SECTION 14

Refrigeration
Refrigeration systems are common in the natural gas proc-
essing industry and processes related to the petroleum refin-
ing, petrochemical, and chemical industries. Several
applications for refrigeration include NGL recovery, LPG re-
covery, hydrocarbon dew point control, reflux condensation for
light hydrocarbon fractionators, and LNG plants.
Selection of a refrigerant is generally based upon tempera-
ture requirements, availability, economics, and previous expe-
rience. For instance, in a natural gas processing plant, ethane
and propane may be at hand; whereas in an olefins plant, eth-
ylene and propylene are readily available. Propane or propyl-
ene may not be suitable in an ammonia plant because of the

FIG. 14-1
Nomenclature

BP = Brake Power, kW Subscripts

GHP = gas power defined by Eq 14-7b L = liquid state
h = enthalpy, kJ/kg V = vapor state
hVD = isentropic enthalpy, kJ/kg A, B, C, D = denote unique points of operation on P-H
k = specific heat ratio diagrams
m = refrigerant flow, kW b = bypass
n = number of stages i = isentropic
P = pressure, kPa (abs) cd = condenser
Q = heat duty, kW
ref = refrigeration
r = compression ratio
s = suction
S = entropy, kJ/(kg K)
d = discharge
T = temperature, C
W = work of compression, kW n = stage number
X = weight fraction T = Total
= isentropic efficiency 1, 2 = stage number
= surface tension, N/m
= density, kg/m3
h = enthalpy change, kJ/kg
Accumulator: a storage vessel for liquid refrigerant; also Expansion valve: a valve for controlling the flow of refrig-
known as surge drum. erant to an evaporator or chiller.
Bubble point: the temperature at which the vapor pressure Flash gas: the gas resulting from the instantaneous evapo-
of the liquid refrigerant equals the absolute external pres- ration of refrigerant by a pressure reducing device, such as
sure of the liquid-vapor interface. a control valve.
Capacity, refrigerating system: the cooling effect produced
Frost Plug: small diameter closed nozzle protruding from
by the total enthalpy change between the refrigerant entering
the side of an insulated vessel which indicates liquid level
the evaporator and the refrigerant leaving the evaporator.
in the vessel by accumulation of frost.
Chiller, Evaporator: a heat exchanger in which the liquid
refrigerant is vaporized by a process stream which is in turn Halocarbons: a family of refrigerants consisting of fluori-
cooled. nated and/or chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Compression ratio: ratio of outlet to inlet absolute pres- Hot gas bypass: warm discharge gas recycled to chiller for
sures for a compressor. maintaining systems operating integrity at minimum load
Condenser: a heat exchanger in which the refrigerant, com- conditions.
pressed to a suitable pressure, is condensed by rejection of Liquid refrigerant receiver: a vessel in a refrigeration sys-
heat to a cooling medium. tem designed to ensure the availability of adequate liquid
Cooling medium: any substance whose temperature is such refrigerant for proper functioning of the system and to store
that it is used, with or without change of state, to lower the the liquid refrigerant when the system is pumped down.
temperature of refrigerant either during condensing or sub-
cooling. Refrigerant: the fluid used for heat transfer in a refrigera-
Effect, refrigerating: the rate of heat removal by a refrig- tion system, which absorbs heat at a low temperature and
erant in a refrigeration system. It is equal to the difference low pressure and rejects heat at a higher temperature and
in specific enthalpies of the refrigerant at two designated a higher pressure.
thermodynamic states.

14-1
risk of contamination, while ammonia may very well serve the FIG. 14-2
purpose. Halocarbons have been used extensively because of
Process Flow Diagram and Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram
their nonflammable characteristics.
Fig. 14-1 provides a nomenclature and glossary for this sec-
tion.

MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION
Refrigeration Cycle
The refrigeration effect can be achieved by using one of these
cycles:
Vapor compression-expansion
Absorption
Steam jet (water-vapor compression)
By utilizing the Pressure-Enthalpy (P-H) diagram, the re-
frigeration cycle can be broken down into four distinct steps:
Expansion
Evaporation
Compression
Condensation
The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle can be repre-
sented by the process flow and P-H diagram shown in Fig.
14-2.
Expansion Step The starting point in a refrigeration
cycle is the availability of liquid refrigerant. Point A in Fig.
14-2 represents a bubble point liquid at its saturation pres-
sure, PA, and enthalpy, hLA. In the expansion step, the pressure
and temperature are reduced by flashing the liquid through a
control valve to pressure PB. The lower pressure, PB, is deter-
mined by the desired refrigerant temperature, TB (point B).
At point B the enthalpy of the saturated liquid is hLB, while
the corresponding saturated vapor enthalpy is hVB. Since the
expansion step (A B) occurs across an expansion valve and can be defined as X (hVB hLB) and substituting from Eq. 14-2,
no energy has been exchanged, the process is considered to be the effect becomes:
isenthalpic. Thus the total stream enthalpy at the outlet of the Effect = hVB hLA Eq 14-4
valve is the same as the inlet, hLA.
The refrigeration duty (or refrigeration capacity) refers to
Since point B is inside the envelope, vapor and liquid coex- the total amount of heat absorbed in the chiller by the process,
ist. In order to determine the amount of vapor formed in the generally expressed as kW. The refrigerant flow rate is given
expansion process, let X be the fraction of liquid at pressure by:
PB with an enthalpy hLB. The fraction of vapor formed during
the expansion process with an enthalpy hVB is (1-X). Equations Qref
m = Eq 14-5
for the heat balance and the fraction of liquid formed are: (hVB hLA)
(X) hLB + (1 X) hVB = hLA Eq 14-1
Compression Step The refrigerant vapors leave the
(hVB hLA) chiller at the saturation pressure PC. The corresponding tem-
X = Eq 14-2 perature equals TC at an enthalpy of hVB. The entropy at this
(hVB hLB)
point is SC. These vapors are compressed isentropically to
(hLA hLB) pressure PA along line C D (Fig. 14-2).
(1 X) = Eq 14-3
(hVB hLB)
The isentropic (ideal) work, Wi, for compressing the refrig-
Evaporation Step The vapor formed in the expansion erant from PB to PA is given by:
process (A-B) does not provide any refrigeration to the process.
Heat is absorbed from the process by the evaporation of the Wi = m (hVD hVB) Eq 14-6
liquid portion of the refrigerant. As shown in Fig. 14-2, this is The quantity hVD is determined from refrigerant properties
a constant temperature, constant pressure step (B-C). The en-
at PA and an entropy of SC. Since the refrigerant is not an ideal
thalpy of the vapor at point C is hVB.
fluid and since the compressors for such services do not oper-
Physically, the evaporation takes place in a heat exchanger ate ideally, isentropic efficiency, i, has been defined to com-
referred to as an evaporator or a chiller. The process refrigera- pensate for the inefficiencies of the compression process. The
tion is provided by the cold liquid, X, and its refrigerant effect actual work of compression, W, can be calculated from:

14-2
 Wi m (hVD hVB) FIG. 14-3
W = = = m (hVD hVB) Eq 14-7
i i One-Stage Refrigeration System
The enthalpy at discharge is given by:
(hVD hVB)
hVD = + hVB Eq 14-7a
i
The work of compression can also be expressed as:
W
BP = Eq 14-7b
3600

where 3600 kJ/h = 1 kW.

