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Installing PROKON
This explains the procedures for installing PROKON. step-by-step to help new users avoid
pitfalls. The minimum and recommended system requirements are also given.
System Requirements 3
Program Installation 5
Precautionary measures 18
The minimum system requirements and recommended specification to run the 32-bit Windows
version of PROKON are:
Required Recommended
The suite often needs to save temporary information on your hard disk. For this purpose, the
Windows temporary folder, typically C:\Windows\Temp or C:\WinNT\Temp, is used.
Especially when analysing large structures, a significant amount of error-free disk space may
be required.
Tip: To check your hard disk for errors, it is recommended that you use Scandisk, or
similar program, on a regular basis.
Wait for the auto-run function or browse your CDs content for the SETUP.EXE file. Run the
SETUP.EXE file and the following window will appear. Welcome to PROKON Structural
Analysis and Design!
Note: The default data folder, \Prokon\Data\Demo, is the only data folder created during
installation. Other data folders are created only when you define new working folders while
using PROKON.
The installation procedure is discussed in the following text. Please follow all instructions
carefully to ensure error-free installation.
The licensing method of PROKON has changed from the pervious versions. Terminology:
License (Seat): A collection of PROKON modules installed on a stand alone or network
computer. A user can have more than one license installed to enable network users to access
more than one PROKON package at the same time. One license can be split into two sets, i.e.
collection of steel and a collection of concrete modules. Two network users can run one license
of PROKON if it is split into two sets.
Sets: One license of PROKON can be ordered in two different sets. In this case two users can
each access one set of PROKON. It is important to note that both users will then be limited to
the modules within their own set. Sets can be exchanged by selecting the relevant setting on
the Settings User name menu in Calcpad.
You can also find this window at the Tools menu in Calcpad under Activate programs .
Various activation options are available for the user.
Activate through internet: Make sure that your computer is connected to the
internet. The activation program will use the following ports to access the PROKON
web server: Port 80, 20 and 21. (Normal browsing and FTP ports). The local
PROKON software will then communicate with the remote PROKON web server.
The following information will appear in the Activate stations window:
Number of sets: This indicates the number of sets
ordered.
Number available: The number of sets available for
the user to activate.
Number to activate: The user can specify the number
Note: You can install PROKON on any number of PCs. Activation of the suite will however
be limited to the number of available workstations. You can however at any time deactivate
an active workstation to restore the set on the web server, and then activate the suite on
another PC.
Note: Deactivating does not delete any files. Instead, all program and data files are left in
position to enable you to later activate the workstation again. To completely remove
PROKON from a PC, use the Uninstall procedure described on page 1-17
Note: You do not need a dedicated file server to be able to install PROKON on your
network. Any PC on the network, even an ordinary PC connected to a peer-to-peer network,
can be identified as the server for the purpose of sharing PROKON.
In the explanation of the network installation procedure that follows below, the following
terminology is used:
Server: The computer on to which the suite will be installed.
Local PC: The computer where you are seated when you install the suite.
Workstation: A computer that will access PROKON over the network.
Note: To install PROKON on a server running Windows NT Server software, you may need
to first log in as an administrator.
You can also find this window at the tools menu in PROKON Calcad under Activate
programs.
Various activation options are available for the user.
Activate through internet: Make sure that your computer is connected to the
internet. The activation program will use the following ports to access the PROKON
web server: Port 80, 20 and 21. (Normal browsing and FTP ports). The local
PROKON software will then communicate with the remote PROKON web server.
The following information will appear in the Activate stations window:
Number of sets: This indicates the number of sets
ordered.
Number available: The number of sets available for
the user to activate.
Note: The number of simultaneous network users will be limited to the number of sets
selected when you activate the suite.
Note: For a network installation it is not necessary to install the PROKON CD on each
individual workstation.
Note: Some files or folders may not be removed during the uninstall procedure. Folders
containing data, for example, will not be removed automatically and will need to deleted
manually. Remember to deactivate the software first as discussed on page 1-9.
The activation status of your PROKON programs may be damaged in some instances. The
following situations require the programs to be deactivated first and activated again afterwards:
Moving the programs to another folder on a local or network drive. Unlike the DOS
version of PROKON, you are free to move or copy data folders.
Compacting the hard disk using Drivespace or similar disk compression utility.
Converting the hard disk file structure to FAT32 under Windows 98.
Upgrading of hardware, e.g. replacement of the hard disk.
Note: Disk defragmenting utilities such as Defrag can be used safely with PROKON.
To deactivate the PROKON suite, follow the procedures described on the previous pages.
The basic principles of using PROKON are discussed in this chapter. Starting with the issues
you need to address when using the program for the first time, e.g. setting up a working folder,
the text progresses to everyday tasks like running analysis and design modules. The chapter
ends with explaining advanced procedures like creating an equation library and customising the
page layout for your projects.
Depending on the shortcut options chosen during the installation procedure, you will be able to
run PROKON by double-clicking the shortcut on the Desktop or selecting it from the Start
Menu.
Note: When running PROKON for the very first time, the default design codes and units of
measurement are automatically set to match your current Windows Regional Settings. To
check or change your settings, open Control Panel and double-click Regional Settings.
Once you start using the PROKON analysis and design modules, you will want to progress to
working with project files:
Entering a header for a project.
Working with more than one project at a time.
File management.
Note: The preferences for the Dos modules are set separately using the Design codes (Dos)
command. Refer to page 2-15 for detail.
Note: The Dos modules also use the working folder to save data files. This effectively
removes the eight plus three character limitation imposed by Dos.
Selecting a wallpaper
To personalise your PROKON workstation, you may want to display a wallpaper in Calcpad.
To load a wallpaper, open the Settings menu and choose Wallpaper. The following limitations
apply to wallpapers:
Supported graphics formats include: Windows Bitmap (.bmp), Icon (.ico), Metafile (.wmf)
and Enhanced Metafile (.emf).
The wallpaper image is scaled to fit the Calcpad working area. Therefore, not all images
will necessarily look well.
File management
Use the File menu commands to open and save project files in the working folder or any other
location on your own computer or on a network drive that you have write access to:
To create a new project file, select New Project.
To open an existing project file, use the Open Project command.
Use Save Project to save the active project.
To save a new, unnamed project file, use Save Project as.
To close the active projects or all open projects, use Close Project or Close All.
To open a recently used project file, click the file name at the bottom of the File menu.
PROKON Project files as saved with the extension .PPF for easy recognition.
To run a PROKON analysis or design module, click its icon on the shortcut bar or select it
from the Program Menu. If a particular modules shortcut icon or menu item is dimmed, it
means that the module is not included in your workstation.
When you run a module by clicking its icon or choosing it from the Programs menu, the best
available version of that module is launched. If the Windows version of a module is not
available, the Dos version will be launched instead.
Where available, the Dos version of each module is also included in the suite. To run the Dos
version of a module, right-click its icon on the shortcut bar.
Similar layout
All modules present you with a number of tabbed pages or menus:
The File menu: Standard Windows commands are provided for opening and saving data
files. The commands are similar to those described on page 2-8.
The Input page: All input
data is entered on this page.
In the case of some of the
larger analysis modules, e.g.
the frame analysis modules,
this page will itself contain a
number of tabbed input
pages. Some modules also
allow specialised input
trough a separate Settings
page or button.
The Analysis or Design
page: Selecting this page
typically starts the analysis
and displays the results.
The Calcsheets page: Analysis and design results can be accumulated in a single
calcsheet. You can choose between printing or sending the information to Calcpad.
The Drawings or Bending Schedules page: Most design modules are capable of
generating a detailed drawing or bending schedule of the designed element. Drawings and
bending schedules can be edited and printed using Padds.
The Help menu: Access is provided to on-line Help topics and built-in Examples.
To display a particular page or menu, click it with the mouse. Alternatively use F11 and F12 to
move forward and back between the pages.
Note: In the case of some of the larger modules, e.g. the frame analysis modules, you need
to first view the results and select individual components to be included in the calcsheet.
Click Send to Calcpad to append the results to the active project in Calcpad.
Saving input
You can use the File menu of a module to
save and open input data files. However, if
you enable the Data File option before
sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can
later recall the input data by double-clicking
the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file
embedded in Calcpad is saved as part of a
project and does not need to be saved in the
relevant module as well.
If you do save a data file in an analysis or
design module, the file name extension will
automatically be set to the program number
for easy recognition, e.g. .A03 for Frame
Analysis.
Note: The Dos modules support British Standards and equivalent SABS design codes only.
The design codes and parameters can be saved for later re-use, e.g. for projects requiring
special design parameters.
Note: The last files get saved independently from files saved using F2:Save. Since the last
files get overwritten from time to time, the F2:Save option should be used to name files and
save them permanently.
You can edit text in tables using the standard Windows functions, i.e. as employed by most
spreadsheet applications. The standard Windows functions are supplemented with a number of
special functions that speed up table editing.
For information on tabular input in the Dos modules, refer to Chapter 2 of the Dos Version
Users Guide.
Tip: Click a cell with the mouse to quickly move the cursor to that cell.
Note: Some cells have special drop-down lists for selecting values. Depending on the
specific application, you may be able to select common values from the list or optionally
type values.
While entering or editing text, you can move left and right using the left and right arrow keys.
To jump to the left-most or right-most positions, press Home or End. To move one word to the
left or right, use Ctrl with the left and right arrows.
To edit text in a cell, move the cursor to the cell and press F2 or double-click it. If you want to
replace the text in the cell rather than change it, simply retype the text without first
pressing F2.
Inserting lines
Press Enter to move to the first cell on the next line. To insert a blank line at the cursor,
press Ctrl+I.
Marking blocks
When marking blocks, you can choose between using the standard Windows functions and the
extended PROKON block functions the behaviour of the resulting blocks are different.
Note: When marking a block this way, moving the cursor will undo the selection.
Note: A persistent selection will remain active until unmarked with Ctrl+U. While the cells
are selected, you are free to move the cursor without the block being de-selected.
Examples:
To copy cells in the table, first select the cell or block of cells and Copy the information to
the clipboard. Then position the cursor to the new position and Paste the text.
To move one or more selected cells, Cut them to the clipboard and Paste them at the new
position.
To delete one or more selected cells, select and Cut them. Alternatively press Del to delete
the selected cells.
Moving around:
Arrows : Move one cell up, down, left or right.
Enter : Jump to the first cell in the next row.
Tab : Move one cell right.
Shift+Tab : Move one cell left.
Home : Jump to the first cell of the current row.
End : Jump to the last cell of the current row.
Ctrl+Home : Jump to the top left corner of the table.
Ctrl+End : Jump to the bottom left corner of the table.
Del : Delete the cell at the cursor.
Ctrl+Y : Delete the line at the cursor (irrespective of any block selected).
Backspace : Delete the cell at the cursor and open it for editing.
Ctrl+I : Insert a blank line.
Ctrl+F : Find or replace text
Editing cells:
F2 : Edit the cell at the cursor.
Left/right : Move the cursor inside the text.
Ctrl+left/right : Move the cursor left or right one word.
Up/down : Accept the changed text and moves to the adjacent cell.
Enter : Accept the changed text and jumps to the first cell in the next row.
Del : Delete the character to the right.
Backspace : Delete the character to the left.
Clipboard commands
Ctrl+C : Copy the block to the clipboard.
Ctrl+X : Cut the block to the clipboard.
Ctrl+V : Paste the clipboard to the cursor position.
Use the PROKON calculator for basic calculations. You can copy a result to the Windows
clipboard and then paste it into Calcpad or an input table of a design module.
During installation, the calculator can be configured to automatically load when Windows
starts. If so, the calculator will be visible in the Windows system tray that is typically located
in the bottom right corner of the screen, i.e. next to the clock.
Clicking its icon or pressing Ctrl+1 can display the calculator. To
close the calculator, click Exit or press Esc. On closing, the
calculator will return to its idle status in the system tray.
To close the calculator and remove it from memory, right-click its
icon and choose Close.
Doing calculations
Operation is similar to a conventional hand-held calculator:
Enter an equation using the normal mathematical operators.
To enter a mathematical function, click the relevant button or write out the function.
Simplify complex equations by enclosing portions in brackets.
Press Enter to display the result.
To remove the displayed equation and continue working with the result, press Clear left.
Tip: When using a Dos module, press Ctrl+Z to display a calculator. Use F10 to send the
result back to the modules input table.
The analysis and design modules often have pictures linked to the input tables to make data
entry interactive and more intuitive. Pictures are also often used to present analysis results.
The following zoom commands are normally available for all pictures:
Window: Indicate a rectangular area to zoom into.
All: Display the whole picture, based on the size defined internally for the
background.
Last: Revert to the last zoom setting.
Extents: Display the whole picture, based on the drawn entities.
In: Zoom in by 50%.
Out: Zoom out by 50%.
Pan: Drag the project in any direction to view an adjoining portion.
Print: Send the picture to the printer.
Saving pictures
In addition to the Zoom button commands, the right-click pop-up menu also allows you to
save the picture in the following file formats:
PAD: Fully editable Padds drawing.
PIC: Prokon picture file.
EMF: Enhanced Windows metafile, readable by many graphics and
presentation packages.
DXF: 2D or 3D DXF drawings for use in other CAD systems.
In some modules, e.g. the frame analysis modules, a special button may is available
for adding a picture to the Calcsheets.
Detailed settings
Some modules allow detailed configuration of pictures. In the frame analysis
modules, for example, you can access the Graphics Options to enable or disable
display of node numbers, global axes etc. Pictures can also be rendered in 3D or
shown as simple line diagrams.
Tip: The default view angle of 50 works well with perspective projections of structures. If
you cannot see the complete structure, the view point is probably to near to the structure.
Use the Zoom extents function to move back far enough to view the complete structure.
The View Point Control dialog box can be left open while you work in the program. You can
also use the zoom and pan functions while the dialog box is open.
Tip: If your PCs screen resolution permits, you may move the View Point Control and
View Plane Control dialog boxes to one side so as not to clutter the display of the
underlying program.
The analysis output generated by the various analysis and design modules will provide
normally sufficient detail of your designs. However, you may want to enhance your project
files by adding additional design notes, pictures and even additional calculations.
The procedure to write and edit text and to insert and manipulate pictures in Calcpad is
described in the following text. Equation writing is explained from page 2-41.
Typing text
Type text as you would in any other word processor or text editor.
Deleting text
Use Del and Backspace to delete a character to the left or right. To delete words or paragraphs,
select the text and press Del.
The change will be applied to the selected text only or, if you did not select any text, to new
text from the cursor position and further.
You can also use the keyboard shortcuts Ctrl+B, Ctrl+I and Ctrl+U to make text bold, italic
or underlined.
When changing font style of text with mixed style, the style will toggle between normal,
formatted and mixed, e.g. all normal, all bold and mixed normal and bold.
After scrolling, click where you want to start typing. To move the cursor using the keyboard:
Move up or down one line: Press the Up or Down arrow.
Move up or down one screen: Press PgUp or PgDn.
Move left or right one word: Press Ctrl+Left or Ctrl+Right.
To jump to the beginning or end of the current line: Press Home or End.
To jump to the first or last lines in the project: Press Ctrl+Home or Ctrl+End.
To move to the reference column on the far right: Press Ctrl+Tab.
Inserting a graphic
Use the commands on the Insert menu to insert graphics:
To insert a Windows Bitmap or Metafile: Click Picture and select the file.
To insert a Padds drawing: Click Drawing and select the file.
To move a graphic:
1. Select the graphic by
clicking it.
2. Drag it to the new position.
To resize a graphic:
1. Select the graphic.
2. Drag the graphics edge to
change its horizontal or
vertical size.
3. Drag one of the graphics
corners to proportionally
change its horizontal or
vertical size.
Using the keyboard, select text by holding down Shift and pressing the same key that moves
the cursor. To extend a selection:
One character to the left or right: Shift+Left or Right arrow.
To the beginning or end of a word: Ctrl+Shift+Left or Right arrow.
To the beginning or end of a line: Shift+Home or End.
One line up or down: Shift+Up or Down arrow.
One screen up or down: Shift+PgUp or PgDn.
To the beginning or end of the project: Ctrl+Shift+Home or End.
To select all the words in a line: Ctrl+L.
To select the entire project: Ctrl+A.
You can use the Equation Editor to create your own equations in Calcpad. The Equation
Editor is also used to edit existing equations or save equation objects for re-use in future,
e.g. create a library of equations
To create or edit an equation, work through the different pages to create an equation object:
Equations: Use one or more lines to enter equations. When creating a new equation, this
page is displayed first.
Variables: Assign a value to each variable used on the Equations page. When editing an
exiting equation, this page is displayed by default.
Settings: Choose how the equations should be displayed and optionally attach a picture.
Note: When sending a series of equations to Calcpad, the equations are grouped together as
a unit, called an equation object.
Writing equations
A few simple rules apply when writing equations:
Like when using a simple calculator, use normal English to write an equation the
equation is automatically formatted for you. For example, if you want to enter the equation
y = a x2 + b x + c, enter y=ax^2+bx+c.
The mathematical operators that can be used include +, , /, and ^.
Note: The Greek symbols and are reserved and cannot be used as variable. Their values
are fixed at 3.141593 etc. You may however use the symbol e as a normal variable.
Trigonometry
Logarithmic functions
ln, log
Other functions
Additional functions can be derived using the standard mathematical operators and functions.
A few simple examples include:
Instead of using the built-in square root function, you may determine the square root and
other roots as follows: a = b+c can be entered as a=sqrt(b+c) or
a=(b+c)^(1/2)
If a = log(b), then b = 10a, which is entered as b=10^a.
1
Trigonometric functions are inter-dependent, e.g. cot ( ) = . To enter the equation
tan ( )
a = FRW W\SH
a=1/tan(#h) or a=(tan(#h))^(-1).
Examples:
To determine the circumference of a circle in feet, you may enter Circ{ft}=#p*r{ft}.
The result in Calcpad will be:
To calculate the area of a circle in square meter, you may enter A{m^2}=#p*r{m}^2.
The result will be:
r = 2.5m
A = .r 2 = 19.635 m2
Note: The program does not evaluate the consistancy of units within equations.
In the example, the first conditional branch causes K to determined differently for different
values of the percentage of redistribution, %RD. Further, by comparing the values of K and K,
additional compression reinforcement is calculated when necessary.
By default, projects are displayed on a framed page with the PROKON logo. The top portion of
the page, called the header, also includes a number of pre-defined fields like Designed by,
Date etc. The page layout and header items are collectively referred to as a template.
The following templates are available when you run PROKON for the first time:
Default: The default template with frame and PROKON logo. For a start, you may want to
replace the PROKON logo and contact details with your own.
Frame: No-frills template with a frame only. This template offers a larger workspace.
Nothing: A blank template, in case you prefer printing on blank sheets.
Script commands
A number of script commands are available to draw lnes, write text and define special items.
All commands use parameters, i.e. values, to define certain entities. Parameters are separated
with spaces or commas.
The template script commands can be categorised as follows:
Graphics:
BM Xleft,Ybot,Xright,Ytop,filename : Insert a Bitmap image and stretch it between the
coordinates Xleft,Ybot and Xright,Ytop , e.g. BM 5,261,34.6.5,2779.5,LOGO.BMP. The
Bitmap is assumed to reside in the same folder as the template file. For the best printing
results, the bitmap should be sized so that it can be placed at true size, e.g. an image of 700
pixels wide by 300 pixels high, placed 29.6mm wide by 12.7mm high should print well at
600 dpi.
Line drawing:
LT thickness: Set the line thickness in millimetres, e.g. LT 0.25.
LL X1,Y1,X2,Y2: Draw a line from the coordinate X1,Y1 to X2,Y2, e.g. LL 5,10,5,110
to draw a vertical line 100mm long.
Text:
TF font,style: Set the font and style, e.g.TF Times New Roman, Normal
TS size: Set the text height in points, e.g. TS 11.
TT Xleft,Ybot,text: Write text at the coordinate Xleft,Ybot , e.g. TT 5,10,Project No.
Header items:
HI Xleft,Ybot,Xright,Ytop,description: Insert a header item in the rectangle defined by the
coordinates Xleft,Ybot and Xright,Ytop, e.g. HI 150,270,Designed by. In Calcpad, the
header item is later referenced by its description. See page 2-7 for details on entering
header information.
Other:
Comments can be written after two slashes, e.g. //comment.
The Section Database utility is a base component for all steel member and connection design
modules. The module contains several listings international section databases and can be
expanded to include custom sections.
Use the Section database command on the Tools menu to edit the database or select another
international database.
Selecting a database
Depending on the Windows Regional Settings, PROKON will
automatically select an appropriate section database when you run it for
the first time. You can load another countrys database using at any time
using F3:
Australia and New Zealand: Load Sectable.aus.
United States: Choose Sectable.us.
Southern Africa: Choose Sectable.za.
United Kingdom: Choose Sectable.uk.
Once you have localised the database by added some additional sections
using the procedure below, you may wish to backup your work using F2.
Tip: The normal text editing commands apply when entering sections. Refer to Chapter 2
for detail on copying, deleting and inserting lines.
2-58 Configuring the Section Database
Adding a non-standard section
Sections with non-standard shapes should be entered as User-defined sections. Press U to
enter the sections properties. These properties can be calculated manually or using Prosec.
Tip: Some modules, e.g. Steel Member Design for Combined Stress, support certain
section types only. Therefore, it may in some cases be better to simplify a non-standard
section and then add it as a standard shape. That way, the simplified version of the section
will be available to the relevant design modules.
Structural Analysis
The structural analysis collection includes frame analysis and also some specialised finite
element and beam analysis modules.
3-1
Quick Reference
The accent of the analysis modules falls on user friendliness, speed and efficiency. The frame
analysis module is ideally suited for the analysis of small to medium sized structures, not to say
that the analyses of large structures are not possible. Frame has a comprehensive array of static
and dynamic analysis modes.
Extensive use is made of interactive graphic representations during both the input and output
phases. The input modules incorporate error checking to help eliminate input errors as they
occur.
Frame analysis
Frame can take account of own weight, temperature changes, prescribed displacements and
elastic supports. Loads are entered as load cases and grouped in load combinations at ultimate
and serviceability limit states.
The following static analysis modes are available:
Linear analysis: Normal elastic frame analysis.
Second order analysis: Models sway behaviour by incorporating P-delta effects. The
solution is obtained by iterative analysis, thereby allowing for options like tension
elements.
Non linear analysis. This takes the second order analysis a bit further. The load is
applied in steps and the deflected structure at the end of each step is used to apply the next
step. Material non linearity is not yet supported.
Buckling analysis: For calculating safety factors for structural instability due to buckling.
Dynamic analysis modes available include:
Modal analysis: Calculation of a frames natural modes of vibration.
Harmonic analysis: For determining a frames response to harmonic loading.
Earthquake analysis: Quasi-dynamic analysis of a frame subjected to ground
acceleration.
3-3
Finite element analysis
Frame allows you to use finite shell elements and solid elements alongside normal beam
elements. The shell elements enables you to model the combination of plate bending and
membrane action in 3D. To model plate bending in concrete slabs, you may prefer using the
Finite Element Slab Design see Chapter 6 for details.
You can also use the Plane Stress/Strain Analysis module to perform a finite element analysis
of any general plane geometry subjected to plane stress or strain. The module features an
automated element grid generation facility to help speed up the input and analysis processes.
Beam analysis
Modules are available for the analysis of simple beams and beams on elastic supports.
Frame can be used for the analysis of the following types of structures by selecting a domain
on the General input tab:
Plane Frames: Analysis of a frames in a vertical (X-Y) plane.
Grillages: Analysis of a structure in a horizontal (X-Z) plane.
Space Frames: Analysis of three-dimensional structures made up of beam and/or shell
elements and design of concrete shells.
Space Trusses: Analysis of three-dimensional trusses where only axial forces are
considered.
Frame analysis results can be post-processed using the steel member design modules for axial
and combined stress, namely Strut and Com.
3-5
3-6 Frame Analysis
Theory and application
The following text explains the sign conventions used and gives a brief background of the
analysis techniques.
Sign conventions
Frame input and output uses a mixture of global axis and local axes values.
Global axes
The global axis system is nearly
exclusively used when entering frame
geometry and loading. Global axes are
also used in the analysis output for
deflections and reactions.
The global axes are defined as follows:
For the sake of this definition, the
X-axis is chosen to the right.
The Y-axis always points vertically
upward.
Using a right-hand rule, the Z-axis
points out of the screen.
Note: Unlike some other 3D programs that put the Z-axis vertical, Frame take the Y-axis as
being vertical.
3-7
The local axes for beam elements are defined as follows:
The local z-axis and axial force is chosen in the direction from the smaller node number to
the larger node number.
The y-axis is taken in a vertical plane perpendicular to the z-axis. The y and z-axes thus
describe a vertical plane with the y-axis pointing vertically or diagonally upward.
The x-axis is taken perpendicular to the y and z-axes, using a left-hand rule.
One special case exists:
In the case of a vertical member, the z-axis is taken parallel to the global Y-axis. A
unique definition of the y-axis is obtained by taking it parallel to the global X-axis.
To simplify the analysis output, the orientation of the local shell axes can sometimes be
manipulated by slight rotation of the shell elements. In the case of horizontal slab, for example,
the local x and y-axes (and stresses) are taken parallel to the global X and Z-axes. In the case of
a circular slab, radial and concentric stresses may often be more desirable. By generating the
shell elements at a slight slope towards the centre, they will not be considered as horizontal
Note: Rotating elements (for the sake of manipulating the local axes) can induce additional
support conditions in some cases. Such manipulation should thus be performed with
great care.
Note: In this manual, the global and local axes are written in uppercase and lowercase
respectively.
Note: To assist you in evaluating shell element stresses, stress contour diagrams show
orientation lines at the centre of each shell element. An orientation line indicates the
direction (not axis) of bending or plane stress. In a concrete shell, the orientation line would
indicate the direction of reinforcement resisting the particular stress.
3-9
Shell reinforcement axes
Reinforcement is calculated in the user-defined x and y-directions. Refer to page 3-64 for
detail.
Units of measurement
The following units of measurement are supported:
Use the Convert Units button on the Settings page to change the units for the current analysis:
Convert Units: Changes the units and converts all numeric data from the old to the new
units of measurement.
Analysis modes
The following types of analysis are possible:
Linear analysis: Basic linear elastic analysis. A linear analysis is normally sufficient for
the static analysis of a frame or truss with negligible sway.
Second order analysis: Choose this mode to include p-delta effects in the analysis. This
option is recommended for structures where sway may have a marked effect on the
member forces, e.g. portal frames. The second order analysis is an iterative procedure. The
total strain energy of the frame is calculated after each iteration. The analysis is deemed to
have converged once the total strain energy of two sequential iterations differs by less than
the specified tolerance. If convergence was not possible, e.g. structural instability due to
buckling of critical members, a message to that effect will be displayed.
Non Linear analysis: Choose this mode where non-linear effects and large deflections
may be expected or where second order analysis might not provide sufficient accuracy.
Element formulation
The bending formulation of the quadrilateral shell element was derived from the Discrete
Kirchoff-Midlin Quadrilateral. The membrane behaviour of the element was improved by
introducing the drilling degree of freedom using an interpolation technique by Alman. The
result is a shell finite element that shows good plate and membrane performance
characteristics.
3-11
elements. This means that deflections calculated using triangular elements are generally quite
accurate, but moments may be less accurate.
