CSIRO PUBLISHING

www.publish.csiro.au/journals/ajsr Australian Journal of Soil Research, 2004, 42, 537545

Acid sulfate soils in dredged materials from tidal Pocomoke

Sound in Somerset County, MD, USA

S. Y. DemasA,C , A. M. HallA , D. S. FanningB , M. C. RabenhorstB , and E. K. DzantorB

A U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service,
30730 Park Drive, Princess Anne, MD 21853-1035, USA.
B Department of Natural Resources Sciences and Landscape Architecture,

University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742-4452, USA.

C Corresponding author; email: susan.demas@md.usda.gov

Abstract. Seepage and runoff waters from soils forming in sulde-bearing dredge materials (SBDM) can have
dramatic effects on water quality if they are placed adjacent to open water and do not have adequate containment.
Soils forming in SBDM can produce large amounts of acidity upon sulde oxidation and the oxidation and hydrolysis
of released ferrous iron when they are drained or otherwise exposed to air. These soils, under certain environmental
conditions, can produce low pH seepage and runoff waters containing large amounts of iron and aluminum, especially
after heavy rain that follows a prolonged dry period. During the course of the soil survey update of Somerset County,
Maryland (MD), USA, 2 areas of soils forming in SBDM of differing age were identied in close proximity to the
sites of recent sh kills on the Pocomoke Sound in Somerset County. Both of these soil areas were initially contained
by earthen berms. The dredge materials were deposited directly over the natural tidal marsh soil. Soils forming in
SBDM that are approximately 60 years of age were classied as ne-silty, mixed mesic Sulc Endoaquepts, while
the second area of SBDM are 8 years of age and classied as ne-silty, mixed, mesic Typic Sulfaquepts, by Soil
Taxonomy. The presence of jarosite was conrmed in both soils by X-ray diffraction, and the presence of ironstone
(iron oxyhydroxides) was conrmed in both soils at the efuent discharge points. This is an indication that these
soils have undergone intensive acid sulfate weathering (sulfuricization) and that they have released a large quantity
of iron to waters leaving the sites. Studies have shown that the 2 mechanisms responsible for acid production from
soils forming in SBDM are (i) the oxidation and hydrolysis of mobile ferrous iron; and (ii) the oxidation of the sulfur
occurring in the form of pyrite. It is suggested that the resultant low pH, Fe- and Al-enriched water from these soils
that entered the Pocomoke Sound may have made sh more susceptible to microbial predation by weakening mucous
membranes and/or by promoting the growth of harmful cyannobacteria and agellates. This paper reports the nature
and classication of soils that developed in SBDM at 2 sites of differing age and of the possible environmental
impacts of seepage and runoff from these sites entering the Pocomoke Sound.

Additional keywords: sulde, sulfuricization, acid sulfate, sh kills, iron, aluminum.

Introduction dikes or berms. However, the seaside dike that contained

During the current update of the Somerset County soil
survey (Matthews and Hall 1966), 2 areas of soils forming
in dredged materials (DM) were identied adjacent to the
Pocomoke Sound approximately 2 km from where sh
kills occurred in 1997 and 1999 (Fig. 1). One of the areas
(Site A, Fig. 1) was previously mapped as Made Land, a
miscellaneous land type that included soils disturbed by
earth-moving operations (Matthews and Hall 1966). The
second area (Site B, Fig. 1) was deposited after the previous
survey was completed. This soil was deposited on land that
was previously included in the miscellaneous land type tidal
marsh. To enable the deposition, the DM were contained by
the DM of Site A has now been largely destroyed by shore
erosion. Acid waters containing elevated levels of dissolved
Fe, Al, and sulfate appear to have bled under the dikes into
the Pocomoke Sound. Such waters have also been noted
to have entered the Sound from a discharge pipe from
Site B.
Jarosite in the soils at Sites A and B, plus low
soil pH values and the presence of signicant amounts
of newly formed ironstone at drainage water discharge
points, indicate that the soils have undergone intensive
acid sulfate weathering. Sulde minerals in the DM are
inferred to have oxidised to induce soil acidication and