(See Section 13 for a discussion on compressors.)
Condensation Step The superheated refrigerant
leaving the compressor at PA and TD (Point D in Fig. 14-2) is
cooled at nearly constant pressure to the dew point tempera-
ture, TA, and refrigerant vapors begin to condense at constant
temperature. Two-Stage SystemSavings in the 20% range can often
During the desuperheating and condensation process, all be achieved with a two-stage refrigeration system and inter-
heat and work added to the refrigerant during the evaporation stage flash economizer. Additional savings can be realized by
and compression processes must be removed so that the cycle removing process heat at the interstage level rather than at
can be completed by reaching Point A (the starting point) on the low stage level. A typical two-stage system with an inter-
the P-H diagram, as shown in Fig. 14-2. mediate load is shown in Fig. 14-5 with data for pure propane.
By adding the refrigeration duty to the heat of compression, Three-Stage System Additional power savings can
we calculate the condensing duty, Qcd, from: be achieved by using a three-stage compression system. As
with a two-stage system, flash economization and/or an inter-
Qc d = m [(hVB hLA) + (hVD hVB)]
mediate heat load can be used. The savings, while not as dra-
= m (hVD hLA) Eq 14-8 matic as the two stage versus one-stage, can still be significant
enough to justify the additional equipment. A typical three
The condensing pressure of the refrigerant is a function of stage propane system is shown in Fig. 14-6.
the cooling medium available air, cooling water, or another
refrigerant. The cooling medium is the heat sink for the refrig- FIG. 14-4
eration cycle.
Single-Stage Cooling, Chilling and Heating Curves
Because the compressor discharge vapor is superheated, the
refrigerant condensing curve is not a straight line. It is a com-
bination of desuperheating and constant temperature con-
densing. This fact must be considered for proper design of the
condenser.
System Pressure Drop Some typical values for pres-
sure drops that must be considered are:
Condenser pressure drop 20 to 50 kPa
Line hydraulic losses
Evaporator to Compressor* 0.7 to 10 kPa
Compressor to Condenser 0.7 to 14 kPa
Condenser to Receiver 3.5 to 7 kPa
* This is an important consideration in refrigeration services
with low suction pressure to compressor.

Refrigeration Stages
Refrigeration systems utilizing one, two, three, or four
stages of compression have been successfully operated in vari-
ous services. The number of levels of refrigeration generally
depends upon the number of compression stages required, in-
terstage heat loads, economics, and the type of compression.
One-Stage System A typical one-stage refrigeration
system is shown in Fig. 14-3 where the data are for pure pro-
pane refrigerant. Fig. 14-4 illustrates a process application of
a single level chiller and the associated cooling curve.

14-3
 FIG. 14-5
Two-Stage Refrigeration System

FIG. 14-6
Three-Stage Refrigeration System

14-4
 System Configuration Energy consumption is fre- FIG. 14-8
quently reduced as the number of stages is increased. For a Two-Level Chilling, Two-Stage Cooling System
propane refrigeration system, Fig. 14-7 illustrates the effect
of interstages without using refrigeration at intermediate lev-
els. However, the installation cost of such refrigeration sys-
tems increases as the number of stages increases. The
optimum overall cost will be a function of the specific system
and has to be determined for a set of economic criteria.

FIG. 14-7
Effect of Staging on a Propane Refrigeration System

Stages, n
1 2 3
Refrigeration Duty, kW 293 293 293
Refrigeration Temperature, C 40 40 40
Refrigerant Condensing
Temperature, C 38 38 38
Compression Requirements, kW 218 176 167
Reduction in BP, % Base 19.2 23.3
Condenser Duty, kW 511 469 462
Change in condenser duty, % Base 8.2 9.6

The compression power for refrigeration can be reduced fur-

ther by shifting refrigerant load from cooler levels to warmer
levels. Fig. 14-8 shows a refrigeration system using two levels
of chilling. The gas is initially chilled to 1C with 4C pro-
pane and then to 37C with 40C propane. The selec-
tion of the 4C level results from equal compression
ratios for each stage. The interstage pressure and corre-
sponding refrigerant temperature may be fixed by either
equipment or process conditions. Equal compression ra-
tios per stage are chosen whenever possible to minimize
horsepower.
Example 14-1 Calculate the power and condenser duty re-
quired for the process shown in Fig. 14-8 using propane refrig-
eration. Design condensing temperature is 49C. The pressure From the vapor pressure curve for propane, the refrigera-
drop from the chillers to the compressor suction is 10 kPa. The tion temperature at 420 kPa (abs) is 4C. Converting kW du-
pressure drop from compressor discharge to the receiver is 70 ties to kJ/h and substituting enthalpy values from Section 24,
kPa. Fig. 24-26 into Eq 14-5, we find the refrigerant flowrate
through each chiller:
Solution Steps:
(26.4) (106)
In order to determine the interstage refrigeration level for m1 = = 77 650 kg / h
a two-stage system, determine the ratio per stage: (820 480)
1
Pd
n (10.6) (106)
r = Eq 14-9 m2 = = 44 170 kg / h
(870 630)
Ps
From the propane vapor pressure curve: where m 1 is the flowrate through the first stage chiller, and
m2 is the flowrate through the second stage chiller.
Pd = 1670 kPa (abs) + 70 kPa = 1740 kPa (abs)
Liquid flow to the first-stage chiller (77 650 kg/h) is provided
Ps = 108 kPa 10 kPa = 98 kPa (abs) by flashing the liquid refrigerant from the refrigerant receiver
1 at 49C and bypassing the second-stage chiller.
2
1740
r = = 4.21 In order to determine the flow of liquid refrigerant from the
98 receiver, consider the heat and material balances shown in
Thus the second stage suction pressure is: Fig. 14-9. Here, let mb (kg/h) denote the refrigerant bypassing
the second-stage chiller. The chiller produces 44 170 kg/h of
Ps2 = (98) (4.21) = 412 kPa refrigerant vapor at 4C. These vapors flow through the sec-
The first stage discharge pressure is: ond stage suction drum, and leave overhead. The liquid re-
quired from the second stage flash drum for the first stage
Pdl = 412 + 8 = 420 kPa chiller comes from the quantity mb.

14-5
 FIG. 14-9 Substituting into Eq 14-6, the ideal enthalpy change across
the second stage as:
Data for Heat and Material Balances
h = 965 890 = 75 kJ/kg
The required compression power for the second stage is de-
termined from Eq 14-7b:
(75) (170 350)
BP2 = = 4732 kW
(0.75) (3600)
Hence, the compression required for the two-stage propane
refrigeration system becomes:
BPT = 2013 + 4732 = 6745 kW
Using Eq 14-7a, the second stage discharge enthalpy is:
75
HV2d = + 890 = 990 kJ/kg
0.75
Substituting into Eq 14-8 yields the condenser duty for the
two-stage propane refrigeration system:
Qcd = (9 90 6 30 ) (1 70 35 0)
= (6 .13 3) ( 10 7 ) kJ /h = 17 03 6 kW
From Fig. 24-26 the second stage discharge temperature at
By material balance, we find the vapors leaving the second 1740 kPa and enthalpy of 990 kJ/kg is 80C.
stage suction drum as mb + 44 170 77 650 or mb 33 480
kg/h. By heat balance around the suction drum, we can deter- Condensing Temperature
mine the amount of refrigerant, mb: Condensing temperature has a significant effect on the com-
(mb 33 480) (870) + (77 650) (480) = mb (630) + pression power and condensing duty requirements. Mehra3
illustrated the effect of the condensing temperature on refrig-
(44 170) (870) eration requirements for one, two, and three stage systems.
Results for a one-stage propylene refrigeration system are
mb = 126 180 kg/h summarized in Fig. 14-10.
In order to calculate isentropic work for the first stage, it is Fig. 14-10 illustrates that the colder the condensing tem-
necessary to determine the isentropic enthalpy at 412 kPa perature, the lower the power requirements for a given refrig-
(abs). Fig. 24-26, the first stage inlet entropy equals 3.85 kJ/kg eration duty. Traditionally, the heat sinks for most refrig-
K, and the corresponding isentropic enthalpy at 412 kPa eration systems have been either cooling water or ambient air.
(abs) is 890 kJ/kg. If cooling water or evaporative condensing is utilized, a 27 to
The ideal change in enthalpy = 890 820 = 70 kJ/kg 38C temperature can be achieved. Section 11 provides wet
and dry bulb temperature data. Fig. 14-10 also indicates, to a
For propane refrigerant k = 1.13, compression ratio, r, of 4.21 certain extent, the effect on operations between summer and
and the isentropic efficiency, i of 0.75, the required compres- winter conditions as well as between day and night operations.
sion power for the first stage is obtained from Eq 14-7b:
(70) (77 650)
Refrigerant Subcooling
BP1 = = 2013 kW Subcooling liquid refrigerants is common in refrigeration
(0.75) (3 600)
systems. Subcooling the refrigerant reduces the energy re-
Using Eq 14-7a we determine the first stage discharge en- quirements. It is carried out when an auxiliary source of cool-
thalpy is: ing is readily available, and the source stream needs to be
70 heated. Subcooling can be accomplished by simply installing
hvld = + 820 = 913 kJ/kg
0.75 FIG. 14-10
A material balance around the second compression stage
yields the total refrigerant flow: Effect of Condensing Temperature