Stress smoothing
A reduced integration technique is used to calculate the element stiffness matrices. The stresses
are calculated at the Gaussian integration points and subsequently extrapolated bi-linearly to
the corner point and centre point of each element. Taking the average of all contributing stress
components smooths stresses at common nodes.
Element layout
Consider a typical continuous flat concrete slab supported on columns or walls. To ensure
accurate modelling of curvature, a minimum of about four elements should be used between
bending moment inflection points. This translates to a minimum of about eight elements per
span in both directions.
Using more elements per span often does not yield a significant improvement in analysis
accuracy. In addition, the particular finite element formulation yields its most accurate results
when the element thickness does not greatly exceed its plan dimensions.
For a typical concrete slab with a thickness of about one-tenth or one-fifteenth of the span
length, a reasonable rule of thumb is to make the plan dimensions of the shell elements no
smaller than the thickness of the slab. In other words, use a maximum of about ten to fifteen
elements per span.
Stress smoothing
A reduced integration technique is used to calculate the element stiffness matrices. The stresses
are calculated at the Gaussian integration points and subsequently extrapolated to the corner
nodes of each element. Taking the average of all contributing stress components smooths
stresses at common nodes.
Element layout
Concrete design
Frame can perform reinforced concrete design for shell elements. The Wood and Armer
equations are used to transform the bending and torsional stresses to effective bending
moments in the user-defined x and y-directions.
To allow for the effect of in-plane forces, bending moments Mx, My and Mxy are increased to
include the effects of these forces. The moments are increased by conservatively taking the in-
plane forces to act with a lever arm of a quarter of the section depth. The Wood and Armer
equations are then evaluated in same manner as described above.
Codes of practice
The following concrete design codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1995.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3 - 1993.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
3-13
Settings
Settings are done on the Settings tab:
Analysis type
Linear analysis: Normal linear elastic frame analysis. A linear analysis is normally
sufficient for the static analysis of a frame or truss with negligible sway. The linear
analysis procedure is performed faster than any other type of analysis. If you need to
perform a second order, buckling or dynamic analysis, it will be wise to first verify the
basic integrity of the frame input by performing a linear analysis.
Second order analysis: Models sway behaviour by incorporating P-delta effects. The
solution is obtained by iterative analysis, thereby allowing for options like tension
elements.
Analysis parameters
Depending on the selected analysis type, you may need to specify additional analysis
parameters:
Concrete design parameters: Concrete and reinforcement properties. Details are given
on page 3-64.
Second order and buckling parameters: Required analysis tolerance and number of
buckling mode shapes. Refer to page 3-65 for detail.
Dynamic parameters: Values influencing modal, seismic and harmonic analysis. A
detailed discussion is given on page 3-67.
Non linear parameters: Values influencing the non-linear analysis. A detailed discussion
is given on page 3-67.
Own weight
The own weight of the frame can be calculated using the entered cross-sectional areas and
member lengths. If you specify a load case, the own weight is calculated and added to the other
loads of that case.
The following are points of importance:
By default, the own weight of the frame is set to not be included in the analysis. Be sure to
select the appropriate load case for own weight or, alternatively, to include the frame' s
own weight in the values of the loads entered.
3-15
The list of load cases from which you can select is based on the load cases defined on the
Nodal loads, Beam loads, and Shell loads input pages. You may thus prefer to specify the
own weight load case only after completing all other input for the frame. However, you
can also enter the own weight load case at the start of the frame input process in which
case you may ignore the warning message (that the load case does not exist).
Tip: If you wish to use own weight in its own separate load case, you can do so by defining
an empty load case. You can enter a zero load at any node number, for example, and then
select that load case as the one to use for own weight.
The own weight or beam elements are modelled as uniformly distributed loads along the
lengths of the beams. In the case of a vertical beam element, own weight is modelled as two
equal point loads at the ends of the beam, yielding a constant axial force equal to half the own
weight. In the case of shell elements, own weight is modelled as point loads at the corner
nodes. In the case of solids, the weight is added as point loads at the nodes.
Graphics Options
Click on the graphics options button to have the graphics options dialog displayed.
Select whether you want
items like node numbers
and supports to be
displayed.
Choose whether you want
all beam elements or only a
certain type to be displayed.
Display the structure with
full 3D rendering, e.g. to
verify section orientations.
3D rendering is
automatically suppressed
when viewing output.
Choose quick or detailed
rendering. Quick rendering
is faster than the detailed
method, but you may find that some surfaces are drawn incorrectly.
All surfaces are drawn as polygons. You can choose to make the surfaces transparent or have
them filled and outlined.
Tip: The Graphics options and 3D rendering function can also be accessed using the buttons
next to the displayed picture.
3-17
Input
Work through the relevant Input pages to enter the frame geometry and loading:
General input: Select the domain (Plane frame, grillage etc.) The input wizards can also
be selected here. More about these wizards later.
Nodes input: Frame coordinates.
Beams input: Join nodes with beam elements.
Beam sections input: Enter properties or read sections from the database.
Shells input: Define shell elements.
Solids input: Define 4- or 8- noded solid elements
Spring elements input: For special effects, optionally enter spring elements.
Supports input: External supports.
Nodal loads input: Point loads and moments.
Beam element loads input: Uniform distributed, triangular, trapezium and point loads on
beams.
Shell loads input: Apply uniform distributed loads to shells.
Load combinations input: Group dead, live and wind loads in load combinations.
Alternative methods of generating frame analysis input are discussed on page 3-61.
Wizards
The wizards are suitable for the
rapid generation of complete
input files for some typical
structures. Because the resulting
input data is presented in the
normal way on the input pages,
you are free to edit and append
to the data as necessary.
Input generated this way can
optionally be appended to
existing data you can therefore
repeatedly use the wizards to
generate complicated structures.
Note: The frame analysis modules are not limited to modelling only those frames generated
by the wizards. Any general two or three-dimensional frame can be collectively built up.
The wizards merely serve to simplify input of typical frames.
Title
Enter a descriptive name for the frame. It should not be confused with the file name you use
when you save the input data.
3-19
Nodes input
Use as many lines as necessary to enter the nodes defining the frame. A unique number must
be assigned to each node. The node number is entered in the No column, followed by the X, Y
and Z-coordinates in the X, Y and Z columns. If you leave X, Y or Z blank, a value of zero is
used.
You are allowed to skip node numbers to simplify the definition of the frame. You may also
leave blank lines in the input to improve readability. If a node number is defined more than
once, the last definition will be used.
Note: Most of the examples given in this section show 3D co-ordinates as would be
applicable if the domain is set to Space Frame or Space Truss. If the domain is set to
Plane Frame or Grillage use the X-Y and X-Z planes respectively.
The Y-coordinate of node 4 is left blank. Therefore, node 4 is put at the coordinate
(0.805,0,14.614).
The No of is set to 2, meaning that two additional nodes must be generated.
Setting Increment to 7 means that the node numbers are incremented by seven.
Therefore, node 4 is copied to node 11 and node 11 is copied to node 18.
The values in the X-inc, Y-inc and Z-inc columns set the distance between copied nodes.
The coordinates 4 to 18 are horizontally spaced at 1.140 m and 0.472 m along the X and
negative Z-axis respectively. The coordinates of the additional nodes are thus
(1.945,0,14.142) and (3.085,0,13.670).
An alternative method to generate equally spaced nodes is to use the Inc to End option. This
method allows you to define two nodes and then generate a number of nodes in-between:
Use the same procedure as above to define the first nodes coordinates.
Set the values of X-inc, Y-inc and Z-inc to the total coordinate difference to the last node
and enable the Inc to End option. The last nodes coordinates are then first calculated and
the specified number of intermediate nodes then generated.
3-21
Second order generation example:
Block generation
A group of nodes can be repeated by entering a B in the No column followed by the first and
last table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a '
.
Block generation example:
The nodes defined in lines 11 to 26 are copied twice. Node numbers are incremented by thirty for
each copy. The X, Y and Z-coordinate increments are 10 m, zero and zero respectively.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. '
B10'to copy line 10 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program'
s window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. That means that the lines specified
may themselves contain further block generation statements.
Moving nodes
To move a group of nodes to a new location without generating any new nodes, use the block
generation function and set No-of to '
1'and Inc to '
0'.
Arc generation
A group of nodes can be repeated on an arc by entering an ' A'in the No column, followed by
the start and end line numbers. Enter the centre of the arc in the X, Y and Z columns and use
the X-inc, Y-inc or Z-inc column to specify the angle increment about the X, Y or Z-axis
respectively. If the program domain is set to Plane Frame or Grillage, the angle increment
should be entered in the last column. Rotation will be about the Z and Y-axis respectively.
All nodes defined in lines 5 to 9 of the table will be repeated eleven times on an imaginary
horizontal arc. The centre point of the arc is located at the coordinate (10,0,1.5). The node
number increment is set to 5, i.e. node number 3 becomes node 8, etc. The rotation angle
between the generated groups of nodes is 30 degrees about the Y-axis, i.e. anti-clockwise using
a right-hand rule.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line numbers, e.g. A12 to copy line 12 only.
Rotating nodes
To rotate a group of existing nodes without generating any new nodes, use the arc generation
function and set the No-of to 1 and Increment to 0.
Deleting nodes
Nodes can be deleted by entering Delete in the Inc to end column. This can be especially
handy if you have generated a large group of nodes and then need to remove some of them
again.
Example:
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To delete nodes click the Delete
nodes button and then select the
nodes to be deleted on the screen
using the mouse. Click Done when
finished. Clicking Undo will undo
the deletions in reverse order.
To block delete nodes click the
Block delete nodes button. Select a
3-23
rectangle on the screen with the mouse. All nodes inside the rectangle will be deleted. Press
Done when finished. Pressing Undo will undo the deletions in reverse order, one by one.
Pressing Undo All will undo all deletions done with this function.
Click the Explode nodes button to
explode the node input. This results in
the list of nodes being written, each
on a separate line without block & arc
generations etc. Once done, it cannot
be reversed.
3-25
An element can be rotated about its axis by entering a beta angle. The beta angle is measured
about the z-axis, taking the default orientation as 0. Instead of entering a beta angle, you may
also enter a reference node the beta angle is then taken in the plane described by the element'
s
nodes and the reference point. To use a reference point, first define a node with the relevant
coordinate and then enter 'N'followed by the node number in the Beta column
Tip: Enable full 3D rendering in the Graphics options to view the true beam orientation.
Tip: Enable full 3D rendering in the Graphics options to view the true beam orientation.
A section can be rotated through ninety degrees by selecting the alternative orientation when
reading it from the section database.
Note: In a space truss analysis the section orientation is of no importance. The analysis
results are influenced by the section area and not by it'
s second moment of inertia.
End fixity
The fixity at each end of an element, i.e. continuous or pinned, must also be defined in the
Fixity columns. Pins are modelled on the element itself and not on the node. External pinned
supports should be defined on the supports input table. External supports are described in the
next section.
The following types of end fixities can be specified:
Fixed: Specify '
F'to provide full rotational continuity. If you leave the field blank, '
F'is
assumed.
Pinned: Use '
P'to for no rotational restraint, i.e. a ball-joint.
Torsional fixity: Use 'T'to provide restraint for rotation about the element axis only. This
option is only available in the Grillage domain and the Space Frame domain.
Note: To retain compatibility with the Dos version, you may also use '
0','
1'or '
2'instead of
'
F','
P'or '
T'respectively.
Entered fixities are applied at an element's lower node number (designated as the 'left'end) and
higher node number (the ' right'end). The order of the node numbers entered in the first column
of the table has no bearing on the application of the fixity codes.
To define a pin only at the two remote ends of a group of elements, enable the Group fix
option by entering a 'Y'. In this case, the normal convention of smaller and larger node
3-26 Frame Analysis
numbers does not apply. Instead, pins are put at the remote ends in the same order that the
nodes have been entered.
Example:
The group of elements from node 42 to 24 is continuous except for the pins used at nodes
42 and 24.
Note: Do not use an internal pin on an element to model an external support that allows free
rotation. Rather allow the beam to be fixed to the node and define a simple support on the
Support input page.
If the Group fix is left blank or N is entered, the normal individual element fixity mode is
assumed.
Tip: Element fixity can be displayed graphically on the screen. For this, edit the Graphics
options to disable the Elements Continuous option.
When using pins, especially in the Space Frame domain, you should take care to ensure
overall stability of the frame. Consider two elements on a straight line with pins at all three
relevant nodes, for example. The centre node will be unrestrained for rotation about the
element axis, resulting in instability during the analysis.
Note: When performing a second order analysis, you can use tension elements to model
bracing, for example. For this, special settings need be made on the Beam Sections input
page. Refer to page 3-33 for detail.
Tapered beams
A beam can be made to taper between by entering two or three section names, separated with
commas:
Use two sections, e.g. Rafter,Haunch or 1,2, to make the program vary the section
properties linearly along the length of the beam element. The first and second sections are
taken at the lower and higher node numbers respectively.
For a more accurate non-linear variation, enter three section names, e.g.
Rafter,Middle,Haunch. The first, second and third sections are taken at the at the lower
node number, the centre of the element and at higher node number respectively.
The procedure the enter haunches is described on page 3-32.
3-27
Rigid links
You can use rigid links to rigidly offset sub-structures, e.g. slabs with downstand beams. To
define a rigid link, enter R in the Section Name column.
Rigid links are modelled as very stiff beams. The stiffness of a rigid link is determined by
multiplying the maximum area and bending stiffness of the other beams with a factor, typically
one thousand. The rigid multiplication factors can be adjusted using the Advanced option on
the Beam sections input page. Refer to page 3-33 for detail.
Rigid link example:
Rigid links are defined between nodes 12 and 24, 14 and 26 and 16 and 26.
The elements between nodes 251 and 266 are copied ten times with the node numbers
decrementing by five with each copy.
Block generation
A group of elements can be repeated by entering a B in the No column. Then enter the first
and last table line numbers in which the elements were defined, separated with a '
.
All elements defined in lines 11 to 26 will be copied twice with a node number increment of
thirty. The copied elements will use the same section number and fixity codes as the original
elements.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. B11 to copy line 11 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
programs window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Tip: When entering a complicated structure it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional nodes at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Deleting elements
Beam elements can be deleted by entering a special section name Delete. This can be
especially handy if you have generated a large group of elements at regular increments and
need to remove some of them again.
Example:
Note: The display of selected beam element groups can be activated or suppressed by
editing the Graphics options.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and elements with zero length. It also checks that a
section number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button will be
displayed.
3-29
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add beams click the Add beams
button. Enter the section name, angle
and fixities for the beams. By clicking
two successive nodes, a beam will be
inserted between them. If follow on is
checked, the last node of the previous
beam is taken as the first node of the
next beam. If Link end nodes only is
checked, only one beam is placed
between the last two nodes entered. If
not, all nodes between the last two nodes
are also added into the beam string. The
nodes must lie within a certain tolerance
from the straight line between the end nodes to be included. This tolerance can be entered in
the Tolerance (%) field. If e.g. 1% is entered, any node closer than 1% of the distance between
the end nodes from the line joining them is included. Pressing Undo will delete the beams in
reverse order, in which they were entered, one by one.
To delete beams click the Delete
beams button and then select the
beams to be deleted on the screen using
the mouse. Click Done when finished.
Clicking Undo will undo the deletions
in reverse order.
To block delete beams click the Block
delete beam elements button. Select a
rectangle on the screen with the mouse. All
beams inside the rectangle will be deleted.
Press Done when finished. Pressing
Undo will undo the deletions in reverse
order one by one beam. Pressing Undo All will undo all deletions done with this function.
On the beams input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-24 for details
3-31
Each section should also have an associated material selected. If no section or material
properties are entered, the values applicable to the previous line in the table are used.
Entering haunches
Haunches are entered by appending the haunch depth to the section designation. To add a
haunch of 180 mm to a 305x102x66 BS taper flange I-section, enter 305x102x66 (0.280h).
The overall depth is then taken to be 305 mm + 280 mm = 585 mm.
Tip: You can verify your definition of haunches by enabling 3D rendering. Refer to page
for 3-18 more detail.
Note: The program uses the absolute value of the cross sectional area. The negative sign
entered merely enables the tension-only behaviour for beams of the given section group.
Own weight
If a materials definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the Settings page.
Selecting materials
Each section should have an associated
material.
To add one or more materials to a frame
analysis data file, click Materials. Open
the relevant material type screen and
select the materials that are required for
the current frame input.
After adding the selected materials to
the input, you can select them by
clicking the Material column to drop
down a list.
3-33
Advanced section options
Clicking the Advanced button allows
you to configure the behaviour of rigid
links. A rigid link is modelled as a very
stiff beam of which the area, second
moment of inertia and modulus of
elasticity are taken as the maximum
corresponding properties all other
beams multiplied with the specified
factors.
graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
Click the Change beam properties
button to change beam properties. Enter
the desired properties for the beam(s) on
the dialog. One can also use the Get
properties button to do this. Click the
button and then click on a beam. The
beam s properties will then be
transferred to the dialog. Clicking on
beams will now change their properties
to those specified on the dialog. The
Undo button will undo the changes in
reverse order.
An element definition must include a thickness and material type. Refer to page 3-33 for more
detail on using materials.
Own weight
If a materials definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the Settings page.
Tip: When entering a complicated slab, it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Error checking
3-35
The program checks for duplicate elements and nodes not connected to elements. It also checks
that a group number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button
will be displayed.
Block generation
You can use the block generation to copy shells you defined earlier in the table. A group of
shells can be repeated by entering a B in the Node 1 column followed by the first and last
table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a '
.
To copy a single line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. '
B11'to copy line 11 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program'
s window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Deleting elements
Delete'in the Material column. This can be useful if
Shell elements can be deleted by entering '
you have generated a large group of elements and need to remove some of them again.
Example:
The element 15-16-26-25 and the generated element 18-19-29-28 are deleted.
3-37
Click the Change shell
element properties button to
change shell properties. Enter
the desired properties for the
shell(s) on the dialog. One
can also use the Get
properties button to do this.
Click the button and then
click on a shell. The shell s properties will then be transferred to the dialog. Clicking on shells
will now change their properties to those specified on the dialog. The Undo button will undo
the changes in reverse order.
Click the Explode shells button to
explode the shell input. This results
in the list of shells being written,
each on a separate line without block
generations etc. Once done, it cannot
be reversed.
On the shells input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-24 for details
Note: Hexahedral elements generally yield very accurate analysis results. The tetrahedrons
should only be used as filler elements where it is not possible to use hexahedrons.
An element definition must include a material type. Refer to page 3-33 for more detail on
using materials.
3-39
Own weight
If a materials definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the Settings page.
Tip: When entering a complicated model, it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and nodes not connected to elements. It also checks
that a group number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button
will be displayed.
Block generation
You can use the block generation to copy shells you defined earlier in the table. A group of
solids can be repeated by entering a B in the Node 1 column followed by the first and last
table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a '
.
To copy a single line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. '
B11'to copy line 11 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program'
s window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Deleting elements
Delete'in the Material column. This can be useful if
Solid elements can be deleted by entering '
you have generated a large group of elements and need to remove some of them again.
Example:
3-41
Click the Change solid element properties button to change solid element properties. Enter
the desired material for the
solid(s) on the dialog. One can
also use the Get properties
button to do this. Click the button
and then click on a solid. The
solid s material property will then
be transferred to the dialog.
Clicking on solids will now change their material to that specified on the dialog. The Undo
button will undo the changes in reverse order.
Click the Explode solids
button to explode the solids
input. This results in the list of
solids being written, each on a
separate line without block
generations etc. Once done, it
cannot be reversed.
On the solids input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-24 for details
Tip: Spring elements can also be made "rigid" to force two nodes to have the same
translation and/or rotation. In the above example, a very large value for Kx would
cause nodes 16 and 116 to have identical displacements in the direction described by
nodes 3 and 4.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add springs click the Add spring
elements button. Enter the spring
stiffnesses and orientation nodes on
the dialog.. Now click the mouse on
nodes to have springs entered into
the input table. Pressing Undo will
delete the springs in the reverse
order in which they were entered,
one by one.
On the springs input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-24 for details
Supports input
Frames require external supports to ensure global stability. Supports can be entered to prevent
any of the six degrees of freedom at a node, i.e. translation in the X Y and Z-directions and
rotation about the X, Y and Z-axes. You can also define elastic supports, e.g. an elastic soil
support, and prescribed displacements, e.g. foundation settlement.
Enter the node number to be supported in the Node No column. In the next column a
combination of the letters '
X','Y'and ' Z'can be entered to indicate the direction of fixity. Use
capitals and lowercase to define restraint of translation and rotation respectively, e.g. '
XYZy'
means fixed against movement in the X, Y and Z-direction and rotation about the Y-axis.
Tip: To enter a simple support with no moment restraint, one would typically enter a XYZ
or Y. Avoid using a pin on an element to model an external hinge.
If you want to repeat the supports defined on the previous line of the table, you need only enter
the node number, i.e. you may leave the Fixity column blank. If the XYZxyz column is left
blank, the supports applicable to the previous line will be used automatically.
3-45
of prescribed displacements is added once only to the analysis results of each load case and
load combination.
Elastic supports, or springs, are defined by entering spring constants in the X, Y, Z, x, y and z
columns. The spring constant is defined as the force or moment that will cause a unit displace-
ment or rotation in the relevant direction. Enter an S in the P/S column to indicate that an
entered value is a spring constant rather than a prescribed displacement. If you leave the P/S
column blank, the entered values are taken as prescribed displacements.
Note: The display of supports can be activated or suppressed by editing the Graphics
options.
Error Checking
The program does a basic check on the structural stability of the frame. If a potential error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Note: You cannot define an elastic support and a prescribed displacement at the same node
because it will be a contradiction of principles.
3-47
Click the Change support
properties button to change
support properties. Enter the
desired support fixities, type,
prescribed displacements and
spring constants on the dialog.
One can also use the Get
properties button to do this.
Click the button and then click
on a support. The support s
properties will then be
transferred to the dialog.
Clicking on supports will now
change their properties to
those specified on the dialog.
The Undo button will undo
the changes in reverse order.
On the supports input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as
on the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-24 for details
Sign conventions
Nodal loads are applied parallel to the global axes an explanation of the sign conventions are
given on page 3-7.
Tip: For a typical steel or timber frame or roof truss, it may be easiest to define a node at
each purlin position. Roof loads transferred via the purlins can then be entered as
nodal loads.
Error checking
3-49
The program checks that specified nodes have indeed been defined in the Nodes input table. If
an error is detected, an Error list button will appear.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add nodal loads click the Add nodal loads button.
Enter the forces, moments and the load case on the
dialog. Now click the mouse on nodes to have nodal
loads entered into the input table. Pressing Undo will
delete the nodal loads in the reverse order in which
they were entered, one by one.
3-51
Beam element loads input
Distributed loads and point loads on beam elements are all referred to as element loads. The
Nodal loads input page provides the easiest way of applying point loads and moments at
nodes.
Use up to six characters to enter a descriptive name for each load case in the Load Case
column. Then enter the element string of nodes in the Beam element definition column.
Entering the beam element definition follows the same convention used as for the Elements
input table see page 3-24 for detail.
Sign conventions
Depending on the selected load direction, beam loads are applied parallel to the global axes or
parallel to the local y-axis the definitions of the global and local axes are given on page 3-7
and 7 respectively.
The load direction is entered in the Direction column. Enter a global direction ' X','Y'or 'Z'
.
Element loads are applied to the relevant projected length of the elements. Therefore, if a ' Y'
load is entered for a vertical element, for example, the resulting load will therefore be zero.
You can also load a beam element parallel to its local y-axis by setting the load direction
to '
L' refer to page 3-7 for an explanation of the local axis convention used.
Note: Positive vertical loads act upward and negative loads act downward.
3-53
Error checking
The program checks that element definitions match previously defined elements. If an error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add beam loads click the Add beam loads
button. Enter the loads, direction and
temperature change on the dialog. The load
case also needs to be entered. Now click the
mouse on beams to have beam loads entered
into the input table. Pressing Undo will
delete the beam loads in the reverse order in
which they were entered, one by one.
3-55
Shell loads
Distributed loads can be applied on shell elements. Enter a load case description in the Load
case column followed by the relevant element numbers in the Shell numbers column. The
program automatically assigns numbers to all shell elements in the sequence they are defined
on the Shells input page.
A series of elements can be entered by separating the first and last element numbers by a '
character, e.g. '
16'to define elements 1 up to 6.
Tip: If the shell element numbers are not visible in the picture, edit the graphics options to
enable detailed rendering and disable the full 3D view. Refer to page 3-18 for detail on
changing the graphics options.
Sign conventions
Shell loads are applied parallel to the element'
s local z-axes an explanation of the local axes
of shell elements are given on page 3-7.
Note: Positive vertical loads act upward and negative loads act downward.
3-57
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add shell loads click the Add shell loads
button. Enter the UDL, direction and
temperature change on the dialog. The load
case also needs to be entered. Now click the
mouse on shells to have shell loads entered
into the input table. Pressing Undo will
delete the shell loads in the reverse order in
which they were entered, one by one.
3-59
Load combinations input
You can model practical scenarios by grouping load cases together in load combinations. Enter
the load combination name in the Load comb column; followed by the load case name and
relevant load factors.
If the Load comb column is left blank, the load combination is taken to be the same as for the
previous line of the table. The load cases to consider in a load combination are entered one per
line in the Load case column. Enter the relevant ultimate and serviceability limit state load
factors in the ULS factor and SLS factor columns.
Tip: You may leave one or more blank lines between load combination definitions to
improve readability.
Tip: If you plan to use a working stress method to design the frame members, e.g. steel
design according to SABS 0162 - 1984, you may use the same load factors at ULS and SLS.
Error checking
The program only checks that valid load cases are specified. It has no knowledge of the design
code that will be used in the member design and therefore does not check the validity of the
entered load factors.
Input Wizards
A number of typical frames can be input by entering a number of parameters. The Input
Wizards do most of the data input. See page 3-19 for more detail on the Input wizards.
Note: The frame analysis modules are not limited to modelling only those frames generated
by the input wizards modules. Instead, the input wizards merely serve to simplify input of
some typical frames.
Importing drawings
You can also use your favourite CAD system to save a frames geometry in a 2D or 3D
Dxf/Dwg format drawing and then use the Import -> Dxf/Dwg files command on the File
menu to convert it to frame input.
CIMsteel
The Space Frame Analysis module can import complete frame models, including geometrical
and loading data, defined in the CIMsteel (Computer Integrated Manufacturing for
Constructional Steelwork) integration standard. Modelling packages that can create CIMsteel
files include Intergraph Frameworks and Microstation Structural Triforma. Note that at the
time of writing this feature had not been fully developed.
3-63
Settings
The Settings page allows you to set the parameters relevant to the analysis method.
Analysis type
Select the type of analysis to be performed. Refer to page 3-14 for a description of the various
analysis modes.
3-67
For an earthquake analysis, the first three or four mode shapes are normally sufficient to
obtain the probable maximum combined effects.
Do not use too few nodes. If convergence is not obtained when calculating the natural
frequencies, add more nodes and split the elements. See also the first point above.
Note: In a harmonic or seismic analysis, all dead and live load that move with the structure
during its dynamic response will influence the dynamic response of the structure. Such loads
should be considered as masses for the purpose of determining the mode shapes.
