Karst Without Boundaries.

23
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF HYDROGEOLOGISTS SELECTED PAPERS INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF HYDROGEOLOGISTS SELECTED PAPERS
23
Editors:
Karstified rocks, of various lithologies, cover more than 10% of the land surface of
Karst without Boundaries

our planet. About 20% of the global population depends on karstic groundwater
Zoran Stevanovic
for its wellbeing, despite limited natural resources and in some places a near Neven Kreic
absence of drinking water. The problems of water shortage, equitable water use Neno Kukuric
and protection from pollution become even more problematic in transboundary
regions. The Dinaric Region is a classical karst area where the borders of newly
established countries have created an urgent need to create sustainable water
management within each country and in the region as a whole. The DIKTAS
project, working in the Dinaric Karst system, is one of the first attempts to
establish sustainable integrated management principles in a transboundary
karst aquifer. This volume highlights some of the DIKTAS project achievements
alongside research from other karst environments worldwide. This book is of
wide interest to scientists working in karst environments, to regulators and
managers of sparse water resources and to all practitioners in the water industry.
It also provides a number of case studies that students will find valuable.
Neno Kukuric
Neven Kreic
Zoran Stevanovic
Editors:
an informa business
Selected papers on hydrogeology
23
Series Editor: Dr. Nick S. Robins
Editor-in-Chief IAH Book Series, British Geological Survey, Wallingford, UK
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF HYDROGEOLOGISTS

Editors
Zoran Stevanovic
Faculty of Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade,
Belgrade, Serbia
Neven Kreic
Environment and Infrastructure, Amec Foster Wheeler,
Kennesaw, GA, USA
Neno Kukuric
IGRAC, Delft, The Netherlands
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Table of contents
Preface ix
PART I
Management of transboundary karst aquifers 1
1 Dinaric Karst Aquifer One of the worlds largest transboundary
systems and an ideal location for applying innovative and integrated
water management 3
Z. Stevanovic, N. Kukuric, . Peka, B. Jolovic, A. Pambuku & D. Radojevic
2 How confident are we about the definition of boundaries in karst?

Difficulties in managing and planning in a typical
transboundary environment 27
M. Parise
3 WOKAM The world karst aquifer mapping project, examples from

South East Europe, Near and Middle East and Eastern Africa 39
Z. Stevanovic, N. Goldscheider, Z. Chen & the WOKAM Team
4 Groundwater flow in the Orontes River basin and the SyriaLebanon

water sharing agreement 53
F. Zwahlen, M. Bakalowicz, R. Gonzalez, A. Haj Asaad, M. Saad-Sbeih &
R. Jaubert
5 HungarianSlovakian transboundary karstic groundwater management

under the scope of ENWAT and TRANSENERGY EU projects 63
P. Malk, R. C ernk & G. Tth
6 Development and protection of transboundary karst and karst aquifers

in West Stara Planina Mountains (BulgariaSerbia) 71
A. Benderev, Z. Stevanovic, B. Mihaylova, V. ivanovic, K. Kostov, S. Milanovic,
S. Shanov & I. Jemcov
vi Table of contents
7 An assessment of territory participation in transboundary karst aquifer

recharge:A case study from the Skadar Lake catchment area 87
M. Radulovic, G. Sekulic, M. Blagojevic, J. Krstajic & E. Vako
PART 2
Karst aquifer characterisation and monitoring 101
8 Optimal water management Prerequisite for regional socio-economic
development in the karst of the south-eastern Dinarides 103
P. Milanovic
9 Spring hydrograph recession:A brief review focused on karst aquifers 117

F. Fiorillo
10 Characterisation of selected karst springs in Slovenia by means

of a time series analysis 131
G. Kovacic & N. Ravbar
11 Characterisation of the influence of evaporite rocks on

the hydrochemistry of carbonate aquifers:
The Grazalema Mountain Range (Southern Spain) 155
D. Snchez & B. Andreo
12 3D Spatial modelling of karst channels The Beljanica karst massif 169

S. Milanovic
13 A field work oriented approach for complex karst aquifer

characterisation 179
P. Stadler, H. Husler, M. Rogger, D. Savio & H. Stadler
14 Scale-dependent evaluation of an unconfined carbonate system

Practical application, consequences and significance 199
. Tth & J. Mdl-Szonyi
15 Characterization of karst system using modelling of rainfall-discharge

relationship: Pireghar and Dimeh springs, Zagros Region, Iran 215
Z. Mohammadi & S. Mali
PART 3
The water flow in karst: From vadose to discharge zone 225
16 Recharge processes of karst massifs in southern Italy 227
F. Fiorillo & M. Pagnozzi
Table of contents vii
17 Water balance analysis of a vadose stream to discern hillslope

hydrology in bare karst area (South West China) 245
G. Jiang, F. Guo, K.F.A. Lo, X. Guo, X. Gong & C. Chen
18 Hydraulic behaviour of a subthermal karst spring Blederija spring,

Eastern Serbia 259
V. ivanovic, V. Dragiic, I. Jemcov & N. Atanackovic
19 Delineation of the Plitvice Lakes karst catchment area, Croatia 269

H. Meaki, B. Biondic & R. Biondic
PART 4
Engineering, sustainable use and protection of water in karst 285
20 Creating environmental impact indicators in dynamic karst
system Dinaric karst case example 287
Z. Stevanovic
21 Hydrogeological settings for underground dam construction

Four case studies from southwest karst area of China 311
J. Cao, Y. Jiang & P. Milanovic
22 3D Conduit modelling of leakage below a dam situated in highly

karstified rocks 321
S. Milanovic & L. Vasic
23 Reactivation of karst springs after regional mine dewatering

in the Tata area, Hungary 337
A. Kovcs & T. Szocs
Subject index 359

Geographic names (Regional) 361
Series IAH-selected papers 363
This page intentionally left blank
Preface
Karst covers more than 13% of the continental ice-free surface of our planet, with
major coverage in the Middle East and Central Asia where it occupies approximately
23% of the land surface. According to some estimates more than 20% of the worlds
population is consuming groundwater originated from karst aquifers. At the same
time, the management of karst aquifers and their water resources is more problematic
compared to any other aquifer type due to uncertainties in defining their boundaries,
often irregular drainage regime, and vulnerability to pollution. All these problems
are closely related to high heterogeneity of karst aquifers and their locally very high
permeability.
During recent decades the first systematic overview and inventory of transbound-
ary aquifers and their internationally shared water resources has been made. This work
led by UN agencies (UNESCO, UNECE, IGRAC) and the International Association of
Hydrogeologists (IAH) underlined the challenges of international groundwater data
availability and highlighted the importance of establishing proper monitoring systems
as a prerequisite to the better assessment of shared water resources.
When it comes to karst transboundary aquifer systems there is a rough approx-
imation that not less than 20% of all internationally shared aquifers belong to karst
types. This estimate is currently being adjusted upwards as a result of new investiga-
tions especially in Central and South Eastern Europe, and the Middle East within the
Alpine orogenic belt and its branches, along with the numerous middle- and small-size
countries and their dense network of borders.
A typical example of these complexities is the Dinaric mountain system, the region
of classical karst, which is composed almost entirely of carbonate rocks (limestones
and dolomites), with thickness often exceeding 1000m. In this part of Europe not
only was the term karst born (the German derivation of the local name of the district
between Italy and Slovenia called Carso or Kras), but also a new scientific discipline
karstology was established at the end of the ninetenth century. The appearance of sev-
eral new sovereign states in the 1990s, from what was once Yugoslavia, and complex
transboundary inter-linkages have had a considerable impact on water use and water
sharing for domestic supply, power generation, and agriculture. For instance, this is
also an area where one of the worlds largest springs, located in one country, has 95%
of its catchment in another country. Similarly, this is an area where one may enter a
cave in one country and several kilometers away enter another country. These, among
many others, are the reasons why the DIKTAS (Protection and Sustainable Use of
the Dinaric Karst Transboundary Aquifer System) project was initiated and included
xPreface
three former Yugoslav countries (Croatia, Bosnia & Herzegovina and Montenegro)
and Albania. The project was conducted in the period of 20112015, as full-size GEF
regional project, implemented by UNDP and executed by UNESCO-IHP.
The task of organising the scientific conference related to karst and transboundary
issues was part of the DIKTAS. After four years of work the team of international and
national consultants organised the international conference Karst without Boundaries
which took place on 1115 June of 2014 in Trebinje, Bosnia & Herzegovina, with a
mid-conference field seminar in Dubrovnik, Croatia, and a post-conference excursion
in Boka Kotorska Bay, Montenegro. The conference was preceded by an interna-
tional summer school and a field seminar Characterization and Engineering of Karst
Aquifers supported by UNESCO and attended by university students from Europe,
Asia, and South America. The international summer school is now traditionally
organised beyond DIKTAS as one of its capacity building activities.
This book contains 23 selected chapters from the conference Karst without
Boundaries. These are written by 62 authors coming from 19 countries. The book is
divided into four main topics: Management of transboundary karst aquifers, Karst
aquifer charaterisation and monitoring, Water flow in karst: from vadose to discharge
zone, and Engineering, sustainable use and protection of water in karst.
The chapter Management of transboundary karst aquifers contains seven con-
tributions. The first one aims to improve understanding of transboundary ground
water resources of the Dinaric Karst region and to present DIKTAS project goals and
achievements. The second opens a general but very sensitive question of relevancy
of boundaries in karst. The third presents another important international project
for worldwide karst aquifers mapping (WOKAM). The remaining four contributions
present concerns and results of transboundary aquifers projects between Syria and
Lebanon, Slovakia and Hungary, Bulgaria and Serbia, and Montenegro and Albania.
The chapter Karst aquifer characterisation and monitoring is the largest in this
book with eight contributions. This is also result of common understanding of hydro-
geologists that characterisation and monitoring are essential tools for determining
aquifer behaviour and its resources before any instruments of water policy are to be
imposed. The introductory paper of this group again deals with Dinaric karst and
achievements of implemented large engineering projects which became the basis for
socio-economic development of this region. Three papers of this group deal with aqui-
fer recharge processes, spring hydrographs and time series analyses with examples
from Italy, Slovenia and Iran. Characterisation of aquifer based on hydrochemistry
and several other applied field methods is discussed with case studies from Spain
(evaporitic aquifer) and Hungary (shallow aquifer). Complex karst aquifer charac-
terisation including development of physical models is presented with examples from
Croatia (Plitvice) and Serbia (Beljanica Mountain).
The Water flow in karst: from vadose to discharge zone contains case studies
from Italy, south China, eastern Serbia and Croatia. All four are different in content,
dealing with aquifers in orogenic belt, tower karst, fresh and thermal waters, and
catchment delineation, but all present suggestions how to establish conceptual models
applicable to local conditions.
The final chapter Engineering, sustainable use and protection of water in karst
also contains thematically various subjects. Two examples are related to surface and
groundwater damming in karst and related concerns (examples from China and
Prefacexi
Bosnia and Herzegovina), one paper discusses consequences of abandoned mine

dewatering (Hungary), while the first paper in this group presents possible environ-
mental indicators which may be used to evaluate impact of various human activities
in karst environment.
Our hope is that this book will be beneficial to everyone working on the many
challenges of sustainable surface water and groundwater use in karst.
The editors would like to express their great appreciation and thank all the authors
of this book for their dedication, and all reviewers for their help and suggestions. We
also acknowledge guidance and technical support of Nicholas Robins, the IAH book
Editor-in-Chief who enthusiastically worked with us to meet high standards of the
Publisher. Thanks also go to Janjaap Blom and Germaine Seijger editors in charge
of Engineering & Applied Sciences, Taylor & Francis. We very much appreciate our
collaboration with DIKTAS project staff, external consultants and advisors since the
very beginning of the project, and are grateful for the support of the organisers of the
conference in Trebinje in June, 2014.
Zoran Stevanovic
Neven Kreic
Neno Kukuric
Part 1
Management of
transboundary karst aquifers
Chapter 1
Dinaric Karst Aquifer One of

the worlds largest transboundary
systems and an ideal location
for applying innovative and
integrated water management
Zoran Stevanovic 1, Neno Kukuric 2, elimir Peka 3,
Boban Jolovic 4, Arben Pambuku 5 & Dragan Radojevic 6
1
University of Belgrade Faculty of Mining and Geology, Centre for
Karst Hydrogeology of the Department of Hydrogeology, Belgrade,
Serbia
2
IGRAC, Delft, The Netherlands
3
Croatian Waters, Zagreb, Croatia
4
Geological Survey of Republic of Srpska, Zvornik,
Bosnia and H erzegovina
5
Albanian Geological Survey, Tirana, Albania
6
Geological Survey of Montenegro, Podgorica, Montenegro
ABSTRACT
The Dinaric region is a karst holotype with its north west margin in the Crasso area around
Trieste in Italy, and south west margin in Albania. There are more than 150 poljes, and in cer-
tain areas the density of the dolines can reach 150/km2. Not only was the term karst born in the
area, but Jovan Cvijic and his followers founded here a new scientific discipline karstology,
at the end of the nineteenth century. The Dinaric region is by far the richest in all of Europe:
there are more than 100 springs with a minimum discharge over 500 l/s. However, there are
numerous problems for groundwater sustainable utilisation and protection from pollution.
Therise of several new sovereign states from what was once Yugoslavia has established com-
plex transboundary inter-linkages that impact water use and water sharing for domestic supply,
power generation, and agriculture. DIKTAS (Protection and Sustainable Use of the Dinaric
Karst Transboundary Aquifer System) is a GEF project implemented by UNDP and UNESCOs
IHP. Its mandate is to improve understanding of shared water resources and to facilitate their
equitable and sustainable utilisation, including the protection of dependent ecosystems.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Dinaric system (Dinarides) represents a geologically heterogeneous, south European

orogenic belt of the Alpine mountain chain (Alpides). The Alpine and Dinaric belts are
in contact either directly or through an intermediate zone (Herak, 1972). Themain ori-
entation of the system is north west-south east, parallel to the Adriatic Sea. The system
extends from the Carso area in Italy in the north over the countries of former Yugoslavia
(Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, FYR of Macedonia)
and ends in the Albanian Alps. The orogenic belt extends further in Albania and into
Greece to the southern Alpine branches of Pindes and Hellenides, respectively.
4 Karst without Boundaries
DIKTAS is an acronym of the GEF (Global Environment Facility) regional project

Protection and Sustainable Use of the Dinaric Karst Transboundary Aquifer System
which commenced in 2011. The Dinaric Karst Aquifer System, shared by several
countries and one of the worlds largest, has been identified as an ideal location for
applying new and integrated management approaches to these unique freshwater
resources and ecosystems.
The project aims at focusing the attention of the international community on the
huge but vulnerable water resources contained in karst aquifers (carbonate rock for-
mations), which are widespread globally, but often poorly managed. At the regional
level the main project objectives are to facilitate the equitable and sustainable util-
isation and management of the transboundary water resources, and to protect the
unique groundwater dependent ecosystems that characterise the Dinaric karst region
from natural and man-made hazards, including climate change. These objectives aim
to contribute to the sustainable development of the region.
Partner countries within the framework of the DIKTAS project are Croatia,
Bosnia Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania as GEF-fund recipient countries. The
Adriatic coastline and the islands make up the western border of the Dinaric system.
A tectonic graben of the Sava River is usually considered as the northern edge of
the Dinarides. The fringe of the Dinarides in Croatia and in Bosnia Herzegovina is,
therefore, placed some 2030 km south of the Sava riverbed (Figure 1.1). Montenegro
is the only country whose entire territory belongs to the Dinarides; the karstified
carbonate rocks cover more than 2/3 of the Montenegrin territory. For the purpose
of transboundary diagnostic analysis (TDA) the southern border of project area has
been extended to the Vjosa River basin in Albania. As such, the total surface area of
the Dinaric system, including non-karstic rocks, is estimated at 140000 km2, out of
which some 110000 km2 belongs to the four project countries. Approximately 60%
belongs to the Adriatic/Ionian basins, while the rest is a part of the Black Sea basin.
1.2 GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY
The Dinaric system is a karst holotype and a classic karst region. Not only was the
term karst born in the area (the German derivation of the local name of the district
around Trieste between Italy and Slovenia Carso or Kras) but also at the end
of the nineteenth century a group of researchers including A. Penck, A. Grund, and
F. Katzer led by J. Cvijic established a new scientific discipline karstology. Cvijic
undertook most of his work in the Dinaric karst, and in Das Karstphnomen (1893),
argued that rock dissolution was the key process in the creation of most types of
dolines, the diagnostic karst landforms. The Dinaric karst thus becomes the locus
typicus area for dissolutional landforms (Ford, 2005) and some local terms were
accepted, and are still used, in international karst terminology (e.g. ponor, doline,
uvala, polje) (Stevanovic & Mijatovic, 2005). Cvijic stated that there is no deeper
and more thorough karst development than HerzegovinaMontenegros karst located
between the lower Neretva River, Skadar Lake and the Adriatic Sea.
Following Cvijics research, a large number of specialists from former Yugoslavia,
Italy and Albania further improved the knowledge of the Dinarides in terms of
hydrology, geomorphology, geology, hydrogeology and social/humanistic sciences.
Dinaric Karst Aquifer One of the worlds largest transboundary systems 5
14,000000 16,000000 18,000000 20,000000
Austria
Hungary
Slovenia N
46,000000
46,000000
Romania
Rijeka
Pula Croatia Banja Luka

Doboj
Una Tuzla
Zenica
Serbia
Zadar
Krka
Bosnia and Herzegovina
44,000000
44,000000
Sarajevo
Cetina
Split Foca
Mostar
Neretva
Piva
Bilecko
Trebisnjica Lake Niksic
Montenegro
Dubrovnik
Podgorica
(Kosovo)
Cijevna
Budva
Legend Skoder
42,000000
42,000000
State Boundaries
official
Tirana
F.Y.R. Macedonia
Dures
unofficial
Dinaric Karst Boundary

Italy Elbasani
Diktas Boundary
Albania
Fijer Berat
TB Aquifers
Korca
TB Aquifers
Towns (population)
1500050000
Greece
40,000000
40,000000
50001100000
100001250000
250001500000
14,000000 16,000000 18,000000 20,000000
0 25 50 100 150 200

