Formula[edit]

The AC current density J in a conductor decreases exponentially from its value at the
surface JS according to the depth dfrom the surface, as follows:[2]:362
{\displaystyle J=J_{\mathrm {S} }\,e^{-{(1+j)d/\delta }}}
where is called the skin depth. The skin depth is thus defined as the depth below the
surface of the conductor at which the current density has fallen to 1/e (about 0.37) of JS.
The imaginary part of the exponent indicates that the phase of the current density is
delayed 1 radian for each skin depth of penetration. One full wavelength in the conductor
requires 2 skin depths, at which point the current density is attenuated to e2 (-54.6
dB) of its surface value. The wavelength in the conductor is much shorter than the
wavelength in vacuum, or equivalently, the phase velocity in the conductor is very much
slower than the speed of light in vacuum. For example, a 1 MHz radio wave has a
wavelength in vacuum 0 of about 300m, whereas in copper, the wavelength is reduced
to only about 0.5 mm with a phase velocity of only about 500 m/s. As a consequence of
Snell's law and this very tiny phase velocity in the conductor, any wave entering the
conductor, even at grazing incidence, refracts essentially in the direction perpendicular to
the conductor's surface.
The general formula for the skin depth is:[3][4]
{\displaystyle \delta ={\sqrt {{2\rho } \over {\omega \mu }}}\;\;{\sqrt {{\sqrt
{1+\left({\rho \omega \epsilon }\right)^{2}}}+\rho \omega \epsilon }}}
where
{\displaystyle \rho } = resistivity of the conductor
{\displaystyle \omega } = angular frequency of current = 2
frequency
{\displaystyle \mu _{r}} = relative magnetic permeability of the conductor
{\displaystyle \mu _{0}} = the permeability of free space
{\displaystyle \mu } = {\displaystyle \mu _{r}}{\displaystyle \mu
_{0}}
{\displaystyle \epsilon _{r}} = relative permittivity of the material
{\displaystyle \epsilon _{0}} = the permittivity of free space
{\displaystyle \epsilon } = {\displaystyle \epsilon _{r}}{\displaystyle
\epsilon _{0}}
At frequencies much below {\displaystyle 1/\rho \epsilon } the quantity inside the
large radical is close to unity and the formula is more usually given as:
 {\displaystyle \delta ={\sqrt {{2\rho } \over {\omega \mu }}}}.
This formula is valid away from strong atomic or molecular resonances (where
{\displaystyle \epsilon } would have a large imaginary part) and at frequencies
which are much below both the material's plasma frequency (dependent on the density of
free electrons in the material) and the reciprocal of the mean time between collisions
involving the conduction electrons. In good conductors such as metals all of those
conditions are ensured at least up to microwave frequencies, justifying this formula's
validity.[note 1] For example, in the case of copper, this would be true for frequencies
much below 1018 Hz.
However, in very poor conductors, at sufficiently high frequencies, the factor under
the large radical increases. At frequencies much higher than {\displaystyle 1/\rho
\epsilon } it can be shown that the skin depth, rather than continuing to decrease,
approaches an asymptotic value:
{\displaystyle \delta \approx {2\rho }{\sqrt {\epsilon \over \mu }}}
This departure from the usual formula only applies for materials of rather low
conductivity and at frequencies where the vacuum wavelength is not much larger than the
skin depth itself. For instance, bulk silicon (undoped) is a poor conductor and has a skin
depth of about 40 meters at 100 kHz ( = 3000 m). However, as the frequency is
increased well into the megahertz range, its skin depth never falls below the asymptotic
value of 11 meters. The conclusion is that in poor solid conductors such as undoped
silicon, the skin effect doesn't need to be taken into account in most practical situations:
any current is equally distributed throughout the material's cross-section regardless of its
frequency.

Formula for round conductor[edit]

When the skin depth is not small with respect to the radius of the wire, current density
may be described in terms of Bessel functions. The current density inside round wire
away from the influences of other fields, as function of distance from the axis is given by
Weeks.[5]:38

Current density in round wire for

various skin depths. Numbers shown
on each curve are the ratio of skin
depth to wire radius. The curve
shown with the infinity sign is the
 zero frequency (DC) case. All curves are normalized so that the current density at the
surface is the same. The horizontal axis is the position within the wire with the left and
right extremes being the surface of the wire. The vertical axis is relative current
density.

{\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{r}={\frac {k\mathbf {I} }{2\pi R}}{\frac

{J_{0}(kr)}{J_{1}(kR)}}=\mathbf {J} _{R}{\frac {J_{0}(kr)}{J_{0}
(kR)}}}
where
{\displaystyle \quad \omega } = angular frequency of current = 2
frequency
{\displaystyle \quad r=} distance from the axis of the wire
{\displaystyle \quad R=} radius of the wire
{\displaystyle \quad \mathbf {J} _{r}=} current density phasor at
distance, r, from the axis of the wire
{\displaystyle \quad \mathbf {J} _{R}=} current density phasor at the
surface of the wire
{\displaystyle \quad \mathbf {I} =} total current phasor
{\displaystyle \quad J_{0}=} Bessel function of the first kind, order 0
{\displaystyle \quad J_{1}=} Bessel function of the first kind, order 1
{\displaystyle \quad k={\sqrt {\frac {-j\omega \mu }{\rho }}}={\frac
{1-j} {\delta }}} the wave number in the conductor
{\displaystyle \quad \delta ={\sqrt {\frac {2\rho }{\omega \mu }}}} also
called skin depth.
{\displaystyle \quad \rho } = resistivity of the conductor
{\displaystyle \quad \mu _{r}} = relative magnetic permeability of the
conductor
{\displaystyle \quad \mu _{0}} = the permeability of free space
{\displaystyle \quad \mu } = {\displaystyle \mu _{r}}{\displaystyle \mu
_{0}}
Since {\displaystyle k} is complex, the Bessel functions are also complex. The
amplitude and phase of the current density varies with depth.
Impedance of round wire[edit]
The internal impedance of round wire is given by:[5]:40
{\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} _{int}={\frac {k\rho }{2\pi R}}{\frac {J_{0}
(kR)}{J_{1}(kR)}}}.
 The internal impedance is complex and may be interpreted as a resistance in series
with an inductance. The inductance accounts for energy stored in the magnetic field
inside the wire. It has a maximum value of {\displaystyle {\frac {\mu }{8\pi }}} H/m at
zero frequency and goes to zero as the frequency increases. The zero frequency internal
inductance is independent of the radius of the round wire.[6]

The internal inductance of round wire

vs. the ratio of skin depth to radius. The
inductance asymptotically approaches
( / 8) H/m for large skin depth. The
internal inductance is associated with
the magnetic field inside the wire. As
skin depth becomes small, the
inductance goes linearly to zero.

The ratio AC resistance to DC

resistance of a round wire versus the
ratio of the wires radius to the skin
depth. As the skin depth becomes
small relative to the radius, the ratio
of AC to DC resistance approaches
one half of the ratio of the radius to
the skin depth.