mT = m1 + (mb 33 480) = 77 650 + (126 180 33 480) Condensing

Temperature, C 16 27 38 49 60
= 170 350 kg/h
Refrigeration Duty,
A heat balance at the second compression stage entrance kW 293 293 293 293 293
yields the second stage inlet enthalpy: Refrigeration
Temperature, C 46 46 46 46 46
(913) (77 650) + (870) (126 180 33 480)
hv2s = Compression
(170 350) Requirement, kW 157 199 248 320 413
= 890 kJ/kg Change in BP, % 36.6 19.8 Base 28.8 66.4
Condenser Duty,
kW 451 492 539 613 709
From Section 24, the inlet entropy at 412 kPa (abs) and Change in Condenser
890 kJ/kg is 3.85 kJ/(kg K), and the isentropic enthalpy Duty, % 16.3 8.7 Base 13.6 31.5
at 1740 kPa (abs) is 965 kJ/kg.

14-6
a heat exchanger on the appropriate refrigerant and process
streams.
Example 14-2 Consider installing an 880 kW subcooler on
the liquid propane refrigerant from the receiver at 49C in
Example 14-1 for the two-stage propane refrigeration system.
The second stage of this system is shown in Fig. 14-11.
Solution Steps:
By performing the heat balance around the subcooler and
the second stage suction drum, the liquid refrigerant flowrate
to the subcooler is determined to be 139 515 kg/h. When com-
paring this to the earlier flowrate of 170 350 kg/h, the refrig-
erant flow is reduced by 30 835 kg/h.
By heat balance around the subcooler, we determine the en-
thalpy of liquid propane refrigerant leaving the subcooler is
615 kJ/kg which corresponds to a temperature of 43C.
The flowrate of refrigerant through the second stage chiller
becomes
(10.6) (106)
m2 = = 41 569 kg/h
(870 615)
As a result of subcooling, the flow of refrigerant through the
second stage chiller has been reduced from 44 170 kg/h to
41 569 kg/h. The lower flowrates result in reduced compres-
sion power, condenser duty, and reduced size of piping and
equipment. These benefits must be balanced against the in-
stalled cost of the subcooler exchanger.
Refrigerant For Reboiling
Refrigerants have been successfully used for reboiling serv-
ices wherever applicable conditions exist. Reboiling is similar
in concept to subcooling heat is taken out of the refrigera-
tion cycle.
In reboiling service, the heat removed from the refrigerant
condenses the refrigerant vapor at essentially constant tem-
perature and pressure. The liquid refrigerant produced in a
reboiler service is flashed to the next lower pressure stage to
produce useful refrigeration. The refrigerant condensing pres-
sure is a function of the reboiling temperature.
FIG. 14-11
Refrigerant Subcooling
14-7
Refrigerant Cascading
In the cascading of refrigerants, warmer refrigerants con-
dense cooler ones. Based on the low temperature requirements
of a process, a refrigerant that is capable of providing the de-
sired cold temperature is selected. For example, the lowest
attainable temperature from ethane refrigerant is 85C (for
a positive compressor suction pressure), whereas the lowest
temperature level for propane is 40C (for a similar positive
pressure).
In a refrigeration cycle, energy is transferred from lower
to higher temperature levels economically by using water
or ambient air as the ultimate heat sink. If ethane is used
as a refrigerant, the warmest temperature level to condense
ethane is its critical temperature of about 32C. This tem-
perature requires unusually high compression ratios
making an ethane compressor for such service complicated
and uneconomical. Also in order to condense ethane at 32C,
a heat sink at 29C or lower is necessary. This condensing
temperature is a difficult cooling water requirement in
many locations. Thus a refrigerant such as propane is cas-
caded with ethane to transfer the energy from the ethane
system to cooling water or air.
An example of a cascaded system is shown in Fig. 14-12,
where an ethane system cascades into a propane system. The
condenser duty for the ethane system is 9000 kW. This duty
becomes a refrigeration load for the propane system along
with its 6740 kW refrigeration at 40C. Therefore, the pro-
pane refrigeration system has to be designed to provide a total
of 15 740 kW at 40C in addition to 2930 kW at 20C and
2050 kW at 7C.
Refrigerant Properties
Physical properties of pure component refrigerants in com-
mon use are given in Fig. 14-13. The vapor pressure curves for
ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene, and Refrigerant 22
(R-22) are available in Sections 23 and 24 or references 2, 5,
9, and 10. Vapor pressure data for other refrigerants can be
obtained from refrigerant manufacturers.
Enthalpy data are necessary in designing any refrigeration
system. Pressure-enthalpy diagrams for pure ethane, ethyl-
ene, propane, propylene, and R-22 are available in Section 24
of this data book or references 2, 5, 9, and 10. Enthalpy data
for other refrigerants can be obtained from refrigerant manu-
facturers.
Power and Condenser Duty Estimation
Since many gas processing plants require mechanical refrig-
eration, generalized charts5 were developed to aid in a modu-
lar approach for designing refrigeration systems.
Because of the complexity of generalizing refrigeration sys-
tems, the charts have been developed for four of the most
common refrigerants: ethylene, propylene, propane, and Re-
frigerant 22.
In order to apply these curves to most of the commercially
available compressors, a polytropic efficiency of 0.77 was
assumed. The polytropic efficiency was converted into an
isentropic efficiency1 to include the effects of compression ratio
and specific heat ratio (k = Cp/C v) for a given refrigerant. For
well balanced and efficient operation of the compressor, an
equal compression ratio between stages was employed.
The refrigeration level is defined as the temperature of the
dew point vapor leaving the evaporator. The pressures at the
 FIG. 14-12
Cascade Refrigeration System
compressor suction and side load inlet nozzles were adjusted
by 10 kPa to allow for pressure drop. These charts also include
a 35 kPa pressure drop across the refrigerant condenser for
ethylene, and a 70 kPa drop for propane, propylene, and Re-
frigerant 22.
Before developing any system, one must define refrigerant
temperature and condensing temperature of the refrigerant
based on the medium used for condensing.
To achieve maximum energy conservation and minimum
energy cost, it is necessary to match the process conditions
14-8
and refrigeration compressor design to obtain the best effi-
ciency.
After defining the lowest refrigerant level and the condens-
ing temperature, the pressure at the evaporator and con-
denser can be established from the vapor-pressure curve for a
specific refrigerant. All examples and data in this section are
based upon pure component properties. In practice, pure hy-
drocarbon refrigerants are not always available. Impurities
may cause significant deviations in design and performance.
 FIG. 14-13
Physical Properties of Common Refrigerants1, 4, 9, 10, 11