km Transboundary Aquifers, Scale 1: 2 500 000
Figure 1.1 Extension of Dinaric karst from Italy to Albania and the boundaries of study area of four
DIKTAS project countries. Some selected aquifers of major transboundary concern are
also shown.
Preparation of the Basic Geological Map of Yugoslavia (some fifty years ago) on the
scale 1:100000 (with working sheets 1:25000) substantially improved the geologi
cal knowledge on Dinaric karst. During several decades, large scale hydrogeologi
cal exploration was carried out for the construction of dams in the Dinaric karst
region. Technical applications of control and regulation of karst aquifers through
the construction of galleries, batteries of wells, and groundwater reservoirs (storage)
represent an important contribution to the international hydrogeological science.
Petar Milanovics Hydrogeology of karst and methods of investigation (first edition
1979) became one of the most important references when dealing with karst ground
water distribution and circulation. A monograph Hydrogeology of the Dinaric Karst
(Mijatovic, 1984) published by IAH, also confirms the wide interest of the hydrogeo-
logical community in the Dinaric karst.
The Dinaric karst is almost entirely carbonate (limestones and dolomites), its
thickness is often over 1000 m and it is mostly of Mesozoic age (Tethys sedimen-
tary basin). The development of the Dinaric karst was gradual. Herak (1972) stated
that at the end of the Triassic or during the Lower Jurassic, the Triassic carbonate
rocks were first exposed to the impact of water circulation processes. At the end of
the Upper Cretaceous and during the Paleocene, intensive uplifting and folding took
place, during which most of the carbonate and flysch rocks were tectonised. After
the Laramian tectonic phase, the next intensive movements occurred in the Helvetian
phase (Eocene/Oligocene). All the main nappes along the Adriatic/Ionian Sea coastline
can be related to this stage and the rising of large land masses, accompanied locally
by intensive structural changes providing the potential for more intensified subsurface
water circulation and widespread karstification (Herak, 1972). Since the Oligocene,
the Dinaric region has been continuously exposed to weathering, providing favor-
able conditions for intensive subsurface water circulation and the development of
karst features. The most distinctive effects can be found in the area of uplifting and
subsidence. The areas of subsidence include the poljes where the water was active
before and after the diastrophic movements. The Pleistocene started not only with
climatic changes (glacial process, lowering sea level) but also brought a new structural
and morphologic evolution. Climate change and the rate of diastrophic movements
regulated the periods of accumulation and later the removal of young deposits from
the poljes (Mijatovic, 1983).
Three major tectonic units are usually distinguished in the Dinarides: External,
Central and Inner Dinarides. These can be additionally separated into several sub-units
(Herak, 1972) (Figure 1.2). Accordingly, the hydrogeological classification of Dinaric
karst indicates the units: Adriatic karst belt, High karst belt, Fluviokarst and Isolated
karst (arin, 1983; Mijatovic, 1984). Although no precise equivalency between tec-
tonic and hydrogeology units exists, the Adriatic belt could be considered an equiv-
alent to External Dinarides, and the High karst to Central, while the last two are
distributed over Inner Dinaric karst.
The Albanian tectonic classification is different in names and in structures.
Nevertheless, the units such as the Adriatic depression (Figure 1.3) and the parts of
the Ionian, Krasta-Cukali or Kruja zones, belong to the External Dinarides, while the
Mirdita unit could be interpreted as an extension of the Central ophiolitic zone of the
Central Dinarides (Mee & Aliaj, 2000).
Dinaric karst is a mountainous region with a prevalence of highly karstified
rocks and large karstic poljes and valleys created in tectonic depressions by peren-
nial or sinking streams. The karstification base is deep; boreholes have locally
encountered karstified zones at depths of 2000 m but Milanovic (2005) con-
cluded that the average depth does not exceed 350400 m. The karstification in
the near-surface zone (010 m) is about 30 times larger than at a depth of 300 m
(Milanovic, 2000). The Dinaric region contains all types of karst landforms and
features including karren (lapies), d olines, jamas (pits), ponors (swallow holes,
sinks), dry and blind valleys, caves and caverns as single forms, and uvalas (Figure
1.4), poljes and karst plains as larger complex forms (Cvijic, 1893; Boicevic,
1966; Roglic, 1972; Kreic, 1988). Asan example, the number of sinkholes (dol-
ines) in certain areas can reach 150 km2. According to Milanovic (2000), in the
Dinaric karst region there are approximately 130 poljes. The total area of all these
poljes is about 1350 km2.
Livanjsko Polje, considered the worlds largest karst polje, covers an area of
380km2, and together with Buko Blato, which morphologically is its integral part, it
0 100 200 km
LJUBJANA
ZAGREB
BEOGRAD
SARAJEVO
AD
RI
AT
IC
SE
A
TITOGRAD
SKOPJE
1 2
3 4 5 6
Figure 1.2 Major tectonic units of Yugoslavia (Herak, 1972). 1 = Outer Dinaric units (Adriatic and
high karst); 2 = Inner Dinaric and south Alpine units; 3 = Pannonian Basin; 4 = eastern Alps;
5 = Serbian-Macedonian Belt; 6 = Carpathian-Balkanides Belt.
totals 433 km2. The poljes are characterised by complicated hydrogeological relations:
drainage of surface water is achieved through many ponors. These are frequently
located in the polje areas nearest to the prevailing erosion base. In the Nikicko polje,
about 880 ponors and estavelles were identified, 851 of which are located along its
southern perimeter. In Popovo Polje there are more than 500 ponors and estavelles.
Some of them are lakes or swamps, the others periodically inundated or even dry. In
general, the poljes are geologically heterogeneous, but an abundance of impervious
rocks implicate tectonic origins.
Herak (1972) stated that more than 12 000 caves have been explored in former
Yugoslavia alone, more than 5000 of which are in Croatia. Kreic (1988) listed some
15 potholes (pits, shafts) in former Yugoslavia deeper than 400 m. In the meantime,
some much deeper potholes have been discovered: Lukina jama-Trojama (1392 m)
and the Slovacka jama (1301 m) at Velebit Mountain, Croatia are among the deep-
est speleological phenomena in the World. At the Kameno more (Stone Sea) and the
Orjen Mountain above Kotor Bay (Montenegro), within an area of only 8 km2, more
Figure 1.3 The contact zone between large tectonic zones Adriatic and Ionian (Dhermi, Albanian
coast, photo Z. Stevanovic).
than 300 vertical shafts were registered (Milanovic, 2005). Some of those shafts were
speleologicaly investigated to depths of 200350 m.
As a result of intensive karstification a network of highly permeable underground
channels acts as preferential pathways of intensive groundwater circulation. Along
with its richness in various karstic features, the Dinaric region is by far the richest in
Europe in water resources but these are unequally distributed throughout the year,
which results from climate and a high degree of karstification (Bonacci, 1987). Some
areas, such as southern Montenegro, are characterised by an intensive water balance
where the average specific yield is over 40 l/s/km2 (Stevanovic et al., 2012). In the
Dinaric region of former Yugoslavia there are 230 springs with a minimum discharge
Figure 1.4 A small depression uvala used for crop cultivation (Orjen Mountain, shared between
Montenegro and Bosnia & Herzegovina, photo Z. Stevanovic).
of over 100 l/s, while about 100 springs have a minimal discharge of over 500 l/s
(Komatina, 1983). In the Albanian karst there are roughly 110 springs with an aver-
age discharge exceeding 100 l/s (Eftimi, 2010).
There are some distinctive patterns in distribution of karstic features in the main
geo-structures of the Dinaric system. In the Adriatic zone, vruljas (submarine springs),
(Milanovic, 2007), are the most specific hydrogeologic features. They are formed by
the sinking of the floor of the northern Adriatic Sea and rising of the sea level, so that
karstified land was submerged beneath the sea (Figure 1.5).
The surface and groundwater of the Dinaric karst belongs to two main catch-
ments. The area of External (Outer) Dinarides belongs to the Adriatic catchment
NW
Ponor Ponor
(sinkhole) Spring (sinkhole) Polje Spring (m)
1000
800
Submarine spring 600
400
200
S. I. 5 0 5 10 km
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 1.5 Schematic cross-section through the karstic poljes of the Dinarides (after Mijatovic 1983,
modified by Stevanovic). Legend: 1. karstified Mesozoic limestone; 2. flysch barrier; 3. porous
aquifer of polje; 4. fault; 5. groundwater flow; 6. direction of flow around the barrier;
7. regional flow; 8. groundwater table.
(asmall part to the Ionian Sea), while the Internal (Inner) Dinarides are part of the
Sava (i.e. Danube and the Black Sea catchment area). The main river basins in the
Adriatic/Ionian catchment area are the Vjosa, Seman, Drini, Buna (Bojana), Zeta,
Neretva, Cetina, Krka, Zrmanja and Soca. Karstic groundwater from the river basins
of the Tara, Piva, Vrbas, Pliva, Sana, Una, the upper course of the Kupa River and the
Krka (in Slovenia) gravitates to the Black Sea catchment area (Stevanovic et al., 2012).
Komatina (1983) noted that tracer experiments were conducted at more than
650sites in the Dinaric karst of former Yugoslavia. In eastern Herzegovina alone,
tracers were applied at 281 sites, in the catchment area of the Cetina River at 99 sites
and in the Skadarsko Lake catchment area at 77 sites.
According to Milanovic (2000) more than several hundred investigations have
been performed in the Dinaric karst so far, for the purpose of finding the major routes
of underground water circulation (Figure 1.6). Based on experiments, the average
flow velocity is estimated to vary between a range of 0.00255.2 cm/s. Such extreme
values are rare, whereas an average velocity is about 5 cm/s. Based on 380 conducted
experiments Komatina (1983) concluded that the frequency of groundwater velocities
in Dinaric karst is: in 70% of cases from 0 to 5 cm/s; in 20% of cases 5 to 10 cm/s;
and in 10% of cases more than 10 cm/s. During the dry season and low aquifer water
table, water circulation in the karst system is characterised by slower rates of flow.
The water labeled with dye takes two- to five-fold less time to travel the same distance
during a season of high hydrologic activity (Milanovic, 2000). The same author pres-
ents an example: to cover the distance (34 km) from Gatacko Polje to the Trebinjica
Spring (Dinaric karst, Herzegovina), the underground flow takes 35 days when the
water table is low and inflow is small. During high water levels and large inflow, the
water takes only five days to cover the same distance.
The karst aquifer recharges from precipitation and waters percolating from numer-
ous sinking rivers. Depending on the locality, morphology and karstification properties
the average infiltration rate lies between 50% to 80% of the precipitation. In the Cetina
Figure 1.6 Tracing test at the Ponikve Ponor (Dabarsko Polje, East Herzegovina, photo courtesy of
eljko Zubac).
River catchment area, more than 80% of the precipitation appears at the terminal water
gauge controlled profile, while in the Trebinjica River catchment area this percentage
reaches 90%. Effective infiltration in the Albanian karst is on average made up of 4055%
rainfall (Eftimi, 2010). Considering that the rainfall rate in the region is one of the
highest in Europe (over 2000 mm annually in the southern part, and even up to 5000 mm
in Boka Kotorska Bay) there are abundant but variable water reserves. However, more
than 70% of the precipitation occurred during the wet season (OctoberMarch).
Milanovic (2005) noted that only through three huge springs along the Neretva
Valley and Adriatic coast (Buna, Bunica and Ombla) and a few spring zones in the
Kotor Bay, more than 150 m3/s is discharged annually into the Adriatic Sea directly or
indirectly through the Neretva River.
Three capital cities in the project countries receive drinking water from the karstic
aquifers. Sarajevo obtains a part of its water supply from the Vrelo Bosne springs in
Central Dinarides (1.424 m3/s). The Albanian capital Tirana is supplied in part from
the spring that discharges the Triassic and Jurassic karstic aquifer of Mali me Gropa
plateau (Eftimi, 2010), while downstream from the third important spring, Buvilla,
issuing from Dajti Mountain a large reservoir has been constructed. Mareza spring
(2.010.0 m3/s) in the Skadar basin is the main source of water for the Montenegrin
capital city of Podgorica (Radulovic, 2000). Along the Adriatic, Ionian and Aegean
coast, almost all cities and tourist centres use karstic groundwater (Stevanovic, 2010;
Stevanovic & Eftimi, 2010).
Perhaps the most famous and the largest spring on the northern Italian coast is
Timavo, with an average discharge rate of 30 m3/s. Jadro Spring is the main source
for the water supply of Split (Figure 1.7). The average minimum discharge of Jadro
during the recession period is 35 m3/s, while maximum discharge is often over
50m3/s (Bonacci, 1987).
Figure 1.7 One of the largest springs on the Adriatic coast, Jadro Spring supplies drinking water to Split
(Croatia) which is the main reason why the Romans founded the city (photo Z. Stevanovic).
Figure 1.8 Ombla spring (Rijeka Dubrovacka source, Croatia, photo Z. Stevanovic).
Ombla Spring is the largest permanent karstic spring at the South Adriatic coast
(Figure 1.8). It supplies the city of Dubrovnik; at a maximum discharge of about
154m3/s. Since the completion of the Trebinjica Hydropower System and the regu-
lation of this longest sinking river in Europe in the catchment of Ombla, the average
discharge of Ombla was reduced from 34 m3/s to 24 m3/s. However, the minimum
discharge (2.3 m3/s) is not affected (Milanovic, 2006).
The main springs along Boka Kotorska Bay in Montenegro are: Gurdic and
kurda spring near Kotor, Ljuta spring at Orahovac, Spila spring at Risan, Morinj
springs, Opacica at Herceg Novi and Plavda at Tivat. The Sopot near Risan is a well
known submarine spring (Figure 1.9). All these springs are characterised by a high
variation in discharges due to a highly karstified catchment and extremely fast prop-
agation of the rainfall. Some of those springs even dry up completely during summer
while after intensive rainfall some of them can discharge over 100 m3/s.
In the Skadar Lake basin there is a large number of sublacustrine springs such as
Oko Matice, Golac, Kaludjerovo Oko and many other along the edge of Malo Blato
(Radulovic, 2000). Volac, Karuc, Bolje sestre was recently tapped for the regional
water supply of the Montenegrin coastal area (Stevanovic, 2010).
It is assumed that 2/3 of the whole groundwater resources in Albania are within
karstic aquifers, providing more than 60% of the water consumed in the country
(Eftimi, 2010). The average potential yield of coastal karst aquifers in the catch-
ment of the Ionian Sea in Albania is estimated at about 1520 m3/s (Eftimi, personal
communication).
Figure 1.9 Sopot spring near Risan (Montenegro) during peak flow discharge (left, photo Z. Stevanovic)
and during drought when only submarine flow exists (right, photo S. Milanovic).
1.3 ARTIFICIAL CONTROL OF KARST WATERS
A large fluctuation in the water table is common in the region (Peka et al., 2012). For
instance, the water level can change by 312 m during a period of 183 days at the obser-
vation borehole Z-3 in the Nevesinjsko Polje. In the Cetina River basin the maximum
recorded water table increase was 3.17 m/h. Along with continual seasonal flooding
of cultivated land, this was also the main reason why large projects to regulate river
flows were initiated in all the countries in the region after World War Two and many
of these were implemented during the 1960s and 1970s. The idea to regulate flows is
much older; the Klinje Dam (the Munica stream, Boznia Herzegovina) was built in the
period 18881896, while the hydro-electrical power plant (HPP) at Kraljevac (Cetina,
Croatia) was erected in 1912. Today many streams are dammed and their waters are
utilised by HPPs. The major dams and reservoirs have been built on the Cetina, Neretva,
Trebinjica, Zeta, and Drini rivers. Dinaric karst becomes, therefore, a reference area
for the successful completion of dams in karst, a problematic media for water losses
(Milanovic, 2000; 2006). About 2/3 of the total existing hydro power facilities of the
four countries are located in the DIKTAS karst area, therefore, hydro power generation
from the DIKTAS karst system plays significant role in these countrys economies.
The Cetina water system is managed by the Croatian water authority although
a considerable amount of water originates in the territory of Bosnia & Herzegovina
including the catchments of the Kupres, Glamoc, Duvno, and Livno poljes, and Buko
Blato (Figure 1.10). Currently there are five HPPs on the Cetina River: the largest
Figure 1.10 Lake Cetina, upstream from the dam (photo Z. Stevanovic).
s torage reservoir, Buko Blato, has a capacity of 831 106 m3. Bonacci (1987) stated
that Cetinas surface area is from 3700 to 4300 km2 of which the topographic water-
shed encompasses about 1300 km2 and the subsurface watershed about 2700 km2.
The average flow is 118 m3/s.
The main structures of the Trebinjica water system are Lake Bilecko (i.e. the
Bileca Reservoir) behind the Grancarevo Dam, and the Gorica Dam and reservoir
downstream. Active operating HPPs are the Trebinje I (180 MW), Trebinje II (8MW),
Capljina (420MW) and Plat (Dubrovnik, 210 MW). Average river flows at the
Grancarevo (Figure 1.11) and Gorica dam sites are 74.3 m3/s and 85.6 m3/s, respec-
tively. Losses from the Bileca Reservoir are negligible, while losses from the Gorica
Reservoir are approximately 57% of the average river flows. These losses appear
mostly downstream from the Gorica Dam and represent a guaranteed ecological flow
to the regulated Trebinjica River (Figure 1.12).
The number of artificial reservoirs in Montenegro is small in comparison with the
hydropower potential. The total capacity of these reservoirs amounts to slightly more
than 1 109 m3. With respect to the total amount of surface water (about 14 109 m3/year)
in the territory of Montenegro, this amounts to about 7% (Hrvacevic, 2004). In the
Adriatic basin, the reservoirs in the Nikicko Polje (Krupac, Slano and Vrtac) have
been formed on the River Zeta, while the Liverovici Dam controls the flow of the
Gracanica River. Water from the reservoirs is utilised by the Perucica HPP (307 MW).
All the reservoirs in the Nikicko Polje have been built in highly karstified rocks. The
Slano and Vrtac required intensive and expensive anti-infiltration works. The grout
curtain along the southern rim of the Slano is one of the longest in the world. It has a
Figure 1.11 Grancarevo dam (Trebinje, Bosnia & Herzegovina).
length of 7,011 m, depth of 57 m and surface of 396 122 m2. The current hydropower
capacity of the main Albanian plants is 1750 MW, and most of the dams were built
on the Drini catchment.
1.4 KARST AQUIFER MANAGEMENT AND

MONITORING DIKTAS ACHIEVEMENTS
The Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) was conducted in the period 2011
2013 by the DIKTAS Project Team in accordance with the GEF guidelines. The TDA is
based on a substantial regional analysis that was required in order to fully understand
the context of transboundary issues. The regional analysis was particularly important
given the complexity of the karst environment and regime and interconnectivity of
karst aquifers.
The Project Team was organised into four working groups, reflecting the main
issues of the regional analysis:
)
1 Hydrogeology of the Dinaric karst;
2) Environmental and socio-economic analysis;
3) Legal and institutional framework and policy; and
4) Stakeholder analysis.
Figure 1.12 Channeled Trebinjica riverbed and highly karstified bedding planes, (photo Z. Stevanovic).
One of the main DIKTAS outputs in terms of the regional hydrogeological char-
acterisation is the GIS based digital Hydrogeological map of the Dinaric Karst region
(Figure 1.13). Its creation involved harmonisation of data, classifications, methodolo-
gies, reference systems, projections and semantics. The map was used as a basis for the
development of various thematic maps for the environmental and socio-economical
assessment and represents an important tool for various further analyses and karst
aquifer management.
Figure 1.13 Hydrogeological map of the Dinaric karst (DIKTAS database; http://dinaric.iwlearn.org).
Through the TDA the DIKTAS project was focused on selected and prioritised
transboundary karstic aquifers (TBAs), examining current and potential issues of
concern. Based on five criteria (importance, representativeness, data availability,
issues of concern, relevance), eight TBAs were initially selected for detailed anal-
ysis: Una, Krka, Cetina, Neretva, Trebinjica (all shared by Croatia and Bosnia
Herzegovina), Bilecko Lake, Piva (Bosnia & Herzegovina and Montenegro) and
Cijevna/Cemi (Montenegro and Albania). Six of these TBAs belong to the Adriatic
Sea catchment area while two are part of the Black Sea basin (Una and Piva). The
TBAs comprise a total surface area of 12000 km2, which is approximately 10% of
the entire study area of the four project countries which share Dinaric karst. The
surface area of individual TBAs varies from 668 km2 (Krka) to 3,455 km2 (Cetina).
The later diagnostic analysis focussed on six more problematic TBAs, excluding
Krka and Piva.
A delineation of the aquifer surface area was the first step in the hydrogeological
analysis of each TBA. Further analysis included the characterisation and development
of conceptual models. Groundwater budgeting of TBAs created a base for the assess-
ment of groundwater reserves and availability, as well as for proposals and measures
aiming to ensure sustainable development of TBAs. Some of the selected TBAs, such
as Una, Neretva or Cijevna/Cemi, are of particular importance because they represent
parts of designated protected zones, or wetlands, or the habitat for endangered species
(Figure 1.14).
Three major shortcomings were identified in the region:
1. Insufficient knowledge of the distribution and properties of aquifers. Despite many

tracing tests conducted in the region, especially in East Herzegovina and Dalmatia,
because the groundwater regime is highly variable many catchments are still not
properly delineated and characteristics of deeper aquifer parts not studied in detail.
Moreover, systematic monitoring of groundwater quantity and quality is still inad-
equate despite the existence of many local waterworks and hydro-energy structures.
2. The minimum discharges of the springs and accordingly reduced minimum river
flows during recession periods (summer and autumn months) result in a water
deficit not only for water consumers but also for dependent ecosystems in certain
areas. Although the total dynamic reserves in studied Dinaric karst aquifers often
surpass the actual exploitation capacities, most of the tapping structures are con-
structed simply to draw on the natural discharge of the springs and thus depend
solely on the natural flow regime.
3. Unstable water quality and aquifer vulnerability to pollution are typical char-
acteristics of most of the studied TBAs in the Dinaric karst. The karstic aquifer
formed in well-karstified carbonate rocks is recharged mainly from rainfall and
from sinking flows.
The TDA indicated that water extraction was still far below the aquifers replenish-
ment potential, and there is no evidence of significant over-exploitation in the studied
TBAs. For instance, in the case of Cetina and Neretva TBAs the average extraction of
groundwater is ten times less than the total minimal discharge of the springs (dynamic
reserves). However, shortage of water is locally in evidence during summer and early
autumn months which coincides with increased demands during the tourist season.
Figure 1.14 The sablacustrian springs in the Skadar basin (Montenegro): the Karuc, previously planned
for water supply of the coastal area. Skadar (Shkoder) Lake is included in the Ramsar
convention for protected wetlands.
Insuch circumstances the principles of EU Water Framework Directive regarding eco-

logical flow for downstream consumers have to be fully respected further complicate
the water and environmental situation.
Therefore, the Dinaric region has the most dynamic water budget in all of Europe,
but there are numerous challenges for sustainable utilisation of groundwater. This
includes high annual variation of natural flows and the vulnerability of aquifers to
pollution. It is, therefore, important to (1) improve the quality of water by eliminating
or mitigating sources of pollution, (2) regulate the minimum spring discharges, (3)
ensure ecological flows, and (4) establish proper water monitoring systems. These
actions are recommended as priorities during implementation of the DIKTAS Strategic
Action Plan.
The karstic water quality is generally assumed to be satisfactory which is mostly
due to sparsely populated catchments in mountainous areas and the absence of
intensive farming or industrial activities. However, when pollutants are present (for
example mines, industrial and domestic waste waters, solid waste dumps, fertilizers),
deterioration of water quality in unconfined and vulnerable karstic aquifers is almost
certain. Therefore, proven connections between ponors and certain important springs
in the territory of the neighbouring countries (for example Plitvice-Klokot, Trebinjica-
Ombla) require strict enforcement of already established sanitary protection zones
and preventive measures. The Dinaric karst aquifer system areas require specific solu-
tions and compromises in land use planning, and the protection of nature and water
resources. Some of the important springs with catchments shared by the Dinaric coun-
tries are included in the Strategic Action Plan as demonstration sites for the applica-
tion of methodology and design of sanitary protection zones.
The actual monitoring of groundwater in the region and in the studied TBAs is
far from satisfactory. Only in Croatia has the characterisation of groundwater bodies
been completed and monitored in accordance with EU Water Framework Directive.
One of the tasks of the DIKTAS project was to prepare a proposal for the creation
of a new monitoring network which will fully respect karst specific behaviour and
include local water users (waterworks, dams, irrigation, industry). The Cijevna/Cemi
TBA has been identified as the most problematic in terms of available data on water
resources, and installation of a modern surface and groundwater monitoring network
for observation of climate elements has been proposed.
In all four countries there are on-going efforts for transposition of the funda-
mental principles, objectives and measures from the EU Water Framework Directive,
(2000/60/EC) and the Groundwater Directive (2006/118/EC) in national legislations.
Although the polluter pays principle and the principle of recovery of the costs are
promoted in national legislative documents, the principle of cost recovery is not fully
transposed either in national regulations or in water management practices, with
regards to implementation of the environmental and resource costs in water pricing
policies. There is no legal or policy document in any of project countries which ade-
quately defines and prescribes the integration of environmental and resource costs
into development of pricing policies. It should be noted that the main shortcoming
of the legislative framework in all countries is an underdeveloped system of by-laws
and insufficient implementation of present legislation due to lack of human resources
and financial means for fulfilling legal and policy requirements. Due to the lack of
clear development strategies, programmes and plans for water management issues,
the Dinaric Karst region cannot be considered as an example of successful implemen-
tation of these principles.
Based on TDA a Strategic Action Plan which includes different common activities,
proposals for legal and institutional reforms and harmonisation of legislation has been
prepared. In order to support sustainable utilisation of groundwater in the Dinaric
region, the Strategic Action Plan is focusing on several priority actions: improvement
of the quality of water, elimination of sources of pollution, improvement of minimal
discharges, assurance of ecological flows, and establishment of proper water monitor-
ing systems (Table 1.1). Conceptual proposals for investment in all of these areas and
at designated sites have also been prepared as a part of the Plan.
The DIKTAS Strategic Action Plan adheres to two key environmental manage-
ment principles. These are:
The Ecosystem Based Management Approach; and