CSIRO 2004 10.1071/SR03089 0004-9573/04/060537

538 Australian Journal of Soil Research S. Y. Demas et al.

Fig. 1. Location maps showing the study area and approximate locations of sh kills in 1997 and 1999.

associated mineral transformations. The acid sulfate soil Acid sulfate soils have been reported forming in
processes that have taken place in the soils are deemed sulde-bearing DM at other DM deposition sites in Maryland,
to qualify for the collective term sulfuricization (Fanning such as in Baltimore, and at other sites around Chesapeake
and Fanning 1989; Fanning et al. 2002). Bay (Fanning and Fanning 1989; Fanning and Burch 2000;
ASS in dredged materials
Fanning et al. 2002). In general, the waters that emanate from
the soils forming from DM are contained by secure dikes and
prevented from entering surrounding surface waters. That
was not the case at the sites described above, where the dikes
and DM were deposited directly on top of the original soil,
without proper seepage control.
On 8 April 1997, a non-lethal sh event in the vicinity
of Shelltown, MD, on Pocomoke Sound involved catsh
(Ictalurus sp.), white perch (Perca sp.), and Atlantic croaker
(Micropogonias sp.). The event resulted in sh lesions
consistent, in the opinions of biologists who examined
the sh, with exposure to the toxic dinoagellate Psteria
piscidia. Additional events were reported on 6 and 26 August
1997, which resulted in the death of 10 000 and 2000
menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus), respectively. The most
recent sh kill on 22 July 1999 involved 500 000 Brevoortia
tyrannus. (C. Luckett, State of Maryland, Department of the
Environment, pers. comm.) Although these sh mortality
events were attributed by biologists to Psteria piscidia ,the
mechanisms for how this organism reached its toxic phase
are not well understood.
Research and education programs in Maryland and
elsewhere on the Psteria problem have focused primarily
on a presumed link between agricultural operations in the
watershed of the Pocomoke River and elevated nutrient
levels in Pocomoke Sound. Authorities managing agricultural
programs in the region have thought that the increased
availability of nutrients in the waters of the Sound,
particularly phosphorus, from agriculture runoff waters may
induce Psteria piscidia to reach its toxic phase and attack
sh populations.
Fish kills in Australian coastal rivers have been linked
to runoff from acid sulfate soils (e.g. Callinan et al. 1993;
Sammut and Lines-Kelly 2000). One mechanism that has
been hypothesised is that damage to the skin/scales of sh
is caused by acidity and high aluminum concentrations in
waters. The acidity and aluminum may emanate in runoff
from active acid sulfate soils following rain events (Sammut
et al. 1999). This damage to the skin/scales of sh has
been thought to facilitate the invasion of Aphanomyces sp.
fungus into the sh to cause the outbreak of a sh disease
called epizootic ulcerative syndrome (Callinan et al. 1993).
Other researchers have suggested that high levels of dissolved
iron in sea water from runoff from acid sulfate soils or
other sources (e.g. podzolising soils) may upset naturally
occurring microbial populations, leading to toxic blooms of
cyannobacteria and agellates that can lead to sh mortality
(Dennison et al. 1999). It has recently been shown that iron
monosuldes, or monosuldic black oozes, can form in the
sediments in bodies of water (e.g. in drainage ditches) that
receive discharges from active acid sulfate soils (Sullivan
Low dissolved oxygen levels were additionally recorded during the 22 July 1999 event.
Australian Journal of Soil Research 539
et al. 2002). The monosuldes, when dispersed into the
water by storms or other turbidity-causing events, can release
dissolved iron into the water and undergo rapid chemical
oxidation consuming dissolved oxygen to the detriment of
sh. The authors of this paper have theorised that there may
have been similar mechanisms related to discharges of runoff
from acid sulfate soils involved in the sh kills that occurred
in Pocomoke Sound in Somerset County, MD.
The objectives of this study were to gather information on
(i) when and how the DM at sites A and B were deposited,
(ii) the nature and classication of the soils that have formed
in the DM, and (iii) some properties of the waters that emanate
from the soils during their genesis. The information collected
will be utilised to suggest how the deposition of DM and
soil development in them may affect the water quality of
Pocomoke Sound and ways in which the deposition of the
DM could be improved in the future to reduce environmental
impacts.
Materials and methods
Study area
The study area is part of the Pocomoke Sound Wildlife Management
Area and is located approximately 5 km south-east of Shelltown, MD, in
the southernmost portion of Somerset County, MD. The area is directly
adjacent to Pocomoke Sound, which separates Somerset County from
Accomack County, VA, across the Sound to the south. Soil parent
material for both study sites is established to be DM from the Pocomoke
Sound. The dredging that produced the DM was for the creation and
maintenance within the Sound of the Fair Island Canal. This Canal is
used by the commercial shipping industry and by recreational boaters
for access to the Pocomoke River upstream from the Sound. Site B is
currently under consideration by the US Army Corps of Engineers for
future additional DM deposition. Both sites are owned by the State of
Maryland and are maintained by the Maryland Department of Natural
Resources as public hunting areas.
Methods
A 16-point transect across Sites A and B was conducted using a
64-mm-diameter hand-driven bucket auger to depths of about 2 m. Based
on these eld observations of the soils, two representative pedons were
chosen as primary sampling sites. Prole descriptions for these pedons
from Sites A and B were made (Tables 1 and 2) following the method
outlined in the Soil Survey Manual (Soil Survey Staff 1993). A pit
2 m in depth was hand dug at Site A for the description at this site. The
description for Site B (Table 2) was made from auger samples and is thus
less detailed than the description for Site A (Table 1). A soil monolith
was made of a prole extracted from this pit at Site A (Fig. 2) for display
in the Soil Monoliths Collection at the University of Maryland, College
Park, MD. Samples with depth for laboratory analysis from sites A and
B were obtained using a 102-mm-diameter hand-driven bucket auger.
Soil samples for chromium-reducible suldes were stored on dry ice
for transportation to the University of Maryland at College Park for
analysis.
Moist incubation was used to test for the presence of suldic
materials (Soil Survey Staff 1999). Particle size distribution was
determined by pipette (Gee and Bauder 1986). Field and laboratory
540 Australian Journal of Soil Research S. Y. Demas et al.