Normal
Freezing Liquid Specific Toxicity
ASHRAE Boiling Critical Critical Liquid
Chemical Chemical Molecular Point C Thermal Heat UL Group
Refrigerant Point C Temperature Pressure Viscosity
Name Formula Mass @ 101.325 Conductivity Ratio Classification
Number @ 101.325 C kPa (abs) mPa s
kPa (abs) W/(m C) k = Cp/Cv
kPa (abs)
11 Trichloro- 0.421 @ NBT 0.0876 @ NBT
fluoromethane CC13F 137.4 23.8 198.0 4413 111 0.395 @ 30C 0.0862 @ 30C 1.13 5
114 Dichlorotetra- 0.44 @ NBT 0.0701 @ NBT
fluroethane CC1F2OC1F2 170.0 3.6 145.7 3268 94 0.32 @ 30C 0.0633 @ 30C 1.09 6
12 Dichlorodifluoro 0.358 @ NBT 0.0897 @ NBT
methane CC12F2 120.9 29.8 112.0 4116 158 0.206 @ 30C 0.0678 @ 30C 1.14 6
22 Chlorodifluoro 0.33 @ NBT 0.1203 @ NBT
methane CHC1F2 86.5 40.8 96.0 4937 160 0.192 @ 30C 0.0857 @ 30C 1.18 5a
0.213 @ NBT 0.1147 @ NBT
600 N-Butane C4H10 58.1 0.5 152.0 3797 138 0.159 @ 30C 0.1056 @ 30C 1.09 5b
0.21@ NBT 0.1315 @ NBT
290 Propane C3H8 44.1 42.1 96.7 4249 187 0.101 @ 30C 0.0969 @ 30C 1.14 5b
0.15 @ NBT 0.1419 @ NBT
1270 Propylene C3H6 42.1 47.7 91.7 4600 185 0.089 @ 30C 0.0987 @ 30C 1.15 5b
0.168 @ NBT 0.1419 @ NBT
170 Ethane C2H6 30.1 88.6 12.8 4880 183 0.039 @ 30C 0.0831 @ 30C 1.19 5b
0.17 @ NBT 0.1921 @ NBT
1150 Ethylene C2H4 28.1 103.8 9.2 5041 169 0.07 @ 30C 0.0537 @ 30C 1.24 5b
50 Methane CH4 16.0 161.5 82.6 4604 182 0.118 @ NBT 0.1904 @ NBT 1.305 5b
0.25 @ 15C 0.5019 @ 0C
717 Ammonia NH3 17.0 33.3 132.4 11 280 78 0.207 @ 30C 0.5019 @ 0C 1.29 2

One-Stage Systems Figs. 14-14 through 14-17 pro-

vide data for estimating gas power and condenser duty re- FIG. 14-14
quirements for one-stage refrigeration systems using
ethylene, propane, propylene, and R-22 refrigerants. Condenser Duty and Gas Power for
One Stage R-22 Refrigerant
Two-Stage Systems The data for estimating gas
power and refrigerant condenser duty requirements for two-
stage refrigeration systems utilizing ethylene, propane, pro-
pylene, and R-22 are shown in Figs. 14-18 through 14-21.
Three-Stage Systems The data for estimating gas
power and condenser duty requirements for three-stage refrig-
eration systems utilizing ethylene, propane, propylene, and
R-22 are presented in Figs. 14-22 through 14-25.
Example 14-3 Estimate the power and condenser duty re-
quirements for a single stage propylene refrigeration system
that will provide 26.4 (106) kJ/h of process chilling at a refrig-
erant level of 29C.
Solution Steps
The unit BP for this example from Fig. 14-17 is 565 kW per
MW of refrigeration duty at an evaporator temperature of
29C and a condenser temperature of 38C. And, from Fig.
14-17, the condenser duty factor equals 1.565 MW per MW of
refrigeration duty for the same evaporator and condenser tem-
peratures. Hence, the total power and condenser duty are:
BP = (565) (7.325) = 4 139 kW
Qcd = (7325) (1.565) = 11 464 kW

Design and Operating Considerations

The following are some of the important parameters that
should be considered while designing any refrigeration system
to provide a safe, reliable, and economical operation.
Oil Removal Oil removal requirements from evapora-
tors are related to the type of the refrigerant, lubricant, evapo-
rator, and compressor used in the refrigeration cycle.
Fig. 14-26 illustrates the application of an oil reclaimer in a
propane refrigerant cycle. In order to remove oil from the re-

14-9
 FIG. 14-15
Single-Stage Ethylene Refrigeration System

1000

950

900

850

800

750 Q1

700

650
Gas Power per MW Refrigeration Duty, kW

600

550

500 2.00

-45
450 -40 1.90
-35
-30

MW of Condenser Duty per MW Refrigeration Duty

400 1.80

350 Refrigerant Condensing 1.70

Temperature, C

300 1.60
-45
-40
-35
-30
250 1.50

200 1.40

150 1.30

100 1.20

50 1.10

0 1.00
-100 -95 -90 -85 -80 -75 -70 -65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40 -35 -30