Integrated Water Resources Management.
The vision guiding the long-term water resources and ecosystem quality objectives is:
To achieve joint sustainable and equitable use and protection of Dinaric karst
aquifer system.
Table 1.1 Proposed actions and suggested TBAs where they can be performed.
Proposed Action Proposed for TBA(s), not exclusive
1.Establishment of a common groundwater All TBAs

monitoring programme
2.Improvement of wastewater treatment Una, Neretva (Ljubuki town)
especially in theBihac region
3.Harmonisation of hydrogeological criteria for Una, Neretva, Cetina, Bilecko Lake,
delineation of source protection zones as the Cemi/Cijevna
basis forpolicy harmonisation and protection
of karst springs used for public water supply in
Bosnia & H erzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro and
Albania
4.Creation of future projections of water demands Una, Neretva, Trebinjica, Cetina, Bilecko
depending on socio-economic analysis Lake
5.Definition of common criteria for: a) delineation All TBAs
ofthesanitary protection zones and b) for
setting cost-efficient measures for groundwater
protection inkarst areas
6.Definition of legal framework for establishment Una, Neretva, Cetina
and lawenforcement in sanitary protection zones
7.Inventory of non-point and point sources of All TBAs
pollution (landfills, septic tanks, quarries,
wastewater discharges, and others)
8.Establishment of regulations between the All TBAs
countries toset up regulatory frameworks
concerning the discharge of wastewaters into the
land stressing the importance of a unified policy
9.Fostering better control of the current Neretva
agricultural andsimilar practices
10.Promotion of eco-tourism Neretva
11. Precise mapping of land and water usage Cetina
With this vision in mind, the following objectives were planned:
Groundwater Quantity
Objective A: Ensure sufficient groundwater availability in dry periods, especially
for water supply and to support environmental flow.
Groundwater Quality
Objective B: Maintain and improve (where required) quality of karst ground
water in the Dinaric region.
Protection of Groundwater Dependent Ecosystems (GDE)
Objective C: Ensure protection of GDE, specific features and their ecosystem
services for the future.
Equitable Use
Objective D: Support equitable use of groundwater resources.
Capacity Building
Objective E: Raise awareness and capacity building related to karst water and
dependant ecosystem.
Regional management actions and desired outcomes for reaching the expected
Water Resources and Ecosystem Quality Objectives (WREQO) are concentrated on
four classes of actions to provide structure to the future implementation:
Policy, legislative and institutional actions;

Monitoring and data management actions;
Research training and awareness-raising actions, and;
Investment actions.
Regular exchange of data represents one of the key steps toward sustainable
transboundary aquifer management. This fact is recognised also in international law
and acknowledged in the UN Resolution 63/124 the Law of Transboundary Aquifers
(Article 8 Regular exchange of data and information). The DIKTAS countries agree and
commit to exchange information among themselves at the regional or bilateral levels
and prepare an instrument for the legal basis (e.g. Memorandum of Understanding,
or other agreements). DIKTAS countries will exchange collected data through the
national institutions responsible for managing of National Water Information System
and under supervision of the Consultation and Information Exchange Body.1
The Consultation and Information Exchange Body is intended to create conditions
for the development of sustainable and productive consultation mechanisms for infor-
mation exchange and collaboration among the four DIKTAS countries aiming at, among
other, ensure equitable use of groundwater resources in the whole DIKTAS region. The
Consultation and Information Exchange Body will deal with, but not be limited to:
elaboration of the aquifer acts, consideration of improved water supply in critical peri-
ods by proper management and technical solutions; prioritisation of the water end-users
related to water availability and maintaining common information system.
It was concluded that all countries have legislation in place for groundwater pro-
tection which is, to a greater or lesser extent, implemented in each country. However,
due to different criteria for delineation of protection zones and different prescribed
protection measures within these zones, it is not possible to establish and implement
efficient groundwater protection in the areas of transboundary aquifers based on the
existing legislation. The Strategic Action Plan proposes to develop common criteria
based on the existing ones for delineation of protection zones and common protection
measures within these zones.
The establishment of a regional expert working group from experts in the fields
of hydrogeology, water protection, economy and legislation is also envisaged. The
regional expert working groups main tasks should be to determine the criteria for
delineation of protection zones, define programmes for additional surveys, follow up
monitoring network establishment and data exchange, and similar.
Finally, one of the most important objectives is to raise awareness and capac-
ity building related to karst water and dependant ecosystem. The environmental
1 The signing of multilateral agreement between DIKTAS countries should provide a base for establish-
ing the Consultation and Information Exchange Body. Signed Multilateral Agreement on establishment
ofthe Consultation and Information Exchange Body will, among others, represent the acceptance by the
DIKTAS countries to exchange data, which will be included in the Common Information System.
awareness campaign will be based on using the best practices and further elabora-
tion of new public awareness concepts in accordance with the project objectives.
The responsibility of the implementation of the global awareness campaign will be
under the Consultation and Information Exchange Body Secretariat. Promotional
materials in printed, and in electronic form and publications will be an important
channel of communication. Formats will be various: leaflets, newsletters, brochures
and should be distributed at all major events press conferences, school lectures
and meetings.
1.5 CONCLUSIONS
Following Cvijics research, a large number of specialists have further improved the
knowledge of the Dinarides in terms of hydrology, geomorphology, geology and
hydrogeology. Today, more than a hundred years after the initial research, the Dinaric
karst is relatively well investigated on a regional scale, but due to the complexity and
intensity of the karst aquifer regime, detailed survey and systematic monitoring have
to be further improved. The DIKTAS project contributed to better understanding of
complex transboundary inter-linkages and the importance of sustainable and equita-
ble use of water resources.
Due to its historical importance for the development of karst science an initiative
has been taken to include the Dinaric region and its selected areas in the UNESCO list
of World Heritage Sites. This reflets its exemplary karst development with numerous
geo-heritage sites, several national parks and protected areas such as those under
Ramsars Convention, endemic species which inhabit underground world of caves and
abundant groundwater resources. If this proposal comes to reality this will further
strengthen activities on nature and water protection and raise awareness of the local
population of the importance of sustainable use of natural resources.
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V.T. (eds.), Karst: Important Karst Regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Amsterdam,
Elsevier Publishing Company. 117.
Stevanovic Z., Mijatovic B. (2005) Cvijic and karst / Cvijic et karst, Monograph: Spec. ed of
Board of Karst and Speleology SANU, Belgrade, 405 p.
Stevanovic Z., Eftimi R. (2010) Karstic sources of water supply for large consumers in
south-eastern Europe sustainability, disputes and advantages, Geologica Croatica, 63(2),
179186.
Stevanovic Z., Kukuric N., Treidel H., Peka Z., Jolovic B., Radojevic D. Pambuku A. (2012)
Characterization of transboundary aquifers in Dinaric karst A base for sustainable water
management at regional and local scale. Proceedings of 39 IAH Congress, Niagara Falls,
(CD publ).
arin A. (1983) Hydrogeologic regional classification of the karst of Yugoslavia. In:
Hydrogeology of the Dinaric Karst. Mijatovic B (ed.). Spec. ed. Geozavod, Belgrade, 3544.
UN Resolution 63(124), The law of transboundary aquifers.
Chapter 2
How confident are we about

the definition of boundaries in
karst? Difficulties in managing
and planning in a typical
transboundary environment
Mario Parise
CNR-IRPI, Bari, Italy
ABSTRACT
Karst aquifers may also be transboundary, i.e. crossing political or administrative borders.
Typical karst hydrogeology includes a lack of correspondence between the surface and subsur-
face limits and difficulties in identifying hydraulic boundaries and volumes. A large amount
of high-quality drinkable water comes from karst aquifers, with this volume increasing in the
future. There is an urgent need to understand karst, and safeguard it and its resources, without
being limited by administrative borders. Karst management requires cooperation between the
people living on the land, to transfer and disseminate research outcomes, to create awareness of
the fragile environment, to build resilience and readiness to cope with natural hazards and the
changes they cause, and to minimise disturbance.
2.1 INTRODUCTION: THE KARST ENVIRONMENT
Karst is of huge importance for groundwater storage and transport in aquifers which
have been used for many decades for supplying drinking water (Figure 2.1). About
one quarter of the global population is completely or partially dependent on drinking
water from karst aquifers, with karst regions representing about 10% of the Earths
continental area (Ford & Williams, 2007; Hartmann et al., 2014). The percentage of
drinking water from karst is expected to increase in the future. However, the valuable,
high-quality, freshwater resources contained in karst aquifers are extremely vulnera-
ble to contamination.
Karst aquifers are often transboundary, i.e. crossing political or administrative
borders (Figure 2.2). To define the limits of a water catchment, and to understand
whether the likely surface limits correspond to those that are present underground,
is a very difficult task in karst lands, at the same time representing one of its main
peculiarities (Gunn, 2007). A typical element of karst hydrogeology is the lack of
correspondence between the surface and the subsurface limits, which also has conse-
quences in terms of politics, planning and management of territories and of natural
resources.
In the great majority of the natural environments, catchment boundaries are
defined by surface morphology, by outlining ridges and watersheds, dividing a cer-
tain area into several basins. Knowing the amount of rainfall that falls in a specific
Figure 2.1 The Ombla spring, source of drinking water for the town of Dubrovnik, in Croatia.
A) B)
Figure 2.2 The Reka River originates in the Classical Karst. After a surface course on flysch deposits, it
sinks underground at the kocjanske Jame, characterised by a 200 m high, collapsed doline
(A), and follows a course of some 40 km, before coming to the surface in Italy, near Trieste,
at the Timavo resurgences (B), to eventually flow into the Adriatic Sea.
watershed, as well as its size and geological characters, it is possible to estimate the
amount of water collected in the corresponding discharge area.
Water circulation in karst differs from other types of terrain. This is due to limited
surface runoff, balanced by rapid infiltration of water underground through the com-
plex network of discontinuities within the rock mass, and regulated by the role of the
epikarst. Water sinks at a certain site, and, due to complex underground systems made
of conduits and caves, can be transported to another, nearby, watershed. The only way
to be sure of the course of water in karst is to follow it underground, where possible,
or using dye tracers (Goldscheider & Drew, 2007) (Figure 2.3). Locating the karst
catchment boundaries represents a highly complex goal, not least because of the great
variability that may be recorded in time. It has been proved that in conditions of high
How confident are we about the definition of boundaries in karst? 29
Figure 2.3 Dye tracing test within a cave in southern Italy (photo: N. Damiano, Alburni Exploration Team).
groundwater levels, fossil and otherwise inactive karst conduits become activated, thus
originating overflow from one catchment to those nearby (De Waele & Parise, 2013).
For the sustainable development of transboundary karst terrains, the main
actions should address facilitating a fair and sustainable use and management of the
transboundary water resources, and safeguarding the unique groundwater ecosystems
that are present in karst from natural and man-made hazards (Parise & Gunn, 2007;
Gutierrez, 2010; Parise, 2010; De Waele et al., 2011). Such hazards now also include
climate change. These goals should be pursued by taking advantage of the lessons
learned from the ancient communities that used scarce available amounts of water
(Parise & Sammarco, 2015) or from the practices for water use in arid and semi-arid
lands (Stevanovic et al., 2012).
Dagnino Pastore and co-workers (2013) point out several negative tendencies
regarding the management of water resources:
Non-sustainable use of aquifers, and lack of adequate management of groundwater.

Presence of human settlements in areas potentially affected by flooding.
Excessive use of agro-chemicals, with likely contamination of aquifers.

Limited progress regarding environmental and economic education for improv-
ing awareness about the value of water and the social and environmental cost of
poor water management, as well as the need to preserve water resources and the
environment.
Karst aquifers, in particular, require application of specific hydrogeological

ethods. Key aspects are investigation and proper understanding of groundwater
m
flow, and the identification and implementation of the most suitable management
actions for protection of the resource.
There is a need for water management, to sustain water quality and to ensure
rational use of the resource; in other words, to safeguard its natural cycle, as well as
the related surface and subsurface ecosystems (Figure 2.4). At the same time, man-
aging water resources is a complicated issue, with difficulties of different types and
origin occurring both in industrialised and under-developed countries.
About 40% of the global population lives in river basins shared by more than
one country, and many communities depend on drinking water from the same aqui-
fers that have been over-exploited. Thus water scarcity resulting from its poor man-
agement frequently brings about the risk of conflict (Dagnino Pastore et al., 2013).
Furthermore, 90% of the worlds population lives in 145 countries with shared
hydrographic basins (UNDP, 2007), where water management could become a
potential focus of conflicts.
2.2 THE MEANING OF TRANSBOUNDARY
Decision makers and land use planners, attempting to achieve sustainable develop-
ment, must take into account the multiple aspects of water resources management
(van Dijk & Zhang, 2005). The delicate balance existing in karst, in particular with
regard to the transboundary karst water resources, is not easily maintained. There needs
to be specific actions to safeguard the high-value biodiversity of the area (Culver &
Pipan, 2009).
The extreme heterogeneity of karst, with a high number of variables in different
fields, each one of them changing in both time and space, makes analysis complex.
A multi-disciplinary approach is required, and understanding the interaction between
groundwater and surface water, as well as their influence on biota, both at the ground
surface and underground, are crucial points to be addressed.
Several examples can be recalled to outline the delicate and fragile importance
of transboundary karst. In Europe, the lakes Ohrid and Prespa are located in the
Balkan Peninsula (Figure 2.5). Lake Ohrid is shared by Macedonia and Albania, and
Lake Prespa by Macedonia, Albania and Greece (Popovska & Bonacci, 2007). Many
caves are present in the surrounding areas, and the lakes are a well known site for
biodiversity and cultural heritage (Lake Ohrid was declared a World Heritage Site by
UNESCO in 1980). Lake Ohrid is fed by the waters coming from Lake Prespa, that
has no surface outflow (Amataj et al., 2007). Hydrologically, the two lakes should be
managed as a transboundary water resource. However, so far, no coordinated water
resources management has been established.
A) B)
C)
Figure 2.4 Karst springs: A) the Auso, one of the main springs at the foothills of the Alburni Massif
(Southern Italy); B) SyriiKalter, a beautiful spring in southern Albania; C) the main spring
of the Unica River, coming out from the Planinska Jama at the southern edge of Planinsko
Polje, in Slovenia.
The high importance of transboundary water resources has been recognised

by UNESCO within specific programmes on sustainable water resources manage-
ment, by coordinating the International Network of Water/Environment Centres for
the Balkans (INWEB). 80% of the water resources in the Mediterranean region are
shared between two or more countries, and in South Eastern Europe transboundary
N 1
2
3
5
6
Ohrid Lake
MACEDONIA
Macro
Prespa
Lake
ALBANIA
Micro
Prespa GREECE
Lake
0 20
km
Figure 2.5 Sketch of the Ohrid and Prespa Lakes, at the boundaries among three countries (modified
after Popovska & Bonacci, 2007). Key: 1) lake; 2) karst spring; 3) cave; 4) state boundary;
5) water course; 6) limit of the karst catchment (as identified by Popovska & Bonacci, 2007).
groundwaters are the most important source of freshwater. The collection and
analysis of data and preparation of hydrogeological maps on transboundary aquifers
are key objectives (INWEB, 2008).
Mexico is one country that is interested in transboundary water management,
in karst as well in non-karst settings. At its north western borders, the state of Baja
California is located within a large area characterised by arid and semi-arid climate.
The area has become one of the most important economic regions in Mexico despite
water scarcity. About 4 million people live there (the main municipalities are Mexicali,
Tecate, Tijuana, and San Luis Ro Colorado), using the Colorado River as the main
water source by agreement with the American Government in accordance to the 1994
International Waters Treaty.
The situation of the transboundary watershed with the United States is of even
greater concern in the face of the possible effects produced by climate change, espe-
cially because droughts are expected to occur in the future. The problem has even
become more acute due to a significant increase in urban and industrial demand
(Romn Calleros et al., 2010).
On the southern Mexican border (shared with Guatemala and Belize), there is
another transboundary aquifer. Water availability is not a problem in terms of quan-
tity and quality, but there are differences between the individual countries as regards
the basic water and sanitation services. Although the area contains six transboundary
river basins, shared cooperation of water among the countries is virtually absent.
In the Dominican Republic, the karst region of Los Haitises, covering an area of
about 1.6 km2, is an important geomorphologic landscape of limestone domes, with
large volumes of good-quality water. This karst ecosystem is of extreme importance
for water supply in the area, and potentially represents one of the main alternatives
for the future water supply for part of the city of Santo Domingo and the eastern part
of the country. However, the subterranean waters are at high risk of pollution from a
number of planned anthropogenic actions.
About 67% of the Cuban territory is mostly karstified carbonate rocks. Being an
island there is always risk of seawater intrusion (Hernandez et al., 2013). The delicate
balance among the different types of waters can easily be affected by anthropogenic
actions (Molerio Len & Parise, 2009).
2.3 APPLYING THE CONCEPTS OF RESILIENCE AND

DISTURBANCE IN KARST
The term resilience was initially proposed in the field of ecology as a core concept
within ecosystems (Holling, 1973) and has been widely used in recent years, as the
ability of a system to absorb perturbation or disturbances. Resilience is the capacity
to resist and recover from losses (Kleina et al., 2003). One of the more widespread
definitions of resilience nowadays includes: i) response to disturbance; ii) capacity to
self-organise; and iii) capacity to learn and adapt.
Since the social and environmental consequences of degradation (including pollu-
tion events) are increasing, and cause high costs to society, there is the need to involve
stakeholders and the population in strategies to manage the impacts. This is especially
required in heavily populated areas, or in those sectors in the proximity of big cities
and metropolitan areas, where the natural and anthropogenic factors are mixed (Serre &
Barroca, 2013).
In karst, the concept of disturbance produced by man to the natural environment
has been analysed by means of the Karst Disturbance Index (van Beynen & Townsend,
2005; North et al., 2009). The Karst Distribution Index takes into account a number
of indicators, subdivided into five different categories (geomorphology, atmosphere,
hydrology, biota, cultural), to evaluate the disturbance to the karst environment deriv-
ing by anthropogenic actions. The index has been applied to different settings, from
European karst areas, to selected states or regions in the Americas. As the main out-
come from these applications, it appears that knowledge of the main features of the
karst environments, encompassing many different fields and disciplines of interest,
is fundamental for a proper understanding of the changes occurring, and for linking
such changes to specific actions by man or to variability of other factors (i.e. climate
change).
Among the other indices that have also been designed for use in karst environ-
ments are the Karst Sustainability Index (van Beynen et al., 2012), and the Priority
Management Index (Angulo et al., 2013). The first is a standardised metric of
sustainable development practices in karst settings. It uses predetermined targets
to ascertain the overall sustainability of a karst region, by taking into account
25 indicators related to the fields of environment, economy, and society. The Karst
Sustainability Index eventually provides a measure of sustainability in karst areas.
The second index (by Angulo et al., 2013) is a holistic approach to analyse the
level of disturbance in a protected karst area. Use of two standardised indices
(zonal Karst Significance Index, and zonal Karst Disturbance Index) allows the
most disturbed sectors to be identified. The two indices can be combined into a
Priority Management Index, in order to highlight the main management needs of
the protected area.
Another is the evaluation of disturbance in caves (Harley et al., 2011), where the
Cave Disturbance Index addresses deficient cave management strategies. The index
was based on cave resource data collected during an in situ inventory of 36 terrestrial
caves in Florida. The approach was later followed by Van Aken et al. (2014) using a
GIS-based model to predict disturbance for the same sample of caves. This approach
aims at providing land managers or stakeholders with tools to conduct an in situ
inventory of a cave, in order to better focus both management strategies and conser-
vation efforts.
The main positive effect from all these approaches is that the peculiarity of karst
has been partly acknowledged, together with the need of specific actions for study,
management, and decision, based upon the main features of this highly vulnerable
environment. Recognition of the uniqueness of karst is a crucial point to be reached
in the process of creating an environmental awareness among the communities living
in karst lands.
Repeated episodes of mismanagement in karst, with events of pollution and con-
tamination of karst aquifers, both at the surface and underground, or as post-war
scenarios (Cal & Parise, 2009), highlight how fragile karst is.
The concept of resilience could be applied to floods (Figure 2.6) in karst (Parise,
2003; Gutierrez et al., 2014; Jourde et al., 2014). In general, floods are the most
A) B)
Figure 2.6 Effects of floods in karst environments: A) inundated area in the aftermath of a hurricane
in Cuba in 2009 (photo courtesy of H. Farfn Gonzalez); B) flash flood in the city of Bari
(Apulia, Southern Italy) (after Mossa, 2009).
common type of natural hazards in the world (Liao, 2012). It has been estimated
that they constitute 40% of the natural disasters, and have caused 8.6% of the total
casualties, and 80% of injured people from all types of natural hazards in the last
25 years. In a typical tropical karst landscape, floods are often associated with changes
in land use, through implementation of inadequate agricultural practices, expansion
of urban areas, bad constructive practices, and other human actions inappropriate for
the environment (Farfan Gonzalez et al., 2009).
Floods are also an interesting issue as regards the possible different uses of water.
Especially in regions where there is a high contrast between the wet and dry seasons
(lack of surface water resources, with intervening short periods of abundant water, if
not floods), a proper regulation and distribution of the amount of water available are
needed. Some of the engineering works that promote constant use of water throughout
the year are damming the rivers, and impounding reservoirs. In the case of transbound-
ary rivers, and of rivers shared by more than one country, since dams modify the flow
of rivers, they might create conflicts.
The regulatory capacity of a reservoir could be used to buffer the impact of excep-
tional rises in water level, thus contributing to flood amelioration. Such actions, how-
ever, should be carefully planned and managed, in order not to disturb the ecological
need for flow of rivers.
The same applies to other engineering works, as outlined by the case of the Ombla
spring, in Croatia. The Ombla spring is the source of drinking water for the town of
Dubrovnik (Figure 2.1), with an average discharge of some 24m3/s. The spring is
located at the tectonic contact between karstified Mesozoic carbonates and impervi-
ous flysch sediments, with these latter acting as a hydrogeological barrier (Milanovic
et al., 2014). Construction of a hydroelectrical power plant has been planned, which
raised several doubts in the scientific community and the local populations. The plant
would consist of an underground dam (spanning from 280m below sea level to
135m above sea level) and a power plant.
An interesting example of the different uses of water, even linked to exploitation
activities in karst, is represented by the Pertosa cave, in Campania, Southern Italy.
The cave, about 3 km long, is located at the north east foothills of the Alburni Massifs,
the most important karst area in Southern Italy, hosting several hundred caves
(Del Vecchio et al., 2013). It became a show cave in 1932, only two years after
the opening of the first show cave in the area, the nearby Castelcivita Cave, sit-
uated on the other side of the same carbonate massif. The initial interest in the
cave was archaeological, since at its entrance excavations carried out at the start
of the twentieth century revealed Paleolithic and Neolithic age material (Larocca,
2015). The cave is an active resurgence, hosting a river with discharge in the range
350600 l/s, and a dam for hydroelectric power was built at the site in the 1920s
(Figure 2.7).
2.4 CONCLUSIONS
The peculiarities of karst environments require a specific approach that accounts for
the interrelationships between the surface and the underground environments, as well
as the time and space variability of many of the factors influencing karst ecosystems.
Figure 2.7 Double view of the entrance of the Pertosa Cave and its underground stream: on the left
the cave with the artificial water basin at his highest level held by the dam; on the right with
the open dam and natural water naturally flow (after Larocca, 2015).
Karst aquifers are a valuable natural resource in many transboundary areas, and since
biodiversity in karst represents a remarkable and valuable character, it is necessary to
safeguard this environment, both from the scientific and technical and the administra-
tive and management standpoints.
Many karst aquifers are transboundary. Sustainable development in karst follows
actions that allow growth of the local economy but, at the same time, are respectful of
the peculiarities of this environment. Where mismanagement of karst and degradation
of the natural resources have occurred, efforts should be made towards a resilience
approach, aimed at fully understanding the disturbance caused by man, and at both
recovering the karst landscape and exploiting the capacity to learn and adapt from
past errors or situations.
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Chapter 3
WOKAM The world karst