Table 1. Prole description for primary sampling Site A (37 58.120 N, 75 41.300 W)
This description was made from a hand-dug (or backhoe-dug) soil pit. A soil monolith of this prole was made, which is included in the collection of
soil monoliths at the University of Maryland, College Park, MD. The horizon nomenclature and other terminology (e.g. n value) used in the
description follow the recommendations of Shoeneberger et al. (2002)

Horizon Depth Description

(cm)

Ap 024 Dark greyish brown (10YR 4/2) silty clay loam; weak coarse subangular blocky structure; slightly sticky and moderately
plastic; common very ne and ne roots throughout; common very ne and ne vesicular pores; common ne distinct
yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) irregular iron masses between peds; very strongly acid; abrupt smooth boundary; n value
<0.7
Bw1 2551 Dark grey (10YR 4/1) silty clay loam; moderate medium subangular blocky structure; slightly sticky and moderately
plastic; common very ne roots throughout, common ne throughout; common very ne tubular pores; common
medium dark yellowish brown prominent (10YR 4/6) irregular iron masses between peds; extremely acid; clear wavy
boundary; n value <0.7
Bw2 5166 Grey (10YR 5/1) silty clay loam; moderate very coarse subangular blocky structure; nonsticky and moderately plastic;
common very ne roots between peds; common very ne vesicular pores; common ne and medium prominent dark
reddish brown (5YR 3/3) irregular iron masses between peds, common ne distinct dark yellowish brown (10YR 3/6)
irregular iron masses between peds; extremely acid; clear wavy boundary; n value <0.7
Bw3 6691 Grey (10YR 5/1) silty clay loam; strong very coarse subangular blocky structure; slightly sticky and moderately plastic;
common very ne roots between peds; many very coarse and extremely coarse prominent dark reddish brown (2.5YR
3/3) irregular iron masses between peds, common medium prominent brown (7.5YR 4/4) irregular iron masses
throughout; common medium faint light brownish grey (10YR 6/2) irregular iron depletions between peds; extremely
acid; clear wavy boundary; n value <0.7
Bwj 91109 Grey (10YR 5/1) clay; strong coarse subangular blocky structure; slightly sticky and slightly plastic; common very ne
roots between peds; common medium and coarse prominent pale yellow (2.5Y 8/4) irregular jarosite masses between
peds, common medium bluish grey (10B 5/1) irregular iron depletions throughout; very strongly acid; abrupt smooth
boundary; n value <0.7
Ab 109117 Black (10YR 2/1) silty clay; weak very coarse granular structure; nonsticky and slightly plastic; common very ne roots
throughout; common ne tubular pores; very strongly acid; abrupt smooth boundary; n value <0.7
2Cg1 117152 Grey (2.5Y 6/1) silt loam; moderate very coarse subangular blocky structure; slightly sticky and slightly plastic; common
medium distinct light yellowish brown (2.5Y 6/4) irregular iron masses throughout, common ne dark yellowish brown
(10YR 4/6) irregular iron masses of between peds; diffuse wavy boundary; n value <0.7
3Cg2 152183 Grey (10YR 6/1) ne sandy loam; water; common medium prominent brownish yellow (10YR 6/6) irregular iron masses
throughout; moderately acid; n value <0.7