Own weight and distributed vertical loads are added using the consistent mass matrix
formulation. Point loads are added as lumped masses at the relevant nodes.
Note: In a seismic analysis all loads not selected as masses will be excluded from the
analysis.
Damping
Stress level Type and condition of structure
ratio O
Working stress no
Reinforced concrete with considerable
more than about 3% to 5%
cracking
half of yield stress
ii iii 0.003 g
iv v 0.01 g
Vi 0.03 g
Ix 0.3 g
x xi 1.0 g
TMH 7 - Part 2, when considering the influence of seismic disturbances, gives the following
guidelines:
Symmetrical structures: The influence of seismic disturbances should be considered along
both principal axes of symmetry.
Non-symmetrical structures: It would normally be sufficient to consider the seismic effects
along any two arbitrarily chosen orthogonal axes.
For structures, symmetrical and non-symmetrical, the seismic effects along two orthogonal
axes may normally be considered independently of each other.
Structural
Type or arrangement of resisting elements
ductility factor P
If you enter a value greater than one, the elastic response spectrum will be adjusted to obtain an
appropriate inelastic response spectrum. The program allows you to adjust the design response
spectrum as required.
3-71
Foundation soil type (seismic analysis only)
Additional factors not covered above can be accounted for by adjusting this load factor.
TMH7 - Part2, for example, gives an additional factor relating to the type of founding material.
Foundation
Description of founding material
factor f
The analysis progress is displayed to help you judge the time remaining to complete the
analysis.
After a successful analysis, the deflected shape is displayed for the first load case or load
combination or, in the case of modal or buckling analysis, the first mode shape.
3-73
The first step of any analysis is the final verification of the input data. In the case of critical
errors still present, a warning message will be displayed. If you then choose to not proceed
with the analysis, you will be taken to the input table with the error. However, choosing to
proceed and ignore the warning will have an unpredictable result.
Tip: Perform a buckling analysis to get an indication of the general stability of the frame
under the entered loads. A frame with a buckling load factor less than unity normally
experiences the same local or global stability problems during a second order analysis.
3-75
Design Links
Once the analysis is complete, Frame can link up with other Prokon modules for further post-
processing and design. This is done on the Design links tab:
3-77
Viewing output
The analysis results can be viewed graphically or in tabular format. Output data, including
graphics and tabled values, can be selectively appended to the Calcsheets using the Add to
Calcsheets function on each output page.
Reactions: The reactions forces and moments at all supported nodes are displayed. The
arrowheads points in the direction of each reaction.
Beam element forces:
Axial forces: The force is shown as expanded red and blue lines. Compression forces
are shown in red and tension forces in blue. The distance of a line from the element
centre line is in proportion to the size of the axial force.
Moments: Bending moments about the local x and y-axes. A plot factor can also be
entered to enlarge or reduce the bending moment diagram on the frame.
Shear: Shear force diagrams are drawn for the local y and x-directions. A beam
elements shear force diagram is constructed by viewing it with its local z-axis
pointing to the right. Since the direction of the z-axis depends on the node numbers,
irregular numbering of nodes can result in apparent irregular signs used in the shear
3-79
force diagrams. Refer to page 3-8 for detail on the sign conventions used for beam
element forces.
Torsion: The torsional moment about the z-axis, i.e. element axis.
Beam element force envelopes:
Envelopes:
Enter a series
of elements
and select the
load case and
combinations
to include in
the envelopes.
Envelopes are
drawn using
the values as
tabulated
from the output file. Positive moments, for example, are drawn below the line and
negative above. Because members of different orientations can be included in the
same envelope, no simple distinction is made between tension and compression faces
of members.
3-81
Bending moments and shear forces in shells:
The x, y and xy bending moments: The bending moments about the local x and y-
axes and the torsional moment. The direction (not axis) of bending is shown as a small
line on each shell element.
Maximum and minimum bending moments: The principal bending moments.
The x, y and maximum shear forces: The shear forces are in local x and y-axes.
The maximum shear stress is also given and is obtained by dividing the maximum
shear force by the thickness of the element.
Contours of the required reinforcement in the top and bottom faces in the x and y-
directions are given. The corresponding Wood & Armer moments from which the
reinforcement was calculated is also given. The reinforcement direction is shown as a
small line on each shell. Refer to page 3-64 for the definition of the reinforcement
directions.
Tip: If the lines indicating the direction of bending or of the reinforcement is not clearly
visible, enable detailed rendering under the graphics options. Refer to page 3-18 for
instructions.
Tip: Shell element stress contours are drawn on the deflected shape of the structure. Careful
choice of the deflection magnification factor can enhance contour diagrams.
3-83
Stresses in solids:
The stresses presented are the direct stresses in the X, Y and Z directions, the shear stresses in
the XY, XZ and YZ planes, the 3 principal stresses 1,2 and 3 as well as the maximum shear
stress and the von Mises stress. For solids all the stresses are plotted in the global co-ordinates.
Open the Output file page for a tabular display of the frame analysis output file. You can filter
the information sent to the calcsheets by enabling or disabling the relevant sections.
The Find heading function allows you to quickly locate any main section of the output file.
If you right click on the output, various editing functions are available. For example, you can
search for any string by pressing Ctrl and F.
3-85
Calcsheets
Frame analysis output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad. To
include a particular component of the output in the calcsheets, view the relevant output
information and then click Add to Calcsheets.
The Plane Stress/Strain Analysis module can be used to perform a finite element analysis of a
membrane of any general geometry subjected to plane stress or strain. An automated element
grid generation facility helps speeding up the input and analysis processes.
Scope
The program analyses membrane structures of any general shape, including openings. The
cases of plane stress and plane strain are both supported. Element grids are automatically
generated with a customisable grid size.
3-89
Sign conventions
When entering coordinates and forces, the following sign convention is used:
Positive Y-coordinates and vertical forces are taken upward, i.e. parallel to the Y-axis.
Positive X-coordinates and horizontal forces are taken to the right, i.e. parallel to the
X-axis.
In the analysis results, deflections are measured along the Y-axis. A positive deflection
therefore denotes an upward movement.
Nodes input
A structure is defined by entering one or more shapes. A shape may comprise straight lines and
arcs. When more than one shape is entered, the shapes will accumulate and form one structure.
Often, a complicated section is easier defined using more than one shape.
3-91
Nodes are automatically numbered as they are input. You can later use the node numbers to
position supports and loads.
Supports input
You can define point supports, distributed support and prescribed displacements anywhere
along the edges of the structure. Supports are entered as follows:
Nodes : Enter a single node number for a point support or a range of nodes for a
distributed support, e.g. 2 for node 2 only and 2-5 for the zone described by
the straight line joining nodes 2 and 5.
XY support : Enter X and/or Y for horizontal and/or vertical support.
Displ. : Specify the value of any horizontal or vertical prescribed displacement in the
relevant column (m).
Note: Point supports invariably result in localised stress concentrations, with the effect
increasing for smaller element grids. It is therefore recommended to avoid point supports
and rather distribute each support over as large a width as possible.
Concrete
25E6 to 35E6 0.20 24
(normal strength)
Loads input
Point loads and distributed loads can be defined anywhere along the edges of the structure. Use
as many lines as necessary to define the loads.
Loads are entered as follows:
Nodes : Enter a single node number for a point load or a range of nodes for a
distributed load, e.g. '
2'for node 2 only and '
2-5'for the zone described by the
straight line joining nodes 2 and 5.
X : The load direction can be either '
X'or '
Y'for horizontal or vertical respectively.
Wleft : Distributed load intensity at the smaller node number (kN/m).
Wright : Distributed load intensity at the larger node number (kN/m).
3-93
a : Distance from first node to beginning of distributed load (m). A value of zero
is used if field is left blank.
b : Length in m, of distributed load. The load is taken up to the ending node if this
field is left blank.
Note: Positive forces are taken to work upward and to the right.
Analysis options
During the analysis, the program generates a rectangular grid of nodes in which rectangular
and, where necessary, triangular finite elements are placed. The grid spacing can be set
independently in the horizontal and vertical directions.
Choose Settings to set the grid spacing and other analysis options:
Finite element size: Horizontal and vertical grid spacings (m).
Type of analysis: Enter E for plane stress or A for plane strain.
Angle increment: The program models arcs as straight
lines at the specified angle increment. Although a
smaller angle would yield a smoother modelling of an
arc, the resulting increase in modes will mean that more
elements will be used. Generally, an angle increment
between 5 and 15 would yield good results.
3-95
Analysis results
The analysis results can be viewed and printed in tabular or graphical format:
Elastic deflections.
Maximum principal stresses,
i.e. the largest tensile
stresses. Positive values
indicate tension and
negative values
compression.
Minimum principal stresses,
i.e. the largest possible
compression stresses.
Negative values indicate
compression.
The Von Mises yield
condition if often used to
determine whether a
material is behaving
elastically under combined
stress. According to the
Von Mises theory, the total
elastic energy comprises
volumetric changes and
shearing distortions. By
considering only the
shearing distortion at yield
in simple tension in relation
to that under combined
stress, the yield criterion can
be established. The
Von Mises theory assumes a
ductile isotropic material.
Principal stress vectors, with
compression stresses in red
and tension stresses in blue.
You can also inspect the results in tabular format by displaying the output file,
named PS.OUT
3-97
Calcsheets
The finite element analysis output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
The Single Span Beam Analysis module can be used to quickly analyse a beam. The beam
can be a single span beam or a single span taken from a continuous beam with the appropriate
end conditions. The analysis results of steels beams can be post-processed with the steel
member design module for combined stress, Com.
3-101
Input
The beam definition has two main input components:
Geometry and material properties.
Loads.
Beam input
The following values must be entered:
Length : The overall length of the beam (m).
M Left : The applied moment at the left-hand end (kNm). If you leave the field blank, a
zero moment is used, e.g. the beam is simply supported. You can also fix an
end by entering an F or make it a free cantilever end with a C.
M Right : The applied moment at the right-hand end (kNm).
Concrete
25E6 to 35E6
(normal strength)
Aluminium 70E6
Section input
The moment of inertia of a standard steel section can be selected from the section database.
You can also define your own sections or remove sections from the database.
Own weight
On selecting a steel section form the database, the own weight is automatically entered as a
uniform distributed load.
Loads input
Use as many lines as needed to enter any general loading on the beam in the Loads input table:
W Left : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of
the load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
W Right : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied on the right-hand ending position of
the load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to Wleft, i.e. a
uniformly distributed load is assumed.
P : Point load (kN).
M : Moment (kNm).
3-103
a : The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position
of the moment (m). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of the
beam. If you leave this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is taken
to start at the left-hand edge of the beam.
b : The end extent of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the right-
hand edge of the beam.
Note: Positive forces and moments are taken to work downward and taken anti-clockwise
respectively.
3-105
Calcsheet
The beam analysis results can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
The Beam on Elastic Support Analysis module can be used to quickly analyse a beam or slab
on an elastic foundation. The beam cross-section may vary along its length and the elastic
foundation can include gaps and rigid supports.
Analysis procedure
The program performs a linear analysis in which the beam is modelled as a two-dimensional
frame on a series of least fifty closely spaced springs. Rigid supports are put at the specified
positions and gaps in the elastic support where the supporting width is set to zero. Nodes are
taken at close intervals along the length of the beam. A node is also introduced at every support
and load position.
If negative soil pressures are not allowed, i.e. uplift is allowed, springs with negative reactions
are removed and the analysis repeated. Likewise, previously removed springs are restored if
downward deflections are calculated at the points concerned. The analysis procedure is
repeated until the iteration converges to a stable solution.
A beam is considered unstable, i.e. to overturn under the applied load, if the analysis yields less
than two springs with compressive forces.
3-109
Input
The beam definition has several input components:
Geometry and material properties.
Supports input
Loads.
Beam input
The beam is defined as one or more segments, each with its own properties. The following
values must be entered:
Lsec : The length of a beam segment with a specified stiffness and support width (m).
You may enter more than one segment to define a beam varying section or an
elastic medium of varying stiffness. Each additional beam segment entered is
added to the right-hand side of beam.
Isec : The stiffness of the beam segment, express as the second moment of inertia of
the relevant cross section (m). The value of Youngs modulus, applicable to the
whole beam, is entered under the analysis settings.
Bsec : The support width of the beam segment (m). This beam width is multiplied by
the foundation modulus of the soil, Km, to obtain the support stiffness per unit
length of the beam. Enter a zero value for no foundation stiffness, i.e. a gap in
the elastic medium.
Supports input
Use the Support input columns to enter rigid supports in the elastic medium:
Position : A rigid support position, measured from the left-hand side (m).
Support : You can set the support type to vertical and/or rotational:
Support Description
Note: Positive forces and moments are taken to work downward and taken anti-clockwise
respectively.
Analysis settings
Press Settings to edit the material constants and other parameters to be used in the analysis:
E modulus: Youngs modulus for the beam (kPa). Values for typical building materials are
tabled below:
Concrete
25E6 to 35E6
(normal strength)
Aluminium 70E6
3-111
K modulus: Foundation modulus or modulus of subgrade reaction (kN/m3). Typical
empirical values derived suggested by Bowles are given below:
The foundation modulus, K, is a conceptual relationship between the soil pressure and
deflection of the beam. Because the beam stiffness is usually ten or more times as great as
the soil stiffness as defined by K, the bending moments in the beam and calculated soil
pressures are normally not very sensitive to the value used for K. Recognizing this,
Bowles suggests that the value of K can be approximated from the serviceability limit state
bearing capacity, qa, as being 40 qa (kN/m3) or 12 qa (k/ft3).
Allow negative pressure: Enter ' Y'to enable full
adhesion between beam and elastic medium. Enter
'
N'to allow uplift, i.e. zero adhesion between beam
and elastic medium.
Note: The foundation modulus, Km, is multiplied with the support width to obtain the
support stiffness per unit length of the beam. Enter a zero value for no foundation stiffness,
i.e. a gap in the elastic medium.
'
Foundation Analysis and Design, Fifth Edition'
, by Joseph E. Bowles, published by
McGraw Hill
3-112 Beam on Elastic Support Analysis
Example
The sketch shows an 800 mm wide by 300 mm deep beam is modelled on an elastic
foundation:
The first fourteen meters of its length is supported on very stiff clay. The foundation
modulus is set to 40 000 kN/m3.
The beam crosses a rock intrusion ten meters from the left that provides vertical support.
The beam then spans four meters over a ditch, i.e. no support. This is modelled by entering
a zero section width.
On the other side support is provided on a strip of hard clay, two meter wide. The hard
clay is modelled by increasing the support width to 1.2 m. The resulting effective
foundation modulus is then given by 1.2/0.8 x 40 000 = 60 000 kN/m3.
The beam is loaded with a long trapezoidal distributed load, twelve meters long, a point
load and a moment at its right-hand end.
3-113
Analysis
Press Analyse to display the analysis results:
Bearing pressure.
Bending moment.
Shear force diagram.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
3-115
Chapter
The steel member design modules can be used for elastic and plastic design of structural steel
members. Several modules act as post-processors for the frame analysis modules, facilitating
integrated frame analysis and design.
A variety of steel member design modules are included in the PROKON suite. These are
considered useful tools when designing members using either elastic or plastic methods.
Girder design
Specialised modules are available for designing crane gantry girders and plate girders.
Design scope
The steel member design modules can design hot-rolled sections subjected to axial stress or a
combination of axial and bending stresses.
Strut can be used to design any hot-rolled section for axial stress. Because the design
procedure is relatively simple, design results are presented in tabular format. This feature
makes the program especially useful when designing of a large number of struts and ties.
Com can design hot-rolled double symmetric sections and channels subjected to axial and
bending stress. Non-symmetric sections like angles are not supported. More design checks
need to be performed for each member requiring more detailed output.
Strut and Com use a similar design approach. Although there may seem to be a degree of
overlapping in their design features, the two modules rather complement each other with
specialised individual design functions. You will typically use them to design the different
components of the same structure, e.g. design a roof truss in Strut and its supporting columns
in Com.
Note: Support for cold-formed sections is not provided. However, hot-rolled hollow circular
and rectangular sections may be designed with the programs if such sections are deemed to
have relatively thick walls with a resulting low risk of local buckling.
Tapered sections
The current versions of Strut nor Com cannot design tapered sections, e.g. haunches in portal
frames. When evaluating members with varying sections, the section type at the first node is
used over the whole length of the member.
Design codes
The program designs axially loaded steel members according to the following design codes:
AISC - 1993 LRFD (Strut only).
BS 5950 - 1990.
CSA S16.1 - M89.
Eurocode 3 - 1992 (Strut only).
SABS 0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
SABS 0162 - 1993 (limit state design).
Steel Member Design using PROKON 4-5
Units of measurement
The steel design modules support the following units of
measurement:
Metric.
Imperial (Strut only).
The preferred unit of measurement can be selected using the Units
command on the File menu.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes:
Ane/Ag : Effective area factor with which the gross sectional area must be multiplied to
obtain the effective sectional area, reduced for fasteners holes. The factor
applies to elements subjected to tensile axial stress only.
Ke : Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for lateral torsional buckling (Com only).
Kv : Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the v-v (weakest) axis of the member (Strut only).
Kx : Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the x-x axis of the member.
Ky : Factor with which the member length must be multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the local y-y axis of the member.
AISC - 1993 LRFD (Strut only):
F : Applied axial force (kN or kip).
Fy : Specified minimum yield strength of steel (MPa or ksi).
Fu : Specified minimum tensile strength of steel (MPa or ksi).
L
/r : Slenderness ratio.
Pu : Ultimate axial stress (MPa or ksi).
Pn : Allowable axial stress based on the slenderness ratio (MPa or ksi).
Sc : Actual axial stress in member (MPa or ksi).
BS 5950 - 1990:
Sign conventions
Member design is done in the local element axes. Bending about the x-x axis generally
corresponds to strong axis bending and bending about the y-y axis to weak axis bending. For
non-symmetric sections like angles, the x-x and y-y axes are horizontal and vertical with the
v-v axis representing the weakest axis.
Tip: The exact orientation of the v-v axis of a mono-symmetric section can be determined
using the Section Properties Calculation module, Prosec.
P-delta effects
Design codes generally allow stability effects to be taken into account in buckling checks by
reducing design capacities or amplifying design moments or axial forces. Trusses are normally
not sensitive to sway. However, in any structure, if you judge P-delta effects to be an important
part of the analysis, you should perform a second order frame analysis.
Design parameters
Different design parameters can be set for each group of elements designed:
Consider a typical portal frame subjected to dead and live load. The effective length Lx relates
to buckling in the plane of the portal, i.e. about the strong axis of each member. The length Ly
relates to out-of plane buckling, i.e. weak axis buckling. This value is typically set equal to the
distance between restraining purlins and sheeting rails.
The effective length Le relates to lateral torsional buckling of a members compression flange
about its weak axis. The length depends on the distance between restraints of the compression
flange. For rafters with purlins restraining the top flange, Le can therefore be set equal to Ly in
zones of sagging moment. However, if the rafter is relatively deep and no special precautions
are taken, the purlins could possibly have no effective restraint on the bottom flange.
Therefore, where the bottom flange is in compression, i.e. zones of hogging moment, longer
effective lengths for lateral torsional buckling will apply.
Note: The current versions of Strut and Com cannot design tapered sections. The use of
haunches in the sketch is merely for the sake of explaining the effective lengths. See page 5
for more detail.
Design steps
Working through the input and design pages, the frame design procedure can be broken up into
the following steps:
The Input page: Defining design tasks by choosing a design approach, selecting members
to be designed, setting the design parameters and selecting load cases and slenderness
limits. The concept of tasks is described in detail on page 17.
The Members page (Com only): Define internal nodes and enter effective lengths. Refer
to page 17 for detail.
The Design page (Com only): Evaluating the design results. See page 17 for detail.
The Calcsheet page: Accumulate design results. See page 17 for detail.
4-14 Steel Member Design using PROKON
Re-analysis of the frame
Having evaluated the various member sizes, you may find it necessary to return to the original
frame analysis and make some changes to section sizes. Before exiting the member design
module, first save the task list using the Save command on the File menu. After re-analysing
the frame, you can return to the member design module and recall the task list to have the
modified structure re-checked without delay.
Note: For a task list to be re-used with a modified frame, a reasonable degree of
compatibility is required. Tasks that reference specific laterally supported nodes, for
example, will require modification if relevant node numbers have changed.
Design steps
Working through the input and design pages, the interactive design procedure can be broken up
into the following steps:
The Interactive page (Strut) or Input page (Com): Choose a design approach, set the
design parameters and enter the element loads. In Strut, results are displayed interactively
on the same page. Refer to page 17 for a detailed explanation.
The Design page (Com): Evaluate the design results. More detail is given on page 17.
The Calcsheet page: Accumulate design results to print or send to Calcpad. See page 17
for detail.
The pages that follow describe the use of the programs for reading and post-processing frame
analysis results. Information regarding interactive design is given on page 1725.
In Com, the appearance of the Input page determined by your selection of the mode of
operation:
If you choose to read and post-process the results of the frame analysis modules, you will
use the Input page to define design tasks.
However, if you opt for interactive design of members, the Input page displays a table for
entering member geometry and loading.
Defining tasks
To define design tasks, you have to select or enter the following information:
1. Select a design approach.
2. If you choose to select the lightest section, then also choose a profile to use.
3. Select the members to be designed.
4. Enter the design parameters.
5. Select the load cases to be considered.
To save a task, enter a Task title and click Add task. Once added to the task list, a task will be
automatically performed when you go to the Calcsheet page. Define as many tasks as
necessary to design the frame in the required detail.
Deleting tasks
To remove a task from the list, first select the task and then click Delete task. To save the
complete task list to disk, use the Save commands on the File menu.
Note: In Com, saving the task list with File | Save also saves the intermediate nodes and
effective lengths entered in the Members page.
Note: The section type selected under Profile (F5) is used when the design approach is set
to Select lightest section. However, the selected section type has no bearing on the design
when the approach is set to Evaluate current sections.
Tip: To keep the design of a large truss manageable, consider using more tasks and
specifying fewer nodes at a time.
Note: In Com, effective length factors are entered on the Members page. Refer to page
1730 for details on entering effective lengths in Com.
Tip: In the frame analysis modules you can also select to analyse load combinations only.
The analysis output will then be more compact due to the omission of individual load case
results.
You are free to modify the slenderness limit for each individual load case or combination as
required. In the case where uplift due to wind is dominant, for example, you may be able to set
a higher slenderness limit. The code requirements regarding slenderness limits are discussed on
page 14.
The pages that follow describe the use of the programs for interactive member design. The
procedure to reading and post-processing frame analysis results is explained on page 15
Note: All entered forces and moments are ULS design values. For allowable stress design
with SABS 0162 - 1984, you should enter working loads.
M1: Moment applied at the left end (anti-clockwise positive) about the X or Y axis (kNm
or kipft).
M2: Moment at the right end (anti-clockwise positive) (kNm or kipft).
W1: Distributed load at the left end. The load works over the whole length of the member
load and varies linearly between the left and right ends (downward positive) (kN/m or
kip/ft).
Note: All entered forces and moments are ULS design values. For allowable stress design
with SABS 0162 - 1984, you should enter working loads.
The profile of the members to evaluate is chosen using the Profile (F5) function. On opening
the Design page, the lightest section will be chosen for each member. Lighter or heavier
sections of the same profile can then be browsed as required.
Consolidation of members
With the addition of each internal node, the relevant node is removed by joining the two
adjacent members into a single member. The table of members is continuously updated to
show the new member layout.
The program uses the following guidelines to decide which members to join at an internal
node:
For the automatic selection of internal nodes, adjoining members must have the same
section.
Only members with an included angle greater than 100 (where 180 corresponds to a
perfectly straight member) are joined.
Where members of different sections intersect, the larger section defines the main member
that should be joined.
Where two or more members intersect, the internal node is taken to belong to one of the
intersecting members only. The chosen member will be the straightest member or, if the
same, the first in the table of members.
Note: The list of internal nodes and effective length factors are automatically saved when
you save the task list. See page 17 for detail.
Note: Strut designs members for axial stress only and ignores any bending stresses.
Note: The level of detail of the information added to the Calcsheet can be set using the
Settings function on the Input page. Refer to page 17 for detail.
Use the Output settings function on the Calcsheets page and Settings function on the Input
page for the following:
Embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Clear the Calcsheet page.
Elastic design of a steel frames can be done using the Plane frame Analysis or Space Frame
Analysis modules in conjunction with the steel member design modules axial and combined
stress, Strut and Com. See Chapter 4 for detail.
Design scope
The use of plastic design methods is normally limited to the design of continuous beams and
single storey frames with rigid joints, e.g. portal frames. It may also be acceptable to use plastic
methods for designing some braced multi-storey planar frames.
Analysis modes
Depending on the analysis module used, the following types of analysis can be performed:
Linear analysis: Basic linear elastic analysis. A linear analysis procedure is typically
performed markedly faster than a plastic analysis. It therefore is recommended that you
verify the basic integrity of the frame input by performing a linear analysis prior to
attempting a plastic analysis.
Plastic analysis: Choose between evaluating the adequacy of the frame as entered or
optimising the section sizes. When optimising, the program will search for a more
economic configuration of sections. The plastic modulus, Zpl, is used as the criterion for
section economy.
Design codes
The program uses general plastic theory. Working within their scope, the program can be
considered to support the following design codes:
BS 5950 - 1990.
CSA S16.1 - M89.
Eurocode 3 - 1992.
SABS 0162 - 1984.
SABS 0162 - 1993.
Note: SABS 0162 - 1984 use an allowable stress design method for elastic design. For
plastic design, however, it adopts an ultimate limit state design method.
Sign conventions
Frame input and output uses a mixture of global axis and local axes values.
Global axes
The global axis system is nearly
exclusively used when entering frame
geometry and loading. Global axes are
also used in the analysis output for
deflections and reactions.
The global axes are defined as follows:
The X-axis is chosen to the right.
The Y-axis points vertically upward.
A positive vertical load thus works
up and a negative load down.
Using a right-hand rule, the Z-axis
points out of the screen.
Local axes
Note: In this manual the global and local axes are written in uppercase and lowercase
respectively.
Units of measurement
The following units of measurement are supported:
Use the Units commands on the Options menu to change the units for the current analysis:
Set Units: Changes the units of measurement without altering the input data.
Convert Units: Changes the units and converts all numeric data from the old to the new
units of measurement.
Alternative methods of generating frame analysis input are discussed on page 17.
Tip: You can zoom into a picture and print, save or add the picture to the Calcsheets.
General input
The General input page handles several important analysis parameters.
Analysis type
Choose between performing a simple linear elastic analysis or a plastic analysis. Refer to page
17 for an explanation of the analysis modes.
Own weight
The own weight of the frame can be calculated using the entered cross-sectional areas and
member lengths. If you specify a load case, the own weight is calculated and added to the other
loads of that case.
The following are points of importance:
By default the own weight of the frame is set to not be included in the analysis. Be sure to
select the appropriate load case for own weight or, alternatively, to include the frames
own weight in the values of the loads entered.
The list of load cases from which you can select is based on the load cases defined on the
Nodal loads and Beam loads input pages. You may thus prefer to specify the own weight
load case only after completing all other input for the frame. However, you can also enter
Tip: If you wish to use own weight in its own separate load case, you can do so by defining
an empty load case. You can enter a zero load at any node number, for example, and then
select that load case as the one to use for own weight.
