to Social negative; immature positive; prompted
Relationship to Piaget did not increases with task
Environmental Context comment difficulty

Zone of Proximal Development

zone of proximal development: range of tasks between actual
development level and level of potential development o actual
development level: extent to which one can successfully perform task
independently
o level of potential development: extent to which one can
successfully execute task with assistance of a more competent
individual
scaffolding: support mechanism provided by more competent individual
that helps learner successfully perform task within their ZPD
fading: gradually withdraw support mechanisms

Limitations
humans may be more biologically predisposed to learn
consists mostly of general ideas

Implications for Teachers

role of adults and peers o socially constructed meaning o guided
participation (assisted learning) o mediated learning experiences o
apprenticeship o cognitive apprenticeship (features) o peer interaction
teaching with technology
understanding and building on students thinking
activity and constructing knowledge
 value of play

Information Processing View

brain is a computer
as children mature their brain develops

Attention
attention: the focusing of mental processes on particular environmental
stimuli
attention span increases over time (exception: ADD)
relevant content yields better learning
how & what children learn depends on what they intend to learn

Learning Strategies
learning strategies: one or more cognitive processes used intentionally
for a particular learning task
rehearsal: information is repeated over and over as a possible way of
learning & remembering o develops in elementary school years o chanting,
assimilation of words with rhythm, writing notes multiple times
organization: learners find connections among information they need to
learn o improves & continues to develop through childhood o forming
categories, cause-effect relationships
elaboration: cognitive process in which learners expand on new
information based on what they already know
become more sophisticated over time
 Knowledge Base
knowledge base: ones knowledge about specific topics and the world in
general
amount of knowledge increases over time & becomes increasingly more
integrated

Metacognition
metacognition: ones knowledge and beliefs about ones own cognitive
processes and ones resulting attempts to regulate those cognitive
processes to maximize learning and memory
as children mature they become more aware of their memory limitations
children become more knowledgeable about effective learning strategies

3: PERSONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Personal Development

Erik Eriksons 8 Psychosocial Stages

emphasized emergence of self, search for
identity, relationships & role of culture
8 individual stages o trust vs. mistrust
infancy 0-1 year; feeding
o autonomy vs. shame and doubt toddler 1-2 years; toilet
training o initiative vs. guilt early childhood 2-6 years;
independence o industry vs. inferiority elementary-
middle 6-12 years; school o identity vs. role confusion
adolescence 12-18 years; peer relationships o intimacy vs.
isolation young adulthood; love relationships o
generativity vs. stagnation middle adulthood; parenting
o integrity vs. despair late adulthood; reflection on &
acceptance of ones life

Marcias Patterns of Identity Status

identity: self constructed definition of who a person thinks they are and
whats important in
life
identity diffusion o no commitment to particular career path or ideological
belief system
 o some experimentation, but n o serious exploration of issues
related to self definition
foreclosure
o firm commitment to occupation & set of beliefs o choices
based largely on others
moratorium
o no strong commitment to occupation & set of beliefs but
actively exploring o undergoing identity crisis
identity achievement o previously gone through moratorium o emerged with
commitment to particular political or religious beliefs & clear occupation
choice

Implications of Eriksons Theory

initiative (preschool) o allow limited choices that will often result
in success o encourage make-believe around stories of interest
o be tolerant of mistakes especially when children attempt to do
something on their own
industry (elementary and middle school) o help students set &
achieve realistic goals o allow for & support opportunities to be
independent
identity (adolescence) o supply variety of positive role models o
help students find resources to solve personal problems o be
tolerant of fads if they dont offend others or interfere with
teaching o give students realistic feedback about themselves

Social Development

Peer Relationships
classroom is a social place
interactions allow individuals to learn & practice social skills
offer social & emotional support
influential socialization agents
peer pressure: students peers strongly encourage some behaviours and
discourage others