Table 2. Prole for primary sampling Site B (37 58.170 N, 75 40.961 W)

This prole description was made and samples were collected from samples taken from the prole with a bucket auger. The horizon nomenclature
and other terminology (e.g. n value) used in the description follow the recommendations of Shoeneberger et al. (2002)

Horizon Depth Description

(cm)

A 08 Dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) silt loam; extremely acid; n value <0.7
Bw1 830 85% dark greyish brown (10YR 4/2) silt loam, and 15% greyish brown (10YR 5/2) ne sandy loam; common medium
prominent brownish yellow (10YR 6/8) irregular iron masses throughout, common medium light grey (2.5Y 7/2)
irregular redox depletions throughout; extremely acid; n value <0.7
Bw2 3051 80% dark grey (10YR 4/1) silt loam, and 20% light grey (2.5Y 7/2) ne sandy loam; many ne and medium prominent
brownish yellow (10YR 6/8) irregular iron masses throughout; extremely acid; n value <0.7
Bwj1 5166 85% grey (10YR 5/1) silt loam, and 15% greyish brown (2.5Y 5/2) ne sandy loam and sand stratied; common ne
prominent yellowish brown (10YR 5/8) irregular iron masses throughout; extremely acid; n value <0.7
Bwj2 66114 Dark grey (2.5Y 4/1) silty clay loam; many coarse prominent dark brown (7.5YR 3/3) irregular iron masses; extremely
acid; n value <0.7
Cg1 114122 Grey (10YR 5/1) ne sandy loam; common ne prominent yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) irregular iron masses throughout;
extremely acid; n value <0.7
Cg2 122142 95% black (N 2) and 5% grey (5Y 5/1) silt loam and loamy ne sand; slightly acid; n value <0.7
Cg3 142173 Black (N 2); 5% live phragmities roots; slightly acid; n value <0.7
Cg4 173274 Black (N 2), silty clay loam; slightly acid; n value <0.7
Oeb 274305 Black (N 2), hemic material; slightly acid
ASS in dredged materials Australian Journal of Soil Research 541