Evaporator Temperature, C

14-10
 FIG. 14-16
Single-Stage Propane Refrigeration System

1200

1100

1000

Gas Power per MW Refrigeration Duty, kW 900

Q1
800

700

60
Refrigerant condensing temperature, C
600
55

500
50
45

400
40

300 35

30
200
25
100 20
15
0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

2.3

2.2
2.1
MW of Condenser Duty per

2.0
MW of Refrigration Duty

60

1.9 Refrigerant condensing temperature C

55

1.8
50

1.7

1.6
45

1.5
40

1.4
35

30
1.3
25
1.2
20
1.1 15

1.0
Evaporator Temperature, C

14-11
 FIG. 14-17
Single-Stage Propylene Refrigeration System

1400

1300

1200

1100
Gas Power per MW Refrigeration Duty, kW

1000 Q1

900
60

800
55

700
50

600
45

Refrigerant-condensing temperature,C
40

500
35

30
400
25

300
20

15
200

100

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

2.4

2.2
MW of Condenser Duty per
MW of Refrigration Duty

60

2.0
55

50
1.8
45 Refrigerant-condensing temperature C
1.6 40

35

1.4 30
25
20
1.2
15

1.0
Evaporator Temperature, C

14-12
 FIG. 14-18
Gas Power and Condenser Duty for
Two Stage R-22 Refrigeration
frigerant, a slip stream of refrigerant from the bottom of the
chiller is drained into the reclaimer where hot propane refrig-
erant from the compressor discharge is used to evaporate the
refrigerant into the compressor suction. The oil is removed
from the bottom of the reclaimer. Similar arrangements can
be utilized for other hydrocarbon and ammonia refrigerants.
Operation may be designed for either manual or automatic.
Where halocarbon refrigerants and/or synthetic lubricants
are employed, it is imperative that the oil reclaimer system be
approved by the compressor manufacturer.
Liquid Surge and Storage All refrigeration sys-
tems should have a liquid surge and storage vessel, commonly
called a receiver. A surge vessel is required on all systems
where the operating charge in the evaporator(s) and the con-
denser(s) varies due to variable load conditions. In addition to
accommodating a varying refrigerant charge, the receiver
drains the condenser(s) of liquid so that the effective condens-
ing surface is not reduced by liquid backing up. The refrigerant
charge in a receiver may vary over a wide range, from a mini-
mum at full load to a maximum at no load.
Systems with inadequate surge vessels often cause prob-
lems as they lose the liquid seal due to load variations that
always occur. Surge vessels or receivers are relatively inex-
pensive and when sizing them, consideration should be given
to: (1) a volume equal to 100% of the system inventory at 80%
14-13
full level, and (2) the availability and quantity of refrigerant
makeup.
Vacuum Systems Refrigeration systems can operate
with a suction pressure below atmospheric pressure. These
vacuum systems require special considerations:
Where hydrocarbons are used with reciprocating com-
pressors (which employ rod packing), air can enter the
compressor and possibly form a hazardous mixture. Ex-
treme care should be taken where such systems are used.
These systems must have a manual or automatic purge
system. Double acting packing should be employed.
Where halocarbons such as R-11, R-114, R-113, and other
low pressure, high volume refrigerants are employed
with centrifugal compressors, the deep vacuums may
draw air and moisture through flanges, seals, etc. This
water-oxygen combination in the presence of halocar-
bons forms acid and causes crevice corrosion of the
tubes along with some other problems. A positive purge
system must be employed and frequent monitoring of the
moisture content in the refrigerant is suggested.
High pressure halocarbons R-12, R-22, and others are
employed in vacuum systems with reciprocating, cen-
trifugal, and screw compressors. These systems will suf-
fer from the same corrosion problems as defined above,
but to a lesser extent. However, since they are generally
used at lower temperatures, water in the system can
freeze the control valve and in the evaporator. Refriger-
ant dryers are required in these systems. A good purge
system is also required.
Ammonia has been employed with reciprocating, cen-
trifugal, and screw compressors in vacuum service for
many years. Since water will not freeze in the presence
of ammonia and the aqua-ammonia formed is only
slightly corrosive, this type system has few problems
during operation. A good purge system is recommended.
Considerations for Vacuum
Refrigeration Systems:
1. Eliminate all flanges where possible.
2. Weld all piping.
3. Use weld in-line valves.
4. Use steel refrigeration type stop valves with back seat-
ing feature and seal caps in lieu of hand wheels. All suc-
tion line valves should be angle valves to reduce pressure
drop.
5. Install and maintain a good dryer on halocarbon and hy-
drocarbon systems.
6. Install a purge unit to keep the system free of air and
noncondensables.
7. All control valves should have bellows-type seals in lieu
of packing if the internal pressure is below atmospheric.
8. An oxygen analyzer is required to detect the presence of
air.
Materials of Construction Materials of construc-
tion for refrigeration systems relate specifically to the type of
refrigerant used. Some of the basic guidelines are:
No copper or copper-based alloys can be used with am-
monia refrigeration systems. Where SO2, H2S, or similar
corrosive chemicals are in the process side or are present
in the atmosphere, copper or copper-based alloys are un-
suitable.
 FIG. 14-19
Two-Stage Ethylene Refrigeration System

800

750

700

650

600

550
Gas Power per MW Refrigeration Duty, kW

500

450

400 1.80

350 1.70

MW of Condenser Duty per MW Refrigeration Duty

-45 -40 -35 -30

300 1.60

Refrigerant Condensing
250 1.50
Temperature, C

200 1.40
-45 -40 -35 -30

150 1.30

100 1.20

50 1.10

0 1.00
-100 -95 -90 -85 -80 -75 -70 -65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40 -35 -30

Evaporator Temperature, C

14-14
 FIG. 14-20
Two-Stage Propane Refrigeration System

800

1 2
700
Gas Power per MW Refrigeration Duty, kW

600
Q1

60
500
55
50

400
45
40

Refrigerant-condensing temperature,C
300
35

30

25
200
20

15

100

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

2.0

1.9

1.8
MW of Condenser Duty per

1.7
MW of Refrigration Duty

1.6

60
1.5
Refrigerant-condensing temperature C
55
1.4 50
45
1.3
40
35
1.2
30
25
1.1 20
15
1.0

Evaporator Temperature, C

14-15
 FIG. 14-21
Two-Stage Propylene Refrigeration System

1000

900
1 2

800
Gas Power per MW Refrigeration Duty, kW

700 Q1
60
55

600
50

500
45
40

400
35

30
Refrigerant-condensing temperature,C
300
25
20

200 15

100

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

2.0

1.9

1.8
60
1.7
MW of Condenser Duty per

55
MW of Refrigration Duty

1.6 50 Refrigerant-condensing temperature C

1.5 45

40
1.4
35

1.3 30
25
1.2 20
15
1.1

1.0

Evaporator Temperature, C

14-16
 FIG. 14-22 Refrigerant Purity Refrigerant contaminants can
Condenser Duty and Gas Power for consist of several components:
Three Stage R-22 Refrigerant Lubricating oil tends to accumulate in the chiller. Lube
oil contamination is reduced by controlling the amount
of compressor cylinder lubrication, using synthetic lubri-
1.7
cants, providing a good compressor discharge vapor
separator to eliminate free oil, and providing a good re-
claimer to remove oil accumulation.
MW of Condenser Duty per

1.6
MW of Refrigeration Duty

1.5 Lighter constituents in the refrigerant charge, such as

ethane for a propane system, tend to accumulate in the
1.4
refrigerant receiver, causing higher condensing pres-
50 CONDENSING TEMPERATURE,C
1.3
sure. Light component contamination is controlled by the
45
40
type of refrigerant which is purchased. It can be further
1.2 35 reduced by purging the receiver vapors. If the process
30 plant inlet pressure is sufficiently low, the accumulator
1.1 25
can be purged into the plant inlet for re-recovery of the
1.0 hydrocarbons.
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50

Evaporator Temperature,C
Butane and heavier constituents in a propane refrigera-
tion system tend to accumulate in the chiller. Heavy com-
ponent contamination is normally not a severe problem,
700 and it is best controlled by draining from the bottom of
600
the lowest temperature chiller.
Process fluid constituents may leak into the refrigerant
Refrigeration Duty, kW
Gas Power per MW

500
in the chiller.
50
Air can be introduced through the compressor packing if
400 CONDENSING TEMPERATURE,C
45
300
cylinder pressures are below atmospheric.
40