Friendships
close friends usually same age, gender, race
emotional investment
help boost self esteem and bring a sense of belonging
Larger Social Groups
enjoy company of many peers to form large social groups
members feel loyalty to one another & hostility towards members of other
groups
groups attach names to other groups (jocks, geeks, etc.)
3 distinct types of groups during adolescence o clique: moderately stable
friendship group of 3-10 members o subculture: resists dominant culture &
adopts own norms o gang: cohesive small group characterized by initiation
rites, distinctive colour/symbols, territorial orientation & feuds with rival
groups

Romantic Relationships
addresses student need for companionship, affection, security, social skills
and interpersonal behaviours
extreme mood swings
difficulty coping with emotions
elementary middle school o crushes based on physical appearance o social
status o limited interactions
high school o long term relationships (more interaction, sexual intimacy) o
mixed feelings about sexuality o sexual identity (homosexuality)

Fostering Social Skills

social skills: behaviours that enable a person to interact effectively with
others
prosocial behaviour: when someone uses social skills that benefit
someone else rather than ourselves; ie/ sharing, helping, comforting, etc.

How Teachers Can Help

provide numerous opportunities for social interaction
plan co-operative activities
help students interpret social situations
label and praise appropriate behaviours
teach social problem-solving strategies
establish and enforce classroom rules
prevent and manage peer harassment
5: BEHAVIOURIST VIEW OF LEARNING
Learning

Definition of Learning
permanent change in behaviour and/or knowledge
result of experience
not result of maturation or temporary conditions (illness)

Assumptions
students behaviours result from interaction (experience) with environmental
stimuli
relationships among observable events
learning involves a behaviour change
contiguity learning o repeated pairing = association of two events o
stimulus = 1st event, response = memory of the 2nd event o ie/ 7 x 8 = 56 o
ie/ hear state name = remember capital

Conditioning

Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov & dog salivation experiment
classical conditioning: form of learning whereby a new, involuntary
response is acquired as a result of two stimuli being present at the same
time
neutral stimulus unconditioned stimulus response conditioned
stimulus conditioned response
unconditioned stimulus: stimulus that without prior learning elicits
particular response
unconditioned response: response that without prior learned is elicited by
a particular stimulus
neutral stimulus: stimulus that doesnt elicits any particular behaviour
conditioned stimulus: stimulus that begins to elicit a particular response
conditioned response: response that begins to be elicited by a particular
behaviour

Operant Conditioning
operant conditioning: form of learning whereby a voluntary response
increases a frequency as a result of it being followed by reinforcement
when behaviour followed by desirable consequence, increases in frequency
when behaviour doesnt produce results, decreases in frequency
Classic vs. Operant Conditioning
classical = involuntary response caused by pairing
of two stimuli operant = voluntary response
caused by reinforcement

Reinforcement
reinforcement: act of following a particular response with a reinforcer &
thereby increasing frequency of that response
positive reinforcement: consequence that brings about increase of
behaviour through presentation of a stimulus o concrete reinforcer can be
touched o social reinforcer gesture/sign o activity reinforcer
opportunity to engage in favourite activity
Premack principle: phenomenon whereby individuals do less-
preferred activities in order to engage in more-preferred
activities
o positive feedback mess that answer/task is
correct o extrinsic reinforcer comes from
outside environment o intrinsic reinforcer
provided by self
negative reinforcement: consequence that brings about the increase of a
behaviour through the removal of a stimulus

Reinforcement Schedules
continuous: reinforcement after every response turning on
television o rapid learning of response o very little persistence when
reinforcement stops
fixed interval: reinforcement after a set period of time weekly quiz
o response rate increases as time for reinforcement approaches
then drops o little persistence, rapid drop in response rate when
time for reinforcement passes & no reinforcer appears
variable interval: reinforcement after varying lengths of time pop
quiz o slow, steady rate of responding; very little pause after
reinforcement o greater persistence; slow decline in response rate
fixed ratio: reinforcement after a set number of responses piece
work, bake sale o rapid response rate; pause after reinforcement o
little persistence; rapid drop in response rate when expected
number of responses given & no reinforcer appears
variable ratio: reinforcement after a varying number of responses
slot machines o very high response rate; little pause after
reinforcement
o greatest persistence; response rate stays high & gradually drops off
 Punishment
presentation punishment: adverse or unpleasant consequences
removal punishment: loss of privileges or desired outcomes
use two pronged approach o provide punishment for undesired behaviour
simultaneously o clarify & reinforce desired behaviour
be consistent