Ap
Bw1
Bw2
Bw3
Bwj
Ab
2Cg
Fig. 2. Soil prole of the primary sampling location for Site A showing
horizon designations.
pH measurements were carried out using a glass electrode pH meter
on soil materials in an approximately 1 : 1 by weight soil to water
ratio. The presence of jarosite, as identied as pale yellow redox
concentrations/mottles in some samples in the eld, was conrmed
by X-ray diffraction. Sulfate-S was determined on samples from the
prole from Site A by extraction with Ca(H2 PO4 )2 followed by spectral
turbidimetric measurement of sulfate after precipitation with BaCl2
gel as described by Hoeft et al. (1973) and Schulte and Elk (1988).
Sulde concentrations were determined using the Cr-reduction method
of Cornwell and Morse (1987). Extractable Al and Fe were determined
by vacuum extraction with 1 M KCl solution and analysis of the extracts
by ICP. Total aluminum and iron concentrations in samples of the
seepage and runoff waters from Site B were determined by acid digestion
followed by ICP. Chloride in water samples was determined by titration
with AgNO3 in accordance with Method 4500-Cl B (Clesceri et al.
1998). Copper, manganese, and zinc concentrations were determined on
samples from the soil prole at Site A by employing 0.5 g soil samples
digested in 10 mL HNO3 for 10 min using a microwave digestion
unit, with metal determination in the extracts using atomic absorption
spectroscopy. Total carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur were determined by
high temperature combustion and thermal conductivity detection. Soil
organic material was determined by measuring the loss in weight of
organic material upon ignition at 360 C of the samples.
Results and discussion
Examinations of aerial photographs (from years 1938,
1958, 1964, and 1972), eld observations, and historical
investigations (e.g. interviews of knowledgeable people)
indicated that Site A is a 26-ha area of soils forming in a
DM deposit adjacent to the Pocomoke Sound. Deposition of
125 cm (present day depth after post-depositional settling) of
DM at Site A took place during the 1940s directly over the
original soil on a tidal marsh. Based on eld morphological
descriptions and laboratory analysis, these soils now classify
as ne-silty, mixed, mesic Sulc Endoaquepts (early post-
active acid sulfate soils) by Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey
Staff 1999). Pedon A has diagnostic features that include
the presence of suldic materials 109152 cm below the
surface. The Ab and 2Cg1 horizons had a pH drop during
the period of incubation of 0.5 unit to a pH of 4.0
(Table 3).
Site B is a 7.5-ha site where soils are forming in >200 cm
of sulde-bearing DM placed over the original soil on the
tidal marsh in 1994. Soils in sulde-bearing DM at Site B
classify as ne-silty, mixed, mesic Typic Sulfaquepts (active
acid sulfate soils) by Soil Taxonomy. Diagnostic features in
the pedon for Site B include suldic materials in all horizons
except the A horizon and a sulfuric horizon for the Bw2
and Bwj1 horizons (note initial pH on April 2002 of 3.5,
which qualies for a sulfuric horizon designation). The upper
boundary of the sulfuric horizon occurs within 50 cm of
the soil surface (Table 3), which qualies the soil to be a
Sulfaquept Great Group within the Aquepts suborder. The
n-values of <0.7 throughout the soil qualify it for the Typic
subgroup.
In pedon A, pH values were not low enough to qualify
as a sulfuric horizon as dened by Soil Taxonomy. However,

Table 3. Moist incubation results for Sites A and B

Site A Site B
Horizon Depth pH Horizon Depth pH
(cm) 8 Apr. 02 18 Apr. 02 30 May 02 (cm) 8 Apr. 02 17 June 02

Ap 024 4.5 4.6 4.0 A 08 4.0 3.6

Bw1 2451 3.9 4.0 3.6 Bw1 830 3.8 3.1
Bw2 5166 3.7 3.7 3.3 Bw2 3051 3.5 3.0
Bw3 6691 3.6 3.7 3.3 Bwj1 5166 3.5 2.6
Bwj 91109 3.6 3.4 2.6 Bwj2 66114 3.6 2.7
Ab 109117 4.6 3.6 2.8 Cg1 114122 4.1 3.6
2Cg1 117152 6.2 4.8 3.6 Cg2 122142 6.2 3.4
3Cg2 152183 6.5 5.5 5.0 Cg3 142173 6.4 3.7
Cg4 147274 6.5 3.7
542 Australian Journal of Soil Research S. Y. Demas et al.