200
100
0
-40 -30 -20 -10
Evaporator Temperature,C
Generally, copper and copper alloys can be employed
with hydrocarbon and halocarbon refrigerants; however,
for most systems steel piping and components are recom-
mended.
Due to the ambient temperature vapor pressure of most
refrigerants, the refrigeration system is normally de-
signed for 1725 kPa or greater. The low temperature
components of the system will operate at temperatures
and coincident pressures far below the design pressures.
Generally speaking, carbon steel can be used to 29C.
The ASME pressure vessel code section 8 addresses the
issue of material selection and impact testing for systems
operating below 29C. Certain provisions in that code
may allow carbon steel use for components which operate
at pressures less than 25% of design pressure. In many
applications, Charpy impact testing will be required.
The ANSI B31.3 pipe code is generally used for most re-
frigeration systems in gas processing plants. This code
has some provisions for use of materials to 45C which
are normally limited to 29C and should be consulted
for application in this area. There also exists an ANSI
B31.5 Refrigeration Piping Code which has been used
in some applications.
Various alloys and aluminum are normally used for low
temperature operations and may be economically advan-
tageous at temperatures above 29C.
35 Moisture, if present, will form ice and plug up the system
30 either at the control valves or in the chiller. Moisture
25 normally enters the system with the purchased refriger-
ant charge; it can be the source of considerable operating
0 10 20 30 40 50 problems until it is removed. Some refrigeration systems
employ a continuous dryer, some only a moisture indica-
tor. The problem can usually be eliminated by injecting
methanol in the system and draining it from the chiller.
Moisture must also be removed prior to the start-up of a
new system, normally by evacuating the system, purging
the system with nitrogen or dry gas, injecting methanol,
or a combination of these.
Seal Gas and Lube Oil System Centrifugal com-
pressors are sealed at the shaft by labyrinth seals. To protect
against possible entry of oil into the refrigerant, an outward
leakage of gas is permitted out of each labyrinth seal. How-
ever, to prevent a loss of valuable refrigerant, there is a pro-
vision at the middle of the compressor end labyrinth seal to
inject a stream of less valuable gas (referred to as seal gas).
The seal gas is supplied at a pressure higher than the pressure
behind the compressor wheel at a rate slightly higher than
that leaking out through the seals. It is the seal gas that leaks
out, thus retaining the more valuable refrigerant. The seal gas
leaks by the seals and combines with the lube oil leaving the
unit and enters the lube oil surge tank.
A seal gas filter is usually provided at the inlet to the refrig-
erant compressor. The filter element should be changed out at
regular intervals. The seal gas flow for a given pressure on the
seal gas is set by factory clearances designed into each laby-
rinth seal.
Types of Compressors
There is a variety of compressors to choose from for refrig-
eration services. The most common are centrifugal, reciprocat-
ing, and screw compressors.
The type of refrigerant used also influences the compressor
choice. Small, up to 150 kW, halocarbon-type refrigeration sys-