Parametrics
The parametric plastic frame
input modules are suitable for the
rapid generation of complete
input files for some typical
structures. Because the resulting
input data is presented in the
normal way on the input pages,
you are free to edit and append to
the data as necessary.
Input generated this way can
optionally be appended to
existing data you can therefore
repeatedly use the parametric
input modules to generate
complicated structures.
Note: Plasdes is not limited to analysing only those frames generated by the parametric
modules. The program can treat any general two-dimensional frame. The parametric
modules merely serve to simplify input of typical frames.
Title
A descriptive name for the frame. It should not be confused with the file name you use when
you save the input data.
You are allowed to skip node numbers to simplify the definition of the frame. You may also
leave blank lines in the input to improve readability. If a node number is defined more than
once, the last definition will be used.
Error checking
The program checks for nodes lying at the same coordinate. If a potential error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
The Y-coordinate of node 4 is left blank. Therefore, node 4 is put at the coordinate
(0.805,0).
The No of is set to 2, meaning that two additional nodes are generated.
Setting Increment to 7 means that the node numbers are incremented by seven.
Therefore, node 4 is copied to node 11 and node 11 is copied to node 18.
The values in the X-inc and Y-inc columns set the distance between copied nodes. The
coordinates 4 to 18 are horizontally spaced at 1.140 m to the right at 0.472 m downward,
i.e. along the X and negative Y-axis respectively. The coordinates of the additional nodes
are thus (1.945,-0.472) and (3.085,-0.944).
An alternative method to generate equally spaced nodes is to use the Inc to End option. This
method allows you to define two nodes and then generate a number of nodes in-between:
Use the same procedure as above to define the first nodes coordinates.
Set the values of X-inc, Y-inc and Z-inc to the total coordinate difference to the last node
and enable the Inc to End option. The last nodes coordinates are then first calculated and
the specified number of intermediate nodes then generated.
Block generation
A group of nodes can be repeated by entering a B in the No column followed by the first and
last table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a '
.
Block generation example:
The nodes defined in lines 11 to 26 are copied twice. Node numbers are incremented by thirty for
each copy. The X and Y-coordinate increments are 10 m and zero respectively.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. '
B10'to copy line 10 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program'
s window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. That means that the lines specified
may themselves contain further block generation statements.
Moving nodes
To move a group of nodes to a new location without generating any new nodes, use the block
generation function and set No-of to '
1'and Inc to '
0'.
Arc generation
A group of nodes can be repeated on an arc by entering an ' A'in the No column, followed by
the start and end line numbers. Enter the centre of the arc in the X and Y columns and use the
X-inc column to specify the angle increment about the Z-axis.
Example:
All nodes defined in lines 5 to 9 of the table will be repeated eleven times on an imaginary
horizontal arc. The centre point of the arc is located at the coordinate (10.0,1.5). The node
Rotating nodes
To rotate a group of existing nodes without generating any new nodes, use the arc generation
function and set the No-of to 1 and Increment to 0.
Mirror
Nodes of a plane frame or grillage can be mirrored horizontally or vertically by entering an M
in the No column, followed by the start and end line numbers.
Mirror example:
All nodes defined in lines 5 to 9 are mirrored about a vertical (horizontal for a grillage) line
through X=10 m. Node numbers are incremented with 5. By specifying a Y or Z-value instead
of an X-value, nodes can be mirrored about a horizontal line passing through the specified Y or
Z-value.
Deleting nodes
Nodes can be deleted by entering Delete in the Inc to end column. This can be especially
handy if you have generated a large group of nodes and then need to remove some of them
again.
Example:
Tip: Enable full 3D rendering in the Graphics options to view the true beam orientation.
End fixity
The fixity at each end of an element, i.e. continuous or pinned, must also be defined in the
Fixity columns. Pins are modelled on the element itself and not on the node. External pinned
supports should be defined on the Supports input table. External supports are described in the
next section.
The following types of end fixities can be specified:
Fixed: Specify F to provide full rotational continuity. If you leave the field blank, F is
assumed.
Pinned: Use P to for no rotational restraint, i.e. a pin.
Note: To retain compatibility with the Dos version, you may also use 0 or1 instead of F
and P respectively.
Entered fixities are applied at an elements lower node number (designated as the left end) and
higher node number (the right end). The order of the node numbers entered in the first column
of the table has no bearing on the application of the fixity codes.
To define a pin only at the two remote ends of a group of elements, enable the Group fix
option by entering a Y. In this case the normal convention of smaller and larger node numbers
does not apply. Instead, pins are put at the remote ends in the same order that the nodes have
been entered.
The group of elements from node 42 to 24 is continuous except for the pins used at nodes
42 and 24.
If the Group fix is left blank or N is entered, the normal individual element fixity mode is
assumed.
Tip: Element fixity can be displayed graphically on the screen. For this, edit the Graphics
options to disable the Elements Continuous option.
When using pins, you should take care to ensure overall stability of the frame. Consider two
elements on a straight line with pins at all three relevant nodes, for example. The centre node
will be unrestrained for rotation about the element axis, resulting in instability during
the analysis.
Note: Do not use an internal pin on an element to model an external support that allows free
rotation. Rather allow the beam to be fixed to the node and define a simple support on the
Support input page.
Tapered beams
The current version of Plasdes does not support tapered sections.
Rigid links
You can use rigid links to rigidly fix sub-structures to each other. To define a rigid link, enter
R in the Section Name column.
Rigid links are modelled as very stiff beams. The stiffness of a rigid link is determined by
multiplying the maximum stiffnesses of the other beams with a factor, typically one thousand.
Rigid link example:
Rigid links are defined between nodes 12 and 24, 14 and 26 and 16 and 26.
The elements between nodes 251 and 266 are copied ten times with the node numbers
decrementing by five with each copy.
Block generation
A group of elements can be repeated by entering a B in the No column. Then enter the first
and last table line numbers in which the elements were defined, separated with a '
.
Block generation example:
All elements defined in lines 11 to 26 will be copied twice with a node number increment of
thirty. The copied elements will use the same section number and fixity codes as the original
elements.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. '
B11'to copy line 11 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program'
s window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Tip: When entering a complicated structure it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional nodes at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Deleting beams
Beam elements can be deleted by entering a special section name ' Delete'. This can be
especially handy if you have generated a large group of elements at regular increments and
need to remove some of them again.
Note: The display of selected beam element groups can be activated or suppressed by
editing the Graphic options.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and elements with zero length. It also checks that a
section number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button will be
displayed.
Each section should also have an associated material selected. If no section or material
properties are entered, the values applicable to the previous line in the table are used.
Entering haunches
Haunched sections are entered by appending the haunch depth to the section designation. To
add a haunch of 280 mm to a 305x102x66 BS taper flange I-section, enter 305x102x66
(0.280h). The overall depth is then taken to be 305 mm + 280 mm = 585 mm.
Tip: You can verify your definition of haunches by enabling 3D rendering. Refer to page
for 15 more detail.
Own weight
If a materials definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the General input page.
Note: By default the Spring elements input page is not visible. This behaviour can be
changed using the Advanced command on the Options menu.
Enter linear spring constants in the Kx, Ky and Kz columns and rotational spring constants in
the Rx, Ry and Rz columns.
The orientation of a spring element is defined by entering a bearing between any two nodes
that do not necessarily need to be connected to the same or other spring elements as well. The
directions of the axes are defined as followed:
A spring elements x-axis is taken in the direction of the orientating nodes.
The y-axis defined in the same way as for a normal beam element, i.e. perpendicular to
spring element in a vertical plane.
The z-axis is taken perpendicular to the x and y-axes using aright-hand rule.
Spring element example:
Spring elements are defined between nodes 16 and 116, 17 and 117 up to 19 and 119. The
spring elements are aligned parallel to the imaginary line joining nodes 3 and 4.
Supports input
Frames require external supports to ensure global stability. Supports can be entered to prevent
any of the three degrees of freedom at a node, i.e. translation in the X and Y-directions and
rotation about the Z-axes. You can also define elastic supports, e.g. an elastic soil support, and
prescribed displacements, e.g. foundation settlement.
Enter the node number to be supported in the Node No column. In the next column a
combination of the letters X, Y and z can be entered to indicate the direction of fixity. Use
capitals and lowercase to define restraint of translation and rotation respectively, e.g. XYz
means fixed against movement in the X and Y-direction and rotation about the Z-axis.
Note: The use of lowercase for rotational restraints should not be confused with the
convention of using lowercase for local element axes.
If you want to repeat the supports defined on the previous line of the table, you need only enter
the node number, i.e. you may leave the Fixity column blank. If the XYZxyz column is left
blank, the supports applicable to the previous line will be used automatically.
Note: The display of supports can be activated or suppressed by editing the Graphic
options.
Error Checking
The program does a basic check on the structural stability of the frame. If a potential error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Note: You cannot define an elastic support and a prescribed displacement at the same node
because it will be a contradiction of principles.
Sign conventions
Tip: For a typical steel frame or roof truss, it may be easiest to define a node at each purlin
position. Roof loads transferred via the purlins can then be entered as nodal loads.
Error checking
The program checks that specified nodes have indeed been defined in the Nodes input table. If
an error is detected, an Error list button will appear.
Sign conventions
Depending on the selected load direction, beam loads are applied parallel to the global axes or
parallel to the local y-axis the definitions of the global and local axes are given on page 17
and 17 respectively.
The load direction is entered in the Direction column. Enter a global direction ' X'or 'Y'
.
Element loads are applied to the relevant projected length of the elements. Therefore, if a ' Y'
load is entered for a vertical element, for example, the resulting load will therefore be zero.
Note: Positive vertical loads act upward and negative loads act downward.
Error checking
The program checks that element definitions match previously defined elements. If an error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Tip: You may leave one or more blank lines between load combination definitions to
improve readability.
Error checking
The program only checks that valid load cases are specified. It has no knowledge of the design
code that will be used in the member design and therefore does not check the validity of the
entered load factors.
Parametric input
A number of typical frames can be input by entering a number of parameters. The Parametrics
input modules do most of the data input. See page 17 for more detail on the Parametrics.
Note: Plasdes is not limited to modelling only those frames generated by the parametric
modules. Instead, the parametric modules merely serve to simplify input of some
typical frames.
Graphical input
In some situations it may be easier to define a frames geometry graphically. With Padds you
can draw a frame and then generate a frame analysis input file.
Analysis options
Use the General input page to select the analysis mode:
Linear analysis: Basic linear elastic analysis. A linear analysis procedure is typically
performed markedly faster than a plastic analysis. It therefore is recommended that you
verify the basic integrity of the frame input by performing a linear analysis prior to
attempting a plastic analysis.
Plastic analysis: Choose between evaluating the adequacy of the frame as entered or
optimising the section sizes. When optimising, the program will search for a more
economic configuration of sections. The plastic modulus, Zpl, is used as the criterion for
section economy.
Note: The results of an optimising plastic analysis should not be regarded as a final solution.
You should return to the input data and enter the suggested or other preferred sections and
then re-analyse the frame as a final check.
Tip: When working with complicated frames, you may prefer adding one or more zoomed
pictures to the Calcsheets instead of a single cluttered picture. To do this, simply into a
picture and then use the Add to Calcsheets function.
Design scope
Crane gantry girders are generally constructed from rolled I-beams or welded plate girder.
Channel capping beams are often used to stiffen top flanges. The program can check and
optimise crane gantry girders made of rolled or welded I-sections or box sections with or
without capping beams. One or two simultaneous cranes can be specified.
The design procedure for crane gantry girders is similar to that used for statically loaded
girders. The various loading codes recognise the varying degree of duty of different types of
crane and give parameters for horizontal transverse effects. Especially in the case of heavier
duty cranes, certain aspects of the design and construction may require special consideration.
Design codes
The program designs plate girders according to the following design codes:
BS 5950 - 1990.
CSA S16.1 - M89.
SABS 0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
SABS 0162 - 1993 (limit state design).
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes. A list is given below.
A : Cross-sectional area (mm2).
b : Width of capping beam top flange (mm).
bbot : Width of main beam bottom flange (mm).
btop : Width of main beam top flange (mm).
Cw : Warping torsional constant (mm4).
h : Height of section (mm).
Ixx : Second moment of area about major axis (mm4).
Iyt : Second moment of area top flange only (mm4).
Iyy : Second moment of area about minor axis (mm4).
Effective lengths
The codes give guidelines for determining effective length factors for flexural members:
BS 5950 - 1990: Refer to clause 4.3.5 guidance on factors to use for members in bending.
Refer to clause 4.7.2 and Appendix D for members in compression.
CSA S16.1 - M89: Refer to clauses 9.1 to 9.4 and Annexes B and C.
SABS 0162 - 1984: See clause 7.2.2 for flexural members. Refer to clause 8.2.1 and
Appendix E for compression members.
SABS 0162 - 1993: Same as for CSA S16.1 - M89.
General parameters
Various design parameters, some of which depend on the code used, should be entered.
Note: The program does not include the effects of horizontal force due to acceleration,
braking or force exerted on end stops.
Design options
Two design approaches are available:
You can choose to evaluate the capacity of entered beam sections to carry the specified
loads.
The main beams and capping beam sections can be optimised to obtain the lightest
sections capable of resisting the design loads.
Spans
The data for a typical span comprises a span number, span length, main beam section number
and, if required, capping beam section number.
Crane data
Enter the loading and dimensional data for the cranes. In the case of a single crane analysis,
simply leave the information for the second crane blank.
Capacity : The rated lifting capacity of crane (T, i.e. 10 kN units).
Class : The crane class designates its type of use:
Tip: If the exact value of the crab weight is not known, a value of 15% of the capacity of the
crane will usually be a reasonable estimate.
The Plate Girder Design module can be used to design I-shaped welded plate girders. The
program checks the behaviour of girders under specified loading and gives guidance regarding
bearing and intermediate stiffeners.
Design scope
Welded plate girders can often be effectively and economically used as flexural sections. Modern
mechanised manufacturing and automated welding techniques have simplified the production of
plate girders greatly, boosting their popularity.
The program is capable is designing I-shaped sections with identical or different top and
bottom flanges. You can also make the section properties vary along the length of the girder to
model a tapered element.
Tapered sections
CSA S16.1 - M89 and SABS 0162 - 1993 do not cover the design of tapered sections. You can
however choose to use the approach given by BS 5950 - 1990 to design tapered elements.
Design codes
The program designs plate girders according to the following design codes:
BS 5950 - 1990.
CSA S16.1 - M89.
SABS 0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
SABS 0162 - 1993 (limit state design).
Design parameters
Various design parameters need to be set when designing a plate girder:
Effective lengths
The effective length of a member depends on the degree of restraint to be expected at each end
of the member. The program assumes that the effect of axial compression is relatively small
and hence uses the full bending capacity for bending about the major axis.
However, the program allows you to specify positions of restraints for lateral torsional
buckling of the compression flange. You can apply a different effective length factor to each
unsupported length, e.g. different factors for a cantilever end and internal continuous lengths.
Guidelines given in the codes include:
BS 5950 - 1990: Refer to clause 4.3.5 guidance on factors to use for members in bending.
Refer to clause 4.7.2 and Appendix D for members in compression.
CSA S16.1 - M89: Refer to clauses 9.1 to 9.4 and Annexes B and C.
SABS 0162 - 1984: See clause 7.2.2 for flexural members. Refer to clause 8.2.1 and
Appendix E for compression members.
SABS 0162 - 1993: Same as for CSA S16.1 - M89.
The program automatically calculates the above factors and restrict their values to the
minimum and maximum values specified.
General parameters
Various design parameters, some of which depend on the code used, should be entered:
The shape of a flexural members bending moment diagram influences its lateral torsional
stability. The design codes use different design factors to accommodate this phenomenon.
See page 17 for more details.
The entered support width is used to calculate local buckling and crushing of the girders
web at every support.
Specify whether the program should calculate and add the girders own weight in the
analysis.
You can choose to make either end of the girder pinned (simply supported), fixed (built-in)
or free (cantilevered).
Enter an axial force, with a positive force denoting compression (kN or kip).
Note: Although the program allows you to enter an axial force, it does not check for
buckling under axial load. The effect of axial compression is assumed to be so small as not
to cause a reduction in the moment capacity for bending about the major axis.
Sections
You can define a variety if I-section by entering the dimensions for the web and top and
bottom flanges. If different grades of steel are used for the flanges and web, you should enter
the appropriate yield strengths for each. Each section should be given a unique number for easy
reference when defining the girder.
Note: CSA S16.1 - M89 and SABS 0162 - 1993 do not cover the design of tapered sections.
When designing such elements, the program gives the option to use the weakest portion of
such elements or to design of them using the approach given by BS 5950 - 1990.
Loads
Applied loads may comprise distributed loads, point loads and moments. Positive forces and
moments are taken to work downward and anti-clockwise respectively:
Wleft : Distributed load intensity (kN/m or kip/ft) applied at the left-hand starting
position of the load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of
zero.
Wright : Distributed load intensity (kN/m or kip/ft) applied on the right-hand ending
position of the load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to
Wleft, i.e. a uniformly distributed load is assumed.
P : Point load (kN or kip).
M : Moment (kNm or kipft).
a : The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position
of the moment (m or ft). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of
the girder. If you leave this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is
taken to start at the left-hand edge of the beam.
b : The end position of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m or ft). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the
right-hand edge of the girder.
Lateral supports
Specify the positions of lateral support by entering the unsupported lengths. A unique effective
length factor can also be entered for each length. Refer to page 174 for more details.
Note: The program always draws the specified lateral supports on the top flange. During the
analysis, however, these positions are taken to define lateral supports of the compression
flange, whether it is the top or bottom flange that is actually in compression.
The design output shows the complete interaction formulae, with the zero values for bending
moments about the minor axis. If required, the output equations can be edited to include
bending about the minor axis. To edit an equation, select it in the calcsheet, right-click it and
choose Edit.
The steel connection design modules can be used for design of common welded and bolted
steel connection.
The PROKON suite includes several design modules for typical steel connections.
Shear connections
Bolt groups and weld groups can be designed for eccentric in-plane shear.
Moment connections
The following types of moment transmitting connections can be designed:
Stiffened and unstiffened column base plates.
Bolted and welded beam-column connections with or without haunches.
Bolted or welded apex connections with or without haunches.
Simple connections
Simple beam to column connections that do not transmit moments:
Web angle cleat connections.
Flexible end plate connections.
Fin plate connections.
The Base Plate Design module designs column base plates subjected to axial force and
bi-axial moment. Both stiffened or unstiffened base plates can be designed. Base plates can
bear on concrete or grout or can be supported on studs. Detailed drawings can be generated for
editing and printing using the PROKON Drawing and Detailing System, Padds.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes:
General design parameters
a1 : Distance from the left edge of the base plate to the centre line of the
bolts (mm).
a2 : Distance from the right edge of the base plate to the centre line of the
bolts (mm).
a3 : Distance from the bottom edge of base plate, as shown on the screen, to the
centre line of the bolts (mm).
a4 : Distance from the top edge of base plate, as shown on the screen, to the centre
line of the bolts (mm)
bg : Bolt grade, e.g. 4.8.
B : Width of the column flange (mm).
D : Overall depth of the column (mm).
fcu : Cube strength of bedding concrete or grout (MPa).
L : Length of the base plate (mm).
L1 : Distance from the left edge of the base plate to the column flange (mm).
Studs : Enter Y if the bolts are used as studs, i.e. the base plate transmits all tension
and compressions forces to the bolts. Enter N to transmit compression forces
to the bedding concrete or grout.
W : Width of the base plate (mm).
W1 : Distance from the top edge of the base plate, as shown on the screen, to the
corner of the column flange (mm).
Column dimensions
To read a column section from the section database, select the section type and choose a
profile. For non-standard sections such as plate girders, you can enter the relevant dimensions.
Tip: To move the column to the centre of the base plate, use the Centralise Column
function.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Generating a drawing
Based on your initial input and the design results, initial values are chosen for the dimensions.
Change the values to suite your special requirements.
Required information:
Drawing file name: Name of
the Padds drawing file.
Drawing scale to use.
Connection properties:
Plate thickness.
Stiffener size.
Weld sizes.
Bolt and hole sizes and
quantities.
Press Generate to create a
Padds drawing with the entered
settings.
The moment connection design modules are suitable for the design of the following
connections:
Beam-column connection, BeamCol: Beam connected to the flange of a column.
Apex connection, Apex: Symmetrical beam apex with end plates.
Design scope
The moment connection design modules can analyse connections that transmit shear, moment
and axial force. Only forces in the plane of the connection are considered, i.e. vertical shear,
axial compression or tension and in-plane moment. The connections may be bolted or welded.
The following assumptions are made:
The centre lines of the connecting beams or beam and column are in the same plane.
All bolt holes are normal clearance holes.
Bolts have threads in their shear plane.
Connections are deep enough for each sections flanges to resist the prevailing
compressive and tensile forces.
Compressive forces in the flanges and stiffeners are transmitted through the welds and not
through bearing.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
AISC - 1993 LRFD.
BS5950 - 1990.
CSA S16.1 - M89.
Eurocode 3 - 1992.
SABS0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
SABS0162 - 1993 (limit state design).
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
Tip: Positive loads on the connection correspond to the directions of forces in a typical
single bay portal frame subjected to dead and live load.
List of symbols
Where possible the same symbols are used as in the design codes. The meanings of the
symbols are clear from their use in the design output.
Prying action
In moment connection, prying action can be prevalent. The prying forces and method of failure
depend on the layout of the design, the thickness of the plate or flange in question and the
strength of the bolts.
A yield line analysis method is used to calculate three resistance values for each relevant
portion of the connection:
Plate yielding at the web and the bolts.
Plate yielding at the web and bolt failure.
Bolt failure only.
The smallest of the three resistance values is taken to be the ultimate resistance.
Members
Define the type of connection and the design parameters:
Define the connection type by selecting an end plate configuration, e.g. no end plate, end
plate flush at the top and bottom of the beam or extending at the tope and/or bottom.
Beam and column designations.
Inclination of the beam.
Haunch depth and length. If either value is zero, no haunch is used.
Settings
Use Settings to set the bolt, weld and member material properties:
Select between elastic and plastic
analysis of bolts in tension. The
analysis mode determines the
distribution of the bolt forces. See
page 5-17 for detail.
Enter a bolt type, grade and
diameter. For high strength
friction grip bolts, additional
information needs to be supplied
with regards to the analysis
method.
Enter the strength properties of the
beam, column and connection
members.
Specify the weld strength.
Note: If you need to modify the available bolt grades or bolt sizes, edit the General
Preferences from the Settings menu in Calcpad.
Note: All entered loads should be ULS loads. The corresponding SLS loads are obtained by
dividing the entered ULS loads by the SLS factor. The SLS factor should thus be set equal
to the relevant ULS load factor divided by the SLS load factor.
Tip: For a table summarising the design results, go to the Calcsheet page.
Note: Several valid design solutions are possible for any particular connection. The
optimised results calculated by the programs should be regarded as one such solution.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
The Hollow Section Connection Design module does a complete design of welded structural
hollow section connections. The connecting members may transmit axial force and can be
circular, square or rectangular hollow sections. I-sections and H-sections can also be used for
the main chord.
Design codes
The program designs according to recommendations given in Annex K of Eurocode 3 - 1992.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols and sign conventions are used as in the design codes:
Section dimensions
bi : Width of a section (mm or inches).
hi : Height of a section (mm or inches).
hw : Web height of an I-section or H-section (mm or inches).
i : Section number. The main chord is identified by i = 0 and the left, right and
centre chords by i = 1 to 3 respectively.
ro : Radius between the web and flange of an I-section or H-section (mm or
inches).
ti : Thickness of a section, i.e. wall thickness of a hollow section or flange
thickness of an I-section or H-section (mm or inches).
tw : Web thickness of an I-section or H-section (mm or inches).
Joint geometry
g : The clear gap between bracing as measured member on the chord surface (mm
or inches). A negative value denotes an overlap.
Symmetry : Enter Y to make an X-joint symmetric, i.e. mirrored about the main chord. If
you enter N, bracing members continue along their axes to the other side of
the main chord.
X-joint : Enter Y to put bracing elements on both sides of the main chord, i.e. an X-
joint. This option can only be used in combination with K, N and T joints
where a circular hollow section is used as the main chord. Enter N for bracing
members on one side of the main chord only.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported. When changing from one
system of units to another, the program automatically converts all input data.
Tip: Use the 3D rendering option to view and rotate the connection in 3D.
Tip: The Data File embedded in the calcsheet can be used for easy recalling of the design
from Calcpad.
The shear connection design modules are suitable for the design of the following connections:
Bolt Group Design, Boltgr: Eccentrically loaded bolt groups.
Weld Group Design, Weldgr: Eccentrically loaded weld groups.
Design codes
The programs support the following design codes:
BS 5950 - 1990.
CSA S16.1 - M89.
Eurocode 3 - 1992.
SABS 0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
SABS 0162 - 1993 (limit state design).
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes:
Bolt group geometry
d : Bolt Size.
a1 : Horizontal bolt spacing
a2 : Vertical bolt spacing
nr : Number of rows of bolts in the group.
nc : Number of columns.
Material properties
fu : Ultimate strength of steel or weld.
fy : Yield strength of steel.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported. In addition, you can also choose
between units within the selected system, e.g. between mm and cm.
Analysis principles
The program designs bolt groups and fillet weld groups subjected to eccentric shear using
either linear or non-linear strength relationships.
Linear analysis
Eccentrically loaded fastener groups are usually analysed by considering the group areas as an
elastic cross-section subjected to direct shear and torsion. Assuming elastic behaviour, the
groups centre of rotation is taken as the groups centroid. The deformation of each fastener is
then assumed proportional to its distance from the assumed centre of rotation.
The elastic method has been popular because of its simplicity and has been found conservative.
Salmon and Johnson1 quotes the ratio between actual strength and service loads to be in the
range of 2.5 to 3.0.
Non-linear analysis
The non-linear method, also called plastic analysis or instantaneous centre of rotation method,
assumes that the eccentric load causes a rotation as well as a translation effect on the fastener
group. The translation and rotation is reduced to a pure rotation about a point defined as the
instantaneous centre of rotation.
Similar to the linear method, the deformation of each fastener is taken proportional to its
distance from the instantaneous centre of rotation. The load in each fastener is however
1
C. G. Salmon and J. E. Johnson, "Steel Structures, Design and Behaviour", Third Edition
(1990), Harper Collins Publishers.
(
Ri = Rult 1 e 10 ) 0.55
The relationship assumes a bearing-type connection and ignores slip. The coefficients 10 and
0.55 were experimentally determined. For the given experimental setup, the maximum
deformation, , at failure was about 0.34 inches (8.6 mm).
Salmon and Johnson1 conclude that the plastic analysis method is the most rational approach
to obtain the strength of eccentric shear connections.
(
Rnorm = 1.0181 e 3.4 )
0.55
2
J. W. Fisher, "Behaviour of Fasteners and Plates with Holes", Journal of the Structural
Division, ASCE, 91, STD6 (December 1965).
3
S. F. Crawford and G. L. Kulak, "Eccentrically Loaded Bolted Connections", Journal of the
Structural Division, ASCE, 97, ST3 (March 1971).