Table 4. Tabular list for laboratory analysis conducted for primary sampling Site A

Horizon Depth Sand Silt Clay pH Sulfate S Sulde S Extract. Al Extract. Fe

(cm) (%) (eld) (lab.) (mg/kg) (g/kg) (mg/kg)

Ap 024 10.6 59.8 29.6 5.0 4.1 84 0.0869 486 1.5

Bw1 2451 12.4 55.1 32.5 4.0 3.9 119 0.1321 647 2.1
Bw2 5166 7.6 62 30.4 4.0 3.8 92 0.1050 845 1.9
Bw3 6691 7.4 61.1 31.4 4.1 3.6 94 0.0576 872 6.9
Bwj 91109 14.4 37.4 48.2 4.0 3.5 65 0.1061 3281.4 104.3
Ab 109117 10.2 43.6 46.2 4.6 4.0 105 0.2231 1492.3 4.2
2Cg1 117152 17.4 60.9 21.8 5.4 3.6 99 0.4909 413.5 3.5

C N S Cu Mn Zn OM
(g/kg) (mg/kg) (g/kg)

Ap 024 18.5 2.4 1.5 0.75 10.5 2.6 42

Bw1 2451 19.7 2.26 1.7 1.1 6.0 2.1 41
Bw2 5166 15.6 1.80 1.5 1.1 4.0 2.1 24
Bw3 6691 14.9 1.59 1.5 1.0 6.5 1.9 35
Bwj 91109 18.0 2.15 10.2 1.4 6.0 2.4 28
Ab 109117 79.5 4.78 4.2 0.35 11.5 2.4 120
2Cg1 117152 6.3 0.34 1.2 0.65 10.0 0.6 11

the presence of suldic materials within 125 cm of the soil
surface makes the soil qualify for the Sulc subgroup of
Endoaquepts. What is signicant is that the soil classications
for both pedons indicate the potential for acid-sulfate
weathering problems. Further, the prole descriptions for
both pedons indicate that substantial soil development (i.e.
pronounced subangular blocky soil structure) has occurred
to warrant B horizon designations throughout much of the
proles beneath the A horizons.
If one assumes that Site A had as high a sulfur content
at deposition as the unoxidised zone at Site B now has, the
sulde concentrations at Site A (Table 4) would indicate that
most of the chromium-reducible suldes (CRS) have been
dissipated from this soil. However the laboratory pH (Table 4)
for Site A, tested 7 days after sampling compared with eld
pH analysis, shows evidence of potential for future acid
production at Site A. Results for CRS sulde concentrations
(Table 5) in the unoxidised zone at Site B indicate that most
of the sulfur is in a reduced form and has a high potential
for future acid production. Comparison of the total sulfur
and CRS sulde concentrations at sites A and B (Tables 4
and 5, respectively) suggests that SBDM with a maximum
sulde concentration of 10 g/kg should undergo the majority
of their sulde oxidation within 60 years under conditions
similar to those found in the study area. Predictive modelling
for dissipation of 50% of the suldes to be oxidised with
35 g/kg of sulfur indicated 50 years (Dent and Raiswell 1982).
The time frame for the oxidation of suldes in DM presented
here was found to be considerably less, most likely due to the
ability of the seasonal water table to uctuate. However, if DM
were better sealed or contained, the rate for the dissipation of
suldes would probably be lower.
The Ab and Oeb horizons at Sites A and B, respectively
(Tables 4 and 5) exhibit a higher hydraulic conductivity
than the SBDM and underlying soil, likely because of the
relatively higher organic matter content. Elevated levels of
KCl-extractable iron and aluminum in the Bwj and Ab
horizons of the soil sampled at Site A (Table 4) suggest
that these metals are capable of moving in solution down
the prole and into the Bwj and Ab horizons. The higher

Table 5. Tabular list for laboratory analysis conducted for primary sampling Site B

Horizon Depth Sand Silt Clay Sulde S S C N

(cm) (%) (g/kg)