aquifer mapping project,
examples from South East
Europe, Near and Middle East
and Eastern Africa
Zoran Stevanovic 1, Nico Goldscheider 2, Zhao Chen 2
& the WOKAM Team
1
University of Belgrade Faculty of Mining and Geology,
Centre for Karst Hydrogeology of the Department of Hydrogeology,
Belgrade, Serbia
2
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute of Applied
G eosciences, Division of Hydrogeology, Karlsruhe, Germany
ABSTRACT
The WOKAM project supported by the International Association of Hydrogeologists and
UNESCO was established in 2012 in order to obtain a better global overview of karst aquifers,
to create a basis for sustainable international and global water resources management, and
to increase the awareness and knowledge concerning these special resources, both among the
public and the decision-makers. The team of international experts is responsible for data col-
lection and evaluation, definition of methodology and creation of the new karst aquifers map
and the associated database. The map, to be completed in 2016, will not only show carbonate
rock and evaporite outcrops, but also display deep and confined karst aquifers, large karst
springs, including thermal and mineral springs, drinking water abstraction sites and selected
caves. The World Karst Aquifer Map is based on the highly detailed Global Lithological Map
(GLiM) and is intended to supplement the existing map of Groundwater Resources of the
World (WHYMAP). The paper presents some examples and large differences between karstic
aquifers of the Alpine system of South East Europe, the Near and Middle East, which have
some of the most karstified and richest water reserves in the world, and the less productive and
developed East African karst.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
According to an often-cited estimation by Ford & Williams (2007) surface and sub-
surface outcrops of potentially soluble karstic rocks occupy around 20% of the plan-
ets ice-free land, but probably not more than 1015% is extensively karstified. The
same authors found that probably more than 90% of the evaporitic rocks anhydrite
and gypsum do not crop out, while this percentage in the case of remarkably soluble
salty rocks is almost 99%. About 25% of the global population is at least partly
supplied by freshwater from these karst aquifers. Owing to their specific hydrogeo-
logical properties, karst aquifers are particularly vulnerable to contamination and dif-
ficult to manage. Furthermore, many karst aquifers are hydraulically connected over
wide areas and thus require transboundary exploration, protection and management
concepts.
For almost half a century, since the Karst Commission was established under the
umbrella of the International Association of Hydrogeologists, through the publication
of books, and organisation of conferences, field trips, seminars, and workshops, it has
made many important contributions to the knowledge of karstic aquifers and ground-
water. One of its most recent collaborative efforts is the implementation of the project
WOKAM, the ultimate goal of which is to create a world map and database of karst
aquifers, as a further development and refinement of earlier maps.
Numerous international karst experts contribute to this project by collecting data
and working on an international Scientific Advisory Board that meets on a regular
basis1. The first results of this project were presented by Scientific Advisory Board
members at several global conferences, including Karst without boundaries held
in Trebinje in June, 2014. There were opportunities to discuss the draft legend, the
design and preliminary content of the associated database, as well as the first sketch
maps for Europe, Asia and North America.
3.2 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
Although karst phenomena were listed and presented in numerous books and encyclo-
pedias (e.g. Gunn, 2004; Culver & White, 2005), and the most attractive and largest
were included on many websites, several attempts were also made to present various
karst features on the map and in the common database. These activities took place
largely in the USA (Epstein et al., 2001; Hollingsworth E. et al., 2008; Veni, 2002).
The sketch maps showing regional distribution of carbonate rocks are also presented
in Ford and Williams book Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology (2007). The
same map with a somewhat better resolution is available at the web address of the
University of Auckland, New Zealand http://www.sges.auckland.ac.nz/sges_research/
karst.shtm.
After completion of WHYMAP, the map showing the groundwater resources of
the World (Richts et al., 2011), the Past-President of IAH, Willi Struckmeier, proposed
during the karst conference held in Malaga in 2010 that a karst map should be pre-
pared to complement the existing global groundwater resources map. The concept
was accepted and an initiative team under the coordination of Nico Goldscheider
from Karlsruhe Institute of Technology was formed and started to work. From the
beginning it was agreed that one main output would be a GIS-based map in scale
1:10 Million, while final hard (paper) copy will be at a scale of 1:25 Million, with
several layers and a connected database.
1 WOKAM Scientific Advisory Board consists of the following experts (in alphabetical order): Augusto
Auler (Brazil), Michel Bakalowicz (France), David Drew (Ireland), Nico Goldscheider (Germany, Project
leader), Guanghui Jiang (PR China), Jens Hartmann & Nils Moosdorf (Germany, GLiM Team), Andrea
Richts (Germany, WHYMAP Team), Zoran Stevanovic (Serbia) and George Veni (USA). Zhao Chen, PhD
student at KIT, is compiling the map, with support of a student assistant, Franziska Griger. Alexander
Klimchouk, Art Palmer, Paul Williams and Daoxian Yuan contributed by exchange of ideas during the
project preparation.
WOKAM The world karst aquifer mapping project 41
To make such a thematic map on a very small scale, appropriate answers to very
specific issues are required. Some of them are:
Classification of karst aquifers (including criteria such as lithology, porosity,

structures, hydrodynamics);
Distribution of fresh, thermomineral or saline karstic groundwater;
The depth up to which the confined (buried) karst aquifers will be considered and
shown on the map (shallow with fresh waters, deep with thermal waters, oil/gas
reserves);
The karst features that might be included on the map and criteria for their selec-
tion (main sources, cave systems, regional groundwater flow directions, etc.).
In addition, management of such a project is not an easy task because due to

their specialisations (e.g. geomorphology, hydrogeology, chemistry) there are often
diverse opinions among the experts. This also affects what the priorities are and how
to present them in the final materials. However, during several Scientific Advisory
Board meetings held in Karlsruhe between 2012 and 2014, common approaches were
achieved on essential issues:
1. The mapping of rock distribution is based on the highly detailed Global Lithological
Map (GLiM), which was assembled from 92 regional lithological maps of the high-
est available resolution (Hartmann & Moosdorf, 2012).
2. Deep and confined karst aquifers are identified on the basis of regional literature
and geological sections and their approximate boundaries are shown on the map.
3. WOKAM GIS database includes large karst springs, thermal springs, submarine
springs, major drinking water abstraction sites and important caves, which are all
shown on the map as point symbols.
3.2.1 Rock complexes Aquifer systems

Following the generalisation and reclassification of GLiM, four lithological units and
subsequent aquifer systems are presented on the World Karst Aquifer Map: 1) igneous
and metamorphic rocks, 2) non-carbonate sedimentary formations, which comprise
unconsolidated sediments, siliciclastic dominate sedimentary rocks, and pyroclas-
tic formations, 3) carbonate sedimentary rocks, which are further subdivided into
continuous and discontinuous (when outcrops of karstified rocks are separated by
non-karstic rocks), and 4) evaporites. In fact, only the last two belong to classical
rock complexes resulting in two main karst aquifer systems. The draft version of the
WOKAM lithology units for all of Europe is shown on Figure 3.1.
3.2.2 Deep and confined karst aquifers

Karst aquifers not exposed at the surface cannot be delineated precisely without detailed
3D geological information that is usually not available. Therefore, this work step is done
manually in a pragmatic way, with geologic expertise, and concealed karstified rocks are
presented as potential deep or confined karst water resources. For this purpose a thrust
fault symbol is used: the teeth point in the dipping direction, toward the deep aquifer.
Figure 3.1 Lithology units in Europe and adjacent areas as a base for the draft WOKAM map.
3.2.3 WOKAM GIS database

The two main groups of objects to be presented on the map are water points (large
karst springs, thermal springs, submarine springs, major drinking water abstraction
sites), and caves. Although the former group is of primary importance considering
that water resources are the focus of the WOKAM project (Goldscheider et al., 2014),
the caves are also important not only as the main morphological feature in karst, but
as an indicator of karstification intensity.
Data on springs and caves are both separated in the two groups, those to be
included in the database (larger group) and those to be shown on the map (selected as
the largest). After discussion the Scientific Advisory Board made a preliminary deci-
sion on the following criteria:
3.2.3.1 Springs
The numbers in brackets indicate candidates to be included on the map in the database,
while the presentation of selected springs on the final map will be much less detailed:
Permanent karst springs with a minimum discharge > 200 l/s (for the map:
500 l/s2)
2 Later, the Scientific Advisory Board proposed a norm of 2,000 l/s, but still in a flexible manner, so that if
a spring is not reaching the criterion, but it is unique and represents a regionally important karst aquifer
it could be shown on the map. In this case experts opinion is relevant.
Temporary or highly variable springs with a maximum discharge > 10 m/s (50 m/s)
Very important submarine springs (experts opinion)
Thermal water resources/systems with total discharge > 100 l/s that are >4C
warmer than the average air temperature (200 l/s and 10C warmer than air
temperature)
Karst springs > 100 l/s with peculiar gas composition, such as CO2 or H2S (200 l/s)
Important wells, well fields, drainage galleries or other water abstraction struc-
tures in karst with a discharge/pumping rate > 200 l/s (500 l/s).
The estimated annual minimum discharge (low flow, baseflow) is thus a main
criterion. It can be determined in three different ways: 1) One or several discharge
measurements or estimations during low-flow conditions; 2) Estimated on the basis
of minimum and mean discharge; 3) Calculation on the basis of long-term discharge
data. But it was also agreed that because of the heterogeneity of the database and the
heterogeneous global distribution of large springs, the legend and selection criteria
could be slightly modified. Accordingly, not all the large springs have to be shown
on the map in terms of their very high density (e.g. Dinaric karst), while some of the
smaller springs that are regionally very important, such as the Jordan spring, although
fulfilling none of criteria, can be shown on the map. Although it is not logical to
exclude some larger springs because there are a lot of them the printing scale is such
that overlapping of objects would be unavoidable. In contrast, some small springs can
be included as an extra item in the legend because of their importance.
3.2.3.2 Caves
The Scientific Advisory Board has established basic ranking criteria by appointing the
following values (total maximum of 10 points): up to 5 points for dimensions (3 for
length and 2 for depth) and up to 5 points for significance (2 for hydrological signifi-
cance, 1 for human use and ecosystems, 2 for regional significance). In principle, caves
with less than 4 or 5 points would not be mapped, and will remain just a part of the
database. The final goal is to have a short list of the most relevant caves for the map.
These rankings also confirmed that caves that are significant in terms of archeology,
cave paintings, fossil remnants, and tourism are less likely to be displayed on the map
than, for instance, a short cave with high hydrologic and regional significance.
3.2.4 Case example Springs and caves of

South East Europe, Near and Middle East,
and Eastern Africa
Data were collected by the first author of this paper from a wide region shared by
more than 40 countries. The northernmost part is Poland (up to 55 N), while the
southernmost parts are India and the east (Asia) and Tanzania on the west (Africa,
below the equator, Figure 3.2). For this exercise extensive work and the involvement of
many local experts were required. Not all of these countries possess karst and karstic
features (e.g. Rwanda, Seychelles, Bhutan) while in others with considerable karst
(Yemen, Afghanistan) data collection was not possible mainly because of the absence
of local expertise or literature. Some requests of local researchers for additional field
survey were disregarded due to limited funds and the security situation, and because
Figure 3.2 Study region from Central and South East Europe to Indian sub-continent and eastern
Africa.The lines show countries with information on water points and caves in the project
stage I.
of the scale of the WOKAM map. However, until the end of 2014, involved local
experts provided a significant amount of information and prepared inquiry lists for
springs and caves completed by the Scientific Advisory Board. It might be concluded
that the work has been done successfully, while in a live organism such as the GIS
database, additionally collected data will improve the overall quality of the study and
enable further creation of regional maps at larger scales.
The karstic systems of the region might be divided into two major groups: one
represents aquifers formed in large geosyncline structures (Tethys), recently trans-
formed into a highly deformed orogenic belt consisting of high mountains intersected
by large depressions, and the second, the platform type of karst, slightly deformed and
karstified (Stevanovic, 2015).
The first, the Alpine geosyncline karstic system, has several branches: Carpathians,
Balkanides, Dinarides, Hellenides, Taurides, Zagros, and Himalayan mountain chains
with adjacent areas. It is an area of highly developed karst with some classical karst
regions such as Dinaric karst. Creation of karst is associated with the transgression
of the Tethys Ocean and later intensive orogenesis (intensive uplifting and folding)
repeated in several stages: the two most intensive orogenic phases took place at the
end of the Upper Cretaceous and during the Paleocene (Laramian tectonic phase),
and in Eocene/Oligocene (Helvetian phase). The karst in the Northern Hemisphere
is almost entirely carbonate (limestones and dolomites), while varieties of evaporitic

karst are more frequent in the southern parts (Iraq, Iran, Somalia). The carbonate sed-
imentary complex can be very thick: for instance the thickness of Dinaric karstic rocks
is often greater than 1000m. The Alpine system is characterised by abundant water
resources but they are unequally distributed throughout the year, due mostly to the
specific climate and a high karstification rate (Bonacci, 1987). Some areas in Dinaric
karst, such as southern Montenegro, are characterised by a very intensive water bal-
ance where the average specific yield is over 40 l/s/km2 (Radulovic, 2000). Apart from
richness in water reserves the Alpine system is also known for various karstic features,
and some of the deepest potholes and longest caves.
The second, platform karst system is developed in Africa and the Arabian
Peninsula. It is less developed karst, first because of the younger age of sedimentary
complex (shorter karstification), and secondly, and more important due to less tec-
tonised and deformed carbonate and evaporitic rocks. In Eastern Africa (Somalia,
Ethiopia) there are some outcrops of Jurassic carbonates, but widely exposed karstic
aquifers are of Eocene and Miocene ages. Horizontal or slightly dipping layers did not
allow deeper karstification and intense groundwater flow. As an example, the average
specific groundwater yield is >1 l/s/km2 for most of the surveyed karstic aquifer sys-
tems in Somaliland and Puntland provinces of northern Somalia.
The database created for the entire area of 47 countries including both Alpine
and platform karstic systems consists of 124 major springs and 52 caves. The springs
database contains information of spring coordinates, lithology, minimum/average/
maximum discharges, annual low flow (as flow estimated based on one or several
discharge measurements or estimations during low-flow conditions), average water
and air temperatures, gas content, water chemistry (total dissolved soils and/or elec-
trical conductivity), utilisation and main references. Based on expert judgment, of the
124 springs at least 53 are proposed to be shown on the printed map, while the rest
are marked as perhaps yes.
3.2.4.1 Springs
The largest number of springs occur in the Dinaric karst (Mijatovic, 1984; Jane etal.,
1997; Kranjc, 1997; Bakalowicz et al., 2003; Stevanovic, 2010; DIKTAS database
http://dinaric.iwlearn.org). Although a more restrictive approach has been applied in
the selection of springs, 53, or 40% of all major springs belong to that aquifer system
across seven countries which nowadays share the water resources. For instance, the
four countries of former Yugoslavia have the highest density of springs: distribution
of large karstic springs which achieve the discharge criterion against territory covered
by karst in Croatia, Slovenia, Montenegro and Bosnia & Herzegovina is equal to or
larger than 1 spring/2000 km2. Probably additional restriction or adaptation of the
legend (grouping of objects) will be required once a full version of the map with water
points/caves is displayed (Figure 3.3).
A considerable number of springs are also characteristic of other countries which
contribute in part to the Dinaric system: In the Albanian part of the Dinarides (Albanian
Alps) there are 2 large springs (Eftimi, 2010), in the Dinarides of western Serbia, 4, and
in FRY of Macedonia, 4. In the southern extensions of Alpides: Pindes and Hellenides,
4 Albanian and 2 Greek springs are included in the WOKAM database.
Figure 3.3 The segment of the digital Hydrogeological map of Dinaric karst prepared under the DIKTAS
project (http://dinaric.iwlearn.org). The boundary area between Bosnia & Herzegovina and
Croatia (between Zrmanja and Neretva rivers) is very rich in karstic springs discharging a
minimum of over 100 l/s (smaller dots) and over 1000 l/s (larger dots), not all of which can
be shown on the WOKAM map.
The Carpathian karst is also rich in groundwater reserves and large springs,
but to a much lesser extent than the southern Alpine branches. The number of large
springs or well-fields included in the WOKAM database is: 1 in Czech Republic, 1 in
Slovakia, 4 in Poland, 3 in Romania (Oraseanu & Iurkiewicz, 2010) and 3 in Serbia
(Stevanovic, 1994). In the Balkanides of Bulgaria there are four large springs pro-
posed for the WOKAM database (Benderev et al., 2005). In the Hungarian part of the
Pannonian basin and its margin there are several fresh water and thermal springs, four
of them are included in the WOKAM list.
The Taurus Mountains in central and southern Turkey are the most karstified
region in the Near East (Gnay, 2010). Most of the 9 selected springs, which
issue from Mesozoic and rarely from Tertiary sediments, belong to that unit. The
six large springs selected are in Israel; among them is the famous Jordan River
source.
In Iraq, five springs met the criteria for inclusion in the WOKAM database. They
belong to the two major geo-structural units, the Taurides and Zagros Mountains,
both extending over the northernmost part of the country along the borders of Turkey
and Iran. They drain the two main karstic aquifer systems, Bekhme of Cretaceous,
and Pila Spi of Tertiary age (Stevanovic & Iurkiewicz, 2004). Similarly, nine major
springs of Iranian karst were selected for inclusion on the WOKAM list. They also
drain limestones of Cretaceous (Sarvak Formation) and Oligocene-Miocene age
(Asmari Formation; Raeisi & Stevanovic, 2010). The evaporitic rocks are connected
to younger formations (Mio-Pliocene, Quaternary).
In India, out of the twelve selected, nine springs are located in Kashmir. The other
three are on the Meghalaya Shillong Plateau.
North eastern and eastern African and Arabian plateaus are less karstified and
almost none of these karstic occurrences satisfied the established criterion of min-
imum discharge (Figure 3.4) for the database. However, 3 major spring groups
(oases) have been selected in Egypt, along with one well-field in Somalia and one
well-field in Ethiopia, as representatives of local karst aquifers. Although Eocene
carbonate and evaporitic rocks have major extensions in Somalia and eastern
Ethiopia, the two selected well fields are linked to Jurassic limestones (Stevanovic
etal., 2012).
Concerning the spring discharges, of the 124 springs in this wide region, 28 or
1/5 have a minimal discharge larger than 2000 l/s which represents key evidence of
water availability. The largest is the famous Dumanli spring in Turkey (38 000 l/s),
Figure 3.4 The segment of digital Hydrogeological map of Sanaag karstic area between Somaliland and
Puntland provinces (northern Somalia) prepared under project SWALIM, IV Phase (http://
www.faoswalim.org/water_reports). Karstic springs or well fields situated in Eocene karstic
rocks (all formations on map labeled by E) are relatively dense, but springs that discharge
more than 10 l/s (big dots on the map) are very rare.
nowadays impounded by the Oymapinar reservoir. The second ranked is the Bistrica
group of springs in Albania (including the well-known Blue eye spring) with a mini-
mum discharge of 12 000 l/s. The largest number of springs discharging regularly over
2 000 l/s are in Bosnia & Herzegovina (8) and Turkey (8) followed by Montenegro
(5). Milanovic (2006) noted that springs along the Neretva Valley and in eastern
Herzegovina (Buna, Bunica) are the largest in the Adriatic basin.
3.2.4.2 Caves
The distribution of caves is not always the same as that for springs. Some karstic
countries possess larger speleological objects than water objects. For instance, the
Carpathian karst is specific in its development of large underground cavities formed
along preferred tectonic pathways. As such, 18 caves, or 1/3 of the total proposed for
the WOKAM list, are from that geo-structural unit: Romania is a leader in this group
with 9 caves, followed by Poland (Tatra Mountain) with 3, Czechia (Moravsky kras)
and Hungary with 2, and Slovakia and Serbia with one each.
Slovenia has the most caves in the southern Alpine group with 9 caves proposed
for the WOKAM list. Among them is the famous touristic cave Postojna. Some other
well known caves, or worlds largest potholes, are also selected to be displayed on
the map: the Humpleu-Poienita cave system (Romania, 40 km of explored channels
in length), Demnovsk jaskyne system (Slovakia, 36 km), Amaterska cave (Czechia,
35 km), Wielka Sniena Cave (Poland, 23 km), Cehi 2 pothole (Slovenia, 1500 m in
depth), and Slovacka jama (Croatia, 1300 m deep).
The largest African cave, Sof Omar Holluca in Ethiopia, with 15 km of explored
channels, is included in the list. The largest Indian cave among five proposed for the
WOKAM list (all in Meghalaya) is Krem Liat Prah with 30 km of explored channels.
Of 52 WOKAM caves from the studied region, 11 have more than 20 km of
explored channels, while 6 potholes are deeper than 1000m.
3.3 DRAFT MAP OF THE STUDIED REGION
The WOKAM project will be completed in 2016 and the map is scheduled to be
printed in late 2016. Because this chapter was written before the final evaluation of
the submitted data and the Scientific Advisory Boards review, all information is of a
preliminary nature. Figure 3.5 shows a part of the draft map with selected springs of
the south eastern Europe, eastern Mediterranean basin and adjacent areas.
3.4 CONCLUSIONS
The WOKAM project will be completed in 2016 and will result in the World Karst
Aquifer Map, one of the layers of, and supplement to, the existing map of Groundwater
Resources of the World (WHYMAP). It will provide a better global overview of
karst aquifers, and is expected to become a useful tool for sustainable global water
resources management, and to increase public awareness of the importance of these
resources, currently utilised for drinking purposes by some 25% of the worlds population.
Legend
spring
non-exposed /
exposed karst aquifer
continuous carbonate
sedimentary rocks
discontinuous carbonate
sedimentary rocks
km
0 250 500 1,000
Figure 3.5 A part of preliminary WOKAM map showing selected springs of the South East Europe
and adjacent areas.
The team of international experts, members of the Scientific Advisory Board work-
ing on the project since 2012, has defined the methodology for data collection and
evaluation, and for the creation of the map and its legend as well as the associated data-
base. As the most feasible solution to present the lithology and corresponding aquifer
systems, the existing Global Lithological Map was chosen. Selection criteria for water
points (springs, thermal springs, well fields, extraction intakes) and caves as single geo-
morphologic karstic forms to be included in the map were defined in accordance with
the preferred scale of 1: 10 Million. However, considering the large differences between
highly karstified areas and rich karstic aquifers, and poorly developed karst with small
water quantity and availability, only two approaches to the selection of objects for the
map and database were found to be feasible: the more restrictive approach in the former
case and the more flexible in the latter. This concept is demonstrated by the examples
from South East Europe, and the Near and Middle East where karstic aquifers belong to
the Alpine system and are the richest in water reserves in the world, and in contrast with
examples from less productive and developed Eastern African karst. In eastern Africa
karstic formations have a large area, but the yield of springs or drilled wells is relatively
low and rarely exceeds 10 l/s. Thus, although they are the main source for local water
supply, they do not meet the WOKAM criteria for display on the map.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors and members of WOKAM Scientific Advisory Board gratefully acknowl-

edge the efforts by the consultants and colleagues from South East Europe, the Near
and Middle East: Romeo Eftimi (Albania), Boban Jolovic (Bosnia & Herzegovina),
Aleksey Benderev (Bulgaria), Judit Mdl-Szony (Hungary), elimir Peka (Croatia),
Jerome Perrin (BRGM-France, data for India), Ezzat Raeisi (Iran), Milan Radulovic
(Montenegro), Jacek Rzkowski (Poland), Iancu Oraseanu (Romania), Peter Malik
(Slovakia), Nataa Ravbar (Slovenia) and Gltekin Gnay (Turkey) to collect and pro-
vide valuable data and information. Without the help of all those involved, this work
would not have been complete and productive. We also thank IAH and UNESCO for
provided financial support.
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Stevanovic Z, Balint Z, Gadain H, Trivic B, Marobhe I, Milanovic S et al. (2012). Hydrogeo
logical survey and assessment of selected areas in Somaliland and Puntland. Technical report
no. W-20, FAO-SWALIM (GCP/SOM/049/EC) Project. (http://www.faoswalim.org/water_
reports) Nairobi.
Stevanovic Z. (2015) Characterization of Karst Aquifer. In: Stevanovic Z. (ed) Karst Aquifers
Characterization and Engineering, Series: Professional Practice in Earth Science. Springer
International Publishing Switzerland, 47126.
Veni, G., April 2002, Revising the karst map of the United States. Journal of Cave and Karst
Studies, 64(1), 4550.
Some useful web sites on the topic:

http://www.sges.auckland.ac.nz/sges_research/karst.shtm
www.karstportal.org
http://dinaric.iwlearn.org
www.speleogenesis.info
www.caverbob.com
www.caves.org
Chapter 4
Groundwater flow in the