(
R = Ru 0.5(sin ) + 1.0
1.5
)
where
Ru = Ultimate strength of a fillet weld loaded with longitudinal shear
R = Resistance of a fillet weld when the loading angle equals .
The relationship was determined empirically and implies the resistance in a weld element will
vary between 1.0Ru for longitudinal shear and 1.5Ru for transverse shear.
4
D. F. Lesik and D. J. L. Kennedy, "Ultimate Strength of Eccentrically Loaded Fillet Welded
Connections", Structural Engineering Report 159, Department of Civil Engineering, University
of Alberta
Shear Connection Design 5-35
Input
The definition of bolt groups and weld groups follow the same basic pattern. However, the
geometry of weld groups is entered using a slightly more complex method of polygon
definition.
Note: If the Code column is left blank, relative coordinates are used.
The X/Radius and Y/Angle columns are used for entering coordinates, radii and angles:
X : Absolute or relative X-coordinate. Values are taken positive to the right and
negative to the left.
Radius : Radius of a circle or an arc.
Y : Absolute or relative Y coordinate. Values are taken positive upward and
negative downward.
Angle : Angle that an arc is extending through.
Note: If the X/Radius or Y/Angle column is left blank, a zero value is used.
Weld generation
Click the 'standard'shapes for
quick generation of welds.
Enter the required dimensions
and orientation angle. Press
Add to input to append the
shape to the bottom of the
table. The default values of X,
Y and are set to the ending
values of the last weld
segment.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
The simple connection design modules are suitable for the design of the following connections:
Double Angle Cleat Connection Design, Cleat: Web cleat connections.
End Plate Connection Design, Endplate: Flexible end plate connections.
Fin Plate Connection Design, Finplate: Fin plate connections.
Design scope
The simple connection design modules can analyse connections that transmit end shear and
axial force only. A designed connection has negligible resistance to rotation and is thus
incapable of transmitting significant moments at ultimate limit state.
The following assumptions are made:
The centre lines of the beam and column are in the same plane.
The connection transmits end shear only.
Bolts have normal clearance holes.
All bolts have threads in their shear planes.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
AISC - 1993 LRFD.
BS5950 - 1990.
CSA S16.1 - M89.
Eurocode 3 - 1992.
SABS0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
SABS0162 - 1993 (limit state design).
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
Sign conventions
All applied shear forces are entered as loads in the beams local axes:
A positive axial force is taken as a compression force.
A downward shear force is taken as positive.
Members
Define the connection orientation and profile to use for each member:
Select a connection type by clicking the Member orientation buttons.
The column and the beam can be set to I or H-sections.
The definition of the connecting member depends on the type of connection:
Double angle cleat connection: Select an angle section and enter the cleat length.
Fin plate and end plate connections: Enter a plate height, width and thickness.
Define the relative element positions by entering the spacing between the column and
beam and the vertical position of the cleat or connecting plate.
Tip: Click the Auto size and Auto spacing buttons for quick input of workable dimensions.
Design parameters
Select the connection shear
analysis method and define the
fastener and member material
properties:
Select between linear and
non-linear analysis of bolts
in shear. For a detailed
explanation of the analysis
methods, refer to page 5-33.
Enter a bolt type, grade and
diameter. For high strength
friction grip bolts, additio-
nal information needs to be
Connections
The layout of the bolts on the
connecting member is defined
by entering their number and
spacing.
In the case of angle cleats, the
connections to the beam and
column are defined indepen-
dently.
View connection
To verify that you have defined
the connection geometry as you
intended, you can view it from
several angles:
Dimensioned elevations are
an easy way to check bolt
spacings and the spacing
between the members.
Use the 3D view to verify
the overall layout and check
that bolts are far enough
from webs and flanges. You
can rotate a 3D view and
use the View point and
View plane controls as
described in Chapter 2.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Concrete Design
The concrete design modules can be used for the design of reinforced and pre-stressed concrete
beams and slabs, columns, column bases and retaining walls.
Several concrete design modules are included in the PROKON suite. These are useful tools for
the design and detailing typical reinforced and pre-stressed concrete members.
Column design
Rectangular Column Design and Circular Column Design offer rapid design and detailing
of simple short and slender columns. Columns with complicated shapes can be designed using
the General Column Design module.
Substructure design
Use the Column Base Design and Retaining Wall design to design and detail typical bases
and soil retaining walls.
Section design
Two modules, Concrete Section Design and Section Design for Crack width, are available
for the quick design of sections for strength and crack width requirements.
The Continuous Beam and Slab Design module is used to design and detail reinforced
concrete beams and slabs as encountered in typical building projects. The design incorporates
automated pattern loading and moment redistribution.
Complete bending schedules can be generated for editing and printing using Padds.
Design scope
The program designs and details continuous concrete beams and slabs. You can design
structures ranging from simply supported single span to twenty-span continuous beams and
slabs. Cross-sections can include a mixture rectangular, I, T and L-sections. Spans can have
constant or tapered sections.
Entered dead and live loads are automatically applied as pattern loads during the analysis. At
ultimate limit state, moments and shears are redistributed to a specified percentage.
Reinforcement can be generated for various types of beams and slabs, edited and saved as
Padds compatible bending schedules.
Design codes
The following codes are supported:
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
Reinforcement bending schedules are generated in accordance to the guidelines given by the
following publications:
General principles: BS 4466 and SABS 082.
Guidelines for detailing: Standard Method of Detailing Structural Concrete published by
the British Institute of Structural Engineers.
Sub-frame analysis
A two-dimensional frame model is constructed from the input data. Section properties are
based on the gross un-cracked concrete sections. Columns can optionally be specified below
and above the beam/slab and can be made pinned or fixed at their remote ends.
Note: No checks are made for the slenderness limits of columns or beam flanges.
and all other spans with minimum load, as was the case with CP 110 - 1972 and
SABS 0100 - 1980, is not considered.
The following are special considerations with pertaining to design using SABS 0100 - 1992:
SABS 0100 - 1992 suggests a constant ULS dead load factor of 1.2 for all pattern load
cases. In contrast, the BS 8110 codes suggest a minimum ULS dead load factor of 1.0 for
calculating the minimum ultimate dead load. The program uses the more approach given
by the BS 8110 codes at all times, i.e. a ULS load factor of 1.0 for minimum dead load and
the maximum load factor specified for maximum dead load.
The South African loading code, SABS 0162 - 1989, prescribes an additional load case of
1.5DL. This load case is not considered during the analysis if required, you should
adjustment the applied loads manually. In cases where the dead load is large in comparison
with the live load, e.g. lightly loaded roof slabs, this load case can be incorporated by
increasing the entered dead load or increasing the ULS dead load factor. This adjustment
applies to cases where 1.5DL > 1.2DL + 1.6LL or, in other words, LL < 19%. Using
an increased dead load factor of 1.4 instead of the normal 1.2 will satisfy all cases except
where 1.5DL > 1.4DL + 1.6LL or, in other words, LL < 6%DL.
The moment envelopes are calculated for pattern loading and then redistributed using the
procedures explained in the following text.
Downwards redistribution
The downward distribution
method aims to reduce the
hogging moments at the
columns without increasing
the sagging moments at
midspan. The redistribution
of moments and shear forces
procedure is performed as
follows:
1. The maximum hogging
moment at each column
or internal support is
adjusted downward by
the specified maximum
percentage.
2. The corresponding span
moments are adjusted
downward to maintain
static equilibrium. The
downward adjustment
of hogging moments
above is limited to
prevent any increase in
the maximum span
moments of end spans.
3. The shear forces for the
same load cases are
adjusted to maintain
static equilibrium.
Note: The exact amount of moment redistribution specified is always applied, irrespective
of the degree of ductility of the relevant sections. Where necessary, ductility is improved by
limiting the neutral axis depth. This is achieved by adding additional compression
reinforcement.
Elastic deflections
Short-term elastic deflections are calculated using un-factored SLS pattern loading. Gross un-
cracked concrete sections are used.
Long-term deflections
Long-term deflections are determined by first calculating the cracked transformed sections:
1. The full SLS design load is applied to all spans to obtain the elastic moment diagram.
2. The cracked transformed sections are then calculated at 250 mm intervals along the length
of the beam. The results of these calculations are tabled in the Crack files on the
View output pages.
Note: The calculation of the cracked transformed section properties is initially based on the
amount of reinforcement required at ULS. However, once reinforcement is generated for
beams, the actual entered reinforcement is used instead. You can thus control deflections by
manipulating reinforcement quantities.
Next, the long-term deflection components are calculated by numerically integrating the
curvature diagrams:
1. Shrinkage deflection is calculated by applying the specified shrinkage strain.
Unsymmetrical beams and unsymmetrical reinforcement layouts will cause a curvature in
the beam.
2. The creep deflection is calculated by applying the total dead load and the permanent
portion of the live load on the beam. The modulus of elasticity of the concrete is reduced
in accordance with the relevant design code.
3. The instantaneous deflection is calculated by applying the transient portion of the live load
on the transformed crack section.
4. The long-term deflection components are summed to yield the total long-term deflection.
Note: When calculating the curvatures for integration, elastic moments are used together
with cracked transformed sections, which implies plastic behaviour. Although this
procedure is performed in accordance with the design codes, the use of elastic moments
together with cracked sections in the same calculation is a contradiction of principles. As a
result of this, long-term deflection diagrams may show slight slope discontinuities at
supports, especially in cases of severe cracking.
The design procedures for flat slabs and coffer slabs are described in more detail on page 6-9.
Parameters input
Enter the following design parameters:
fcu : Characteristic strength of concrete (MPa).
fy : Characteristic strength of main reinforcement (MPa).
fyv : Characteristic strength of shear reinforcement (MPa).
Redistr : Percentage of moment redistribution to be applied.
Method : Method of moment redistribution, i.e. downward or optimised. Refer to page 6-
8 for detail.
Cover top : Distance from the top surface of the concrete to the centre of the top steel.
Cover bottom: Distance from the soffit to the centre of the bottom steel.
DL factor : Maximum ULS dead load factor.
LL factor : Maximum ULS live load factor.
Note: The ULS dead and live load factors are used to calculate the ULS design loads. The
ULS dead and live loads are then automatically patterned during analysis. Refer to page 6-7
for more information.
Density : Concrete density used for calculation of own weight. If the density filed is left
blank, the self-weight of the beam/slab should be included in the entered dead
loads.
LL perm : Portion of live load to be considered as permanent when calculating the creep
components of the long-term deflection.
: The thirty-year creep factor used for calculating the final concrete creep strain.
cs : Thirty-year drying shrinkage of plain concrete.
Note: Creep and shrinkage of plain concrete are primarily dependent on the relative
humidity of the air surrounding the concrete. Where detailed calculations are being made,
stresses and relative humidity may vary considerably during the lifetime of the structure and
appropriate judgements should be made.
Sections input
You can define rectangular, I, T, L and inverted T and L-sections. Every section comprises a
basic rectangular web area with optional top and bottom flanges.
The top levels of all sections are aligned vertically by default and they are placed with their
webs symmetrically around the vertical beam/slab centre line. The web and/or flanges can be
move horizontally to obtain eccentric sections, for example L-sections. Whole sections can
also be moved up or down to obtain vertical eccentricity.
Section definitions are displayed graphically as they are entered. Section cross-sections are
displayed as seen from the left end of the beam/slab.
Note: There is more than one way of entering a T-section. The recommended method is to
enter a thin web with a wide top flange. You can also enter wide web (actual top flange)
with a thin bottom flange (actual web). The shear steel design procedure works with the
entered web area, i.e. Bw D, as the effective shear area. Although the two methods produce
similar pictures, their shear modelling is vastly different.
Spans input
Sections specified on the Sections input page are used here with segment lengths to define
spans of constant or varying sections.
Tip: When using varying cross sections on a span segment, the section definitions are
interpreted literally. If a rectangular section should taper to an L-section, for example, the
flange will taper from zero thickness at the rectangular section to the actual thickness at the
L-section. If the flange thickness should remain constant, a dummy flange should be defined
for the rectangular section. The flange should be defined marginally wider, say 0.1mm, than
the web and its depth made equal to the desired flange depth.
Supports input
You can specify simple supports, columns below and above, fixed ends and cantilever ends. To
allow a complete sub-frame analysis, columns can be specified below and above the beam/slab.
If no column data is entered, simple supports are assumed.
The following input is required:
Sup no : Support number, between 1 to 2. Support 1 is the left-most support.
C,F : The left-most and right-most supports can be freed, i.e. cantilevered, or made
fixed by entering C or F respectively. By fixing a support, full rotational
fixity is assumed, e.g. the beam/slab frames into a very stiff shaft or column.
D : Depth/diameter of a rectangular/circular column (mm). The depth is measured
in the span direction of the beam/slab.
B : Width of the column (mm). If zero or left blank, a circular column is assumed.
H : Height of the column (m).
Tip: For the sake of accurate reinforcement detailing, you can specify a width for simple
supports at the ends of the beam/slab. Simply enter a value for D and leave B and H blank.
In the analysis, the support will still be considered as a normal simple support. However,
when generating reinforcement bars, the program will extend the bars a distance equal to
half the support depth past the support centre line.
Tip: You may leave the Support input table blank if all supports are simple supports.
Loads input
Dead and live loads are entered separately. The entered loads are automatically patterned
during analysis. For more detail on the pattern loading technique, refer to page 6-7.
Distributed loads, point loads and moments can be entered on the same line. Use as many lines
as necessary to define each load case. Defined loads as follows:
Case D,L : Enter D or L for dead load or live load respectively. If left blank, the previous
load type is assumed. Use as many lines as necessary to define a load case.
Span : Span number on which the load is applied. If left blank, the previous span
number is assumed, i.e. a continuation of the load on the current span.
Wleft : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of
the load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
Note: A portion of the live load can be considered as permanent for deflection calculation.
For more detail, refer to the explanation of the Parameters input on page 6-9.
Note: If you enter a concrete density on the Parameters input page, the own weight of the
beam/slab is automatically calculated and included with the dead load.
Analysis procedure
Two separate analyses are performed for SLS and ULS calculations.
Tip: After having generated reinforcement for a beam, the long-term deflections will be
recalculated using the actual reinforcement.
Deflections
The elastic deflection envelope
represents the deflections due to
SLS pattern loading.
The long-term deflection diagram
represents the behaviour of the
beam/slab under full SLS
loading, taking into account the
effects of shrinkage and creep:
The green line represents the
total long-term deflection.
The shrinkage deflection is
shown in red.
The creep deflection (long-term
deflection due to permanent loads)
is given by the distance between the
red and blue lines.
The distance between the blue and
green lines represents instantaneous
deflection due to transient loads.
Note: Long-term deflections in beams are influenced by reinforcement layout. Initial long-
term deflection values are based on the reinforcement required at ultimate limit state. Once
reinforcement has been generated for a beam, the long-term deflections will be based on the
actual reinforcement instead.
Steel diagrams
Bending and shear reinforcement
envelopes are given for ULS
pattern loading. The bending
reinforcement diagram sows
required top steel above the zero
line and bottom steel below.
Detailing parameters
The detailing parameters set the rules to be used by the program when generating
reinforcement:
Beam/slab type: Different detailing rules apply to different types of beams and slabs:
Tip: To force the program to use a specific bar diameter, you can enter the same value for
both the minimum and maximum diameters.
Note: The default bar types used for main bars and stirrups, e.g. mild steel or high tensile,
are determined by the yield strength values entered on the Parameters input page refer to
page 6-9 for detail. High tensile steel markings, e.g. '
T'or 'Y', will be used for specified
values of f y and f yv exceeding 350MPa.
Stirrup shape code: Preferred shape code to use for stirrups. Valid shape codes include:
BS 4466: 55, 61, 77, 78 and 79.
SABS 082: 55, 60, 72, 73 and 74.
Note: For beams and ribs, the minimum stirrup percentage should not be taken less than
100% of nominal shear reinforcement.
Loose method of detailing: The envisaged construction technique can be taken into
account when detailing reinforcement:
With the loose method of detailing, also referred to as the splice-bar method, span
reinforcement and link hangers are stopped short about 100 mm inside each column
face. This is done at all internal columns were congestion of column and beam
reinforcement is likely to occur. The span bars and stirrups are often made into a cage,
lifted and lowered between supports. For continuity, separate splice bars are provided
through the vertical bars of each internal column to extend a lap length plus 100 mm
into each span. Top bars will extend over supports for the required distance and lapped
with nominal top bars or link hangers. Allowance is made for a lap length of 40 and a
100 mm tolerance for the bottom splice bars that are acting in compression.
Alternatively, where accessibility during construction allows, the ' normal'method of
detailing usually yields a more economical reinforcement layout. This method allows
bottom bars to be lapped at support centre lines. Top bars will extend over supports for
the required distance and lapped with link hangers. Where more practical, top bars over
adjacent supports may be joined. Adjacent spans are sometimes detailed together.
Generating reinforcement
Use the Generate reinforcing to have the program generate bars according the detailing
parameters.
Note: The aim of the automatic reinforcement generation function is to achieve a reasonable
optimised reinforcement layout for any typical beam or slab layout. More complicated
layouts will likely require editing of the generated reinforcement as described in the text that
follows. Very complicated layouts may require more detailed editing using Padds.
Editing reinforcement
You can modify the generated reinforcement to suite your requirements by editing the
information on the Main reinforcing, Stirrups, Shear reinforcing and Sections pages.
Main reinforcing
The main reinforcement bars are defined as follows:
Bars: The quantity, type and diameter of the bar, example 2T20 or 2Y16. The bar
defined at the cursor position is highlighted in the elevation.
Mark: An alphanumerical string of up to five characters in length, example A, 01
or A001.
Shape code: Standard bar shape code. Valid shape codes for main bars include 20, 32, 33,
34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39 and 51.
Span: The beam/slab span number.
Offset: Distance from the left end of the span to the start point of the bar (m). A negative
value makes the bar start to the left of the beginning of the span, i.e. in the previous span.
Length: Length of the bar as seen in elevation (m).
Hook: If a bar has a hook or bend, enter L or R to it on the left or right side. If this field
is left blank, an L is assumed.
Layer: Position the bar in the top, middle or bottom layer. Use the letters T, M or B
with an optional number, e.g. T or T1 and T2.
Stirrups
Define stirrup layouts as follows:
Stirrup number: Enter a stirrup configuration number. Configuration numbers are used
on the Shear reinforcing input page (see page 6-9) to reference specific configuration. If
left blank, the number applicable to the previous row is assumed, i.e. an extended
definition of the current configuration.
Section number: Concrete cross section number as defined on the Sections input page
(see page 6-9). If left blank, the number applicable to previous row in the table is used.
Bars: Type and diameter of bar, example R10.
Tip: Open stirrups, e.g. shape code 55, can be closed by entering a shape code 35.
The diagrams for required and entered shear reinforcement are superimposed. The required
steel diagram takes into account shear enhancements at the supports.
It may sometimes be acceptable to enter less shear steel than the calculated amount of nominal
sheer steel, e.g. when the stirrups are only used as hangers to aid the fixing main steel in slabs.
Sections
Cross-sections can be generated anywhere along the length of the beam/slab to show the main
and shear steel layout:
Label: The cross-section designation, e.g. '
A'.
Span no: The beam/slab span number.
Offset: The position of the section, given as a distance from the left end of the span (m).
Sections are displayed on the screen and can be used to check the validity of steel entered at the
different positions. Stirrup layouts defined on the Stirrups input (see page 6-9) rely on
appropriate section positions specified. All specified sections will be included in the final
bending schedule.
Note: When combining a drawing and schedule on the same page, the number of schedule
lines is limited to a maximum of twenty-four in Padds. Using more lines will result in the
drawing and schedule being printed on separate pages.
Use the Generate schedule function to create and display the Padds bending schedule.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds Users Guide.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Note: If the own weight is modelled using a density, you should account for the increased
loading by either increase the density value by 12.5% or increasing the applied dead load.
The program will analyse the panel and generate a column strip, 1500 mm wide, and a middle
strip 4500 mm wide.
Reinforcement layout
Careful combination of the column and middle strips generated above, should yield a
reasonably economical reinforcement layout:
For typical internal strips (strip A), use the generated column strip (CA) and middle
strip (MA).
For the column strip over the external row of columns, use no less than the column strip
reinforcement (CB) generated for the external strip (strip B).
For the column strip over the first row of internal columns, use no less than the column
strip reinforcement (CC) generated for the first internal strip (strip C).
The first middle strip from the edge (MC/MB) can be conservatively taken as the worst of
middle strip generated for the first internal strip (MC) and twice that generated for the
external strip (MB).
Note: You should validate the design procedure by checking that, in zones of sagging
moment, the concrete compression zones of coffer ribs fall within the coffer flanges. Zones
of hogging moment should be located inside solid bands.
Captain (Computer Aided Post Tensioning Analysis Instrument) can be used to design and
detail most types of continuous pre-stressed beam and slab systems encountered in typical
building projects. The design incorporates automated pattern loading and moment
redistribution.
Both unbounded systems, e.g. flat slabs, and bonded systems, e.g. bridge decks, can be
designed. Estimates for quantities are calculated and tendon profile schedules can be generated
for use with Padds.
Design scope
The program designs and details continuous pre-stressed concrete beams and slabs. You can
design structures ranging from simply supported single span to twenty-span continuous beams
or slabs.
Cross-sections can include a mixture rectangular, I, T and L-sections. More complex sections,
e.g. box bridge decks, can be modelled with the aid of the section properties calculation
module, Prosec. Spans can have constant or tapered sections.
Entered dead and live loads are automatically applied as pattern loads during the analysis. You
can also enter individual load cases and group them in load combinations. At ultimate limit
state, moments and shears are redistributed to a specified percentage.
Pre-stressed tendons can be generated to balance a specified percentage of dead load.
Conventional reinforcement can be added to help control cracking, deflection and increase the
ULS capacity.
Tendon profiles can be scheduled and saved as Padds compatible drawings.
Design codes
The following codes are supported:
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
Reinforcement bending schedules are generated in accordance to the guidelines given by the
following publications:
Report No 2 of the Joint Structural Division of SAICE and ISA (JSD), Design of Pre-
stressed Concrete Flat Slabs.
Technical Report 25 of the Concrete Society, published in 1984.
Attached torsional members are treated in accordance with ACI 318 - 1989.
Note: No checks are made for the slenderness limits of columns or beam flanges.
Column stiffness
BS 8110 and SABS 0100 - 1992 assume that columns are rigidly fixed to slabs over the whole
width of the panel. If the ultimate negative moment at an outer column exceeds the moment of
resistance in the adjacent slab width, the moment in the column should be reduced and the
sagging moment in the outer span should be increased to maintain equilibrium.
In ACI 318 - 1989, on the other hand, allowance is made for the reduction of column stiffness
due to torsion. Report 2 of the JSD adapts a similar column stiffness reduction approach. The
program incorporates this approach by allowing you to optionally enable attached torsional
members.
Note: When the approach to include the attached torsional members is followed, column
heads will also be taken into account in the column stiffness.
Pattern loading
At ultimate limit state, the dead and live loads are multiplied by the specified ULS load
factors (see page 6-9). Unity load factors are used at serviceability limit state. The following
load cases are considered (the sketch uses the load factors applicable to BS8110):
All spans are loaded with
the maximum design load.
Equal spans are loaded with
the maximum design
ultimate load and unequal
spans with the minimum
design dead load.
Unequal spans are loaded
with the maximum design
load and equal spans loaded
with the minimum design
dead load.
The following are special considerations with pertaining to design using SABS 0100 - 1992:
SABS 0100 - 1992 suggests a constant ULS dead load factor of 1.2 for all pattern load
cases. In contrast, the BS 8110 codes suggest a minimum ULS dead load factor of 1.0 for
calculating the minimum ultimate dead load. The program uses the more approach given
by the BS 8110 codes at all times, i.e. a ULS load factor of 1.0 for minimum dead load and
the maximum load factor specified for maximum dead load.
The South African loading code, SABS 0162 - 1989, prescribes an additional load case of
1.5DL. This load case is not considered during the analysis if required, you should
adjust the applied loads manually. In cases where the dead load is large in comparison
with the live load, e.g. lightly loaded roof slabs, increasing the entered dead load or
increasing the ULS dead load factor can incorporate this load case. This adjustment
applies to cases where 1.5DL > 1.2DL + 1.6LL or, in other words, LL < 19%. Using
an increased dead load factor of 1.4 instead of the normal 1.2 will satisfy all cases except
where 1.5DL > 1.4DL + 1.6LL or, in other words, LL < 6%DL.
Moment redistribution
Ultimate limit state bending moments are redistributed for each span by adjusting the support
moments downward with the specified percentage. If the method of moment redistribution is
set to '
optimised', the design moments are further minimised by redistributing span moments
upward as well.
The moment envelopes are calculated for pattern loading and then redistributed using the
procedures explained in the following text.
Code requirements
The JSD Report 2 recommends that the maximum moment redistribution should not
exceed 20%.
Downwards redistribution
The downward distribution method aims to reduce the hogging moments at the columns
without increasing the sagging moments at midspan. The redistribution of moments and shear
forces procedure is performed as follows:
4. The maximum hogging moment at each column or internal support is adjusted downward
by the specified maximum percentage.
Optimised redistribution:
The optimised distribution procedure takes the above procedure a step further by upward
distribution of the span moments. The envelopes for the three pattern load cases are
redistributed as follows:
11. The maximum hogging
moment at each internal
support is adjusted
downward by the
specified percentage.
This adjustment affects
the moment diagram for
the load case where the
maximum design load is
applied to all spans.
12. The relevant span
moments are adjusted
accordingly to maintain
static equilibrium.
13. The minimum hogging
moment at each internal
support is subsequently
adjusted upward to as
close as possible to the
reduced maximum
support moment, whilst
remaining in the
permissible
redistribution range. A
second load case is thus
affected for each span.
14. The relevant span
moments are adjusted in
line with this redis-
tribution of the column
moments to maintain
static equilibrium.
Note: As would be the case in typical pre-stressed sections, the program assumes that all
sections have adequate ductility to allow moment redistribution. The actual ductility of
sections is not verified.
Note: The program uses load balancing only for the purpose of generating tendons.
Since long-term losses are not known beforehand, a 15% loss of pre-stress is assumed. Further,
the generation procedure that tendons are stressed to 70% of their ultimate tensile
strength (UTS).
The details of the tendon generation procedure are explained in the following text.
The tendon force, T, required to produce the balanced load Wbal is given by
drape =
((b1 + b3)/ 2 b2)(Length L R )
Length
The tendon force required to produce the balanced load Wbal is then given by
Further, the corresponding vertical offset for the start of the radius, yw, is given by
xw 2
yw =
2R min
b b yw
= arctan 3 1
Length x w
The tendon force required to produce the balanced load Wbal is then given by
1.15Wbal
Treq =
sin
Further, the corresponding vertical offset for the start of the radius, yw, is taken as
xw2
yw =
2R min
The tendon force required to produce the balanced load Wbal is then given by
1.15Wbal
Treq =
16d1 16d 2
+
3 Length 3 (Length xw )
where
2(b1 b2 )
d1 =
3
2(b3 y w b2 )
d2 =
3
Further, the corresponding vertical offset for the start of the radius, yw, is taken as
xw 2
yw =
2R min
The tendon force required to produce the balanced load Wbal is then given by
1.15Wbal
Treq =
(16d 2 + 16d 2 )
3 (Length x )
w
where
2(b1 y w b2 )
d1 =
3
2(b3 y w b2 )
d2 =
3
Pre-stress losses
In the following text, an explanation as given for the various components of pre-stress losses:
Friction losses.