A 08 4.3 66.2 29.5 3.02 25.6 1.20

Bw1 830 16.2 65.0 18.9 0.13 2.82 17.0 0.81
Bw2 3051 12.6 65.1 22.3 4.28 4.93 25.7 1.14
Bwj1 5166 10.9 63.4 25.7 8.43 13.1 49.2 1.75
Bwj2 66114 14.6 63.3 22.2 10.1 15.8 48.8 1.88
Cg1 114122 15.6 73.5 10.9 0.43 1.48 9.63 0.43
Cg2 122142 9.6 69.4 21.0 2.01 3.42 24.8 1.20
Cg3 142173 12.4 66.4 21.2 2.23 4.97 46.4 1.91
Cg4 173274 11.9 64.7 23.4 1.87 3.58 30.2 1.40
ASS in dredged materials Australian Journal of Soil Research 543

Table 6. Water sample results for Site B (24 June 02) to be similar. In contrast, studies of soils forming in DM
2
from Baltimore, MD, showed elevated levels for these metals
Location pH Al Fe SO4 Cl
(mg/L)
possibly due to additions from nearby industrial sources
(Fanning and Fanning 1989). Similarly, soils in tidal marshes
Ground water 5.9 32 325 137 350 in the vicinity of Baltimore harbor were also found to
Drop outlet structure 3.2 12 384 400 700 have higher concentrations of metals compared with soils in
Discharge pipe 4.6 14 370 390 900
marshes in other areas of the Chesapeake Bay region (Grifn
et al. 1989).
The design of the SBDM containment areas, typical of
other dredged material deposition sites in the Chesapeake
Bay watershed, involves the creation of a diked off area
that is ultimately lled with DM by hydraulic pumping. The
dikes are constructed from locally available soil materials. A
Drop outlet structure
drop outlet structure is connected to a discharge pipe (e.g.
Fig. 3) that allows the DM to de-water and settle, creating
additional capacity for DM deposition. These water outlet
Pocomoke Sound
Berm structures may be left in place after the de-watering process
DM is completed. Although advances in design of containment
structures have been made, outlet structures such as at Site
B are still used. When they are left in place after the
Tidal marsh deposition of DM is completed they provide an avenue
for discharges during sulfuricization of SBDM, as we have
Fig. 3. Diagram illustrating the drop outlet structure used for draining observed at Site B. There is no drop outlet structure at
recently deposited dredged materials at Site B. Arrows indicate direction site A.
of efuent ow. Zones where the seepage of acidic water has occurred
beneath the berm at the surface of the buried soil of the
hydraulic conductivity of the buried A horizon could allow former tidal marsh are along the shoreline of Sites A
the iron- and aluminum-enriched acidic water (Table 6) to and B. Subsequent oxidation and hydrolysis of dissolved
move laterally outward from the sites into the Pocomoke Fe in the seepage waters has, in our opinion, caused
Sound. precipitation of iron oxyhydroxides to form deposits
Comparison of levels of selected trace metals, including of ironstone along the beach. The formation of iron
copper, manganese, and zinc in the localised DM (Table 4) oxyhydroxides upon the oxidation and hydrolysis of ferrous
to levels in natural soils (Bohn et al. 1979) were found sulfate (Reaction 1) (Fanning and Fanning 1989; Fanning and

200 Monthly rainfall total (1997)

30 Year average for Princess Anne, MD
180
Fish kill
Fish event
6.8.97
160 8.4.97
26.8.97

140
Dry months

120 Dry month

(mm)

100

80

60

40

20

0
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Fig. 4. Monthly rainfall totals compared with 30-year averages for Princess Anne, MD, for the year 1997.
544 Australian Journal of Soil Research S. Y. Demas et al.

320
300
280
260
Monthly rainfall total (1999)
240
22.7.99 30 Year average for Princess Anne, MD
220 Fish kill
200
(mm)

180
Dry months
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Fig. 5. Monthly rainfall totals compared with 30-year averages for Princess Anne, MD, for the year 1999.