Orontes River basin and the
SyriaLebanon water sharing
agreement
Franois Zwahlen 1, Michel Bakalowicz 2,
Raoul Gonzalez 3, Ahmed Haj Asaad 3,
Myriam Saad-Sbeih 3 & Ronald Jaubert 3
1
Chyn, University Neuchtel, Switzerland
2
HydroSciences, Montpellier University, France
3
Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies,
Geneva, Switzerland
ABSTRACT
This chapter analyses groundwater flow in the Orontes River basin and changes which occurred
in the past forty years as a result of the massive expansion of irrigated lands using the ground-
water resources. The region contains significant karstic water resources supplying springs in
the upper and middle reaches of the basin. Although variations in annual flows are difficult
to assess precisely, there has been a significant decrease since the 1960s. The SyrianLebanese
agreement on sharing of the Orontes water, signed in 1992, focused almost exclusively on
surface water resources. The drilling of wells in Lebanon was restricted only near the Orontes
River. Amendments to the agreement, in 1997 and 2002, restricted the drilling of wells in the
Lebanese section of the basin as a whole. However no restrictions were imposed on ground-
water withdrawals in Syria. Because of the continuity of the main Jurassic-Cretaceous aquifer
between the two countries the latter withdrawals are likely affect groundwater resources in
Lebanon.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The extensive development of irrigation in the Orontes River basin, since the 1970s,
has substantially disorganised subsurface flows feeding the water resources of this
region, particularly within the area of the Lebanese-Syrian border.
A literature review located the approximate recharge areas of the main springs
and showed the impact of the recent intensive exploitation of the Jurassic-Cretaceous
aquifer on subsurface water flows.
From the upstream Lebanese section of the watershed, surface water carried by
the Orontes river flows toward Syria, as well as significant amounts of groundwater
from the Jurassic-Cretaceous aquifer complex extending at depth into to the Syrian
territory.
This chapter analyses the effects of irrigation development on the dynamics of the
groundwater resources and how this issue was taken into account in the 1994 water
agreement and the 1997 and 2002 amendments. The study was conducted as part of
a research programme supported by the Global Program Water Initiatives of the Swiss
Agency for Development and Cooperation.
4.2 ORONTES RIVER BASIN: GENERAL

HYDROGEOLOGY AND SUPPLY OF MAIN
SPRINGS AND PRODUCTION WELLS
The Orontes basin contains significant karstic water resources. These are largely fed
the Orontes River before the extensive development of the irrigation in the past four
decades. In the 1960s, the downstream discharge rate reached almost 100 m3/s at the
Syrian Turkish border, but in the 2000s, it fell to less than 15 m3/s.
The large aquifers supplying the main springs located in the upstream reach of
the basin are thick limestone formations of Jurassic and Cretaceous age (Figure4.1).
Although these formations are not equally fractured and karstified, they contain
groundwater flowing through them and from one to the other via faulting or fractur-
ing, even if they are separated by lower Cretaceous impermeable strata. The scale of
the basin allows the Jurassic and Cretaceous formations to be considered as a unique
complex aquifer, a very large reservoir in hydraulic continuity (Figure 4.2).
In the southern and central parts of the basin, this large karstic aquifer supplies
many springs (Figure 4.3). The annual flow of the main springs is of several m3/s.
Their regime is more or less stable throughout the year because of the very large
water reserves, the high hydraulic conductivity, the well-developed internal drainage
and the extended confinement of this complex aquifer. Recharge to the Jurassic and
Cretaceous aquifer is particularly important in the highest areas of the basin, especif-
ically on Mounts Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. Where limestone formations outcrop,
the recharge can reach up to 60% of the total precipitation, varying between 750
and 2000 mm per year on the mountain range (Droubi, 2012). Recharge takes place
mainly during the winter season, and lasts until spring due to snow-melt water.
4.3 INVENTORY OF GROUNDWATER SOURCES,

EVOLUTION OF THEIR FLOW AND OF THE
ORGANISATION OF THE SUBSURFACE FLOWS
SUPPLYING THEM
The inventory of groundwater sources and resurgences of major interest of the

Orontes basin (Figure 4.1), amounts to around 30 springs, including several major
ones located close to the Lebanese-Syrian border.
The evolution of their annual average flow between the 1960s and the 2000s is
difficult to assess. There has been a significant decrease because of the intensive use
of water, more specifically groundwater pumped from deep wells, due to recent and
rapid extension of irrigated lands, mainly in Syria.
The main springs in Lebanon are Ayn ez Zarqa (Orontes spring) and Ayn el
Laboue close to the border and in Syria Ayn at Tannur, Uyun as Samak and Ayn al
Damamel (Kloostermann, 2008). They are supplied by groundwater in the Jurassic
an Cretaceous strata.
Groundwater flow in the Orontes River basin 55
36E 37E 38E
Legend
Spot elevation
Cities
Major springs
Minor springs
Rivers
37N 37N
International
boundary
Major faults
Faults
Watershed
boundary
Hydrogeology
Neogene-
Quaternary
Basalts
Eocene Miocene
Upper Cretaceous
Paleogene
Jurassic Middle
Cretaceous
Ignous rocks
36N C1 Hydrogeologic profile 36N
35N 35N
34N 34N
N
0 12.5 25 50
KM
01.09.2015 / FZ, RG
36E 37E 38E
Figure 4.1 Simplified hydrogeological map of the Orontes River basin.
Remote groundwater discharge from the Jurassic and Cretaceous aquifer has
been much more affected downstream, in particularly in the East of the Al Ghab
plain. Several springs have dried up, as shown in Table 4.1, which provides references
of the sources (Figure 4.1).
4.3.1 Schematic diagram of the organization of the

subsurface flow in the 1960s
Observations presented above allow a schematic diagram of the organisation of
the main subsurface flow lines in the Orontes basin to be created for the 1960s.
Figure4.4 shows the groundwater flow oriented northward, mainly affected by the
Weakly aquifers 150300 m
Quaternary uncosolitated alluvial,
volcanic debris
Important aquifers 200300 m

Eocene / Miocene limestone
Secondary aquifer 200500 m

Upper Cretaceous Paleocene
chalky limestone locally separated
by Upper Cretaceous marls
Major aquifer 10002000 m

Jurassic and Cretaceous
dolomitic karstified limestone,
locally separated by marls aquiclude
Weakly aquifer
Primary sandstone, marls,
greenstone formation
Figure 4.2 Hydro-litho-stratigraphical figure of the Orontes River basin formations.
W COASTAL JABAL AZ E
MOUNTAIN GHAB
ZAWIYAH
1250 1250
1000 Naur Nab Al 1000
Shathah Huwayz
500 Orontes 500
C3 0 0
500 500
1000 1000
COASTAL
NW MOUNTAIN SE
750 Orontes Homs 750

500 500
0 0
C2
500 500
1000 1000
BEEQA
NW MOUNT-LEBANON ANTI-LEBANON SE
2000 2000
Hermel s
1500 e 1500
nt
ro
O Ain ez Zarqa
1000 1000
C1
500 500
F2, RG/ 08.2015
Figure 4.3 Hydrogeological cross-sections of the Orontes River basin (legend see Figure 4.1).
Table 4.1 Estimated flows of the main springs or group of springs, in the 1960s and in the late 1990s,
south and central parts of the basin.
Main springs or Flow l/s Flow l/s

groups of springs years 60 years 19902000 Sources ID Elevation
Ayn ez Zarqa 13 000 13 000 Ayn ez Zarka 1.01 676

Ayn el Laboue 1 400 700 Ayn el Laboue 1.02 903
Ayn at Tannur 2.01 510
Ayn at Tannur region 2 300 1 500 Uyun as Samak 2.02 512
Ayn al Damamel 2.03 518
Tall al Uyun 2.11 193
Ayn Qalat al Madiq 2.12 172
Al Ghab east region 13 000 virtually zero Ayn at Taqah, 2.13 170
flow Ash Shariah
Nab an Nasiriyah 2.14 172
Nab al Huwayz 2.15 171
longitudinal hydrogeological structure of the basin. South of Mount Anti-Lebanon,

however, the flow is oriented in the opposite direction southward toward the Syrian
spring of Figueh.
4.3.2 Schematic diagram of the organisation of the

subsurface flow in the years 19902000
In response to the intensive development of irrigation in the Syrian part of the basin,
more particularly in areas with no surface water, a proliferation of legal and illegal
wells has taken place during the late 1990s.
Deep well pumping of the Jurassic and Cretaceous groundwater induces signifiant
drawdown of groundwater heads especially in the artesian areas. The TNO numer-
ical simulation, (Kloostermann & Vermooten, 2008), which roughly simulates the
extension of groundwater drawdown, clearly delineates three heavily impacted areas:
Qusayr, north of the Lebanese-Syrian border, Homs in the middle section of the basin
and Asharneh ahead of the Al Ghab plain. At Qusayr, the drawdown dropped several
tens of metres (Figure 4.5).
This large-scale drawdown caused a sharp reduction in discharge from numerous
springs in the Orontes basin, more particularly in the central part of the basin where
some of them dried up. In the vicinity of the Lebanese-Syrian border, the springs have
also been seriously affected but to a lesser degree.
The direction of the nearby groundwater flow lines have in some areas signifi-
cantly changed, because they have been attracted to main drawdown areas, especially
in the Asharneh plain area (Figure 4.5).
In the border area, the intense water pumping around Qusayr, creates significant
local drawdown and may increase the groundwater flow passing through the border.
This could ultimately lead to reduced groundwater resources in the Lebanese part of
the Orontes basin.
1960 2000
Flowlines Groundwater drawdown values
in unconfined aquifer 20 m
in confined aquifer 50 m
Figures 4.4 and 4.5 Schematic diagram of the organisation of the subsurface flow, in the 1960s (left)
and 2000s (right).
4.4 THE SYRIA-LEBANON AGREEMENT AND

GROUNDWATER FLOW INVOLVEMENT
4.4.1 History of the agreements

Discussions between the two countries, Syria and Lebanon, for establishing a water
resources sharing agreement in the upstream part of the basin, started in the 1940s.
A first agreement was signed in 1994, modified by an addendum in 1997 and fol-
lowed in 2002 by a new agreement which is still in force.
4.4.1.1 The 1994 Agreement

The 1994 Agreement of the Distribution of the Orontes River Water Originating in
Lebanese Territory defined a fixed amount of 80 million cubic meters (MCM/year)
(scheduled10 MCM for each following period, SeptOct, NovFeb, MarApr and
50 MCM for MayAug period one) allocated to Lebanon if the river flow exceeds
400 MCM/year at the Hermel Bridge gauging station and 20% of the annual flow if
the discharge volume is less than 400 MCM/year (Sarraf, 2013).
Comair (2013) specified thatthe 1994 Agreement addressed the issue of ground-
water withdrawals with a provision of authorizing pumping from wells drilled before
the signature of 1994 agreement, but prohibiting new wells. The wells allowed were
the ones located within a radius of 1500 m from the center of the source and 500 m
of either banks of the river.
In the absence of dams or diversion works (not mentioned in the agreement), a large
part of the water allocated to Lebanon, in particularly during winter season, cannot
be used. Moreover, because of groundwater withdrawal restrictions, the Lebanese
border village of Qaa and Hermel could not undertake any irrigation development.
4.4.1.2 The 1997 Addendum

Because of the weaknesses of the 1994 Agreement, considered as not equitable by
Lebanon, an addendum with two new clauses. The utilisation of the waters of four
small closed basins (Yammoune, Marjhine, Joubab el Homor and Ouyoun Orgosh)
shall be equal to the quantity of renewable water of these basins. In addition the
Lebanese party may benefit, for the Baalbek-Hermel region, from all the waters deriv-
ing from the Laboue springs during the irrigation season (end of April till October 15)
as well as from the drinking water in use in the neighboring villages.
This means that the quantity of waters mentioned in the two clauses are no longer
included in the discharge volume of 400 MCM/year referred in the 1994 Agreement.
4.4.1.3 The 2002 Agreement

This new agreement comprises the 1994 Agreement, the 1997 Addendum and
approved minutes of the Joint LebaneseSyrian meetings held in the 2000s. These
minutes include the construction of a derivation dam with a storage capacity of
27 MCM (located directly after the Ayn ez Zarqa sources that will serve two sides
of the river supplying an area of 3000 ha) and a multipurpose dam with a storage
capacity of 37 MCM upstream of the Hermel bridge (for supplying drinking water,
irrigation water for 3800 ha and for power production). Finally, the proposed irriga-
tion schemes should cover a total of 6800 ha in the Hermel and Al Qaa area.
This last Syrian-Lebanese Agreement is seen as equitable for both parties and
complying with international law, in particularly the 1997 Convention on the Law
on the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (UNWC). However, the
non-involvement of Turkey in the negotiations remains an obvious negative aspect.
4.5 HOW GROUNDWATER IS TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT

IN THE AGREEMENTS
4.5.1 General aspects

At present, the use of the water from the Orontes River is limited in Lebanon to small
scale farming, fish farms and tourism. Total use of water is estimated, according to
Sarraf (2013), at only 21 MCM/year of which 23% is for domestic purposes and the
rest for irrigation (irrigated areas in the Lebanese part of the Orontes basin are offi-
cially 1.703 ha in area).
As the fixed amount of water allocated to Lebanon is of 80 MCM/year, Lebanese
withdrawals are much less than the volume attributed and the situation so far does
not require any specific discussion between the two countries regarding the shared
water part as established in the Agreement. However, sharing the water according the
Agreement is quite complex, involving a calculate for each month, in dry years, of the
water deficit regarding the monthly flow of an average year which will be taken into
account in the following months for reduced withdrawal.
4.5.2 Hydrogeological aspects

Water sharing between Syria and Lebanon, based to the flow of the Orontes river at
the Hermel Bridge gauging station, only apparently encompasses the surface flow.
Most landscape of the Lebanese part of Orontes basin is karstified outcrops without
any surface runoff. The episodic runoff flowing after heavy rains in the middle of the
Bekaa valley, on the Neogene formation, is almost negligible in comparison to the
Orontes discharge flowing at Hermel.
Thus the Syrian-Lebanon agreement exclusively covers the groundwater issues.
In the case of the deep wells pumping from the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks, the
Agreement is very clear, prohibiting any new wells and allowing only the wells drilled
before 1994 close to the sources or the Orontes River to be used.
This means that the groundwater flow which does not supply directly or indirectly
the Orontes river is attributed to Syria, all over the Lebanese part of the basin, except the
four closed basin and partly the Laboue sources mentioned in the 1997 Addendum.
No restriction is mentioned regarding the Syrian exploitation of groundwater in
the vicinity of the border, even though the hydrogeological situation clearly shows the
continuity of the main Jurassic and Cretaceous aquifer between the two countries. In
reality, the important quantity of groundwater pumped close to the border, as it does
exist now south of Qusayr, will increasingly affect the Lebanese groundwater head in
the long term, and in that way will indirectly impacting the 400 MCM annual river
flow taken as reference in the Agreement.
A rough evaluation of the subsurface annual flow passing the border in the
Jurassic Cretaceous aquifer is of note. A rough calculation using Darcys law can
be applied and gives an order of magnitude of annual groundwater volume entering
Syria of 65 MCM, (about 2 m3/s with K 5 104 m/s, hydraulic gradient 103, width of
the water flow 28 km, average thickness of hydraulic flow 150m). This volume can be
compared to the annual volume of 30 MCM corresponding to the over exploitation
of groundwater in the irrigated area of Qusayr, according to the Annual Effective
Storage use calculated in the TNO numerical simulation (Kloosterman, 2008).
4.6 CONCLUSIONS
This chapter provides an update on recent issues from the hydrogeology of the
Orontes basin and seeks to show how the existing large groundwater resources have
been taken into account in the Lebanese-Syrian Agreement.
Unlike river flow rate, sharing of groundwater resources cannot be directly based
on fixed observation points. It requires taking into account the groundwater flow for
large areas and long periods of time, involving a great deal of uncertainty. In such a
situation it is especially difficult to reach a common approach between the negotiating
parties.
The history of the Lebanese-Syrian Agreement is a good example of how
groundwater flow has eventually been taken in account. It also makes clear how far
groundwater diversity is taken into account and remains partly absent because of
the difficulty of determining simple and effective rules based on observations on the
subsurface environment.
The creation of new numerical procedures for water flow simulation provides a
useful aid for the negotiators. The outcomes nevertheless depend on robust data and
the establishment of a coherent conceptual model, with which underpin the basis for
the negotiations.
REFERENCES
Comair G.F., McKinney D.C., Scoullos M.J., Flinker R.H., Espinoza G.E. (2013)Transboundary
cooperation in international basins: Clarification and experiences from the Orontes River
Basin agreement: Part 1. Environmental Science & Policy 31, 133140.
Comair G.F., McKinney D.C., Scoullos M.J., Flinker R.H., Espinoza G.E. (2013)Transboundary
cooperation in international basins: Clarification and experiences from the Orontes River
Basin agreement: Part 2. Environmental Science & Policy 31, 141148.
Droubi A. (2012) Communication interne. Meeting du projet IHEID Orontes River basin
Liban-Syrie. Novembre Bekaa, Lebanon.
ESCWA13 (2013) Inventory of shared water resources in Western Asia. Chapter 7, Orontes
River Basin, UN, ESCWA/SDPD/2013/WG13/REPORT.
FAO (2011) Aquastat database. Syria Arab Republic. http:www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/
countries/syria/index.stm; last visit 10.01.2012.
Hamade S., Tabet, Ch. (2013) The impacts of climate change and human activities on water
resources availability in the Orontes watershed: Case of the Ghab Region in Syria. Journal
of Water Sustainability 3(1), 4549.
Kloosterman F.H., Vermooten, J.S.A. (2008) Final Report, development of a numerical ground-
water flow model for the Larger Orontes Basin. Dutch-Syrian Water Cooperation, TNO
report.
Kloosterman F.H. (2009) Notes on the Origin of the Groundwater issuing from The Ain
Altnour, Ain Asamak and Ain Alzzarka Springs. Mission Report EVD Syria Bridging Phase.
TNO/Deltares.
Maalouf F. (1999) Approche du fonctionnement de laquifre de lOronte. DEA Univ. St Joseph,
Beyrouth.
Sarraf S. (2013) Connecting transboundary water resources management with national visions
and plans in Lebanon. Near East & North Africa Land and Water Days, Amman, 19.
Chapter 5
HungarianSlovakian
transboundary karstic
groundwater management
under the scope of ENWAT and
TRANSENERGY EU projects
Peter Malk 1, Radovan C ernk 1 & Gyrgy Tth 2
1
ttny geologick stav Dionza tra Geological Survey of Slovak Republic ,
Bratislava, Slovakia
2
Geological and Geophysical Institute of Hungary, Budapest, Hungary
ABSTRACT
Within the framework of European Union projects ENWAT and TRANSENERGY, Hungarian
and Slovakian hydrogeologists cooperated on common descriptions, modelling and formu-
lating proposals for the groundwater management of transboundary karstic aquifers, one
of them a deep-seated geothermal aquifer and the other a classical plateau karst structure.
Some notes from lessons learned during the work on both projects may be useful to other
hydrogeologists trying to establish cross-border cooperation especially in Europe, such as
maintaining two independent web portals for public use and for specialists. Keeping units to
be constantly linked with the data in common databases of input parameters, and adequate
(possibly metric) coordinate systems seems to be useful. Choice of software tools should
be left for individual selection by working teams, while basic standards of data inputs and
outputs seem to be the most effective common understanding for hydrogeologists managing
transboundary aquifers.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Groundwater bodies, delineated according to the EU Water Framework Directive