14-17
 FIG. 14-23
Three-Stage Ethylene Refrigeration System

1 2 3

Q1

14-18
 FIG. 14-24
Three-Stage Propane Refrigeration System

800

700
1 2 3

600
Gas Power per MW Refrigeration Duty, kW

Q1

500 60
C
55
C

400
50
C

45 Refrigerant condensing temperature

C
300

40
C

35
C
200

30
C

25
C
100
20
C

15
C
0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

1.9

1.8

60
1.7 C
MW of Condenser Duty per

55
C
MW of Refrigration Duty

1.6 50
C

45
C
1.5
40
C
1.4 35
C
Refrigerant condensing temperature
30
C
1.3
25
C
20
1.2 C
15
C
1.1

1.0

Evaporator Temperature, C

14-19
 FIG. 14-25
Three-Stage Propylene Refrigeration System

1000

900
1 2 3

800
Gas Power per MW Refrigeration Duty, kW

Q1

700
60
C

600
55
C

500
50
C

45
Refrigerant condensing temperature
400 C

40
C

300
35
C

30
200 C

25
C

100 20
C

15
C
0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

2.2

2.1

2.0

1.9
MW of Condenser Duty per
MW of Refrigration Duty

1.8

1.7
60
1.6 C

55
Refrigerant condensing temperature
C
1.5
50
C
1.4 45
C
40
1.3 C
35
C
1.2 30
C
25
C
1.1 20
C
15
1.0 C

Evaporator Temperature, C

14-20
 FIG. 14-26
Oil Reclaimer
To compressor
suction
Refrigerant
PI
chiller
Hot propane vapor
Oil from compressor
reclaimer discharge
To refrigeration
interstage
Waste oil
tems normally use reciprocating compressors which have the
crankcase vented to the compressor suction. This type com-
pressor can also be used for propane, but the problem of pro-
pane solubility in the oil at higher temperatures requires
special lubricating oil and a crankcase heater.
Refrigeration load also influences the compressor selection.
Centrifugal compressors are not normally economical below
about 400 kW with motor drivers, or about 600 kW with tur-
bine drives. Above 750 kW, and particularly where the load is
close to an even multiple of this number, the use of centrifugal
compressors becomes more economical. For lower powers, re-
ciprocating, screw, and rotary compressors are commonly
used.
Centrifugal Compressors At the normal process
temperatures encountered in gas processing, a three or four
wheel centrifugal compressor is normally required for refrig-
eration service. This offers the opportunity of utilizing multi-
ple interstage flash economizers and permits multiple chiller
temperature levels for further reductions in power.
Centrifugal compressor capacity is controlled by speed vari-
ation or suction or discharge pressure throttling. Discharge
throttling can cause surge. It is also possible to recirculate
refrigerant discharge vapors to the compressor suction during
operation at lower loading in order to avoid surge problems.
Such recirculation results in wasted power and is one of the
primary drawbacks to utilizing centrifugal units.
For more details on Centrifugal Compressors, refer to Sec-
tion 13.
Reciprocating Compressors Process tempera-
tures generally dictate two stage compression in a reciprocat-
ing machine. This affords the opportunity for one interstage
economizer, and also one additional level of chilling. In a con-
ventional refrigeration system, the first stage cylinder is nor-
mally quite large as a result of the low suction pressure. The
economizer also reduces first stage volume, cylinder diameter,
and consequently rod load. Capacity adjustment is accom-
plished by speed variation, variable clearance on the cylin-
ders, valve lifters, and recirculation of refrigerant vapor to the
suction. As with centrifugal compressors, recirculation does
result in wasted power. It is also possible to throttle the refrig-
erant suction pressure between the chiller and compressor in
order to reduce cylinder capacity. However, suction pressure
14-21
control can result in wasted power and the possibility of below
atmospheric suction pressure, which should be avoided.
For more details on Reciprocating Compressors, refer to Sec-
tion 13.
Screw Compressors Screw compressors have been
used in refrigeration systems for many years. They can be em-
ployed with all refrigerants. The limitation for suction pres-
sure is about 21 kPa with standard discharge pressures at
2400 kPa. Discharge pressures of over 5000 kPa are also avail-
able.
Screw compressors are gaining popularity in the gas proc-
essing industry. Screws can operate over a wide range of suc-
tion and discharge pressures without system modifications.
There are essentially no compression ratio limitations with
ratios up to 10 being used. They operate more efficiently in the
2 to 7 ratio and are comparable in efficiency to reciprocating
compressors within this range. Automatic capacity control can
provide capacity adjustments from 100% down to 10% with
comparable reduction in power requirements.
Screw compressors normally operate at 3600 rpm direct
coupled to motor drives. However, they can operate over a
range of speeds from 1500 to 4500 rpm. Engine drives, gas
turbines, and expanders can also be used as drivers.
Rotary Compressors There is a limited application
for large rotary compressors. This is the low-temperature field
in which the rotary serves the purpose of a high volume low-
stage or booster compressor. These booster compressors are
applied at saturated suction conditions ranging from 87C to
21C with R-12, R-22, ammonia, and propane refrigerants.
Available units range in power from 7 to 450 kW and in dis-
placement from 2 to 102 m3/min in a single unit.
Mixed Refrigerants
Cryogenic processes which remove heat below ambient tem-
perature generally use pure compounds as refrigerants in a
closed mechanical refrigeration system. However, when it is
not necessary to remove the heat at a practically constant tem-
perature, it may be advantageous to use a mixture of refriger-
ants. In a proper composition, a mixed refrigerant can
minimize temperature differences between the process stream
and the refrigerant during heat exchange. This match pro-
vides an efficient chilling system.
The most common conventional refrigerants, R-22 and pro-
pane, exhibit atmospheric boiling temperatures of 41C and
42C, respectively. Lower temperatures can be obtained util-
izing propylene, ethane, and ethylene, which have atmos-
pheric boiling temperatures of 48C, 89C, and 104C,
respectively. However, these refrigerants require the use
of a cascade system because condensation at ambient
temperatures is not feasible. One alternative is the use
of a mixed refrigerant; for example, ethane-propane. The
ethane lowers the evaporation temperature while still
permitting condensation at ambient temperatures, albeit
at considerably higher pressures.
Fig. 14-27 compares the shape of process chilling curves for
an ethylene refrigerant cycle with a mixed refrigerant cycle.6
The shape of the refrigerant vaporization curve is a function
of the composition of the mixed refrigerant. In Fig. 14-27 the
composition of the mixed refrigerant is methane 8 mol %, eth-
ylene 37 mol %, and propane 55 mol %.
Some of the design parameters7 to be considered while
evaluating the application of a mixed refrigerant cycle include:
 Compressor suction pressure.
Shape of vaporization curve.
Compressor discharge pressure and compression ratio.
Type of controls.
Type of compressor.
Mixed refrigerants present the problem of component seg-
regation with the lighter components concentrating in the re-
ceiver, and the heavier components concentrating in the
chiller unless the refrigerant is totally vaporized. Because of
the high condensing pressure, mixed refrigerants significantly
increase the power per ton of refrigeration.
FIG. 14-27
Process Chilling Curves
Chillers
Kettle Type Chiller The most common type of chiller
employed in the gas processing industry is the kettle type. The
refrigerant is expanded into the shell of the kettle where a
level is maintained to completely submerge the process tube
bundle. A level control maintains the proper amount of refrig-
erant in the kettle.
When using a kettle type chiller, care should be taken to
provide adequate vapor disengaging space above the operat-
ing level of liquid refrigerant. This type chiller improperly de-
signed and operated is probably the largest single cause of
compressor failure due to liquid carryover. Figs. 14-28 and
14-29, taken from TEMA tentative standards, represent de-
sign data for sizing vapor disengaging space for kettle type
14-22
chiller in refrigeration services. The following equation allows
determination of allowable refrigerant load:
Allowable refrigerant load in kg/h per m3 vapor space
(S.F.) (V) (503 700)
= Eq 14-10
(0.869) L V
where S.F. = Safety Factor = 12
Plate-Fin Chillers Modern cryogenic plants fre-
quently employ plate-fin exchangers for gas cooling and chill-
ing. When the design calls for a hot gas-gas exchanger, a gas
chiller, and a cold gas-gas exchanger in sequence, then it may
be convenient to put these services in single plate-fin ex-
changer. Also, plate-fin exchangers offer significant savings
for low temperature application where stainless steel is
needed for shell and tube units. Significant pressure drop sav-
ings can be realized by using single or multiple units for chill-
ing services.
For other types of heat exchangers, refer to Sections 9 and
10.
System Controls
Level Controls External cage (displacer-type) level
controls are the most commonly used in refrigeration services
and are probably the most reliable and easy to maintain in-
struments. However, because the float chamber is external to
the refrigeration system, it is imperative that the float cham-
ber and connecting lines to the chiller be adequately sized and
well insulated. Vaporization of refrigerant (due to heat leak)
in the float chamber can result in difficulty in maintaining
proper level. Internal float level controls eliminate this prob-
lem, but present some problems in instrument maintenance.
A differential pressure device is also frequently used for
chiller level control; it affords good control when properly in-
stalled. The high pressure side connection from the liquid
phase should be large, well insulated, and installed in such a
way that lubricating oil cannot accumulate and cause errone-
ous readings. The low pressure side connection to the vapor
phase should be uninsulated and possibly even liquid sealed
or heated to prevent liquid accumulation.
The same problem exists in level indication. External gauge
glasses should have large connecting lines to the chillers and
good insulation. Bulls-eye sight glasses are much better for
direct indication of chiller level and normally do not present
any maintenance problem other than cleaning the glass. Frost
plugs are sometimes used and give an approximate level indi-
cation while requiring no maintenance.
Pressure Controls Refrigerant compressor high suc-
tion pressure control may be desirable when there are multi-
ple refrigerant compressors in the system. Without high
suction pressure control, loss of one refrigerant compressor
can result in overloading of the other compressors and loss of
all units in an unattended operation. However, suction
pressure control can also result in power waste if the compres-
sor suction is throttled unnecessarily.
The refrigerant compressor hot gas bypass is used to prevent
compressor suction pressure from getting too low. If the proc-
ess load decreases, the hot gas bypass will open to maintain a
satisfactory compressor suction pressure in an unattended
plant. If hot gas bypass remains open, the compressor capacity
should be adjusted to reduce bypassing in order to conserve
energy. Screw compressors need no such arrangements as they
 FIG. 14-28
Vapor Space for Kettle Type Chillers

14-23
 FIG. 14-29
Shell Size for Kettle Type Chillers

14-24
can be automatically unloaded to satisfy the suction pressure
settings. FIG. 14-30
Evaporator Temperature The evaporator (or Refrigeration System Checklist
chiller) temperature is normally controlled by controlling the
refrigerant pressure on the chiller. This may be accomplished Indication Causes
by using back pressure valves, refrigerant compressor speed, Check accumulator temperature.
or hot gas bypass around the compressor.
If the accumulator temperature is high,
Low Ambient Controls All refrigeration systems check:
should have low ambient controls where ambient temperature 1. Condenser operation for fouling.
is below 4C. These controls, which maintain a preset pressure 2. High air or water temperature.
High Compressor
differential between the condenser and the evaporator pres- Discharge 3. Low fan speed or pitch.
sures, are necessary for continuous operation and for start-up Pressure 4. Low water circulation.
at low ambients. There are several approaches to these con- If condensing temperature is normal,
trols: check for:
1. For air coolers used as condensers, louvers, air recircu- 1. Non-condensables in refrigerant.
lation systems, and fan cycling are employed. 2. Restriction in system which is
2. For both shell and tube condensers and air coolers, con- creating pressure drop.
densing pressure can be controlled by installing a pres- Check refrigerant temperature from
sure regulating valve actuated by condensing pressure chiller.
set at a minimum predetermined pressure in the line If refrigerant temperature is high and
between the condenser and the liquid receiver. In addi- approach temperature on chiller is
tion, a small pressure regulator set at a predetermined normal, check:
pressure is installed in a line between the discharge line 1. Chiller pressure.
and the liquid receiver. This regulator will direct enough 2. Refrigerant composition for heavy
hot gas to the receiver to keep the pressure high enough ends contamination.
to operate the evaporator liquid control valve. 3. Refrigerant circulation or kettle
3. Where a shell and tube condenser is used, a water flow level (possible inadequate flow
High Process resulting in superheating of
control valve operated by condenser pressure can be util- Temperature refrigerant).
ized. This type control may cause sediment and scaling
4. Process overload of refrigerant
in the condenser.
system.
4. Where evaporative condensers are used, several meth- If refrigerant temperature is normal,
ods can be employed to control condensing pressure de- and approach to process temperature is
pending upon the ambient temperature and type of in- high, check:
stallation. 1. Fouling on refrigerant side (lube oil
The condenser can be selected to operate as an air or moisture).
cooler at temperatures below 0C (water system 2. Fouling on process side (wax or
shut down and drained) while employing a fan cy- hydrates).
cling controller. 3. Process overload of chiller capacity.
A system as described above in item 2 can be em- Check:
ployed. 1. Process overload of refrigerant
system.
Where the system is indoors with the condenser
Inadequate 2. Premature opening of hot gas
outdoors, an indoor water sump can be employed Compressor bypass.
with a fan cycling controller. Capacity 3. Compressor valve failure.
4. Compressor suction pressure
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION restriction.
5. Low compressor speed.
Even though absorption refrigeration has seen little use in Check:
the gas processing industry, it does have application. In areas 1. Low accumulator level.
where there is low cost natural gas, where a low level heat Inadequate
Refrigerant Flow to 2. Expansion valve capacity.
source is available, or where electrical rates have risen dra- 3. Chiller or economizer level control
Economizer or
matically, absorption refrigeration may be an economical way Chiller malfunction.
to attain modest temperature level refrigeration. In circum-
4. Restriction in refrigerant flow
stances where unused boiler capacity is available in summer (hydrates or ice).
months, absorption units can be utilized to produce refrigera-
tion.
lower shell is divided into absorber and evaporator sections
Lithium Bromide-Water Systems while the upper shell consists of the generator and condenser
The lithium bromide absorption refrigeration cycle8 oper- sections. The evaporator section contains the refrigerant,
ates on the simple principle that, under low absolute pressure, water. A coil, through which the cooling system water circu-
water will boil at a low temperature. Fig. 14-31 shows a lates, is inserted into the evaporator to establish a heat ex-
schematic arrangement of lithium bromide-water system. The change.
system uses heat to efficiently produce refrigeration. The