Burch 1997; Fanning et al. 2002) is known to produce sulfuric Conclusions

acid:
FeSO4 + 0.5O2 + 1.5H2 O FeOOH (e.g. goethite)
+ H2 SO4 (Reaction 1)
This reaction and the reaction of the sulfuric acid with
silicate minerals to release Al and other elements from the
mineral structures are likely pathways for the release of iron,
aluminum, and sulfuric acid from SBDM into the Pocomoke
Sound.
During periods of drought, SBDM may act as reservoirs
of acidity where additional sulfuric acid and acid-forming
salts may form; however, in cases of above-normal rainfall,
large quantities of low pH efuent carrying Fe, Al and other
elements can be released from SBDM. Fish population
studies have linked sh kills in areas of acid sulfate soils
to climatic factors such as drought followed by heavy
rain (Brown et al. 1983; Sammut et al. 1996). Monthly
rainfall data compared with 30-year averages for Princess
Anne, MD (27 km north of the study site) for the years
1997 and 1999 are shown in Figs 4 and 5. All of the
sh events mentioned earlier in this paper were to some
degree preceded by below average monthly rainfalls.
Review of the daily rainfall totals show that signicant
rainfalls occurred within 15 days before the 4 sh events
(Table 7).
Table 7. Summary of rainfall amounts within 15 days of the sh
events
Event
Fish event, 8 April 1997
Fish kill, 6 August 1997
Fish kill, 26 August 1997
Fish kill, 22 July 1999
At this time it has not been determined whether efuent
from the study area has played a role in the recent sh
kills in the Pocomoke Sound. The sh events reported in
this paper occurred after signicant rainfall events that were
preceded by dry periods. During periods of drought, oxidising
conditions are presumed to prevail thereby favouring sulde
oxidation of the SBDM. There is strong evidence to indicate
that seepage and/or runoff containing iron, aluminum, and
sulfuric acid has leached from these sites into Pocomoke
Sound. Despite the potentially harmful characteristics of
that seepage and/or runoff from DM entering the Pocomoke
Sound, it appears unlikely that high acidity alone could be
a direct cause of the recent sh kills. In estuaries such
as Pocomoke Sound with near-neutral pH values and with
considerable CO2 , effects of absorbing carbonic acids are in
essence buffered by the formation of intermediate species
(Day et al. 1989). This ability to buffer rarely results in
pH values outside the typical range. Further regular ows of
estuarine waters and input of freshwater from land drainage
would also assist in negating effects of low pH discharges.
However, the contributions of iron and aluminum as potential
cofactors during recent sh kills on Pocomoke Sound should
not be disregarded.
It is the authors opinion that dredging activities at sites
such as these along Pocomoke Sound pose hazards to aquatic
life in the Sound unless management plans are devised and
implemented to minimise the adverse environmental effects
of such operations. Given the close proximity of the study
area to places of known sh kills, and the fact that Site B be
is under consideration for future further deposition of DM,
Rainfall (mm)
it would be environmentally irresponsible to ignore the risks
47 linked to acid sulfate soils such as those we have identied
89 at these sites. Some suggested ways to reduce the discharge
52 of acid and Fe- and Al-bearing waters into the Sound from
63
SBDM deposition sites are: (i) the use of more secure
ASS in dredged materials
dikes, (ii) the use of sealants, such as bentonite, to line the
deposition cells before SBDM placement, (iii) the addition
of a sufcient quantity of liming materials to the SBDM
during their deposition to neutralise the acidity produced as
they undergo oxidation, and (iv) keeping the DM anaerobic
to retard the oxidation of suldes. One way to prevent
oxidation would be to allow tidal ushing of DM deposition
cells, but this means keeping the deposited DM at or below
sea level.
Awareness and management of acid sulfate soils has been
developed in Australia by governmental agencies and private
industries working together to minimise the environmental
impacts of these dynamic soils. In the United States, acid
sulfate hazards associated with dredging operations have
not, in our opinion, been sufciently recognised. However,
through proper identication of acid sulfate soils, soil survey
updates, such as the one in which we are participating in
Somerset County, MD, can bring attention to and address the
potential acid sulfate hazards associated with the deposition
of SBDM. It is our hope that the work presented here will
contribute to continuing efforts to raise public awareness of
the existence and special management needs of acid sulfate
soils.
Acknowledgment
We wish to express our gratitude to Bill McInturff, State of
Maryland, Department of Natural Resources, for his help
in securing site access as well as providing site history
information.
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Manuscript received 11 July 2003, accepted 16 February 2004