(2000/60/EC) by both countries along the HungarianSlovakian border, form inter-
connected systems, which supply both countries with drinking water. Surface waters,
rivers and wetland ecosystems are groundwater dependent. The EU Water Framework
Directive deals with the quantitative and qualitative status of groundwater, and pro-
tection of the ecosystems, which depend on groundwater. Due to the EU regulations,
the groundwater body is considered as transboundary only after its approval by
both respective countries. After bilateral negotiations, several groundwater bodies
were recognised along the Hungarian/Slovakian border. Within the framework of the
European Union INTERREG IIIA project Environmental state and sustainable man-
agement of HungarianSlovak transboundary groundwater bodies (ENWAT), three
transboundary aquifers were investigated in the HungarianSlovakian border region:
Ipoly/Ipel Valley, Bodrog region (both of them with porous aquifers) and Aggtelek-
Slovak Karst region, with prevailing karstic type of permeability (Brezsnynszky et al.,
GERMANY
POLAND
CZECH
REPUBLIC
SLOVAKIA
UKRAINE
2
AUSTRIA
1
HUNGARY
ITALY SLOVENIA
ROMANIA
CROATIA
Figure 5.1 Location of the two discussed transboundary aquifers between Hungary and Slovakia
(1:Komrom-trovo geothermal karstic body, 2:Aggtelek/Slovensk kras transbound-
ary aquifer).
2008; Malk et al., 2012; No.2 on Figure5.1). Another project, dealing with trans-
boundary groundwater is TRANSENERGY (Transboundary Geothermal Energy
Resources of Slovenia, Austria, Hungary and Slovakia). The project was targeted
at geothermal waters (geothermal resources) in several regions: the pilot area of
Komrom-trovo (Komrno-Prkny) is a deeply seated geothermal karstic aquifer
(Ndor et al., 2013; No. 1 on Figure5.1).
5.2 ENWAT TRANSBOUNDARY GROUNDWATER

PROJECT
One of the three pilot areas of the ENWAT project was the Aggtelek Mountains and
the Slovensk kras Mountains (Slovak Karst). The area represents a large common
karstic aquifer system in the Eastern part of both countries (Figure5.2). Both coun-
tries considered it as a highly important transboundary water body. The area is pro-
tected as a National Park on both sides of the border, the Aggtelek National Park
(Aggteleki Nemzeti Park) in Hungary and National Park of Slovak Karst (Nrodn
park Slovensk kras) in Slovakia. In 1995, all the caves of the Aggtelek and Slovak
Karst were designated World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. Significant drinking water
resources in Slovakia and regionally important resources in Hungary, although still
preserving sufficient quality, are located in vulnerable karstic area and require preven-
tive protection.
The groundwater body is in a Mesozoic complex with morphologically visible
karstic plateau and canyon-like river valleys, separating different hydrogeological
units. Outcropping rocks are very different according to the character of permea-
bility, character of groundwater circulation, type of groundwater regime, and also
in the resulting yield of springs. From the hydrogeological point of view, the most
HungarianSlovakian transboundary karstic groundwater management 65
Figure5.2 Aggtelek/Slovensk kras transboundary aquifer.
important tectonic unit in the area is the Silicikum unit, mainly its Middle Triassic
and Upper Triassic part. The most important aquifer with karst-fissure type of per-
meability is formed by the Middle and Upper Triassic limestones and dolomites.
Similarly there are important hydrogeological units on the Hungarian side such as
Alshegy, Nagyoldal, Haragistya and Galyasg, which contain the Aggtelek-Domica
cave system. Tertiary filling of sedimentary basins (mostly clays and clayey sands)
act as aregional impermeable barrier for the groundwater accumulated in Triassic
carbonates.
Natural groundwater circulation in karstic aquifers is typified by intensive drain-
age towards the major springs. Their infiltration areas are not easy to delineate, but
results of the water balance suggest that at many places groundwater infiltrating in
one country is draining towards a spring located in the neighboring country. For
example, the underground hydrological system of the Domica-Baradla cave system
is fed by water recharged in Slovakia, while the major drainage element here is the
Jsva spring at Jsvafo in Hungary. Another example is the Alshegy/Doln vrch
karstic aquifer unit, elongated along an east to west axis, with a national boundary
crossing over it. The eastern part of this aquifer drains towards springs in Hungary,
while natural groundwater outlets are not present on the Slovak territory. By contrast,
the western part of the Alshegy/Doln vrch karstic aquifer drains towards north, to
springs located on the Slovak territory.
Groundwater chemical composition or quality originates mainly from water-
rock interaction. Groundwater circulates predominantly in limestones and dolo-
mites of the Mesozoic rock formations of Middle and Upper Triassic age. The
Ca-HCO3 and Ca-Mg-HCO3 types of chemical content dominate in groundwater
that is not affected by anthropogenic activities. The natural character of ground-
water circulation is at the moment still able to preserve good properties of high
quality groundwater and most of the area provides high quality groundwater for
regional waterworks. This groundwater fully meets the criteria for drinking water.
In most cases, concentrations of trace elements are low and mostly below the limits
of detection. Anthropogenic contamination was found only rarely, usually close to
settlements. It was indicated by raised concentrations of nitrate, chloride, sulphate,
chemical oxygen demand and potassium. High iron and manganese concentrations
may be found at the adjoining Tertiary artesian aquifers which have a reducing
environment.
In the Aggtelek/Slovak Karst area the chemical status of groundwater is good, but
possible future climate change may affect this with increased occurrence of extreme
hydrological events. In the worst scenario, from the water management point of view,
higher and more rapid flood peaks will apply pressures to water channels by ero-
sion while drought periods damage the ecology of the fragile karst area. Small-scale
water management arrangements buffering hydrological extremes, such as building
of minor water storage systems enable water supply to continue in dry periods, and
polders, dry reservoirs to collect high water stages are the best strategy. A significant
threat in this economically less developed part of Slovakia and Hungary is uncon-
trolled land use and building on flood-prone areas. [More details are found on the
project output website http://www.all-in.sk/enwat, maintained in Hungarian, Slovak
and English languages.]
5.3 TRANSENERGY TRANSBOUNDARY GROUNDWATER

PROJECT
The second multinational project, TRANSENERGY Transboundary Geothermal

Energy Resources of Slovenia, Austria, Hungary and Slovakia (Ndor et al., 2013),
was aimed at providing implementation tools based on a firm geoscientific basis for
enhanced and sustainable use of geothermal resources linked to CEU Programme,
Area of Intervention 3.1. (developing a high quality environment by managing and
protecting natural resources). The project was focused on the key problem of using
natural resources here the geothermal energy shared by different countries in a
sustainable way. Natural resources, such as geothermal energy, whose main trans-
porting medium is groundwater along regional flow paths, are strongly linked to
geological structures that reach across the state borders. Therefore, only atrans-
boundary approach can handle the assessment of geothermal energy and water use in
sustainable way. Results of the project were addressed at the needs of decision makers
and stakeholders by providing a user-friendly web-based decision supporting tool (an
interactive web portal) as a main core output of the project. Expert knowledge about
geothermal resources and sustainable reservoir management, gained during the proj-
ect, was transferred to end-users to provide an overview and for them to make simple
estimations on geothermal reserves within the project area. This publicly accessible
implementation tool shows all the relevant information on the potential, vulnerability
and sustainability of the geothermal system in the transboundary regions.
Results integrate all of the activities carried out within the TRANSENERGY
project, such as screening utilisation needs with special respect to national, EU and
international legislation, collecting and harmonising geoscientific data, performing
additional measurements, organising all data in harmonised, multi-lingual joint data-
bases, producing various cross-border geoscientific models and performing scenario
modelling for different extraction of geothermal heat/water.
In addition to the web-based decision planning tool, the project also delivered
a methodology for joint groundwater management and utilisation maps summaris-
ing the legal steps and actions towards a harmonised management strategy of trans-
boundary geothermal resources, and a best practice on geothermal use. The project
partners were the Geological Surveys of the four countries Hungary, Slovakia,
Austria, Slovenia, which are involved in several international projects concerning nat-
ural resources. They also have a long tradition of bilateral cooperation with each
other in several projects.
Five pilot areas were treated within the TRANSENERGY project, while one
of them the Komrom-trovo (Komrno-Prkny) pilot area is a deeply seated
karstic groundwater body (Figure5.3). The Komrom-trovo pilot area belongs to
the Komrno block, in Slovakia Komrno high block and Komrno marginal block
Figure5.3 Position of the transboundary Komrom-trovo karstic geothermal aquifer (after Gspr
and Tth 2013).
are distinguished (Remk et al., 1992) comprising a subsided northern blocks of the
Gerecse and Pilis Mountains (Hungary).
The main and most important aquifers in the pilot area are the Upper Triassic plat-
form limestones and dolomites (Dachstein Limestone and Main or Haupt Dolomite).
The Middle Eocene denudation caused strong karstification in the more than 1500
m thick carbonate sequence. These well karstified conduits and fractures along the
tectonic elements determine the karstic groundwater flow; the karstification in the
upper part of the system has higher permeability and this is where the main part of
the groundwater flow takes place. From the area of outcropping Upper Triassic rocks
(North-Bakony, Vrtes, Gerecse, Pilis mountains in Hungary) the recharged precipita-
tion descends and flows towards the deeper regions to the north west and west. From
the north west edge of the aquifer the water turns towards north-north east and in the
Slovakian parts towards the east.
Along the margin of the mountains (Tata, Dunaalms, Patince and Esztergom)
natural discharge areas of the lukewarm karst springs (~2027C) discharge in:
Esztergom springs at 2629C, Tata springs at 2022C, Dunaalms-Patince sprigs
higher at 2324C and 2527C. The higher (~40C) water temperatures in trovo
(against ~28C in Esztergom) can be explained by longer flow paths from the north
west and west (Gspr & Tth, 2013). The marginal (west, north west and north)
and deeper part (more than 600 m below the sea level) of the Upper Triassic carbonate
aquifer is characterised by higher temperatures and belongs to the Komrno marginal
block, is without hydraulic contact with the Komrno elevated block and has no
recharge area (Remk et al., 1992). This thermal karst water (4060C) is produced
by deep wells in the north west and north of the area (near Bbolna, Komrom and
Komrno).
The main utilisation is for health purposes in both countries in the north east part
of the area (Esztergom and trovo). In Patince and Dunaalms (historical) balneo-
logical and drinking water uses exist. Near Komrom and Komrno balneological
and agricultural use prevails. Most of the users utilize the lukewarm or thermal water
of the Triassic karstic aquifer, but some Miocene and Cretaceous local aquifers near
Komrom and Komrno are also exploited.
Because of the long-term brown coal mining coupled with intensive water abstrac-
tion (Tatabnya Dorog area), the whole cold- and thermal karst system was affected
by a regional depression which caused the drying out of most of the lukewarm springs.
After the mining ceased the water level has been rising since the beginning of the
1990s (Alfldi & Kapolyi, 2007). In this dynamically changing system it is hard to
estimate the actual dimension of the impacted area in karst (difference between natu-
ral groundwater level in karstic aquifer existing prior to mining activities and its cur-
rent state), but in the south and south west part of the area in 2013 it was about 30m,
and decreases toward the norh. Along the Danube river from Komrom-Komrno to
Esztergom-trovo the actual drop in the water level remaining as a consequence of
the past mining activities in the karst was about 10m. Existing abstraction for drink-
ing water supply in the area is much smaller than the mining abstraction in the past
and has a potentially low influence on the main lukewarm springs. In the area of Tata
the rising karst water level results in seepages on the surface and affects surface infra-
structure such as buildings and garages. Therefore, solutions have to be found to uti-
lize and/or drain the (surplus) seepage waters. In this area there is also a competition
between the water demand of balneological users, the drinking water abstractions and
protection of the groundwater dependent ecosystems, which represents a very import-
ant environmental aspect with high priority in the EU Water Framework Directive.
Therefore, ranking of different needs and an integrated assessment of their impacts
is of vital importance. The coordinated utilisation and planning of further develop-
ment is needed in both countries to maintain the current situation and the historical
heritage. In the area of the natural discharges (Tata, Esztergom in Hungary, Patince
in Slovakia) the thermal pollution of the surface waters is minimal and nature has
adapted to lukewarm karst waters.
The assessment of sustainability was based on an overview of 34 geothermal
wells, 8 on the Slovakian side and 26 on Hungarian side (in the Komrno high block).
No over-exploitation was reported. Due to abandoning mining areas and halting of
water pumping, water levels are rising. However, some negative effects on infrastruc-
ture were reported and a continuous karstic water level monitoring programme was
proposed.
The hydrogeological structure of the Komrno marginal block that is closed to
water circulation and has no hydraulic contact with the surrounding structures does
not have reinjection of geothermal water (Gspr & Tth, 2013, vasta et al., 2013).
Although water has no borders and flows freely between the countries, the cat-
egorisation and delineation of the water bodies is not harmonised across the border.
Both countries have a different way and philosophy of dealing with the delineation of
geothermal water bodies. For a mutual assessment and management of the ground
water bodies, harmonised rules are needed in the future.
5.4 CONCLUSIONS AND USEFUL NOTES
Results of both projects, based on evaluations and models, local needs, costs and best
practices, are a step forward in the creation of a joint HungarianSlovakian water
management plan by supplying basic data and new information on transboundary
groundwater bodies. The work also indicated the need to continue the process of
potential pollutant characterisation, risk assessment and common regulations to con-
trol water abstraction in both countries. Some notes from lessons learned during the
work on both the projects may be useful to other hydrogeologists trying to establish
cross-border cooperation especially in Europe. (a) Maintaining two independent web
portals has proved to be useful to keep the project agenda for both specialists (work-
ing portal as a place of exchange information during project between working groups)
and public (public portal to publish preliminary and final results of the projects via
lay reports, as well as by more technical and scientific outputs). (b) Common database
of input parameters that should allow simple manipulation and visualisation of data
and contain forms to browse and edit the data: the role of showing units for every
component as frequently as possible is inevitable! Majority of misunderstandings and
time consuming discussions and explanations were created by different units used
by respective working groups. (c) Coordinate system: practically all countries keep
the geospatial data in their national (and usually mutually incompatible) systems;
the Hungarian EOV system and Slovakian/former Czechoslovakian S-JTSK Krovk
system. Popular and frequently used Longitude/Latitude WGS84 shows distances in
vector format. These are impracticable in frequently used hydrogeological software

models. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) for the respective zone was a solution,
although German metric system Gauss-Krger (Pulkovo, 1942) was also historically
applied in both countries. (d) Space of freedom: after many time-consuming discus-
sions about the software that should be used by both sides (usually intended to force
the partners to use our software tools that we are used to) the simplicity and basic
standards of keeping data inputs and outputs seems to be the most effective way of
common understanding and managing of transboundary aquifers by hydrogeologist
acting on both sides of the borders.
REFERENCES
Alfldi L., Kapolyi L. (2007) Bnyszati karsztvzszint-sllyeszts a Dunntli-kzphegysgben,

MTA Fldrajztudomnyi Kutatintzet, Budapest.
Brezsnynszky K., Malk P., Gal G., Szocs T., Tth G., Bartha A., Havas G., Kordk J.,
Michalko J., Bodi D., vasta J., Slaninka I., Leveinen J., Kaija J., Gondr-Soregi K., Gondr
K., Kun ., PethoS., cs V. (2008) ENWAT: HungarianSlovakian transboundary ground-
water bodies. European Geologist 26, 3741.
Gspr E., Tth G. (2013) Report on Komrom trovo Pilot Area scenario modelling.
Project TRANSENERGY internal report, 140, http://transenergy-eu.geologie.ac.at/results;
last visited 14/2/2014.
Malk P., Brezsnynszky K., Gal G., Szocs T., Tth G., Bartha A., Bottlik F., Havas G., Kordk
J., Michalko J., Bodi D., vasta J., Slaninka I., Leveinen J., Kaija J., Gondr-Soregi K.,
Gondr K., Kun ., Petho S., cs V. (2012) Evaluation of environmental state of Hungarian
Slovakian transboundary groundwater bodies within the ENWAT EU project. In: T. Naecz
(ed.) Transboundary Aquifers in the Eastern Borders of the European Union. Regional
Cooperation for Effective Management of Water Resources. Springer Science+Business
Media Dordrecht 2012, NATO Science for Peace and Security Series C: Environmental
Security, 149163.
Ndor A., Szocs T., Rotr Szalkai A., Goetzl G., Prestor J., Tth G., Cernk R., vasta J.,
Kovcs A., Gspr E., Rman N., Lapanje A., Fuks T. (2013) Strategy paper on sustainable
cross-border geothermal utilization. Project TRANSENERGY internal report, http://transen-
ergy-eu.geologie.ac.at/results; last visited 14/2/2014.
Remk A., Franko O., Bodi D. (1992) Geothermal resources of Komrno block. Zpadn
Karpaty, sria hydrogeolgia a ininierska geolgia 10, Geologick stav Dionza tra
Bratislava, 159199.
vasta J., Remk A., Cernk R., Gregor M. (2013) Report on steady state hydraulic model of
the Danube basin pilot area. Project TRANSENERGY internal report, http://transenergy-eu.
geologie.ac.at; last visited 14/2/2014.
Chapter 6
Development and protection of

transboundary karst and karst
aquifers in West Stara Planina
Mountains (BulgariaSerbia)
Aleksey Benderev 1, Zoran Stevanovic2, Boyka
Mihaylova 1, Vladimir ivanovic2, Konstantin Kostov 1,
Saa Milanovic2, Stefan Shanov 1 & Igor Jemcov 2
Geological Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
1
Faculty of Mining and Geology, Department of Hydrogeology,

2
Universityof Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
ABSTRACT
The West Stara Planina Mountains are situated across two countries Serbia and Bulgaria. The
karstification is developed mainly in two carbonate complexes: Triassic and Upper-Jurassic,
while in the western extension, i.e. in Vidlic Mountain, karstified carbonate rocks of Cretaceous
age prevail. This is a typical mountain karst with wide distribution of classical karstic land-
forms: dolines, small poljes, and blind valleys. There are also hundreds of caves in both coun-
tries, many of them well explored. Due to high infiltration of rainfall, abundant groundwater
reserves are formed. The drainage takes place over numerous large karst springs. There are
overflow sources while other sources are from upwelling water, draining the deeper saturated
zones. Their discharge regime varies from relatively constant to highly changeable. Some are
tapped and used for potable water supply, as in the case of Pirot, Dimitrovgrad (Serbia) or
Svoge (Bulgaria). Most of the karst springs have relatively clearly defined inner catchment areas
and are not subject to transboundary discharge. The water budget analysis at the bordering ter-
ritories of Serbia and Bulgaria requires more hydrological, hydrogeological and climatic data,
field survey and water tracings.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The Balkan Mountains (Stara Planina Mountains) are a mountain range in the eastern
part of the Balkan Peninsula and represent a part of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic
belt. The western part, located on the territory of Bulgaria and Serbia, has, for various
reasons, not been well explored. In the absence of a common survey and exact data
there is considerable speculation concerning water flows from one side of the border
to the other. During recent years, the joint research of Serbian and Bulgarian scien-
tists, both sponsored by their Academies of Sciences in the fields of geology, geomor-
phology and hydrogeology, has been active. One of their most interesting and topical
problems having an important ecological and practical significance was to standardise
the research for cross-border areas to solve the problems of karst aquifer distribution
and karst water flow directions.
6.2 PRECONDITIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF KARST