6: COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING

Memory System
memory: the learners ability to save something mentally
storage: process of putting new information into our memory
encoding: process of changing format of new information as it is being stored into
our memory o ie/ apple = type of fruit that grows on trees
retrieval: the way one goes about finding information that has already been
stored in their memory Sensory Memory
capacity: very large
duration: very short (1-3 seconds)
purpose: process sensations

Working Memory
capacity: limited (5-9 separate items)
duration: 5 20 seconds
purpose: temporary storage and active processing

Long Term Memory

capacity: relatively unlimited
duration: relatively unlimited
purpose: long term storage
retrieval o spread of activation o reconstruction
forgetting o failure to retrieve: failing to locate information that currently
exists o reconstruction error: constructing a logical but incorrect
memory o interferences: phenomenon whereby something stored in long
term memory inhibits ones ability to remember something else correctly
o decay: hypothesized weakening over time of information stored in
long-term memory o failure to store: failure to mentally process
information in ways that promote its storage in long term memory
differences o declarative knowledge = what o procedural knowledge = how
o conditional knowledge = when & why
 Implications for Teaching
encoding o help students store more information by presenting
information visually, auditorily and/or semantically
o students can be auditory or visual
learners o useful for studying
retrieval o students need retrieval practice to ensure information is
stored and remembered o information will be forgotten if it is not at
least occasionally reviewed

7: CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING

Complex Cognitive Processes I

Definition of Learning
individual constructivism: theoretical perspective that focuses on how
people as individuals construct meaning from the events around them
social constructivism: theoretical perspective that emphasizes that an
individuals meaning making/learning is mediated by adults/more
knowledgeable peers even though it is ultimately constructed by the
individual learner

Learning and Teaching Concepts

concepts o general categories of
similar ideas, events, objects,
people, etc.
o abstractions o ways to
organize information
prototype o best representative
of a category
exemplar o specific example of a
prototype
schemas
o schematic knowledge
related to the concept

Strategies for Teaching Concepts

concept attainment
lesson components o examples & nonexamples o relevant & irrelevant
attributes
 o name
o definition (general & attribute)
lesson structure o examples prevent undergeneralization: overly narrow
view of what objects/events a concept includes
o nonexamples prevent overgeneralization: overly broad view of
what objects/events a concept includes
extend & connect concepts (interconnectedness)
use visual aids
concept mapping

Concept Attainment: Lesson Structure

phase 1: presentation of data & identification of concept
present labeled examples
students compare negative & positive examples
students generate & test hypotheses
students state a definition according to essential attributes
phase 2: testing attainment of the concept
students identify additional unlabeled examples as yes or
no
teacher confirms hypothesis, names concept, restates
definitions
students generate examples
phase 3 : analysis of thinking strategies
students describe their thoughts
students discuss role of hypothesis and attributes
students discuss types and number of hypotheses

Promoting Conceptual Change: Correcting Misconceptions

probe students understanding (pretest or discussion questions)
expose students to information that contradicts their beliefs
demonstrate how correct explanations connect to their own personal
interest listen to your students

Effective Knowledge Construction

provide opportunities for experimentation
emphasize conceptual understanding
present ideas of others
use authentic activities: classroom activity similar to one students are
likely to encounter in outside world
promote dialogue
 create community of learners: classroom in which teacher & students
actively and collaboratively work to help one another learn