Wedge-set.
Long-term losses.
where
a dif = a 2 a1
These values are used to determine the position of the lowest point on the parabola, X, and are
derived from the basic parabolic equations describing the tendon profiles. The position of the
lowest point is at midspan if adif is equal to zero, otherwise it is calculated as
p
x=
2a dif
where
p = m 2 a dif n
If x 0, then the vertical position of the left inflection point, c1, is given by
a1 L
c1 = else c1 is zero.
X
If L X then the vertical position of the right inflection point, cs, is given by
a2 R
c2 = else c2 is zero.
Length X
Pe = Poe( + k ) Length
where
Po = Applied tendon force
= Friction coefficient of the tendon against the sheath
= Cumulative angle of curvature over length
k = Friction coefficient for unintentional variation form specified profile (wobble in
sheath)
The position of the end of the left minimum radius, xwL, is given by
x wL = 0 otherwise.
Corresponding to this
x wL 2
y wL =
2R min
Similarly, the position of the start of the right minimum radius, xwR, is given by
Corresponding to this
x wR 2
y wR =
2R min
where
Lfric = Portion over which the losses occur.
Wedge-set
As soon as the stressing jacks are
released, a phenomenon known as
wedge-set or wedge pull-in occurs.
In typical building slabs, the tendons
normally pull in by about 5mm to
10 mm before the tendons grip onto
the wedges in the anchor head. The
influence on the tendon force is
significant.
Because of frictional losses, the effect of wedge-set is to reduce the effective pre-stress over a
limited length of tendon only. This length, labelled lw, is calculated by considering the average
force loss over the entire length of the tendon:
Pbegin Pend
m=
Total tendon length
d ws Aps Es
lw =
m
where
Aps = Area of tendons
Es = Modulus of elasticity of tendons
ds = Wedge-set
The tendon force profile can then be adjusted by reducing the tendon force at the live anchor
by 2Plossws and taking the negative pre-stress loss gradient up to the position of wedge-set
influence, lw.
Long-term tosses
The average steel strain in all the tendons is given by
( Pspan begin + Ps pan end )
st =
2 Es Aps
This summation is carried out over all spans for all tendons.
The creep strain is estimated as
Pavg
creep =
Ac E c
where
Pavg = Average pre-stressing force
Ac = Concrete area
Ec = Concrete modulus of elasticity
= Creep factor
The percentage total losses can be calculated as
100( shrinkage + creep )
% Loss = %relaxation +
Es Aps
where
shrinkage = Shrinkage strain
creep = Strain due to creep
where
adi f = a3 a1
These values are used to determine the position of the lowest point on the parabola, X, and are
derived from the basic parabolic equations describing the tendon profiles. The position of the
lowest point is at midspan if adif is equal to zero, otherwise it is calculated as
p
X=
2a dif
where
p = m 2 adif n
If x WKHQYHUWLFDOSRVLWLRQRIOHIWLQIOHFWLRQSRLQWc1, is given by
a1 L
c1 = else c1 is zero.
X
If L = 0 then W1 = 0.
The central portion of the equivalent tendon load is calculated by using a length lcalc. The
distance lcalc is measured from the lowest point of the parabola to the nearest inflection point.
If the left inflection point is nearest to the lowest point, then
lcalc = X L
Else, if the right inflection point is nearest to the lowest point, then
lcalc = Length X R
If R = 0 then W3 = 0.
If the value of X is equal to zero, it implies that the tendon is horizontal at the beginning or end
of the span. If the value of L or R is equal to zero, it means that there is no reverse portion of
the parabola. In such a case a point load is calculated which acts downwards at the support.
2a
= arctan 1
X
2a
= arctan 3
X
If a tendon is stopped off away from the neutral axis, a point moment is generated in the slab.
The magnitude of this moment is given by:
M t = Ptendon etendon
where
etendon = Tendon eccentricity measured from the section neutral axis.
Note: Tensile concrete stresses are not considered when generating tendon profiles. The pre-
stressing is considered as an external load with a load balancing effect. Typical bridge
design code checks for class 1, 2 and 3 structures should be done in an iterative way by
manually checking the stress diagrams.
Permissible Tension
Loading Permissible
Condition Compression
Bonded Un-bonded
Transfer
The allowable stresses tabled above apply to post-tensioned flat slab design. Different values
may apply to the design of other types of members. Refer to the relevant design code for
allowable stresses for class 1, 2 and 3 pre-tensioned and post-tensioned members.
Code guidelines
Deflection can generally be controlled in the preliminary design by limiting span to depth
ratios. Report 2 of the JSD gives the following guidelines for flat slabs where at least half of
the dead plus live load is balanced by pre-stress:
Light 40 to 48
Heavy 28 to 36
Elastic deflections
Short-term elastic deflections are calculated using un-factored SLS pattern loading. Gross un-
cracked concrete sections are used.
Long-term deflections
Long-term deflections are determined by first calculating the cracked transformed sections:
3. The full SLS design load is applied to all spans to obtain the elastic moment diagram.
4. The cracked transformed sections are then calculated at 250 mm intervals along the length
of the beam. The results of these calculations are tabled in the Crack files on the
View output pages.
Note: The calculation of the cracked transformed section properties is initially based on the
amount of reinforcement required at ULS. However, once reinforcement is generated for
beams, the actual entered reinforcement is used instead. You can thus control deflections by
manipulating reinforcement quantities.
Note: When calculating the curvatures for integration, elastic moments are used together
with cracked transformed sections, which implies plastic behaviour. Although this
procedure is performed in accordance with the design codes, the use of elastic moments
together with cracked sections in the same calculation is a contradiction of principles. As a
result of this, long-term deflection diagrams may show slight slope discontinuities at
supports, especially in cases of severe cracking.
Note: Because the additional reinforcement is calculated using stress considerations, the
suggested values are normally conservative. In the final analysis, you should check that the
beam/slab has adequate strength at ultimate limit state.
Moment capacity
The moment capacity is calculated using general flexural theory. The tendon strain at ultimate
limit state is given by
pb = pe + pa
where
pe = Strain due to tendon pre-stress after losses
pa = Additional strain due to applied loading
The strain due to pre-stress is determined from the stress-strain curve. If the pre-stress is within
the elastic limit, the strain is given by
f pe
pe =
Es
The additional strain, pa, is determined by considering the change in concrete strain at the
level of the tendon. The concrete strain distribution resulting from the effective pre-stress force
is shown as a dashed line in the figure.
where
Concrete prestress
e = at the level of the tendons
Ec
where
1 and 2 = Bond coefficients
1 1.0 0.5
2 1.0 0.1
and
pb = pe + pa
dx
= pe + 1 a + 2 cu
x
Therefore
k1 f cu bd 2 cu
f pb =
A ps 2 cu + pb pe 1 c
The values of fpb and pb are solved by iteration using the stress-strain curve to subsequently
yield the neutral axis depth, x.
The ultimate moment of resistance is then calculated as
M u = f pb Aps (d k2 x)
The calculated ULS capacity envelopes for bending moment and shear force incorporate all
tendons and additional reinforcement entered. Strain is calculated on the assumption that plane
sections remain plane and concrete and steel stresses are then calculated correspondingly.
Note: The secondary moments, or a portion thereof, caused by pre-stressing may optionally
be included in the ULS calculations. Refer to page 6-9 for information on specifying the
percentage of secondary moment to be included in the analysis.
Linear shear
The linear shear checks performed by the program are done according to the provisions of
codes using the procedure described below.
An analysis is done on the sub-frame with only the equivalent tendon loads applied. The
minimum fibre stress as a result of the tendon forces is then calculated as
Ptendons M
f pt = +
Aconcrete Z
The section modulus, Z, is taken at the top for negative bending and at the bottom for positive
bending.
The cracking moment is then calculated as
0.8 f pt
Mo =
Z
The section is considered as cracked in areas where the ultimate moment exceeds the cracking
moment.
where
ft = Concrete tensile strength
= 0.24 f cu
Ptendons Ptendons z f
= + for flanged sections
Aconcrete I
zf = Distance from the neutral axis to the junction of the flange and the web of the
section which falls inside the compression zone
In areas that are cracked, the shear capacity s given by
f pe M oV
Vcr = ( 1-0.55 )vc bw d +
f pu M
where
f pe Ptendons
=
f pu No of tendons UTS tendon
The value of vc is calculated by taking into account the total area of pre-stressing tendons and
unstressed steel.
In areas that are cracked, the shear capacity Vcap is the minimum of Vco and Vcr calculated
above.
The shear forces are reduced by the vertical components of the tendon forces if this was
specified. Where the shear force V is less than 0.5 the shear capacity Vcap, no shear
reinforcement is required. Shear reinforcement must be supplied in zones where
(Vcap + 0.4bwd) V 0.5Vcap:
Asv 0.4 bw
=
Sv 0.87 f yv
where
dt = Depth to the bottom reinforcement or tendons about which the stirrups are taken.
Linear shear is normally not a problem in flat slabs, but comes into play if ribbed slabs and
beams are analysed. For flat slabs, punching shear is normally the main shear design criterion.
Note: The factor 1.05 is derived from 1.5M as given by the codes, with a 30% reduction
allowed if the equivalent frame method with pattern loading has been used in calculating the
moments.
If the edge lies parallel with the X-axis, then M = Mx and x = yb. Similarly M = My and x = xb
for the edge parallel to the Y-axis.
For a corner column, the enhanced shear force is given by
Veff = 1.25V
The effective shear force is then adjusted by the vertical components of the tendon forces as
specified. The shear capacity is subsequently checked for each perimeter and reinforcement
calculated.
The shear capacity on a specific perimeter is given by
Vcap = vc u crit d
where
ucrit = Critical perimeter
d = Effective slab depth
The value of vc is calculated for both the x and y-directions and the average of the two values
used. If Veff exceeds Vcap, shear reinforcement is calculated as
Veff vc u crit d 0.4u crit d
Asv =
0.87 f yv 0.87 f yv
The shear reinforcement represents vertical links to be placed in slabs deeper than 200 mm.
Parameters input
The following general parameters are required for analysis and design:
fcu: Characteristic 28day strength of concrete (MPa).
fy: Characteristic strength of additional un-tensioned reinforcement (MPa).
fyv: Characteristic strength of shear reinforcement (MPa).
fci: Characteristic strength of concrete at transfer of pre-stress (MPa).
Ec: Concrete modulus of elasticity (kPa).
Est: Modulus of elasticity of unstressed steel (kPa).
Density: Concrete density used for calculation of own weight.
Note: Own weight is automatically added to the dead load with the auto load combination
mode selected and to the first load case with the user load combination mode selected
refer to page 6-9 for more detail on the load combination modes.
Note: In the automatic load combination mode, the ULS load factors are used with the
patterned dead and live loads. The load factors are ignored when using the user load
combination mode. Refer to page 6-9 for more detail on specifying your own load
combinations. The procedure of automated pattern loading is explained on page 6-9.
Note: Creep and shrinkage of plain concrete are primarily dependent on the relative
humidity of the air surrounding the concrete. Where detailed calculations are being made,
stresses and relative humidity may vary considerably during the lifetime of the structure and
appropriate judgements should be made.
Es: Modulus of elasticity of tendon (kPa). This value is typically set to 195E6 kPa.
Minimum radius: The minimum radius to use for harped tendons at change of slope (m).
This value is ignored when using parabolic tendons.
The top levels of all sections are aligned vertically by default and they are placed with their
webs symmetrically around the vertical beam/slab centre line. The web and/or flanges can be
move horizontally to obtain eccentric sections, for example L-sections. Whole sections can
also be moved up or down to obtain vertical eccentricity.
Note: In the sub-frame analysis, the centroids all beam segments are assumed to be on a
straight line. Vertical offsets of sections are used when calculation of tendon eccentricities
and has no other effect on the design results.
Section definitions are displayed graphically as they are entered. Section cross-sections are
displayed as seen from the left end of the beam/slab.
The following dimensions should be defined for each section:
Sec no: The section number is used on the Spans input page to identify specific sections
(see page 6-9).
Bw: Width of the web (mm).
Note: There is more than one way of entering a T-section. The recommended method is to
enter a thin web with a wide top flange. You can also enter wide web (actual top flange)
with a thin bottom flange (actual web). The linear shear steel design procedure works with
the entered web area, i.e. Bw D, as the effective shear area. Although the two methods
produce similar pictures, their linear shear modelling is vastly different.
Spans input
Sections specified on the Sections input and User sections input pages are used here with
segment lengths to define spans of constant or varying sections.
Spans are defined by specifying one or more span segments, each with a unique set of section
properties. The following data should be input for each span:
Span no: Span number between 1 and 20. If left blank, the span number as was applicable
to the previous row is used, i.e. another segment for the current span.
Section length: Length of span or span segment (m).
Sec No Left: Section number to use at the left end of the span segment.
Tip: When using varying cross sections on a span segment, the section definitions are
interpreted literally. If a rectangular section should taper to an L-section, for example, the
flange will taper from zero thickness at the rectangular section to the actual thickness at the
L-section. If the flange thickness should remain constant, a dummy flange should be defined
for the rectangular section. The flange should be defined marginally wider, say 0.1mm, than
the web and its depth made equal to the desired flange depth.
Supports input
You can specify simple supports, columns below and above, fixed ends and cantilever ends. To
allow a complete sub-frame analysis, columns can be specified below and above the beam/slab.
If no column data is entered, simple supports are assumed.
The following input is required:
Sup no: Support number, between 1 to 2. Support 1 is the left-most support.
Tip: For the sake of accurate reinforcement detailing, you can specify a width for simple
supports at the ends of the beam/slab. Simply enter a value for D and leave B and H blank.
In the analysis, the support will be considered as a normal simple support. However, when
generating reinforcement bars, the program will extend the bars a distance equal to half the
support depth past the support centre line.
Code: A column can be pinned at its remote end by specifying P. If you enter F or leave
this field blank, the column is assumed to be fixed at the remote end.
Tip: You may leave the Support input table blank if all supports are simple supports.
Note: The program will not check the validity of a column head in relation to column. It is
possible, for example, to define an unpractical circular column head for a rectangular
column.
Distributed loads, point loads and moments can be entered on the same line. Use as many lines
as necessary to define each load case. Defined loads as follows:
Case D,L: Enter D or L for dead load or live load respectively. If left blank, the previous
load type is assumed. Use as many lines as necessary to define a load case.
Span: Span number on which the load is applied. If left blank, the previous span number
is assumed, i.e. a continuation of the load on the current span.
Wleft: Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of the
load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
Wright: Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied on the right-hand ending position of the
load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to Wleft, i.e. a uniformly
distributed load is assumed.
P: Point load (kN).
M: Moment (kNm).
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-79
a: The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position of the
moment (m). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of the beam. If you leave
this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is taken to start at the left-hand edge of
the beam.
b: The end position of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the right-hand edge of
the beam.
Note: A portion of the live load can be considered as permanent for deflection calculation.
For more detail, refer to the explanation of the Parameters input on page 6-9.
Note: If you enter a concrete density on the Parameters input page, the own weight of the
beam/slab is automatically calculated and included with the dead load.
Note: No load combinations need be entered if the automatic load combination mode is
selected.
As many lines as necessary may be used to input combinations of the various load cases:
Load Combination: Name of the load combination. If this field is left blank, the load
combination is taken to be the same as for the previous row in the table.
Load Case: Number or name of the load case.
ULS Factor: Load factor with which the load case should be multiplied for the ultimate
limit state.
SLS Factor: Load factor with which the load case should be multiplied for the
serviceability limit state.
Tendon profiles are displayed one set at a time, where a set is defined as one or more tendons
with the same profile and force distribution. The following parameters define the profile for
each span:
L: Left offset of tendon inflection point (parabolic) or slope change (harped) from left end
of span (m).
R: Right offset of tendon inflection point or slope change from right end of span (m).
b1: Distance from top surface to tendon centre line at left end of the span (mm).
b2: Distance from bottom surface at midspan to tendon centre line (mm).
Tip: The values of L and R are normally taken is the greater of span divided by and 250mm
for parabolic cables and span divided by four for harped cables.
Tip: Even if you want to specify your own tendon profile, it is nearly always easier to allow
the program to generate the tendon profiles and then edit them, delete some or add more
tendon groups.
The following parameters are required to define the column and slab geometry:
A: Column dimension in longitudinal direction (mm). If a column below was originally
input, its D value will be used as default.
B: Column dimension in transverse direction (mm). If a column below was originally
input, its B value will be used as default.
C: Column head dimension in longitudinal direction (mm). Leave this field blank if there
is no column head.
D: Column head dimension in the transverse direction (mm). Leave this field blank if there
is no column head.
Deffx: Effective depth for reinforcement orientated in the X-direction (mm).
Deffyx: Effective depth for reinforcement orientated in the Y-direction (mm).
For the calculation of the effective shear force Veff, the program detects internal, edge and
corner columns as follows:
Internal column: Both edges further than 5deff from the column centre.
Edge column: One edge closer than 5deff from the column centre.
Corner column: Two edges closer than 5deff from the column centre.
Note: Irrespective of the selected loading combination mode, the program will assume that
pattern loading would have been applied. The program therefore automatically reduces the
entered values for Mtx and Mty by 30%. Refer to BS 8110 - 1997 clauses 3.7.6.2 and 3.7.6.3
and SABS 0100 - 1992 clauses 4.6.2.2 and 4.6.2.3 for detail.
UDL: Uniform ultimate load in the region of the column (kN/m). The shear force is
reduced by the portion of load within each perimeter considered.
Pcx: The pre-stressing force in the longitudinal direction deemed to have a shear relieving
effect (kN). The value will default to the total pre-stressing force of all tendons. This may
be accurate for banded tendons. However, for tendons spaced further apart, only those
passing through the shear perimeters should be considered. The vertical component of the
entered total pre-stressing force is deducted from the effective shear force.
Pcy: The pre-stressing force in the transverse direction deemed to have a shear relieving
effect (kN). This value must be entered manually.
Slope-X: Average slope of tendons in X-direction crossing the punching shear perimeters.
The slope is used to calculate the vertical component of the pre-stress relieving the
effective shear force. The program will base the initial value on the generated tendon
profiles.
Slope-Y: Average slope of tendons in Y-direction crossing the punching shear perimeters.
The value must be entered manually.
Note: Although the program performs a uni-directional analysis for bending moment,
deflections, etc, bi-directional effects are included in the punching shear design procedure.
6-86 Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design
Tip: For orthogonally stressed slabs, it is recommended that you design one direction, e.g.
the banded direction, and record the relevant punching shear values. On analysing the other
direction, you can enter these parameters for the Y-direction entered for complete
bi-directional punching shear checks.
Note: When calculating the shear resistance Vc, both bonded and un-bonded tendons are
considered.
Note: The amount of conventional reinforcement can be taken as the average (minimum for
unsymmetrical reinforcement) amount passing through the perimeter on the left and the
right (as seen on the screen) of the column. For an edge or corner column, the amount
should be taken equal to the amount passing through the perimeter on the span side.
Analysis procedure
Two separate analyses are performed for SLS and ULS calculations.
Tip: After having generated reinforcement for a beam, the long-term deflections will be
recalculated using the actual reinforcement.
Deflections
The elastic deflection envelope
represents the deflections due to
SLS pattern loading. The long-
term deflection diagram
represents the behaviour of the
beam/slab under full SLS
loading, taking into account the
effects of shrinkage and creep:
The green line represents the
total long-term deflection.
The shrinkage deflection is
shown in red.
Note: Long-term deflections in beams are influenced by reinforcement layout. Initial long-
term deflection values are based on the reinforcement required at ultimate limit state. Once
reinforcement has been generated for a beam, the long-term deflections will be based on the
actual reinforcement instead.
Concrete stress
Serviceability limit state stress
envelopes are displayed for the
following cases:
At transfer of tendon forces:
Only initial dead loads and
no additional dead loads are
considered.
At SLS: The full SLS loads
are applied and long-term
losses in tendon forces
included.
The actual stress envelopes are
shown in red and the allowable
stresses in blue. Guidelines for
allowable concrete stresses are
given on page 6-9.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Fesd (Finite Element Slab Design) can perform linear elastic plate bending analyses of
two-dimensional concrete slab structures. Reinforcement can be calculated from moments
transformed using the Wood and Armer equations.
To design concrete membranes, use the Space Frame Analysis module instead.
Sign conventions
Slab input is done using the global axes. The analysis output is given in a mixture of global
axis and local axes values.
Global axes
The global axis system is nearly exclusively used when entering slab geometry and loading.
Global axes are also used in the analysis output for deflections and reactions.
The global axes are defined as follows:
For the sake of this definition, the
X-axis is chosen to the right.
The Y-axis always points vertically
upward.
Using a right-hand rule, the Z-axis points out of the screen.
Note: Unlike some other 3D programs that put the Z-axis vertical, this program takes the
Y-axis vertical.
Local axes
Note: To assist you in evaluating shell element stresses, stress contour diagrams show
orientation lines at the centre of each shell element. An orientation line indicates the
direction the direction (not axis) of bending or plane stress. In a concrete shell, the
orientation line would indicate the direction of reinforcement resisting the particular stress.
Units of measurement
The following units of measurement are supported:
Stress smoothing
A reduced integration technique is used to calculate the element stiffness matrices. The stresses
are calculated at the Gaussian integration points and subsequently extrapolated bi-linearly to
Element layout
Consider a typical continuous flat concrete slab supported on columns or walls. To ensure
accurate modelling of curvature, a minimum of about four elements should be used between
bending moment inflection points. This translates to a minimum of about eight elements per
span in both directions.
Using more elements per span often does not yield a significant improvement in analysis
accuracy. In addition, the particular finite element formulation yields its most accurate results
when the element thickness does not greatly exceed its plan dimensions.
For a typical concrete slab with a thickness of about one-tenth or one-fifteenth of the span
length, a reasonable rule of thumb is to make the plan dimensions of the shell elements no
smaller than the thickness of the slab. In other words, use a maximum of about ten to fifteen
elements per span.
Concrete design
Fesd can perform reinforced concrete design for shell elements. The Wood and Armer
equations are used to transform the bending and torsional stresses to effective bending
moments in the user-defined x and y-directions.
Note: The Space Frame Analysis modules can design shells for in-plane stresses as well.
Refer to Chapter 3 for detail.
Codes of practice
The following concrete design codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1995.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3 - 1993.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
Alternative methods of generating slab analysis input are discussed on page 6-9.
Tip: The Graphics options and 3D rendering function can also be accessed using the buttons
next to the displayed picture.
Views: You can save the current viewpoint and graphic display options. The current
views name is displayed on the picture. To re-use a saved view, click the view name
on the picture to drop down a list of saved views. A detailed explanation is given
in Chapter 2.
The functions described above can also be used when viewing output. Contour diagrams, for
example, are drawn as polygons. You can therefore use the Graphics options setting for
polygons to change their appearance. Views defined during input are also available when
viewing output and vice versa.
General input
The General input page handles several important analysis parameters.
Wizards
The wizards are suitable for the
rapid generation of complete
input files for some typical slabs.
Input generated this way can
optionally be appended to
existing data you can therefore
repeatedly use the wizards to
generate complicated structures.
6-102 Finite Element Slab Analysis
Note: The program is not limited to modelling only those slabs generated by the parametric
modules. Any general two-dimensional slab can be treated. The parametric modules merely
serve to simplify input of typical slabs.
Own weight
The own weight of the frame can be calculated using the entered cross-sectional areas and
member lengths. If you specify a load case, the own weight is calculated and added to the other
loads of that case.
The following are points of importance:
By default, the own weight of the frame is set to not be included in the analysis. Be sure to
select the appropriate load case for own weight or, alternatively, to include the frames
own weight in the values of the loads entered.
The list of load cases from which you can select is based on the load cases defined on the
Point loads and Shell loads input pages. You may thus prefer to specify the own weight
load case only after completing all other input for the frame. However, you can also enter
the own weight load case at the start of the frame input process in which case you may
ignore the warning message (that the load case does not exist).
Tip: If you wish to use own weight in its own separate load case, you can do so by defining
an empty load case. You can enter a zero load at any node number, for example, and then
select that load case as the one to use for own weight.
Title
Enter a descriptive name for the frame. It should not be confused with the file name you use
when you save the input data.
You are allowed to skip node numbers to simplify the definition of the slab. You may also
leave blank lines in the input to improve readability. If a node number is defined more than
once, the last definition will be used.
The X-coordinate of node 4 is left blank. Therefore, node 4 is put at the coordinate
(0,14.614).
The No of is set to 2, meaning that two additional nodes must be generated.
Setting Increment to 7 means that the node numbers are incremented by seven.
Therefore, node 4 is copied to node 11 and node 11 is copied to node 18.
The values in the X-inc and Z-inc columns set the distance between copied nodes. The
coordinates 4 to 18 are spaced at 1.140 m and 0.472 m along the X and negative Z-axis
respectively. The coordinates of the additional nodes are thus (1.140,14.142) and
(2.280,13.670).
An alternative method to generate equally spaced nodes is to use the Inc to End option. This
method allows you to define two nodes and then generate a number of nodes in-between:
Use the same procedure as above to define the first nodes coordinates.
Set the values of X-inc and Z-inc to the total co-ordinate difference to the last node and
enable the Inc to End option. The last nodes coordinates are then first calculated and the
specified number of intermediate nodes then generated.
Block generation
A group of nodes can be repeated by entering a B in the No column followed by the first and
last table row numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the row numbers with a '
.
Block generation example:
The nodes defined in rows 11 to 26 are copied twice. Node numbers are incremented by thirty for
each copy. The X and Z-coordinate increments are 10 m and zero respectively.
To copy one row only, simply omit the end row number, e.g. '
B10'to copy row 10 only.
The block generation function may be used recursively. That means that the rows specified
may themselves contain further block generation statements.
Tip: To move a group of nodes to a new location without generating any new nodes, set the
No-of to '
1'and Inc to '
0'.
Arc generation
A group of nodes can be repeated on an arc by entering an ' A'in the No column, followed by
the start and end row numbers. Enter the centre of the arc in the X and Z columns and use the
X-inc column to specify the angle increment.
Example:
Rotating nodes
To rotate a group of existing nodes without generating any new nodes, use the arc generation
function and set the No-of to 1 and Increment to 0.
Deleting nodes
Nodes can be deleted by entering a special X-coordinate of 1E-9 or by entering Delete in the
Inc to end column. This can be especially handy if you have generated a large group of nodes
and then need to remove some of them again.
Example:
Note: Quadrilateral elements generally yield more accurate analysis results than triangular
elements. Refer to page 6-9 for more detail.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and nodes not connected to elements. It also checks
that a group number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button
will be displayed.
The element enclosed by nodes 15, 16, 26 and 25 are copied ten times with a node number
increment of three, i.e elements (18,19,29,28), (21,22,32,310 etc.
Block generation
A group of elements can be repeated by entering a B in the No column. Then enter the first
and last table row numbers in which the elements were defined, separated with a '
.
Block generation example:
All elements defined in rows 5 to 7 will be copied ten times with a node number increment of
twelve. The copied elements will use the same thickness and material properties as the original
elements.