AND KARST WATERS
The target of the study is the part of the Western Balkan Mountains where karstified
rocks are continuously distributed throughout the territories of the two countries.
Such areas are located south of the main ridge of the mountain, between the Temska
River (in Serbia) and the Iskar River (in Bulgaria) (Figure6.1). The southern bound-
ary of the area is marked by rivers draining surface and underground waters of this
part of West Stara Planina the Niava River in Serbia and the Elovitsa and Blato
Rivers in Bulgaria. The total surface of the transboundary region is about 2000 km2.
The landscape is typically mountainous. The highest elevations between 1300
and 2015 m a.s.l. (peak of Kom) are on the main ridge of Stara Planina. South of
and parallel to the main ridge are series of ridges and valleys. The lowest parts are
located along the southern border from about 300 to 700 m a.s.l. The relief pro-
vides various climatic conditions. The annual average air temperature fluctuates from
3.4C to more than 10C according to the altitude. The annual rainfall varies widely
from about 300 to 1000 mm (Koleva & Peneva, 1990; Stevanovic, 1991; Ristic,
2007). According to the graph based on data from the rainfall stations in Bulgaria and
Serbia, there is a good correlation between rainfall and altitude (Figure6.2).
The formation of karst and karst aquifers depends mainly on the geological condi-
tions. They have been studied by several researchers and the results are summarised in
geological maps at scale 1:100000, map sheet Pirot (Geological Survey Serbia, 1970)
on Serbian territory and map sheets Pirot (Haidutov, 1992), Berkovitsa (Haidutov &
Dimitrova, 1992) Vlasotince & Breznik (Zagorchev & Kostadinov, 1991) and Sofia
(Yanev, 1992) on Bulgarian territory. Between the sheets on both sides of the state
border there are some discrepancies in the geological boundaries and rock outcrops
r
ive
kaR
ms Ma SERBIA
Te in
rid
ge BULGARIA
of
Sta
ra
Pla
nin
a
BULGARIA
er
SERBIA
Iskar Riv
Ni
sh
av
a
Riv
er
1 4
2 5
Bla
to
3 6 0 10 20 River
kilometers
Figure 6.1 Geological sketch map of West Stara Planina Mountains. 1 Upper Jurassic Lower
Cretaceous limestones; 2 Triassic limestones and dolomites; 3 Main faults; 4 State
boundary; 5 Main ridge of Stara Planina; 6 Rivers.
Development and protection of transboundary karst and karst aquifers 73
1600
Y = 1,2108x 98,507
1400 R2 = 0,9163
1200
Altitude, m
1000
800
600
Serbia
400
Bulgaria
200
0
0 500 1000 1500
Precipitation, mm
Figure 6.2 Correlation between rainfall and altitude in Western Stara Planina.
BULGARIA
SERBIA
1 5
2 6
3 7
A B C
4 a
8 0 10 20
b
c kilometers
Figure 6.3Karst in West Stara Planina Mountains. 1 Karstified rocks of Southern zone; 2 Karstified
rocks of Northern zone; 3 State boundary; 4 Rivers; 5 Lakes; 6 Poljes; 7 Blind
valleys; 8 Caves (Length: A >3000 m, B 10003000 m, C <1000 m; Height differ-
ence: a >100 m, b 50100 m, c <50 m).
of different ages and lithology. To solve these problems a joint Serbian-Bulgarian

research project (Tchoumatchenco et al., 2011a, b) has been launched in recent years.
The karst and karst aquifers are formed in Triassic limestone and dolomite and
Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous limestone (Figure6.1). Their outcrops and spa-
tial distribution are associated with the complex tectonic structure in the area. The
two zones are separated (Figure6.3). In the first, the Northern zone, covering the
higher parts of the mountain, the two carbonate complexes build monoclinal struc-
tures dipping to the south and separated by non-karstic LowerMiddle Jurassic rocks.
To the south it is bordered by Lower Triassic sandstones and Paleozoic rocks in the
higher parts of the mountains. The southern boundary is a thrust belt of east-west
direction passing through the study area.
The second, the Southern zone, is characterised by more complex block structures
due to a series of horst and graben structures also oriented east-west. The complex
tectonics are reflected on the landscape of this zone with a series of depressions
linearly oriented in the same direction separated by ridges.
The river network also has an important impact on the karst and karst waters.
Rivers are usually formed in the highest parts of the mountain and flow to the south.
Some of them (mainly on the territory of Bulgaria) completely lost their flow entering
the karst terrains. Some of the rivers cross the limestone and dolomite in the first zone
and flow periodically after rainfall: for example the Gintsi River, the upper reaches of
the Visochka (Visocica) River, and the upper reaches of its right tributaries in Serbia
(Rosomacka, Jelovicka). The Visocica and Niava Rivers represent the major drain-
age arteries of the second (southern) zone and the Iskar River drains only the eastern
part of the northern zone. Several rivers such as the Iskrets and Blato in Bulgaria begin
from large karst springs. The western boundary of the area the Temska River has
almost no connection with karst.
The Niava River crosses the border between Bulgaria and Serbia near
Dimitrovgrad with a total length of 202 km to its confluence with Juna Morava
River and a total catchment area of 4068 km2 (Dukic, 1975). About 70% of the
region falls within the catchment area of its upper reaches, while the remaining east-
ern part of the region is in the catchment area of the Iskar River and its tributaries.
The Niava originated from the higher parts of the Stara Planina Mountains from
numerous springs. In the upper part of the watercourse it is called River Ginska.
Entering karst carbonate rocks, it lost a substantial part of its flow only to reappear
in Godech where it had already been named Niava.
The Visocica River is also a cross-border river, which after its confluence with
the Temska River flows into the Niava River. This river also originates from the high
parts of the Stara Planina in Bulgaria and after entering Serbia is a major drainage
artery of the northern, high part of the study area. Only a small tributary south of
Visocica River passes from Serbia to Bulgaria and flows into Niava River. The char-
acteristics of the quantitative parameters of the Niava and Visocica Rivers, before
their entry into Serbia, are described in detail from Hristova (2010), as the average
annual water quantities of the Niava vary from 0.91 to 3.47 m3/s. According to
Dukic (1975) the surface runoff for the territory of Bulgaria at Dimitrovgrad station
amounted to 5.47 l/s/km2, while in Pirot, where the Niava River flow out of the
investigated region is 6.63 l/s/km2.
6.3 KARST AND KARST LANDFORMS
About 60% of the total area of the Western Balkans is occupied by karstified rocks.
The first mention of the distribution of karst landforms in the West Stara Planina
Mountans was by the Austrian geologist Franz Toula (1882). Toula reported dolines
and karren fields in the area between Vidlic Mtn and Niava River (Toula, 1882;
Radev, 1915).
Some notes about karst landforms in the studied area are published by Jovan
Cvijic in his first karstological monograph Caves and Underground Hydrography in
Eastern Serbia (1895) (Calic, 2007). The karst relief is described in the book Karst
Landforms in West Stara Planina (1915) by the Bulgarian geomorphologist Zheko
Radev. Radev surveyed 11 caves and performed a detailed study of the surface karst
landforms: poljes, uvalas, dolines and karren fields, supported with photos (Radev,
1915).
During the last several decades the karst geomorphology and speleology in West
Stara Planina have been described by several authors: Petrovic (1974, 1976), Benderev
(1989), Angelova et al. (1995, 1999), Beron et al. (2006), Zlatkova (2006), Kostov
(2008), Szeidovitz et al. (2008), Mihaylova et al. (2008, 2009), Shanov & Kostov
(2015).
From a morphological point of view the karst is an exposed, mountain type
with widespread surface karst landforms. The intensity of karst processes is differ-
ent in the Northern and Southern zones of the studied area. In the Northern zone
the karrenfelds, dolines and uvalas are widespread. The significant blind valleys
play an important role especially on the territory of Bulgaria. Compared to the
Southern zone, a large number of caves and potholes, for instance 184 in Bulgaria,
are established here. The caves are widely distributed and the morphology has deter-
mined the monoclinal dipping to the south of the layers of carbonate rocks with
old or active ponors of surface water. There are also caves representing active and
temporary springs (Vodnata Cave, Krivata Cave, Dushnika Cave, etc.). In this zone
most of the deepest and longest caves are located in the Western Balkans (Table6.1,
Figure6.3).
Table 6.1 The longest and the deepest caves in the studied area.
No Cave Country Zone Length (m) Depth (m)
1 Balabanova Dupka Bulgaria Northern 4800 80

2 Tizoin Bulgaria Northern 3599 320
3 Vodnata Cave Bulgaria Northern 3264 85
4 Katsite Cave Bulgaria Northern 2560 205
5 El Saguaro Bulgaria Northern 2217 135
6 Golyamata Temnota Bulgaria Southern 2100 106
7 Krivata Cave Bulgaria Northern 1500 75
8 Dushnika Cave Bulgaria Northern 827 27
9 Kozarskata Cave Bulgaria Northern 709 12
10 Temnata Dupka Bulgaria Southern 493 95
11 Malata Balabanova Bulgaria Northern 400 125
12 Granicharskata Cave Bulgaria Northern 344 72
13 Malkoto Saguaro Cave Bulgaria Northern 338 44
14 Kolkina Dupka Cave Bulgaria Northern 68 236
15 Peshterica pothole Serbia Southern 0 155
16 Velika Pecina Serbia Northern 1440 >50
17 Vladikina plocha Serbia Northern 300 20
18 Golema dupka ponor Serbia Southern 480 >50
19 Vetrena dupka Serbia Southern 4150 280
The karst distribution in the Southern zone varies in the different areas, depend-
ing on the specific geomorphological and hydrogeological conditions. There are both
exposed karst areas and sections covered with thick soil layers. The distribution of
uvalas and dolines is different: there are both areas with significant dolines density (for
example 164 dolines on the flattened ridge part of Tri Ushi Ridge in Bulgaria over an
area of 35 km2 Figure6.4) and areas with relatively low levels of karstification. Typical
of the zone are the large karst poljes: Rayanovsko, Dragomansko and Aldomirovsko
poljes in Bulgaria, and Odorovacko in Serbia (Figure6.5). According to the polje clas-
sification scheme of Gams (1994), the poljes in the Bulgarian part are of the overflow
type. In Dragomansko and Aldomirovsko poljes permanent marshes are formed.
The number of caves in the Southern zone is much lower, only about 60 in the
Bulgarian part. Most of the caves are small being up to 100 m long and 25 m deep.
The exceptions are the Vetrena dupka Cave in Serbia (4150 m), and the Golyamata
Temnota Cave (2100 m) and Temnata Dupka Cave (493 m) in Bulgaria. The latter
two are active ponor caves.
Figure 6.4 Karst dolines on the flattened ridge part of Tri Ushi Ridge in Bulgaria.
Figure 6.5 Odorovacko karst polje in Serbia.

6.4 KARST WATERS
The data on the karst aquifers and waters in the area are summarised separately for
Bulgaria (Antonov, 1963; Antonov & Danchev, 1980; Benderev et al., 2005) and
Serbia (Stevanovic, 1991, 1994; ivanovic, 2011). Along with the karst waters in the
transboundary region, there are both fracture and intergranular aquifers (Figure6.6).
Fracture aquifers are formed in different aged rocks, with different lithological and
petrographic features. Tectonic conditions determine complex relationships between
karstic rocks and the other pre-Quaternary massive rocks. In the North, these rocks
are relatively poorly permeable and underlie the karst aquifers. In the South, because
of the block tectonics, the karst and fracture aquifers are characterised by different
permeability, and their recharge depends on contacts (lithological and tectonic) with
impervious rocks. Intergranular aquifers are formed in unconsolidated Quaternary
and Pliocene deposits. Pliocene and Quaternary sediments in the southern part of the
area have more significant hydrogeological importance and form independent hydro-
logical units. In their underlying formations blocks of karst rocks, which outcrop in
the uplands, and have hydraulic connection with them, are included.
The karst aquifer is primarily recharged by rainfall. The rainfall quantity increases
from south to north (Figure6.2), due to high precipitation and the converse reduction
of the evapotranspiration in the higher parts of the mountains. In the northern zone
an important component of the water balance is temporary and permanent infiltration
BULGARIA
SERBIA
1 5
2 6
3 7
a b 0 10 20
4 8
kilometers
Figure 6.6 Hydrogeological map of West Stara Planina Mountains. 1 Karstified rocks (Southern zone);
2 Karstified rocks (Northern zone); 3 Rock with fissure water; 4 Quaternary and
Pliocene sediments with porous groundwater; 5 Lakes; 6 Rivers; 7 State boundary;
8 Main spring (Temperature: a T < 15C, b T > 15C).
of surface rivers descends from the main ridge of Stara Planina. In the southern part
the infiltration rate of surface water is much lower. It is related to those watercourses
passing through karst poljes.
According to the water budget calculations by Stevanovic (1994) for the
Serbian part of Stara Planina Mountain, 18% of the precipitation recharges the
karst groundwater. Water balance calculations for Bulgaria were made only at two
isolated areas. The first occupies the eastern part of the northern area of the distri-
bution of carbonate rocks (east of Ginska River) called Ponor Mountain (Benderev,
1989). The altitude for this area varies from 500 to 1400 m while the rate of evapo-
transpiration varies from 70 to 36% of rainfall (Turc method). Typical of this region
is that almost the entire surface runoff recharges the karst groundwater and thus
forms around 20% of the water reserves (regime data of the measurement of river
quantity). The second area coincides with the catchment areas of the most southerly
situated springs Opitsvet, Bistrets and Bezden, located at elevations between 550
and 900 m. Conducted studies used water balance methods showed that 22% of
the precipitation recharges the groundwater system (Mihaylova & Benderev, 2010).
This value is relatively close to the average for the Serbian territory where low alti-
tudes prevail.
The general direction of groundwater movement is from north to south, flowing
to the lowest parts of the terrains. One exception is in the easternmost part of the
region, where the karst water is directed to the Iskar River.
The drainage is mostly by springs (Table6.2, Figure6.6), by groundwater
abstraction and by underground flows into lateral permeable intergranular aquifers.
There are both small gravity springs of local catchment areas with low flow rates and
typical ascending karst springs with high flows. In the northern zone are springs with
relatively high and variable discharges including Peshta (Iskrets spring), Jelovicko
vrelo and Skaklya. These springs are characterised by conduit flow and very fast
response to precipitation events (Eftimi & Benderev, 2007). Springs of this type exist
also in the southern zone at Bistrets and Berende izvor. Fault tectonics associated
with the rise of some and the sinking of other blocks in many places create conditions
for the formation of saturated zones which are drained by springs with more stable
flow rates Staroplaninsko oko, Kavak, Ropotski. Interesting are the larger drainage
areas where there are several springs draining different hydrodynamic zones on the
border of Stara Planina with Sofia and Pirot plains; for example Krupac 1 and 2,
Topli izvor in Serbia and Bistrets, Bezden, Opitsvet in Bulgaria. In these areas both
springs drain the upper part of the saturated zone with highly variable flow and the
springs at lower elevations have a smaller range of flow rates. Characteristic is the
presence of ascending springs with higher temperatures (1922C) draining areas
with deep circulation the Topli izvor and Toplo vrelo Springs in Serbia and the
Opitsvet in Bulgaria.
6.5 VULNERABILITY AND ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT
The specific characteristics of the hydrogeological conditions and the existing infor-
mation for the transboundary region determine the approach used for the evaluation
of groundwater vulnerability to pollution. The need to use the karst waters leads to
Table 6.2 Main springs.
Discharge, l/s
Spring Country Zone Minimum Maximum
1 Krupac 1 Serbia Southern 220 1500

2 Gradite Serbia Southern 180
3 Opitsvet* Bulgaria Southern 147 761
4 Staroplaninsko oko Serbia Northern 119 150
5 Peshta (Iskrets spring) Bulgaria Northern 90 54600
6 Kavak Serbia Southern 65 130
7 Vrelo Protopopinci Serbia Southern 60
8 Jelovicko vrelo Serbia Northern 50 6000
9 Ropotski Bulgaria Southern 50 150
10 Krupac 2 Serbia Southern 50
11 Topli izvor* Serbia Southern 50
12 Group of springs (Vrelo) Serbia Northern 50
13 Zli dol Bulgaria Southern 40 1500
14 Dragovishtitsa Bulgaria Southern 40 120
15 Bistrets Bulgaria Southern 31 1860
16 Godech Bulgaria Southern 30 500
17 Klok Serbia Southern 30
18 Buchin prohod Bulgaria Southern 24 180
19 Skaklya Bulgaria Northern 20 2164
20 Bezden Bulgaria Southern 20 370
21 Buchiloto Bulgaria Northern 20 300
22 Komshtitsa Bulgaria Northern 20 120
23 Spring (village Ciniglavci) Serbia Southern 20
24 Vreloto (Lopushna) Serbia Southern 15 100
25 Toplo vrelo* Serbia Southern 10
26 Spring (village Bela) Serbia Northern 710
27 Berende izvor Bulgaria South 5 850
28 Spring (village Sopot) Serbia South 57
29 Vodnata peshtera Bulgaria North 1 630
*Spring with temperature T > 15C.
ecological problems because of the water quality. One of the most important problems
in the area is the correct recognition of the sites of potential pollutants to the karst
waters, as well as the need for zones of increased protection.
The EPIK method is a GIS-based, multi parametric method which takes four
parameters into consideration: Epikarst, Protective cover, Infiltration condition and
Karst network development (Doerfliger et al., 1999; Zwahlen, 2003). It has been
chosen as the most suitable approach for describing the vulnerability of the karst
areas. It was created especially for areas of mountain karst and has been successfully
applied for different karst basins (Gogu & Dassargues, 2000; Iurkiewicz et al., 2005;
Goldscheider, 2005; Awawdeh & Nawafleh, 2008). Maps have been drawn sepa-
rately for the adjacent territories of Serbia and Bulgaria (ivanovic & Dragiic, 2013;
Mihaylova et al., 2009), and they are unified and adjusted in the present study.
The rates of significance of the different EPIK parameters are determined by their
weight coefficients. Each of these parameters, taking into account its peculiarities, is
divided into a number of classes. These classes consider the quantitative and the qual-
itative indicators impacting the protection of the groundwater.
The weight coefficients of the parameters and the numerical values of the classes
have been argued and determined in Doerfliger et al. (1999); Zwahlen (2003). Data
for EPIK Vulnerability Index are categorised into four groups Very high, High,
Intermediate and Low Vulnerability. They can be visualised on GIS prepared maps.
Figure6.7 presents the terrains of Very high and High Vulnerability for the Stara
Planina Mountain region in Bulgaria and Serbia. The zone of Very High Vulnerability
covers 157 km2, or about 7.5% of the whole area, while the zone of High Vulnerability
occupies 605 km2 or 29% of the whole.
The distribution of the zones of Very High and High Vulnerability has significant
importance for protection and management of the karst groundwaters. The zones
are situated in areas of relatively less important anthropogenic impact. The most sig-
nificant urban areas are the towns of Pirot, Dimitrovgrad, Dragoman and Slivnitsa,
situated on low relief parts at the periphery of the region, and outside the karstic areas
including the zone of intensive groundwater recharge. Industrial units exist only in the
town areas. The towns and the villages are connected by roads but the overall traffic
is low.
The Neogene sediments filling one of the east-west oriented grabens across the
national border contain lignite beds. Excavation of these coals is carried out near
the village of Staniantsi in Bulgaria and in the past also at the village of Mazgosh in
Serbia. These two areas are situated outside the established zones of Very High and
High Vulnerability, and they do not impact directly the karst waters.
BULGARIA
SERBIA
1 5
2 6
3 7
0 10 20
4
kilometers
Figure 6.7 Zones of Very High and High Vulnerability. 1 Very High Vulnerability; 2 High Vulnerability;
3 State boundary; 4 Rivers; 5 Lakes; 6 Towns; 7 Villages.
The town of Godech is situated in the centre of the studied area in Bulgaria, but
it is also built on non-karstic rocks, on the bank of the Niava River. Most of the
other less significant inhabited sites are also situated outside the outcrops of karsti-
fied rocks, predominantly on terrains used for agriculture. A limited number of small
villages, situated mainly in the lower parts of the river valleys, are within the zones of
Very High and High Vulnerability.
There are a few villages situated in the zones of outcropping karst, where karst
aquifers are recharged. An example is the village of Ponor in Bulgaria, built inside an
large surface karst form. On the territory of Serbia few villages are situated on large
karst poljes.
The inhabited sites are surrounded normally by cultivated terrains, and animal
breeding is also important for the local population. Agricultural cultivation in the
zones where karstified rocks exist is possible only where uninterrupted soil cover
on these rocks is present. Such conditions exist on the flattened bottoms of the karst
forms, as karst poljes or ponors. These cultivated terrains are one factor for the
increase in karst water pollution.
Many quarries exist both in Bulgaria and Serbia where limestone and dolomites
from the vadose zone are exploited. It is commonly accepted that they do not affect
karst waters, even though some of them are close to the discharge zones and karst
springs. One example is Iskrets Karst Springs which have a variable discharge from
280 l/s to more than 50000 l/s (Benderev, 1989). They drained more than 80% of the
territory of Ponor Mountain, a part of Stara Planina Mountain inside the area studied
in Bulgaria. Precipitation over the capture area of the springs (about 140 km2) pro-
vides 62% of the average annual discharge of the springs.
The springs have dried up several times during the twentieth century. After the
Vranchea Earthquake in 1977 (M=7.2) and at a distance of about 400 km from
the site, the discharge rate dropped from 5.5 to 500 l/s in 7.5 hours (Paskalev etal.,
1992). Later, the discharge rate rose abruptly to 13500 l/s, and then began to decrease
gradually. Similar events happened during the local Svoge Earthquake of 1979, as well
as on 11 April 1982, when no significant earthquake was recorded at the localities or
in the whole Balkan Region.
The question of the seismic impact is of importance for the local authorities
because of the significance of the springs as a major source of fresh water for the
town of Svoge. The quantities normally used are at the rate of 150 l/s. It was proved
that the blasts in the quarries at the nearest vicinity of the springs do not have the
potential to disturb the normal discharge of the springs (Shanov & Benderev, 2005).
The only factor for such disturbances can be the local tectonics and the dynamics of
the processes inside the karst system (Shanov & Kostov, 2015).
The most important hydro-technical facility built on the Bulgarian side is a canal
designed for redirecting a part of surface waters, which recharges naturally in high
parts of the mountains, towards the neighboring watershed for their use for hydro-
electric power generation.
The most important hydro-technical facility in Serbia is Zavojsko Lake which
dams the Visocica River. The biggest part of the lake is outside the area of karstified
rocks, except for a limited zone near the dam. This lake was formed in 1963 after
a spectacular landslide on the right river bank which dammed the Visocica River. A
50 m high natural dam was formed and caused total flooding of several upstream
villages. The landslide activated as an effect of abundant water infiltration from snow
melt water. Recently this dam was replaced by an artificial one providing the power
for a hydro-electric power plant.
Karst springs on both sides of the border are an essential source of water supply
for the settlements. Karst waters are tapped mostly at the springs with gravity trans-
port towards consumers. Most of the existing springs are used, as the large water
quantities are taken to supply the larger settlements, such as Krupac springs for Pirot,
Vrelo Protopopinci for Dimitrovgrad, Opitsvet for Slivnitsa, Zli dol for Godech,
Peshta (Iskrets spring) for the town of Svoge. However, karst groundwater is not
directly affected by the exploitation and there are sufficient amounts of water for
dependent eco-systems. In contrast, significant impact on the balance of karst waters
may be caused by exploitation wells drilled in karst aquifers covered by Quaternary-
Pliocene deposits in the Sofia and Pirot basins. At this stage that impact is negligible
because of the small number of wells using water from karst aquifer and small rates
of abstraction (Directorate for the Danube River Basin, 2015).
6.6 POTENTIAL TRANSBOUNDARY PROBLEMS
The specific geomorphological, geological and hydrogeological conditions greatly

reduce cross-border flow in the areas near the state border where transboundary
impacts can be found. In the Northern zone there is a possibility that water is trans-
ferred from the Komshtitsa River to the Kamenicka River (Figure6.8), but this assump-
tion must be proven by detailed hydrometric measurements and tracing experiments.
In Bulgaria the area is characterised by very high karstification and vulnerability.
The Komshtitsa River loses its flow partially or completely into the outcrops of the
Triassic limestones and dolomites, and its bed is located above the saturated zone of
karst groundwater. Proof of this is Granicharska Cave, whose entrance is located next
Northern zone
SERBIA BULGARIA
1300 m
Komshtitsa r.
1200 m
Komenicka r.
1100 m
1000 m
900 m
2.5 km 5.0 km 7.5 km 10.0 km 12.46 km
Southern zone
750 m SERBIA BULGARIA
700 m
Nishava
650 m
600 m
2.5 km 5.0 km 7.5 km 10.88 km
Figure 6.8 Schematic terrain elevation profile of transboundary areas in the Northern and Southern
zones.
to the river about 34 m above it (Beron et al., 2006) and where the river waters enter.
River waters percolate down to the saturated zone but because of a fault against the
elevated south block which passes through Serbian territory, the water probably flows
to the west, where the lowest possible drainage areas are.
In the Southern zone the main drainage artery is the Niava River but the probable
influence of the transboundary impact is minimal due to the small catchment areas,
absence of a significant river recharge into the area and lower level of karstification.
The zone represents a low mountain hill with leveled ridge areas with karst for-
mations formed on both Bulgarian and Serbian territory. Precipitation can be drained
away in different directions; to Berende spring in Bulgaria and to the springs in
Dimitrovgrad and Krupac in Serbia, but there is no information on the spatial posi-
tion of the underground watershed.
Neither of the transboundary regions are considerably affected by human
activities.
6.7 CONCLUSIONS
The preliminary analysis of the existing information indicates that karst aquifers of
the Northern and Southern zones along the border area of Serbia and Bulgaria are still
not sufficiently studied, and cross-boundary groundwater flow is probably limited. A
number of obstacles exist to understanding of the cross-border relationships because
of limited access historical data due to the pre-existing border regime and the scarcity
of available information. The main difficulties are related to:
1. Discordance of some geological boundaries and distribution of rock formations on