14-25
 FIG. 14-31
Lithium Bromide-Water Refrigeration System

Cooling Water
Out

Condenser

Generator Excess
Process
Heat
(Waste heat)
Capacity
Control
Valve

Out
Chilled
Water
Cooling In
Water Evaporator
In
Absorber

Cycle-Guard
Valve

Solution Hermetic
Heat Exchanger Refrigerant Pump
Hermetic
Solution Pump

Diluted LiBr Concentrated LiBr Refrigerant Water

The refrigerant gains heat from the cooling system water,
and because of low pressure maintained in the evaporator,
quickly reaches saturation temperature and vaporizes, cool-
ing the system water. The remainder of the cycle deals with
reclaiming this refrigerant.
The affinity of lithium bromide for water causes the refrig-
erant vapor to be absorbed by the strong solution in the ab-
sorber section. The diluted (weak) solution is pumped into the
generator, where steam or hot water is used to drive the water
out of the solution as a vapor. The vapor passes into the con-
denser and changes back to liquid which returns to the evapo-
rator to be reused. Meanwhile, the strong solution left in the
generator flows back to the absorber to complete the cycle.
The lowest chilled water temperature achieved by this sys-
tem is 6C and typically the unit operates between 6C and
10C with varying refrigeration capacity loads.
Aqueous Ammonia System
Refrigeration can be provided by using waste heat with the
water-ammonia absorption cycle. This cycle was originally
employed in the 1800s and has been refined over the years. It
lost its economic value in the 1930s as the more efficient cen-
trifugal and reciprocating compressor systems became inex-
pensive. Due to its basic inefficiency, the ammonia absorption
system cannot be justified unless low level waste heat is avail-
able, such as low pressure steam or hot process streams.

14-26
 Ammonia absorption capacities have been designed in sizes
from a minimum of 703 kW at 46C and 1055 kW at 7C
to a maximum of 8792 kW at 46C and 17 584 kW at
7C. Most systems would employ shell and tube condensers
and absorbers; however, evaporative cooled absorbers have
been used. Air cooled condensers and absorbers could also be
used. Various schemes can be used for supplying the water
requirements of the condensers and absorbers other than se-
ries flow. Parallel flow can be used to reduce absorber size and
the heat input to the system.
The heat source will govern the generator design. The gener-
ator may be finned-surface heat exchangers with aqueous solu-
tion pumped through the tubes for vapor heating mediums or
double-pipe heat exchangers for liquid heating mediums. Fig.
14-32 shows a flow sheet of an ammonia absorption system.
Reliability Ammonia absorption systems are normally
installed with spare aqua pumps and spare reflux pumps of-
fering a comparison to centrifugal, reciprocating, and screw
compressor systems that have a spare compressor-motor
train. Downtime from failure of mechanical items is negligible
due to the 100% spare pumps.
Design Flexibility Ammonia absorption systems are
usually custom designed for each specific application. Evaporator
temperatures down to 51C are possible. Systems can be de-
signed one stage or two stage for several different evapora-
tor temperatures. Systems can be increased in size and
evaporator temperatures raised or lowered by the addition
of heat exchange surface. Evaporator temperatures are re-
lated to heat input temperature. Raising the temperature
of the heat source lowers the possible evaporator tempera-
ture. The evaporators remain 100% efficient at all times as
the refrigeration is oil-free. There is no need to add oil foul-
ing factors to the evaporator design, thus saving 5 to 10%
in the evaporator cost. The choice of evaporator design
has no limitations.
FIG. 14-32
Flow Sheet of an Ammonia Absorption System
NH3 vapor
Condenser
Rectifier
NH3 NH3 liquid
liquid
Aqua NH3
Waste
heat
Ammonia
Generator receiver
Bottoms
Weak aqua Reflux pump (if required)
Strong aqua
14-27
Applications The ammonia absorption system has
many applications. It can produce refrigeration from waste
heat for almost any kind of application in the chemical and
petroleum industry. Waste steam has been used as the heat
source in many installations in the chemical and petroleum
industry providing temperatures from 10C to 46C. Process
vapor streams and hot oil have also been used as heat sources.
Exhaust gases from gas turbines would be an excellent source
of heat and this heat would normally be capable of providing
low temperature refrigeration due to its high temperatures.
Supplemental firing can also be added for peak loads. Stack
gases of many kinds could also be used as a heat source.
REFERENCES
1. Elliott Multistage Compressors, Bulletin P-25A, Elliott Co.,
Jeanette, PA, 1975.
2. Starling, K. E., Fluid Thermodynamic Properties for Light Pe-
troleum Systems, Gulf Publishing, Houston, TX, 1973.
3. Mehra, Y. R., Refrigeration Systems for Low-Temperature Proc-
esses, Chem. Eng., July 12, 1982, p. 94.
4. Sibley, H. W., Selecting Refrigerants for Process Systems,
Chem. Eng., May 16, 1983, p. 71.
5. Mehra, Y. R., Refrigerant Properties of Ethylene, Propylene,
Ethane and Propane, Chem. Eng., Dec. 18, 1978, p. 97; Jan. 15,
1979, p. 131; Feb. 12, 1979, p. 95; Mar. 26, 1979, p. 165.
6. Kaiser, V., Becdelievre, C. and Gilbourne, D. M., Mixed Refrig-
erant for Ethylene, Hydro. Processing, Oct. 1976, p. 129.
7. Kaiser, V., Salhi, O. and Pocini, C., Analyze Mixed Refrigerant
Cycles, Hydro. Processing, July 1978, p. 163.
8. Carrier Hermetic Absorption Liquid Chillers, Form 16JB-3P,
Carrier Corporation, Syracuse, NJ, 1975.
Cooling NH3 vapor
water
Fluid to be
chilled
Evaporator
NH3
liquid
Aqua film
absorber Cooling
NH3 vapor Strong water
aqua
Strong
aqua
tank
NH3 Strong
liquid aqua
Aqua pump
Weak aqua
 9. E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Bulletins G-1, C-30, S-16, T-11, 11. Underwriters Laboratories Reports MH-2375, MH-3134, MH-
T-12, T-22, and T-114D, Wilmington, DE 19898. 2630, and MH-3072.
10. ASHRAE Thermodynamic Properties of Refrigerants, 1791
Tullie Circle N.E., Atlanta, GA 30329.

14-28