To copy one row only, simply omit the end row number, e.g. '
B5'to copy row 5 only.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Tip: When entering a complicated slab it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Supports input
Slabs require external supports to ensure global stability. Supports can be entered at nodes to
prevent any of the three degrees of freedom associated with plate bending, i.e. translation in the
Y-direction and rotation about the X and Z-axes. You can also define elastic supports and
prescribed displacements, e.g. foundation settlement.
Enter the node number to be supported in the Node No column. In the next column a
combination of the letters Y, x and z can be entered to indicate the direction of fixity. Use
capitals and lowercase to define restraint of translation and rotation respectively, e.g. Yxz
means fixed against movement in the Y-direction and rotation about the X and Z-axes.
Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-111
Note: The use of lowercase for rotational restraints should not be confused with the
convention of using lowercase for local element axes.
Tip: To enter a simple support with no moment restraint, one would typically enter a Y.
If you want to repeat the supports defined on the previous row of the table, you need only enter
the node number, i.e. you may leave the Fixity column blank. If the Yxz column is left blank,
the supports applicable to the previous row will be used automatically.
Skew supports
The rotational supports x and z can be made skew by entering a value in the Angle column.
This feature may be useful when modelling slabs with rotational support perpendicular to skew
edges.
Prescribed displacements
Use the X, x, and z columns to enter prescribed displacements and rotations. Being a global
support condition, the effect of the prescribed displacement is added once only to the analysis
results of each load case and load combination. Optionally enter a P in the P/S column to
designate the values as prescribed displacements.
Elastic supports
Elastic supports, or springs, are defined by entering spring constants in the X, x, and z
columns. The spring constant is defined as the force or moment that will cause a unit displace-
ment or rotation in the relevant direction. Enter an S in the P/S column to indicate that an
entered value is a spring constant rather than a prescribed displacement. If you leave the P/S
column blank, the entered values are taken as prescribed displacements.
Tip: The effect of a column above or below the slab can be modelled by entering their
bending stiffnesses as rotational spring supports about the x and z-axes. From simple elastic
theory, the rotational stiffness of a column that is fixed at the remote end is given as 4EI/L.
The stiffness of a column that is simply supported at the remote end is equal to 3EI/L.
Error Checking
The program does a basic check on the structural stability of the slab. If a potential error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Note: You cannot define an elastic support and a prescribed displacement at the same node
because it will be a contradiction of principles.
Note: The display of supports can be enabled by editing the Display Options.
To define a load case, type a descriptive name for each load case in the Load Case column.
Use up to six characters to describe each load case. If the load case name is not entered, the
load case applicable to the previous row in the table is used.
Error checking
The program checks that specified nodes have indeed been defined in the Nodes input table. If
an error is detected, an Error list button will appear.
Shell loads
Distributed loads can be applied on shell elements. Enter a load case description in the Load
case column followed by the relevant element numbers in the Shell numbers column. The
program automatically assigns numbers to all shell elements in the sequence they are defined
on the Shells input page.
Note: Positive vertical loads act upward and negative loads act downward.
Error checking
The program checks that the entered element numbers are valid. If an error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Tip: You may leave one or more blank lines between load combination definitions to
improve readability.
Wizards
A number of typical frames can be input by entering a number of parameters. The Wizards do
most of the data input. See page 6-103 for detail on the wizards.
Graphical input
In some situations, it may be easier to define a slabs geometry graphically. With Padds you
can draw a slab and then generate a slab analysis input file.
Tip: You may sometimes find it quicker to hatch an area with a line pattern and then
vectorise the hatch to turn it into normal lines.
4. Use the Generate input command on the Macro to display the drawing conversion
options. Choose the Fesd and press OK to start the conversion procedure.
The resultant Fesd input file will be compatible with both the Dos and Windows versions
of the slab analysis modules. The file is saved in the working folder as a last file, e.g.
Lastfesd.a01.
5. Close Padds.
Analysis options
Note: Shell bending stresses are taken about the x and y-axes. In contrast, the Wood and
Armer bending moments are given in the x and y-directions.
The Rectangular Slab Panel Design module designs rectangular flat slab panels with a variety
of edge supports. The program should best be used for designing slabs with approximately
rectangular panel layouts. You can use the Space Frame Analysis or Finite Element Slab
Design module to analyse slabs with irregular panel layouts and openings.
Design scope
The program designs rectangular reinforced concrete flat slab panels. Design loads include
own weight, distributed and concentrated dead and live loads. Slab edges can be made free,
simply supported or continuous.
Bending moment is transformed to include torsional moment using the Wood and Armer
equations. Reinforcement is calculated using the normal code formulae.
Irrespective the selected design codes, long-term deflections are estimated in accordance with
clause 9.5.2.3 of ACI318 - 1992
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1995.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3 - 1993.
Eurocode 2 - 1192.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Slab geometry
dx : Effective depth for reinforcement in the longer span direction, i.e. parallel to
the X-axis (mm or in).
dy : Effective depth for reinforcement in the shorter span direction, i.e. parallel to
the Y-axis (mm or in).
h : Overall slab depth (mm or in).
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube strength (MPa or psi).
fy : Reinforcement yield strength (MPa or psi).
: Time factor for long-term deflection
: Poissons ratio, typically equal to 0.2.
: Unit weight of concrete (kN/m or lb/ft)
Applied loads
WADL : Additional distributed dead load (kN/m or kip/ft).
WLL : Additional distributed dead load (kN/m or kip/ft).).
PDL : Additional dead point load (kN or kip).
PLL : Additional live point load (kN or kip).
Design output
Abotx : Bottom steel parallel to the X-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
Atopx : Top steel parallel to the X-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
Aboty : Bottom steel parallel to the Y-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
Atopy : Top steel parallel to the Y-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
12 months 1.4
6 months 1.2
3 months 1.0
Instantaneous 0.0
Note: The calculated long-term deflections are not exact and should be considered a
reasonable estimate only.
Reinforcement calculation
The finite element analysis yields values for bending stresses about the X and Y-axes and
torsional stresses. Due to the practical difficulties involved in reinforcing a slab to resist
torsion, the Wood and Armer equations are used to transform the bending and torsional
stresses to effective bending moments in the X and Y-directions.
Note: In cases where pattern loading is important, e.g. continuous slabs, it is suggested that
the calculated bottom reinforcement be increased by about fifteen percent.
Own weight is modelled by entering a value for the unit weight. The own weight is
automatically added to each load case entered.
For the ultimate limit state calculations, the own weight, additional dead load and dead
point loads are multiplied by the entered dead load factors. All live loads are similarly
multiplied by the live load factor.
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the slab picture and stretch its dimensions.
Supports input
The corners of the slab are supported vertically at all times. The edges can be supported using
the following codes:
Displacement: To support an edge in the vertical direction, i.e. simply supported. A typical
example would be a slab simply supported on a masonry wall that provides no rotational
support.
Rotation: To restrain rotation about an axis parallel to the slab edge, i.e. continuous. This
could be a reasonable model for a slab panel supported on columns if it is continuous with
one or more adjacent panels.
Displacement and rotation: The support conditions can be used together to support an edge
vertically and prevent rotation, e.g. a continuous slab resting on a wall.
Note: Edges that are made continuous are given zero rotation during the analysis. This could
be a reasonable assumption provided that the adjacent panel has a similar flexural stiffness.
Where adjacent spans differ significantly in terms of span length and thickness, spans
should be modelled individually with continuous supports. Differences in the negative
moments on the continuous edges should then be redistributed manually according to the
relative stiffness of each panel.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds Users Guide.
Finally, combine the column drawing and schedule onto one or more A4 pages using the
Make BS Print Files command on the File menu. Use Alt-P to print the schedule immediately
or Alt-F to save it as a print file for later batch printing.
The concrete column design modules are suitable for the design of the following column types:
Rectangular Column Design, RecCol: Solid rectangular columns of which the larger
column dimension does not exceed four times the smaller dimension.
Circular Column Design, CirCol: Solid circular columns where the simplified design
approach applicable to rectangular columns may be applied.
General Column Design, GenCol: Columns of any general shape and columns with
openings.
All column design modules can design reinforced concrete columns subjected to bi-axial
bending. Bending schedules can be generated for editing and printing using the PROKON
Drawing and Detailing System, Padds.
Design scope
The column design modules design reinforced concrete columns subjected to axial force and
bi-axial bending moment.
The following conditions apply to the design of rectangular and circular columns:
The design codes give simplified procedures for designing columns of which the ratio of
the larger to the smaller dimension does not exceed 1:4.
The procedure used for the design of rectangular columns is applied to the design of
circular columns.
The reinforcement layout is assumed to be symmetrical.
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed columns. Schedules can be
opened in Padds for further editing and printing.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1993.
BS 8110 - 1987.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA-A23.3 - 1994.
Eurocode 2 -1992.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Effective lengths
x : Effective length factor for bending about the X-axis
y : Effective length factor for bending about the Y-axis
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube strength (MPa or psi).
fy : Reinforcement yield strength (MPa or psi).
Es : Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement (GPa or ksi).
Applied loads
Mx top : Moment about the X-axis applied at the top end of the column (kNm or kipft).
If left blank, a value of zero is used. A positive moment is taken anti-
clockwise.
Mx bot : Moment about the X-axis applied at the bottom (kNm or kipft).
My top : Moment about the Y-axis applied at the top (kNm or kipft). A positive moment
is taken anti-clockwise.
My bot : Moment about the Y-axis applied at the bottom (kNm or kipft).
P : Axial force in the column (kN of kip). A positive value denotes a downward
compression force and a negative value an uplift force.
Design output
Ac : Gross concrete area (mm or in).
6-136 Column Design
Ascx : Area of vertical reinforcement to resist the effective design moment about
the X-axis (mm or in).
Ascy : Area of vertical reinforcement to resist the effective design moment about the
Y-axis (mm or in).
b': Effective depth to reinforcement in shorter direction of rectangular
column (mm or in).
h': Effective depth to reinforcement in longer direction of rectangular
column (mm or in).
Lex : Effective length for bending about the X-axis (m or ft).
Ley : Effective length for bending about the X-axis (m or ft).
Madd : Additional moment about the design axis of a circular column (kNm or kipft).
Madd x : Additional slenderness moment about the X-axis due to the column deflection
(kNm or kipft).
Madd y : Additional moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
Mmin x : Minimum design moment for bending about the X-axis (kNm or kipft).
Mmin y : Minimum design moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
Mx : Design moment about the X-axis for rectangular column (kNm or kipft).
My : Design moment about the X-axis for rectangular column (kNm or kipft).
M': Design moment (kNm or kipft).
M'
x : Effective uniaxial design moment about the X-axis for rectangular
column (kNm or kipft).
M'
y : Effective uniaxial design moment about the Y-axis for rectangular
column (kNm or kipft).
Code requirements
The supported design codes have similar clauses with respect to bracing and end fixity
conditions.
Note: The column design modules automatically calculate the effective length factors in
relation to the specified end conditions. You may however manually adjust the effective
length factors if necessary.
h
All lo 60b Lo 60b and b
Maximum 4
Slenderness 100b 2 h
Cantilevers lo 60b lo 25b and b
h 4
Note: In the above expressions for maximum slenderness, h and b are taken as the larger
and smaller column dimensions respectively.
Geometry input
The RecCol and CirCol modules have been simplified for the design of rectangular and
circular columns. Entering a columns geometry input in either of these modules is therefore
straightforward.
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the column pictures and stretch certain dimensions,
e.g. the column length.
Note: Bar positions and diameters do not need to be entered when using RecCol and
CirCol.
The X/Radius/Bar dia and Y/Angle columns are used for entering coordinates:
X : Absolute or relative X coordinate (mm or in). Values are taken positive to the
right and negative to the left.
Y : Absolute or relative Y coordinate (mm or in). Values are taken positive upward
and negative downward.
You do need to close the polygon the starting coordinate is automatically used as the ending
coordinate. If two polygons intersect, the geometry of the last polygon takes preference and the
previous polygon is clipped. A hole in a structure can, for example, be entered on top of
previously entered shapes.
Tip: You can leave blank lines between polygons/bars to improve readability.
If convenient, e.g. to simplify loading input, the column can be rotated by entering an angle.
Note: RecCol allows the bracing and end fixities to be set independently for bending about
the X and Y-axis.
You can use as many lines as necessary to define a load case all values applicable to a
specific load case are added together.
Note: The design procedure for bi-axially bent slender columns tend to be conservative due
to he codes allowance for additional moment about both the X and Y axes.
Note: Given the differences in the design procedures described above, GenCol will not
yield identical results to RecCol and Circular Column Design modules when designing
simple rectangular or circular columns.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds Users Guide.
Finally, combine the column drawing and schedule onto one or more A4 pages using the
Make BS Print Files command on the File menu. Use Alt-P to print the schedule immediately
or Alt-F to save it as a print file for later batch printing.
The Retaining Wall Design module is used to analyse retaining walls for normal soil and
surcharge loads or seismic load conditions. Various types of walls can be considered, including
cantilever, simply supported and propped cantilever walls.
Padds compatible bending schedules can also be generated for designed walls.
Design scope
The program can design most conventional retaining walls, including cantilever, simply
supported and propped cantilever walls. Both static and seismic load conditions are supported.
Analyses are performed using either the Coulomb or the Rankine theory.
Walls can be made to slope forward or backwards and the wall thickness can vary with height.
Toes may optionally be included. Line loads, point loads and distributed loads can be placed on
the backfill. A water table can be defined behind the wall. If required, the soil pressure
coefficients can be adjusted manually.
Padds compatible bending schedules can be generated for designed walls.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1995.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3 - 1993.
Eurocode 2 - 1192.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
List of symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes.
Wall geometry
At : Wall thickness at the top (m).
Ab : Wall thickness at the bottom (m).
B : Horizontal base dimension in front of the wall (m).
C : Depth of the base (m).
D : Horizontal base dimension at back of the wall (m).
F : Depth of the shear key (m).
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube compressive strength (MPa).
fy : Reinforcement yield strength (MPa).
: Angle of friction between wall and soil (). Must be zero if Rankine theory is
specified.
: Angle of internal friction ().
: Poissons ration for the soil. The plane strain value should be used rather than
the triaxial value see geometry and loads input.
Applied loads
kh : Horizontal acceleration for seismic analysis (g).
kv : Vertical acceleration for seismic analysis (g).
L : Line load on or behind the wall (kN/m).
Lh : Horizontal line load at top of wall (kN/m).
P : Point load on or behind the wall (kN).
W : Uniform distributed load behind the wall (kN/m2).
Design parameters
DLfact : Ultimate limit state dead load factor.
LLfact : Ultimate limit state live load factor.
Design output
As1 : Flexural reinforcement in the wall (mm2).
As2 : Flexural reinforcement in the back part of the base (mm2).
As3 : Flexural reinforcement in the front part of the base (mm2).
Ac1 : Compression reinforcement in the wall (mm2).
Ac2 : Compression reinforcement in the back part of the base (mm2).
Ac3 : Compression reinforcement in the front part of the base (mm2).
Ds : Density of soil (kN/m3).
K : Active pressure coefficient, including seismic effects.
Ka : Active pressure coefficient.
Kp : Passive pressure coefficient.
Kps : Passive pressure coefficient including seismic effects.
M1 : Maximum ultimate moment in the wall (kNm).
M2 : Maximum ultimate moment in back part of the base (kNm).
M3 : Maximum ultimate moment in front part of the base (kNm).
Pfac : Pressure factor used for Terzaghi-Peck pressure distribution diagram.
V : Shear force in wall at base-wall junction (kN).
v : Shear stress in wall at base-wall junction (MPa).
vc : Allowable shear stress in wall at base-wall junction (MPa).
: Friction coefficient between base and soil.
General assumptions
The following assumptions are applicable to the analysis:
A unit width of the wall is considered.
Predominantly active soil pressures are assumed to act on the right-hand side of the wall
Predominantly passive pressures are present on the left-hand side of the wall.
Note: This manual does not attempt to explain the applicable theories in detail, but merely
highlights some aspects of their application. For more detail, reference should be made to
specialist literature.
Seismic analysis
The program uses the Okabe-Monobe equations, based on the Coulomb wedge theory, to
calculate revised active and passive pressure coefficients. The seismic portion of the active
pressure is assumed to act at 60% of the soil height behind the wall, effectively increasing the
lever arm of the soil pressure.
The densities of the materials are also adjusted by multiplying with (1-kv). An upward
acceleration therefore effectively decreases the stabilising effect of the wall and soil weight.
Live loads can be optionally included in a seismic analysis. If included, live loads are applied
with the same pressure coefficients as for dead loads.
Seepage modelling
When a water table is modelled, seepage can optionally be allowed below the wall. If seepage
is allowed, hydrostatic pressure is modelled as follows:
The pressure behind the wall is taken as zero on the level of the water table and then
linearly increased with depth.
At the front of the wall, the pressure is taken as zero at ground level and linearly varied
with depth.
The hydrostatic pressure below the base is varied linearly between the values calculated
behind and in front of the wall. If seepage is not allowed, the hydrostatic pressure in front
of the wall or below the base is taken as zero.
Note: For suggestions on modelling saturated soil and submerged conditions, refer to
page 6-9.
Checking stability
Stability against overturning of
the wall is checked by assuming
rotation about the lower front
corner of the base. If a shear key
is used and it is located within
one quarter of base width from
the front, the program also
checks for rotation about the
bottom of the shear key.
Design results
The design output gives the
following values at ultimate limit
state:
Bending moment diagrams (kNm).
Required reinforcement in the base and wall (mm2).
Maximum shear stress in the wall, v, and concrete shear capacity, vc (MPa).
Note: None of the optimisation functions considers all design criteria. It is therefore
possible that after optimising the value of B, for example, the safety factor for slip is
exceeded. You may thus need to alternate optimisation functions to arrive at a workable
solution.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds Users Guide.
Finally, combine the column drawing and schedule onto one or more A4 pages using the
Make BS Print Files command on the File menu. Use Alt-P to print the schedule immediately
or Alt-F to save it as a print file for later batch printing.
The Column Base Design module is used to design and optimise rectangular column bases.
Padds compatible bending schedules can be generated for designed bases.
Design scope
The program designs rectangular concrete column bases subjected to vertical force and bi-axial
bending moment. The program designs the base at ultimate limit state for bending moment and
shear.
The program also verifies the stability requirements for overturning and bearing pressure.
Stability checks can be performed at ultimate limit state or using the working force method.
Refer to page 6-9 for details.
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed bases. Schedules can be
opened in Padds, for further editing and printing.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1993.
BS 8110 - 1987.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA-A23.3 - 1994.
Eurocode 2 -1992.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible.
Geometry:
A, B : Horizontal and vertical base dimensions as shown on the screen (m or ft).
C, D : Horizontal and vertical column dimensions as shown on the screen (m or ft).
E, F : Horizontal and vertical column eccentricity as shown on the screen (m or ft).
Plane Frame R N N
M
Analysis y Rx one one
R N N M M
Grillage Analysis
y one one z x
Space Frame R R M M
Analysis y Rx z z x
Geometry input
Enter the base and column dimensions, omitting the values for the either column if only one
column is used. A column is positioned at the centre of the base unless non-zero values are
entered for E and/or F.
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the base pictures and stretch certain dimensions,
e.g. the base thickness and column sizes.
For detail on the sign conventions used for loads, refer to page 6-9.
Load factors
Each load has two load factors:
LFovt: Load factor to use for overturning stability check.
LFULS: Load factor to use for calculating bending moment, shear and reinforcement at
ultimate limit state analysis.
Own weight of the base is considered as a separate load case. Load factors for own weight is
entered in the geometry input table.
For more detail on calculating the safety factor for overturning at ultimate limit state, refer to
page 6-9.
Stability checks
Stability values for overturning, slip and bearing pressure are calculated at both ultimate limit
state and serviceability limit state. The following general principles apply:
Overturning: When considering overturning at ultimate limit state, the applied loads are
multiplied by the entered load factors for overturning to calculate the ratio of destabilising
to stabilising effects. At serviceability limit state calculations are performed using the
entered un-factored working loads.
Slip: At ultimate limit state, all forces are multiplied by their ULS load factors. The safety
factor for slip is calculated by dividing the resisting passive soil pressure and friction by
the horizontal forces causing slip. The same calculation is performed at serviceability limit
state using un-factored forces.
Bearing pressure: Entered loads are multiplied by their respective ULS load factors before
calculating the bearing pressure. The un-factored loads are used at serviceability limit
state.
Note: With careful manipulation of the load factors for overturning, you can manipulate the
program to evaluate overturning stability at ultimate limit state or using the working loads
method. Refer to page 6-9 for more information.
Reinforcement calculation
The loads are multiplied by the specified load factor to obtain the ultimate design loads. The
design forces, including the base self weight and weight of the soil cover, are used to calculate
the ultimate bearing pressure below the base. The program calculates the bending moments in
the base and uses the normal code formulae to obtain the required reinforcement. Nominal
reinforcement is also calculated where applicable.
Shear checks
Linear shear
When considering
linear shear, lines are
considered at a
distance equal to the
base depth in front of
each face of the
column. The
contribution of the
soil pressure block
outside the lines is
then used to calculate
the shear stress.
Punching shear
For punching shear, shear perimeters are considered at one and a half time the base thickness
from the column faces.
Various combinations as for internal, edge and corner columns are considered.
Design results
Results of stability checks:
Bearing pressure beneath the base. The 3D pressure diagram is shown in elevation.
Safety factor for overturning.
Safety factor for slip.
Note: Stability checks are performed at ultimate limit state (modern limit state approach)
and serviceability limit state (older working load approach). Depending of your way of
working and the design code used, you may prefer to use only one or both sets of results.
Note: When optimising the base dimensions A and B, the base thickness is kept constant
and no shear checks are performed. Where necessary, the base thickness should be adjusted
manually.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Finally, combine the column drawing and schedule onto one or more A4 pages using the
Make BS Print Files command on the File menu. Use Alt-P to print the schedule immediately
or Alt-F to save it as a print file for later batch printing.
The Section Design for Crack width can be used to design reinforced concrete sections to
meet specific crack requirements. Both beam and slab sections can be designed for the
combined effects of axial tension, bending moment and temperature.
Design scope
The program can determine reinforcement layouts to contain cracks. Both rectangular beam
and slab sections can be designed to resist the effects of axial tension, bending moment and
temperature and the combination thereof. Temperature effects are also included to evaluate
early cracking and long-term thermal cracking.
Shrinkage
Concrete shrinkage due to hydration is accounted for by a combination of the thermal
expansion coefficient and the restraint factor. The design method employed by the codes is
ideally suited for non-temperate regions like Europe.
Reinforcement type
Concrete cracking has traditionally been correlated with the prevailing tensile steel stress.
Eurocode 2 - 1984 also takes account of the type of reinforcement, i.e. bond between concrete
and reinforcement.
Codes of practice
Design calculations are done according to BS 8007 - 1987 and Eurocode 2 - 1984.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Section dimensions
bt : Width of the section (mm or in).
h : Overall height of the section (mm or in).
he : Effective surface zone depth (mm or in).
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube strength (MPa or psi).
Applied loads
R : Restraint factor.
T1 : Hydration temperature difference (C).
T2 : Seasonal temperature variation (C).
: Thermal expansion coefficient of concrete (m/m per C or in/in per C).
TSLS : The tensile force on the full section at serviceability limit state (kN or kip).
TULS : The tensile force on the full section at ultimate limit state. (kN or kip).
MSLS : Serviceability limit state moment (kNm or kipft).
MULS : Ultimate limit state moment (kNm or kipft).
Ro critical : The minimum percentage of reinforcement to be supplied.
Design output
Ast : Area of suggested reinforcement layout. (mm or in).
fst : Tensile stress in reinforcement (MPa or psi).
Mu : Ultimate moment capacity of section (kNm or kipft).
TU : Ultimate tensile capacity of surface zone (kN or kip).
The seasonal temperature variation, T2, is used to calculate long term thermal cracking:
If movement joints are provided as per Table 5.1 of the code, the seasonal variation
can normally be set equal to zero when considering early cracking only.
The seasonal temperature variation should always be considered for long-term thermal
cracking in combination with the applied moments and tensile forces.
Section OPC content (kg/m3)
Thickness (mm) 325 350 400
300 15 17 21
500 25 28 34
The restraint factor describes the amount of restraint in the system. The factor varies
between 0.0 to 0.5. For more detail, refer to Figure A3 of the code.
Tip: A higher restraint factor generally gives rise to more severe cracking. Therefore, when
in doubt, use a restraint factor of 0.5.
Enter a value for Ro critical, i.e. the minimum percentage of reinforcement to be supplied.
The value applies to the gross concrete section of the surface zone. The program gives a
default value of 100 fct / fy, where fct is the three-day tensile strength of the immature
concrete. For more detail, refer to paragraph A.2 of the code.
Up to four sets of bars are calculated for slab sections. Each set has a different diameter and
spacing to comply with the crack width requirements. A fifth column is provided where you
could enter a bar configuration of choice.
For beams, up to four sets of bars are calculated. Each set of bars consists of a number of bars
of not more than two different diameters. The bar diameters are chosen to not differ by more
than one size.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
The Concrete Section Design module is a simple utility for designing concrete sections for
combined bending, shear and torsion. Rectangular and T-sections are accommodated.
Design scope
The program performs reinforced concrete design of rectangular and T-sections to resist
bending moment, shear and torsion.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1995.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3 - 1993.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Section dimensions
B : Width of the web (mm).
Bf : Width of the flange (mm).
Dct, Dcb : Distance from the top or bottom face to the centre of the steel (mm).
H : Overall height of the section (mm).
Hf : Depth of the flange (mm).
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube strength (MPa).
fy : Main reinforcement yield strength (MPa).
fy : Shear reinforcement yield strength (MPa).
Design output
Concrete Section Design 6-193
As : Bottom steel required for bending (mm2).
As : Top steel required for bending (mm2).
Anom : Nominal flexural reinforcement (mm2).
Asv : Required shear reinforcement (mm2/mm).
Asvn : Nominal shear reinforcement (mm2/mm).
Mu : Ultimate moment capacity for bottom reinforcement only (kNm).
v : Shear stress (MPa)
vc : Allowable shear stress (MPa).
vt : Torsional shear stress (MPa).
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the picture and stretch certain section dimensions,
e.g. flange width or overall depth.
Note: The suggested reinforcement configurations are given as guidelines only. You can use
the tabled values for required reinforcement to determine rebar layouts more suitable to your
requirements.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
The Punching Shear Design module designs flat slabs for punching shear at edge, corner or
internal columns. Only reinforced concrete slabs are designed to design pre-stressed concrete
slabs for punching shear, use the Pre-stressed Beam/Slab Design module, Captain, instead.
Design scope
The program designs reinforced concrete flat slabs for punching shear at edge, corner and
internal columns.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1995.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3 - 1993
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Slab geometry
A : Horizontal column dimension, as shown on the screen, or diameter of circular
column (mm or in).
B : Vertical column dimension, as shown on the screen (mm or in).
Deff : Average effective depth of the slab (mm or in).
X : Horizontal distance, as shown on the screen, from the column centre to the slab
edge (mm or in).
Y : Vertical distance from the column centre to the slab edge (mm or in).
Slab reinforcement
Asx1-4 : Average area of main steel parallel to the X-axis crossing each of the four
perimeters (mm or in). The first perimeter denotes the innermost perimeter.