Complex Cognitive Processes II

Problem Solving
problem exploration solution
debate: general or domain specific?
IDEAL: heuristic for problem solving o Identify the problem & opportunities o
Define goals and represent the problem o Explore possible strategies o
Anticipate & act on the strategies
o Look back & learn from the effects of your strategies

Defining Goals & Representing the Problem

focusing attention
understanding the words: part or whole relevance
understanding the whole problem
translation and schema training
results of problem representation

Exploring Possible Solutions

algorithm: prescribed sequence of steps that guarantees a correct problem
solution
heuristic: general problem solving strategy that may or may not yield a
problem solution
o means-ends
analysis o working
backwards o
analogical thinking
o verbalization

Effective Problem Solving

anticipate, act, look back o
anticipate consequences o act on
best solution o look back and
evaluate your success
overcome factors that hinder
solutions o functional fixedness &
response set o confirmation bias &
 belief perseverance o lack of
flexibility

Effective Learning Strategies

identify important information
take notes o helps students focus attention & encode information o gives
outlet for external storage of information
retrieval
organize o concept map
elaborate o elaborative interrogation: strategy in which students develop
& answer knowledge expecting questions about material they are trying to
learn
summarize
monitor comprehension o comprehension monitoring: process of
checking oneself to make sure one understand the things being read or
heard
o illusion of knowing: thinking one knows something that one actually
does not know o self questioning: process of asking oneself questions
as a way of checking ones understanding of a topic

8: SOCIO-COGNITIVE THEORY

Observational Learning

Modelling
modeling: form of learning where individuals learn by
observing other people and then by copying them
learn motor skills, academic skills, interpersonal skills &
moral values learn from live models & symbolic
models

4 Types of Effect Modelling Has on Behaviour

observational learning effect: occurs when an observer acquires a new
behaviour after watching someone else demonstrate it
response facilitation effect: occurs when an observer displays a
previously learned behaviour more frequently after seeing someone else
being reinforced for that behaviour
 response inhibition effect: occurs when an observer displays a previously
learned behaviour less frequently after seeing someone else being punished
for that behaviour
response disinhibition effect: occurs when an observer displays a
previously forbidden or punished behaviour more frequently after seeing
someone else exhibit that behaviour without adverse consequences

4 Main Characteristics of Effective Models

competence will imitate people who do something well
prestige and power imitate people who are famous or powerful
sex appropriate behaviour model behaviours they think are appropriate
for their sex
behaviour relevant to the learners own situation teachers must show
students who their behaviours are applicable to the students situation

Helping Students Learn from Models

attention o must observe carefully before imitating
model
retention o must memorize what model does o more
effective in remembering if taught it more than one way
o descriptive labels on behaviours that are difficult to
remember
motor reproduction o must be able to physically
reproduce models behaviour o to be more effective
repeat immediately after demonstration/behaviour &
accompany it by verbal guidance/feedback
motivation o must be motivated to demonstrate what
they have observed & remembered

Vicarious Experiences
vicarious reinforcement: phenomenon whereby response increases in frequency
when another person is reinforced for that response
vicarious punishment: phenomenon whereby response decreases in frequency
when another person is punished for that response

Reciprocal Determinism (Causation)

 Personal Factors
goals, self
- efficacy, outcome expectation,
self evaluation,- self
regulatory progress

Social Influences (Environment) Achievement Outcomes (Behaviour)

models, instruction, feedback goal
progress, motivation, learning

Applying Social Cognitive Theory

self efficacy & motivation
teachers sense of efficacy
self-regulated learning o knowledge o motivation
o volition (self discipline)
teaching self efficacy & self regulation

Self-Regulating Students
know themselves
know & apply successful strategies
recognize & differentiate contexts
motivated to learn
manage their own volition

Teacher Strategies to Increase Self Regulation

employ complex or thematic learning units o teach problem-solving transfer
o have students set short term goals o teach strategies (outline, note taking)
o reward achievement not simply engagement
share locus of control (offer choice)
formal & informal self evaluation
collaborative work structures (shared problem solving)