Asy1-4 : Average area of main steel parallel to the Y-axis crossing each of the four
perimeters (mm or in).
Design output
Asv : The total area of stirrups to be provided within 1.5Deff inside a perimeter (mm
or in).
Ucrit : Length of critical perimeter (mm or in).
vc : Allowable punching shear stress (MPa or kip).
Vc : Shear force capacity at a stress of vc (MPa of psi).
Veff : The effective shear force as a function of Vt, Mtx and Mty (kN or kip).
Applied loads
Mtx : Ultimate bending moment about the X-axis (kNm or kipft).
Mty : Ultimate bending moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
Vt : Ultimate vertical load on column (kN or kip).
Shear capacity
The program calculates the shear capacity in the X and Y-directions, vcx and vcy, based on the
main reinforcement in those directions and the average effective depth. The design shear
capacity, vcx, is then taken as the average of the values in the X and Y-direction.
Circular columns
Given modern design trends, e.g. the approaches by ACI 318 - 1995 and Eurocode 2 - 1992,
the use of circular perimeters seems a more rational approach to evaluating punching shear for
circular columns. The program recognises this and uses the following design approach for
checking punching by circular columns:
As in the case of a rectangular column, the shear capacity vc is taken as the average of vcx
and vcy. Put differently, one could consider an imaginary square shear perimeter when
determining vc.
The shear force capacity, Vc, is calculated using the actual circular perimeter. The shorter
circular perimeter (compared to a rectangular perimeter) yields a lower (conservative)
shear force capacity.
Note: If the ultimate moments, Mtx and Mty, do not incorporate pattern loading, their values
should be increased by 30% to ensure a correct analysis.
For each perimeter, the allowable stress, vc, is taken as the weighted average of the values
calculated for the X and Y-directions, using the flexural reinforcement ratio for the
respective directions. Refer to page 6-9 for more detail.
The required shear reinforcement for each perimeter is then calculated using the normal
code formulae. The calculated reinforcement should be supplied within a distance 1.5 Deff
inside the relevant perimeter.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Timber Design
The timber design module can be used to design timber members in frames and trusses.
The PROKON suite includes a module that is suitable for design of timber members in frames
and trusses. A suite of timber connection design modules is planned.
The timber member design module, Timsec, is used to check and optimise timber members
subjected to a combination of axial and biaxial bending stresses, e.g. beams, frames and
trusses.
The program primarily acts as a post-processor for the frame analysis modules. It also has an
interactive mode for the quick design or checking of individual members without needing to
perform a frame analysis.
Design scope
The timber member design module can design timber and glued laminated timber load bearing
members. Timsec currently has the following limitations:
Only rectangular sections bent about their major or minor axes can be designed.
Design of tapered and haunched sections is not supported.
Design codes
The program designs timber members according to the following allowable stress design
codes:
BS 5268 - 1991.
SABS 0163 - 1989.
Units of measurement
Timsec supports Metric units of measurement only.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes:
Dimensions
B : Section breadth (mm).
D : Section depth (mm).
L/r : Slenderness ratio.
Leff : Effective length (m).
Design parameters
Ke : Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for lateral torsional buckling. Refer to page 8 for detail.
Kx : Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the x-x axis of the member. Refer to page 9 for
more detail.
Modification factors
k1 to k5 : Stress modification factors for SAB 1063 - 1989.
K1 to K14 : Stress and dimensional modification factors for BS 5268 - 1991. Refer to
page 11 for detail.
Stresses
fb : Allowable bending stress (MPa).
fc : Allowable compression stress (MPa).
ft : Allowable tension stress (MPa).
sb : Actual bending stress (MPa)
sc : Actual compression stress (MPa)
st : Actual tension stress (MPa)
Sign conventions
Member design is done in the local element axes. Bending about the x-x axis corresponds to
strong axis bending and bending about the y-y axis to weak axis bending.
Design parameters
Different design parameters can be set for each group of elements designed:
No lateral support 2
SABS 0163 - 1989: Lateral stability of beams is treated in clause 6.2.3.2. The laterally
unsupported should be multiplied with the effective length factor given in Table 11:
Effective length
Type of beam span Position of applied load
factor, Ke
Concentrated at 1.69
Cantilever unsupported end
beam
Uniformly distributed 1.06
The effective length factor may conservatively be taken as 1.92 for all situations.
Effective
End condition
length factor
Considering a typical plane timber truss, the effective length Lx relates to in-plane buckling. For
struts where rotational fixity is provided by the connection, e.g. two or more fasteners, a value
between 0.70 and 0.85 is usually appropriate. Where rotation at the joints are possible, e.g. single
bolted connection, a value of 1.0 would normally be applicable.
For a typical plane truss, the effective length Ly relates to buckling out of the vertical plane.
This phenomenon can often govern the design of the top and bottom chords of a truss that can
buckle in a snakelike S pattern, giving an effective length equal to unrestrained length. Lateral
restraints are normally provided to reduce this effective length. For example, with braced
purlins connected to the top chord of the truss, the effective length could be taken equal to the
purlin spacing.
The effective length Le relates to lateral torsional buckling of a member about its weak axis.
The length depends on the spacing and type of restraint of the members compression edge.
Using an effective length factor Ke of 1.92 would be conservative for all cases.
BS 5268 1991:
K1 : Modification factor by which the geometrical properties of timber in the dry
condition should be multiplied to obtain values for the wet exposure condition.
If applicable, you should manually adjust section sizes for the wet exposure
condition.
K2 : Modification factor to be applied to dry stresses and moduli (Tables 9 through
13 and 15 of the code) to obtain values for the wet exposure condition. The
same K2 factor is applicable to bending and tension while a different factor is
applicable to compression.
K3 : Modification factor for duration of loading. Values from Table 17 of the code
are summarised below:
Duration of load K3
Note: Since load duration factor may differ for different loads on the structure, you should
divide the relevant loads with this factor at the analysis stage.
Tip: You may use the factor for load sharing to include any other modification factors
that are not applicable to standard timber sections, e.g. factors applicable to glued
laminated timber.
Duration of load Cf
k2 : Factor for load sharing by members connected in parallel. All grade stresses
are multiplied by this factor.
Tip: You may use the factor for load sharing to include any other modification factors
that are not applicable to standard timber sections, e.g. factors applicable to glued
laminated timber.
k3 : Stress modification factor for the type of structure. The value may be taken as
1.10 where the consequences of failure are small. For other structures a value
of unity should be used.
k4 : Modification factor for quality of fabrication. If the fabricated member
complies with an SABS specification, the value may be taken as 1.05.
k5 : Stress modification factor for moisture content. If the moisture content in a
compression member may occasionally exceed 20%, use a value of 0.75.
Slenderness limits
BS 5269 - 1991 (clause 15.4) and SABS 0163 - 1989 (clause 6.4.4) specify similar slenderness
ratios for members in compression. The slenderness limit for compression is taken as 180 in
most cases. For tension members, a maximum slenderness ratio of 250, as specified by
BS 5268 - 1991, is generally used.
When launching Timsec, the slenderness limits given by the selected design code will be used by
default. You are free to alter the maximum slenderness ratio for each individual load case or
combination if required. For example, in the case where a member is carrying self-weight and
wind load only, the codes allow the maximum slenderness ratio for compression members to be
increased to 250.
The following text gives details of the design techniques and also explains how the database of
timber grades and sections sizes can be customised.
Note: For a task list to be re-used with a modified frame, a reasonable degree of
compatibility is required. Tasks that reference specific laterally supported nodes, for
example, will require modification if relevant node numbers have changed.
Design steps
Working through the input and design pages, the interactive design procedure can be broken up
into the following steps:
The Input page: Choose a design approach, set the design parameters and enter the
element loads.
The Design page: Evaluate the design results. More detail is given on page 26.
The Calcsheet page: Accumulate design results to print or send to Calcpad. See page 28
or detail.
The text that follows describe the use of the programs for reading and post-processing frame
analysis results. Information regarding interactive design is given on page 21.
The appearance of the Input page determined by your selection of the mode of operation:
If you choose to read and post-process the results of the frame analysis modules, you will
use the Input page to define design tasks.
Defining tasks
To define design tasks, you have to select or enter the following information:
1. Select the timber grade to use
2. Select the members to be designed.
3. Enter the design parameters and select the section dimensions to use.
4. Select the load cases to be considered and enter the maximum slenderness ratios.
To save a task, enter a Task title and click Add task. Once added to the task list, a task will be
automatically performed when you go to the Calcsheet page. Define as many tasks as
necessary to design the frame in the required detail.
Deleting tasks
To remove a task from the list, first select the task and then click Delete task. To save the
complete task list to disk, use the Save commands on the File menu.
Note: Saving the task list with File | Save also saves the intermediate nodes and effective
lengths entered in the Members page.
Note: To modify the available section sizes for the selected timber grade, click Edit Timber
Grades (F5). Refer to page 15 for details.
Tip: In the frame analysis modules you can also select to analyse load combinations only.
The analysis output will then be more compact due to the omission of individual load case
results.
You are free to modify the slenderness limit for each individual load case or combination as
required. In the case where uplift due to wind is dominant, for example, you may be able to set
a higher slenderness limit. Refer to page 11 for more detail.
The profile of the members to evaluate is chosen using the Profile (F5) function. On opening
the Design page, the lightest section will be chosen for each member. Lighter or heavier
sections of the same profile can then be browsed as required.
Consolidation of members
With the addition of each internal node, the relevant node is removed by joining the two
adjacent members into a single member. The table of members is continuously updated to
show the new member layout.
The program uses the following guidelines to when joining members at an internal node:
For the automatic selection of internal nodes, adjoining members must have the same
section.
Only members with an included angle greater than 100 (where 180 corresponds to a
perfectly straight member) are joined.
Where members of different sections intersect, the larger section defines the main member
that should be joined.
Where two or more members intersect, the internal node is taken to belong to one of the
intersecting members only. The chosen member will be the straightest member or, if the
same, the first in the table of members.
Note: The list of internal nodes and effective length factors are automatically saved when
you save the task list. See page 18 for detail.
Tip: You can quickly find a member in the table by pressing Ctrl+F. Enter the member
name by referring to one or both of its end node numbers.
Viewing results
The complete interaction formulae are displayed for the critical load case of the first member of
the first design task. Individual calculations have OK and FAIL remarks to indicate success or
failure.
To view the results of another task, member, section or load case:
Use the Up and Down buttons to move up or down the list of available options. Tasks and
load cases are listed in the order of definition. Sections are ordered by mass. Alternatively
click the item, i.e. sections, and use the Up and Down arrow keys.
Alternatively click the relevant input box and select an item from the list that drops down.
Note: The level of detail of the information added to the Calcsheet can be set using the
Settings function on the Input page. Refer to page 20 for detail.
General Applications
The general analysis modules can be used to calculate section properties, wind pressures on
buildings and evaluate drainage systems of building roofs.
The PROKON suite includes a number of simple analysis tools to simplify everyday
calculations. These include:
Section Properties Calculation: For the calculation of bending and torsional properties of
any generalised section.
Wind Pressure Analysis: For determining the free stream velocity pressure on a building.
Gutter Design: Use this module to design a drainage system for a roof by sizing a gutter,
outlet and down pipe.
The Section Properties Calculation module, Prosec, is used to calculate the bending and
torsional properties of any arbitrary section. The section can be solid or have openings.
Scope
Prosec can be used to calculate the properties of any arbitrary section. The section can be solid
or have openings. For bending property calculation, the program uses a simple technique of
division into sub-sections. The Prandtl membrane analogy is used to determine the torsional
section properties, including the shear centre, St. Venant torsional constant and torsional
warping constant.
Sign convention
A simple Cartesian sign convention applies:
X-coordinates are taken positive to the right and negative to the left.
Y-coordinates are taken positive upward and negative downward.
Units of measurement
All input and output values are used without a unit of measurement. Whether you define a
section using sizes for millimetres, metres, inches or feet, the output will effectively be given
in the same unit of measurement.
List of symbols
Below is a list of symbols used for the bending and torsional section properties:
Bending properties
A : Area of the cross section.
Ixx, Iyy : Second moment of inertia about X and Y-axis.
Ixy : Deviation moment of inertia.
Iuu, Ivv : Second moment of inertia about major axis and minor axis.
Ang : Anti-clockwise angle from the X-axis to the U-axis.
Zxx : Elastic section modulus in relation to the top or bottom edge.
Zyy : Elastic section modulus in relation to the left or right edge.
Zuu : Minimum section modulus in relation to the U-axis.
Zvv : Minimum section modulus in relation to the V-axis.
8-6 Section Properties Calculation
Zplx, Zply : Plastic modulus about X and Y-axis.
Xc : Horizontal centroid position measured from the leftmost extremity of the
section.
Yc : Vertical centroid position measured from the bottom most extremity of the
section.
rx, ry : Radius of gyration about the X or Y-axis.
ru, rv : Radius of gyration about the U or V-axis.
Xpl : Horizontal distance from leftmost extremity to centre of mass.
Ypl : Horizontal distance from topmost extremity to centre of mass.
Torsional properties
: Shear stress.
X : Horizontal position of shear centre from the leftmost extremity of the section.
Y : Vertical position of shear centre from the bottom of the section.
J : St. Venant torsional constant.
Zt : Torsional modules.
Cw : Warping torsional constant.
Note: If preferred, section input can be done graphically. Use Padds to draw a polygon to
scale or import a DXF drawing from another CAD system. Then generate an input file
for Prosec.
Entering a section
The Code column is used for categorise the data that follows in the next columns:
+ : The start of a new polygon or circle. An absolute reference coordinate must be
entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
': Start of an opening. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered in the
X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
'
R': Indicates a line drawn with relative coordinates.
'
L': Indicates a line drawn with absolute coordinates.
'
A': An arc that continues from the last line or arc. The arc radius and angle are
entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns respectively. The angle is
measured clockwise from the previous line or arc end point.
C': A circle with the radius entered in the X/Radius column.
'
Tip: If the Code column is left blank, relative coordinates are used.
The X/Radius and Y/Angle columns are used for entering coordinates, radii and angles:
X : Absolute or relative X-coordinate. Values are taken positive to the right and
negative to the left.
Radius : Radius of a circle or an arc.
Y : Absolute or relative Y-coordinate. Values are taken positive upward and
negative downward.
Angle : Angle that an arc is extending through.
Note: If the X/Radius or Y/Angle column is left blank, a zero value is used.
Note: The starting point of a polygon is also used as the ending point and the polygon is
closed automatically. It is therefore not necessary to re-enter the starting coordinate to close
a polygon.
Tip: If an arc is to start at a certain angle, simply precede it with a short line at that angle.
Entering a circle
A circle is defined by entering the centre point followed by its radius in the next line:
Define the centre point of the circle by setting the Code to + and entering the absolute X
and Y-coordinates. If you leave either of the coordinates blank, a value of zero is used.
On the next line, set the Code to C and enter the radius of the circle in the X/Radius
column.
Analysis settings
Click Settings to adjust the analysis settings applicable to the bending and torsional analyses:
Rotation angle: Enter an angle if
you wish to calculate the bending
properties for a rotated section.
Poisson ratio: The ratio
influences the torsional shear
stress distributions in a section. It
therefore also has an effect on the
position of the shear centre and
warping torsion constant.
Aluminium 0.16
Concrete 0.20
Steel 0.30
Number of equations: For determination of the torsional section properties, the finite
difference mesh is sized to yield approximately the specified number of equations. More
equations will take longer to solve, but may yield better accuracy, especially when
analysing thin-walled sections.
The torsional constant, J, is taken as twice the volume below the membrane. The maximum
slope of the membrane then gives the torsional modulus. The maximum torsional shear stress
can be obtained by dividing the torsional moment with the torsional modulus Zt.
Warping torsion is evaluated by using the relationship between shear and axial deformation
from classical elastic theory. The shear deformation is obtained from the pure torsion analysis.
The warping constant, Cw, is then determined from the longitudinal displacements.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
The Wind Pressure Analysis module is a simple utility for the calculation of free stream
velocity pressure on building structures.
Design codes
The following codes of practice are supported:
CP3 - 1972.
SABS 0160 - 1989.
List of symbols
The code symbols are used as far as possible:
k : Pressure coefficient that depends on altitude.
Qz : Free stream velocity pressure (kPa).
V : Regional wind speed (m/s).
vz : Characteristic wind speed at a height z (m/s)
zg : Gradient height that depends on the terrain category and class of structure (m).
: Height exponent that depends on the terrain category and class of structure.
2 Outskirts of towns
4 City centres
Class Description
A Structural component
B Structure as a whole
The Gutter Design Module is used to design gutters and down pipes to drain roofs of typical
building structures.
Scope
The program can evaluate roof drainage systems subjected to intense short duration rains. It
takes into account the shape of the gutter, the outlet into which the gutter discharges and the
pipe-work that conveys the flow to below.
Design code
The program is based on the requirements of BS 6367 - 1983.
Units of measurement
The program supports both Metric and Imperial units of measurement.
Assumptions
The same assumptions used in the code are applicable. These include:
The gutter slope does not exceed 1:350.
The gutter has a uniform cross-sectional shape.
Note: Reference should be made to the code for guidance on the positioning and sizing of
gutter outlets and other requirements.
Storm characteristics
The following parameters should be entered to define the storm:
Return period (years): This parameter is used as a measure of the security of an acceptable
degree of damage. A return period of between five and fifty years is normally used for
typical situations. For higher risk scenarios, a value of one and a half times the expected
life of the building and higher should be used. Refer to the code for detail.
Two minute M5 rainfall (mm): This quantity is defined as the expected rainfall in a two
minute period during a one in five year storm. Press 2 Minute M5 Rainfall Constants to
display regional data for the United Kingdom and South Africa. Refer to the code or other
relevant hydrological data for regions not listed.
Note: Gutters and down pipes may normally be omitted for roofs with area of 6 m2 or less.
Note: You are not required to enter the total depth of the gutter. The program calculates the
depth required for proper draining.
The three parts of the system can be designed separately if the outlet and down pipe is made
large enough for flow to freely discharge from the gutter. The actual down pipe and outlet may
however be smaller than that required for this method, prompting the program to perform a
more detailed analysis.
Masonry Design
The masonry design section contains modules for the analysis of reinforced masonry beams
subjected to pure bending and unreinforced masonry walls subjected to axial compression and
out of plane bending about two axes.
The masonry section design module, MasSec, is mainly used for the design of members such
as lintels and masonry that span large openings in walls. MasWall, on the other hand is ideally
suited for the design of wall panels and bearing walls.
Code of practice support is currently limited to SABS 0164-1992. Characteristic compression
strengths for masonry units are calculated based on unit geometry, nominal strengths and tables
in the abovementioned code of practice.
All the masonry modules provide a detailed Calcsheet on design methodology and results, i.e. a
complete record of the design is generated automatically.
Current development includes support for reinforced masonry walls, columns and arches.
Design scope
The masonry section design module verifies the resistance of a reinforced
masonry beam at a critical section. It is assumed that the loads imposed on
the beam causes uniaxial bending and a shear force only.
Design codes
The program designs masonry sections according to the following codes of
practice:
SABS 0164 - 1992.
Units of measurement
MasSec supports both Metric and Imperial units.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the codes of practice:
Dimensions
b : Section breadth (mm).
d : Effective depth, i.e. distance from the compression face to the
tension steel centroid (mm).
z : Moment lever arm (mm).
Design parameters
As : Tension steel area (mm).
mm : Partial material safety factor for the masonry unit.
ms : Partial material safety factor for the reinforcement.
Lmax1,2 : Limiting lengths due to stability considerations (m).
Stresses
fy : Ultimate tensile strength of the tension steel (Mpa).
fyy : Ultimate tensile strength of the shear steel (Mpa).
fnom : Nominal compression strength of the masonry unit (MPa).
fk : Characteristic compression strength of the masonry unit
(MPa), i.e. the strength of the unit in a beam or wall,
dependence on unit aspect ratio removed.
fv : Shear stress due to Vu (MPa).
fv : Adjusted shear stress (MPa), modified based on the shear
span.
fbr : Bond resistance (MPa).
fbu : ULS bond stress due to Vu (MPa).
Design parameters
Stresses
Manufacturers usually quote a nominal compression strength for the masonry
units that they provide. This nominal strength is derived from a simple
crushing test.
Due to the variability in masonry unit dimensions, this nominal strength
cannot be used as the actual crushing strength of the unit. Values from
crushing tests are very sensitive to aspect ratio and this dependence must be
removed from the strength parameter.
This can be by testing a small, standard, wall panel to failure and using
equations provided in the applicable code of practice to determine
characteristic compression strength for the unit.
Alternatively, most codes of practice also provide tables of characteristic
strengths versus aspect ratio and nominal strengths.
In MasSec, any one of the two approaches can be used.
General input
190 x 90 x 90 mm
290 x 90 x 90 mm
Burnt clay
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 190 x 190 mm
190 x 90 x 90 mm
290 x 90 x 90 mm
Calcium silicate
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 100 x 190 mm
190 x 90 x 90 mm
290 x 90 x 90 mm
Concrete
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 190 x 190 mm
3.5 MPa
7 MPa
Burnt clay 10.5 MPa
14 MPa
17 MPa
7 MPa
14 MPa
Calcium silicate
21 MPa
35 MPa
3.5 MPa
7 MPa
Concrete 10.5 MPa
14 MPa
21 MPa
Steel strength, positioning and type, as well as mortar class must be chosen in
this table as well.
The first table on this tab defines the type and geometry of the masonry
beam.
The following beam types are supported:
Single leaf - Single leaf of masonry
Collar jointed - Double leaf of masonry, where the small void
between the two leaves of masonry is filled with mortar or concrete
Grouted cavity - Double leaf of masonry, where the larger void
between the two leaves is filled with concrete with strength of at
least fk.
The dimensions of the beam section, the clear span and the type of support
are also chosen on this table.
The second table provides parameters for the steel as well as a load distance
parameter and a bearing length. The load distance is the distance of the
critical section from the left hand support the resulting shear enhancement
is allowed in certain cases. The last table requires the input of ULS loads on
the critical section.
Masonry Section Design 7-11
Design summary
This tab provides a tabular and diagrammatic summary of the design. Two
cases of bending failure are presented on the diagram and the minimum
chosen as the section strength in bending:
Compression failure Over-reinforced beam, masonry ruptures in
compression before the steel yields.
Tension failure Under-reinforced beam, steel yields before the
masonry ruptures in compression.
Other design checks are tabulated with action effect (loading) versus the
resistance effect (strength). Steel required and provided is tabulated in the
left bottom corner of the tab.
Note: The Calcsheet is not saved with the rest of the input when the file is
saved. All changes to the Calcsheet will then be lost. To edit the
Calcsheet output, send it to the CalcPad where it can be edited and saved.
Design scope
The masonry wall design module verifies the resistance of an unreinforced
masonry wall, subjected to one of the following loads:
In plane axial loading (Bearing walls)
Out of plane loading, causing biaxial plate bending (Wall panels)
Design codes
The program designs unreinforced masonry walls according to the following
codes of practice:
SABS 0164 - 1992.
Units of measurement
MasSec supports both Metric and Imperial units.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the codes of practice:
Dimensions
t : Wall thickness (mm).
h : Wall height (mm)
ex : Calculated or actual eccentricity (mm).
Design parameters
mm : Partial material safety factor for the masonry unit.
R : Slenderness ratio
Z : Section modulus (mm)
ea : Additional eccentricity due to slenderness (mm).
et : Total eccentricity (mm).
em : Design eccentricity (mm), maximum of et and ex.
: Capacity reduction factor
teff : Effective wall thickness (mm)
heff : Effective wall thickness (mm)
Stresses
fnom : Nominal compression strength of the masonry unit (MPa).
fk : Characteristic compression strength of the masonry unit
(MPa), i.e. the strength of the unit in a beam or wall,
dependence on unit aspect ratio removed.
fkx perp : Flexural tensile strength perpendicular to the bedding joints
(MPa).
fkx par : Flexural tensile strength parallel to the bedding joints (MPa).
Eccentricities
Actual load eccentricity is assumed to vary from ex at the top of the wall to
zero at the bottom, subject to additional eccentricity due to slenderness
effects.
Stresses
Manufacturers usually quote a nominal compression strength for the masonry
units that they provide. This nominal strength is derived from a simple
crushing test.
Due to the variability in masonry unit dimensions, this nominal strength
cannot be used as the actual crushing strength of the unit. Values from
crushing tests are very sensitive to aspect ratio and this dependence must be
removed from the strength parameter.
This can be by testing a small, standard, wall panel to failure and using
equations provided in the applicable code of practice to determine
characteristic compression strength for the unit.
Alternatively, most codes of practice also provide tables of characteristic
strengths versus aspect ratio and nominal strengths.
In MasWall, any one of the two approaches can be used. Similarly flexural
tensile resistances parallel and perpendicular to the bed joints can be
specified or left to MasWall for calculation.
General input
190 x 90 x 90 mm
290 x 90 x 90 mm
Burnt clay
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 190 x 190 mm
190 x 90 x 90 mm
290 x 90 x 90 mm
Calcium silicate
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 100 x 190 mm
190 x 90 x 90 mm
290 x 90 x 90 mm
Concrete
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 190 x 190 mm
3.5 MPa
7 MPa
Burnt clay 10.5 MPa
14 MPa
17 MPa
7 MPa
14 MPa
Calcium silicate
21 MPa
35 MPa
3.5 MPa
7 MPa
Concrete 10.5 MPa
14 MPa
21 MPa
The layout of subsequent tabs in the input process will vary according to the
design type chosen.
The table on this tab defines the type, geometry and stiffeners (if any) of the
masonry wall.
The following wall types are supported:
Single leaf - Single leaf of masonry
Collar jointed - Double leaf of masonry, where the small void
between the two leaves of masonry is filled with mortar or concrete
Cavity - Double leaf of masonry, with a void between the two
leaves.
Wall height, length and cavity size (if required) can be entered on this tab.
Possible values for the horizontal restraint are: (Refer to SABS 0164 for
details)
Simple No rotational fixity at the top of the wall.
Enhanced Partial rotational fixity at the top of the wall.
Similar rotational fixities can be specified for the vertical edge(s) of the wall.
The table on this tab defines the type, geometry and edge restraint of the
masonry wall panel.
The following wall types are supported:
Single leaf - Single leaf of masonry
Collar jointed - Double leaf of masonry, where the small void
between the two leaves of masonry is filled with mortar or concrete
Cavity - Double leaf of masonry, with a void between the two
leaves.
Wall height, length and cavity size (if required) can be entered on this tab.
Edge restraints can be specified for each edge individually as free, simple or
fixed.
For this loading type, axial forces and eccentricity with respect to the wall
centreline can be entered on this tab. Multiple load cases are supported.
Note that all loads should be ULS loads.
For this loading type, moments parallel and perpendicular to the bedding
joints can be entered directly. A dead load pressure on the level of moment
parallel to the bedding joints is required to calculate the cracked moment
resistance.
This calculation makes use of the moment tables in the code of practice
which are in turn derived from yield line equations.
This tab provides a tabular and diagrammatic summary of the design. The
two resistance moments are shown on the diagram.
Other design checks are tabulated with action effect (loading) versus the
resistance effect (strength).
Note: The Calcsheet is not saved with the rest of the input when the file is
saved. All changes to the Calcsheet will then be lost. To edit the
Calcsheet output, send it to the CalcPad where it can be edited and saved.