both sides of the state border;
2. Absence of observations of the rivers and springs regime near the border;
3. Difficult access to comparable hydrological and meteorological data.
The continuation of the joint research by Serbian and Bulgarian hydrogeologists

and karst scientists is essential. The common water balance of the border territories
of Serbia and Bulgaria needs more hydrological, hydrogeological and climatic data,
field survey and water tracings.
Future research will help to clarify the hydrogeological conditions and the quanti-
tative and qualitative aspects related to groundwater for the sustainable development
of cross-border areas and protection of karst water and landscapes.
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Chapter 7
An assessment of
territory participation
in transboundary karst aquifer
recharge: A case study from
the Skadar Lake catchment
area
Milan Radulovic 1, Goran Sekulic 2,
Momc ilo Blagojevic 3, Jelena Krstajic 4 & Entela Vako 5
1
University of Montenegro, Podgorica, Montenegro
2
University of Montenegro, Podgorica, Montenegro
3
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Podgorica, Montenegro
4
University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
5
Polytechnic University, Tirana, Albania
ABSTRACT
Equitable sharing of groundwater resources between countries is a major challenge, especially
in highly karstified terrains. In the karstic terrains of the External Dinarides water division takes
place mainly below the surface, so maps of the spatial distribution of groundwater recharge,
created by multi-parameter GIS methods, could be useful as one of the bases for water manage-
ment. Such maps can be used for assessing the percentage in which the territories of bordering
countries participate in recharging the shared aquifer. For the purpose of equitably sharing the
karst aquifer on the south western edge of Skadar Lake (shared by Montenegro and Albania),
the KARSTLOP method was applied. The method had previously been calibrated accord-
ing to the nearby catchments of four terrestrial karst springs. The Recharge map obtained
for the catchment area of sublacustrine springs allowed assessment according to which
291.7 million m3 of water infiltrates annually in Montenegrin territory, and 19.2 million m3 in
the Albanian part.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
There are many countries that share karst aquifers. Political, cultural, socio-economic
and other differences between bordering countries make groundwater management
one of the most challenging issues today. Conflicts over the use of groundwater some-
times arise, even between municipalities within a single country. An absence of coor-
dinated data sharing between municipalities and countries using the same aquifer can
lead to deterioration in qualitative and quantitative groundwater status. In addition,
disputes between countries over transboundary water resources often escalate, in some
cases into armed conflicts. Adequate hydrogeological research and sustainable water
management can help reduce the extent to which such instances arise. The grow-
ing problems of water scarcity and the unequal sharing of water resources between
countries have prompted a number of authors to deal with this issue (Bittinger, 1972;
Hayton & Utton, 1989; Yamada, 2004; Eckstein & Eckstein, 2005; Jarvis et al.,
2005; Puri & Aureli, 2005; Earle et al., 2010; Puri & Struckmeier, 2010; Ganoulis &
Fried, 2010; IGRAC, 2009; Stevanovic et al., 2012; Jarvis, 2014).
The hydrogeological research of transboundary aquifers in highly karstified ter-
rain is an especially complex task. The aim of this chapter is to present an approach
that will facilitate an assessment of groundwater resources in those areas. The External
Dinarides, to which the pilot site belongs, are characterised by holokarst (highly karst-
ified terrains), which demands a specific approach to hydrogeological research.
The approach presented is based on assessment of the spatial distribution of
groundwater recharge using GIS techniques. The focus of the approach is on the
application of the KARSTLOP method (Radulovic et al., 2012) as a tool for mapping
the spatial distribution of recharge in karst terrains. The approach is applied to the
transboundary catchment area of the sublacustrine springs of the south western coast
of Skadar Lake, which is shared by Montenegro and Albania. Previously, the method
was calibrated through analysis of the nearby catchment areas of terrestrial karst
springs (Podgor, Karuc, Slatina and Crnojevica springs) (Figure7.1).
7.2 METHODOLOGY
In highly karstified terrains, with numerous surface and subsurface karst landforms,
and with the absence of surface runoff, it is not possible to determine the spatial distri-
bution of aquifer recharge using standard methods (e.g. lysimeter, seepage meter, soil
mass balance, zero-flux plane, tracer methods, method based on the Darcys law, water
budget methods). The standard methods can only provide assessment of recharge
rates that relate to specific points or a whole catchment area of a karst spring.
Maps of the spatial distribution of groundwater recharge (recharge maps)
created by multi-parameter GIS methods (Shaban et al., 2005; Andreo et al., 2008;
N
D
IN
Montenegro AR
ID
ES
d
Bo c
ka b
ba
y a Sk
ad
AD ar
e lak
RI e
AT
IC
SE Albania
A
0 50 km
Figure7.1 Position of catchment areas: a) Podgor springs; b) Crnojevica springs; c) Karuc springs;
d) Slatina springs; e) the catchment area of the southwestern edge of Skadar Lake.
An assessment of territory participation in transboundary karst aquifer recharge 89
Radulovicetal., 2012) could be useful for investigating transboundary karst aquifers.

It is necessary to take into account those natural factors that have the greatest impact
on groundwater recharge, such as climate, topography, hydrography, vegetation, soil
and geology. Through overlapping maps of selected factors, and using an appropriate
algorithm, a final groundwater recharge map can be obtained. Such a map could be
used for rough assessment of the percentage in which territories participate in the
recharge of a transboundary aquifer. Figure7.2 shows the principle behind an assess-
ment of the percentage in which the territories of bordering countries participate in
the recharge of a shared karst aquifer.
The method had previously been calibrated according to the nearby catchment
areas of four karst springs: Podgor springs, Crnojevica springs, Karuc springs and
Slatina springs (Figure7.1). The average recharge rates that relate to the whole cath-
ment areas of these springs, are assessed by standard methods such as Cl- mass bal-
ance, water budget (runoff/rainfall ratio), and assessment of evapotranspiration by
empirical equations (ivaljevic & Bokovic, 1984; ivaljevic, 1991; Zogovic, 1992;
Radulovic, 1994, 2000, 2012; IJC, 2001). Those average values have been com-
pared with average recharge rates computed by twenty potential algorithms of the
KARSTLOP method. The algorithm that provided the best match between calculated
and previously assessed average recharge rates was chosen for the further analyses
(Radulovic, 2012; Radulovic et al., 2012).
Plan Country
border
Divide
Qt = Ql + Qll
Ql = Al Pl Rl Qll = All Pll Rll

Spring
Country
Profile border Divide
Qt = Ql + Qll Ql = Al Pl Rl Qll = All Pll Rll
Spring
Figure7.2 Conception of an assessment of the percentage in which the territories of bordering coun-
tries participate in the recharge of a shared karst aquifer; Q discharge (L3/s), A size of
catchment area (L2), Precipitation (m/year), R recharge (%).
In the process of obtaining the recharge map, the eight most important natural factors
affecting the recharge rate are analysed. The initials for the selected factors make up the
acronym in KARSTLOP method (where, K karstfication; A atmospheric conditions;
R runoff, S slope; T tectonics; L lithology; O overlying layers; P plants).
K map (Karstification) is created by analysing surface (Ksf) and subsurface karst-
ification (Kss). Surface karstification (Ksf) is assessed on the basis of the area of karst
landforms per surface unit (subfactors Ksf1 and Ksf2). When estimating subsurface
karstification (Kss), each side of a speleological object (swallow holes, caves, pits,
etc.) is marked in the range of 200 m, while the rest of the catchment area is assessed
on the basis of indirect parameters such as: the discharge amplitude of karst springs
(Kss1), the mean registered velocity of artificial tracers at catchment areas (Kss2) and the
primary mineral saturation index of spring water (Kss3).
A map (Atmospheric conditions) is obtained using the Digital Elevation Model
(DEM), which is first used to generate an Altitude map A1 and then a Shaded relief
map A2 showing factors affecting the intensity of solar radiation. An altitude (A1) indi-
rectly reflects the air temperature (and thus also evapotranspiration) and precipitation
(an increase in altitude leads to an increase in precipitation and more intense ground-
water recharge). The intensity of solar radiation (A2) also influences the amount of
evapotranspiration and recharge. Sides of mountains that are in shadow (surfaces
with relative reflection lower than 0.5) for the mean annual sun position (at noon
during the equinox) are characterised by lower intensity of solar radiation, i.e. by
lower evapotranspiration and higher recharge rate.
R map (Runoff) is obtained based on the distribution of permanent streams at the
catchment area, which may indicate the permeability of karstified terrains.
S map (Slope) is obtained using DEM. Terrains with smaller slopes are described
as being more suitable for groundwater recharge.
Two subfactors are considered for the preparation of T map (Tectonics): the den-
sity of faults T1 and dip of strata T2.
L map (Lithology) is obtained based on the following lithological data: the type of
carbonate rock (subfactor a), bedding (subfactor b) and mineral-petrographic impu-
rities (subfactor c).
O map (Overlying layers) is obtained based on data relating to the type and thick-
ness of geological cover and soil.
P map (Plants) is obtained based on data relating to terrain vegetation cover.
By overlapping these eight maps according to the established algorithm a recharge
map is obtained (Figure7.3, Table 7.1).
7.3 APPLICATION AND RESULTS
The method was applied to the catchment area of the southwestern edge of Skadar
Lake shared by Montenegro and Albania.
7.3.1 Description of the study area

The study area is represented by the catchment area of the south western edge of Skadar
Lake. It is located in the south eastern part of the Dinarides (Figure7.1). The total size
4 K map Karstification
(K = 15 points)
1 A map Atmospheric conditions

(A = 15 points)
4 R map Runoff
(R = 15 points)
2 S map Slope
(S = 15 points)
1 T map Tectonics
(T = 15 points)
4 L map Lithology
(L = 0.674.80 points)
3 O map Overlying layers

(O = 15 points)
1 P map Plants
(P = 15 points)
= Recharge map (%)
Figure 7.3 Flow Chart of the KARSTLOP overlapping procedure.
of the catchment area is approximately 185 km2. Around 173 km2 (93.5%) belongs to
the territory of Montenegro, with the rest in the territory of Albania (12km2, i.e. 6.5%).
The area of Skadar Lake has a modified Mediterranean climate characterized
by hot and dry summers and cold winters. Mean annual precipitation in this area is
around 2500 mm, and the mean annual air temperature is around 10C.
Vegetation over the catchment area is represented by forest, especially at higher
altitudes. As elevation decreases, the area covered by forest gradually transforms into
one characterised by the low vegetation typical for karst terrain (scrubby vegetation).
A significant part of the catchment area is covered by pasture, but vegetation is gen-
erally absent from the coastal karst belt. The catchment area is characterised by the
presence of residual soil, the thickness of which is below 15 cm, with the exception of
areas with smaller slopes, where the thickness reaches 60 cm.
Geomorphologically, the area can be divided into two parts: the north eastern
slopes of Rumija Mountain and the Basin of Skadar Lake (Figure7.4). The north
eastern slopes of Rumija are made up of carbonate rock masses in which numerous
surface and subsurface karst landforms have developed. The most prevalent land-
forms are karrens that cover a significant portion of the surface. Sinkholes and uvalas
are also widespread, and the bottoms are generally slightly inclined in a strata dip
Table 7.1 Classification matrix for the KARSTLOP method (Radulovic et al., 2012).
K KARSTIFICATION
Area of degraded
zone (karren fields, Area of karst
ruine-like relief etc.) Ksf1 depressions per Ksf2 Ksf = (Ksf1 + Ksf2)/2
per unit square unitsquare
(103 m2/km2) (103 m2/km2)
Ksf + Kss
<60 1 <25 1 1
K=
60120 2 2550 2 >12 2
120180 3 5075 3 >23
180240 4 75100 4 >34
>240 5 >100 5 >45
v d > 4 km d > 14 km d <1 km

Qmsx/Qmin Kss1 Kss2 Kss3 Kss = (Kss1 + Kss2 + KSS3)/3
(cm/s)
SI SI SI
<5 1 <0.1 1 >0.3 >0 >-0.3 1 1
550 2 0.11 2 003 -0.3 0 -0.6 -0.3 2 >12
5100 3 110 3 -0.3 0 -0.6 -0.3 -0.9 -0.6 3 >23
> 100 4 >10 4 <-0 3 <-0.6 - 0.9 4 >34
zone of 200 m from all sides of speleologically explored subsurface objects 5
A ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS R RUNOFF
Altitude (m) A1 Surface within the catchment area of

referred spring R
<300 1
Reflectance value A2 Zone of 200 m from both sides of
300800 2 A1 + A2 perennial streams formed by discharge
8001300 3
>0.5 1 A= at contact of karstificated limestone or 1
13001800 4
<0.5 5 2 dolomite with more compact carbonate
sections
>1800 5 Zone of 200 m from both sides of
perennial streams formed at the edge of
karst depressions (polje, uvala etc.), as 3
S SLOPE T TECTONICS well as around perennial streams which
runs from non-karstic terrain etc.
Remaining of catchment area 5
Lengths of faults Dip angle of
Slope () S (kmlkm2) Tf Td
stratum ()
1
05 5 01 1 <30
L LITHOLOGY
515 4 12 2 3060 3
1525 3 23 3 >60 5 Carbonate rocks a
2535 2 31 4 Limestone 1
>35 1 >4 5 Tf + Td
T= Dolomite 0.7
2
Bedding b
O OVERLYING LAYERS Massive, Thickly bedded 2.4
Bedded 1.8
Laminated, Thinly laminated 1.2
O1 Thickness
Soil <15 cm 1530 cm 3060 cm 60100 cm >100 cm Mineralogical-petrographic
ingredients c
Calcomelanosols,
Euthric cambisols, 5 4 3 2 1 Calcified 2
Rendzina
Dolomitic 1.6
Calcocambisols,
Terra Rossa 4 3 2 1 1 Sandy, Silificated 1.2
Marly, Clayish, Bituminous 0.8
O2 Thickness
Geological cover <3 m 36 m >6 m
L=axbxc
Alluvial,
Glacial-fluvial, O1 + O2 P PLANTS
Moraine sediments, 5 3 1
O=
Scree 2 Plants P
Diluvium 3 2 1 Bare rocks 5
Glacial-limnic sediments 2 1 1
Sparsely vegetated areas 4
Pastures 3
Transitional woodland-scrub 2
Recharge = 4xK + A + 4xR + 2xS + T + 4xL + 3xO + P Forests 1
Figure 7.4 The south western coast of Skadar Lake photographed from Montenegrin territory.
direction, i.e. to the north east. Also, a large number of caves can be found in this
area. Skadar Lake represents a crypto-depression whose floor in the areas of sublacus-
trine springs descends below sea level.
Many researchers both at home and abroad have studied the geological structure of
this region (Tietze, 1884; Baldacci, 1886; Cvijic, 1899; Nopcsa, 1916; Bourcart, 1926;
Waisse, 1948; Milovanovic, 1965; Beic, 1969; Grubic, 1975; Mirkovic et al., 1985).
The main base for exploring the geology of this area is a Geological map of
Montenegro 1:200 000 (Mirkovic et al., 1985). The Skadar Lake area belongs to the
tectonic unit of the Visoki Kr. Mesozoic rocks show dominant distribution and they
are represented mainly by carbonates, i.e. limestones and dolomites. The total thick-
ness of these carbonate rocks can be over 3000 m.
Numerous hydrogeological studies have been conducted in the Skadar Lake catch-
ment area (Torbarov & Radulovic, 1966; Radulovic, 1989, 2000, 2012; Radulovic
et al., 1979, 1989, 1998, 2013, 2015; Zogovic, 1992; Radulovic & Radulovic, 2004;
Stevanovic et al., 2008; Djordjevic et al., 2010; Sekulic & Bushati, 2013).
The surface drainage network in this area is poorly developed, with a small number
of streams that flow only in the rainy period of the year. In the study area the karst
aquifer is developed and it is mainly recharged by diffuse infiltration of rainwater
(autogenic recharge). The hydraulic conductivity of the carbonate aquifer is relatively
high. Groundwater flows mainly in privileged directions marked by faults and joints.
Discharge zones are spread along the south western edge of Skadar Lake.
Sublacustrine springs (vruljas), that occurring along the coastal part of the lake
(Figure7.5), are actually underwater dolines through which a carbonate aquifer
discharges. Around 40 sublacustrine springs are registered in the bottom of Skadar
6600000 6620000
4680000
4680000
N
Legend
Sublacustrine spring
4660000
4660000
Rain gauge
Divide
Isohyet
Lakeshore
Stream
Country border 0 5 km
6600000 6620000
Figure 7.5 Map of known sublacustrine springs on the south western edge of Skadar Lake with the
isohyets and the locations of the rain gauges.
Lake. The bottom of the underwater dolines is relatively deep, ranging from 10 to
70 m. One feature of karst aquifers in this area is a significant fluctuation in yield.
Some sublacustrine springs, such as the Radu and Krnjice springs, show a very high
yield in the rainy period (above 30 m3/s). Groundwater quality is relatively good, with
a high concentration of calcium and hydrocarbons.
7.3.2 Application of the KARSTLOP method

The final recharge map has been obtained through the overlapping the eight maps
previously explained, according to an established algorithm. The recharge rate is
expressed on the map as a percentage (%) of mean annual precipitation (Figure7.6).
From the recharge map (Figure7.6) it can be seen that the catchment area is het-
erogeneous according to its potential for aquifer recharge. Based on these results it
can be concluded that the greatest potential for groundwater recharge is the areas of
the strongest sublacustrine springs (Radu and Krnjice springs). Slightly lower poten-
tial for recharge occurs in terrains in the central part of the catchment area, which are
drained by temporal springs with a lower yield. The minimum values of the recharge
rate relate to the south eastern and north western parts of the catchment area, from
which strong sublacustrine springs are entirely absent.
Through statistical analysis of the digital recharge map (Figure7.6) the aver-
age recharge rate for the entire catchment area was obtained (68.5%). Using the
same map, in combination with other water balance components, the percentage of
territory participation in recharging the transboundary karst aquifer was assessed
(Table7.2). The results indicate that 93.8% of water that outflows through sublacus-
trine springs infiltrates via Montenegrian territory (291.7 million m3/year), and 6.2%
on that belonging to Albania (19.2 million m3/year).
7.4 DISCUSSION
The results obtained through applying the KARSTLOP method represent one of the
bases for further planning and sustainable management of the transboundary karst
aquifer shared between Montenegro and Albania.
4680000
6590000 6600000 6610000 6620000
Legend
Recharge (%)
4670000
4045
SK
AD 4550
AR 5055
LA 5560
KE
6065
6570
7075
7580
4660000
8085
0 5000 10000 m
Figure 7.6 Recharge map of the south west edge of Skadar Lake (after Radulovic et al., 2015).
Table 7.2 Balance components for the catchment area of the south western edge of Skadar Lake on
the territories of Montenegro and Albania.
Average The percentage

Catchment Precipitation recharge Outflow Specific yield of the total
Country area (km2) (mm) (%) (m3/s) (l/s/km2) outflow (%)
Montenegro 173 2461 68.5 9.25 53.5 93.8

Albania 12 2422 66.2 0.61 50.8 6.2
The calibration of the method from the catchment areas of nearby terrestrial
springs proved applicable for assessing the spatial distribution of the mean recharge
rate. The calibration process shows that the error in assessing the recharge rate could
be up to around 5%. The discrepancy between calculated and previusly assessed
values was in range from 0.1 to 5.1% (Radulovic et al., 2012). However, the method
has been tested only on the four catchment areas, so that the possible error could
exceed the value.
However, as all methods of this type involve approximation, it is necessary to
have supporting data to reduce the subjectivity factor to a minimum. As the main lim-
itations of the KARSTLOP method, Radulovic et al. (2012) identified the following:
the method cannot assess allogenic recharge (inflows from non-karstic terrains
must be assessed through the application of other hydrological methods),
the method cannot assess temporal variations of the recharge rate (only the mean
annual value).
To apply the approach described it is important first to determine the spatial posi-
tion of the divides (watersheds), which is a difficult task in highly karstificated terrain.
However, if data related to the discharge of springs and the amount of precipitation
exists, the method can be used inversely, i.e. the recharge map can be used to find the
spatial position of divides.
In applying the method described it is not possible to assess static groundwater
reserves (storage), only dynamic reserves, i.e. the amount of water which inflows into the
system through the process of infiltration (recharge) and outflows via springs (discharge).
Based on results obtained through previous application, use of the method is
recommended for highly karstic areas, but the weighting coefficient of factors should
be adapted to the characteristics of a given exploration area, i.e. the method shouldbe
additionally calibrated (Radulovic et al., 2012).
The main advantages of this method are that the input data are readily available
and application is facilitated using GIS techniques.
7.5 CONCLUSIONS
The application of the approach has proven to be useful for the purpose of equitably
sharing water resources in highly karstified terrains. For applying the method in other
karst areas, it is necessary to bear in mind the details of the terrain and customise the
appropriate algorithm accordingly.
Use of the KARSTLOP method has generated one of the bases for the delinea-
tion and rational management of the transboundary karst aquifer shared between
Montenegro and Albania.
The approach could find a wider application in assessing participation in karst
aquifer recharge for other territories. Potential areas for the application of this
approach could be found in the Balkans, where the distribution of carbonate rocks
and the fact that a large number of countries exist within a relatively small area
caused the existence of transboundary karst aquifers.
Examples can be found in the cross-border areas of Croatia and Slovenia, Croatia
and Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro, Serbia and
Montenegro, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro and Albania. It is
necessary to analyse karst aquifer potential in order to avert conflicts over water use.
The application of the approach could help to improve water management among
these countries.
It always should be kept in mind that the method provides assessed recharge rates
on a regional scale, so results should be used with caution, and preferably compared
with values obtained by comprehensive hydrogeologic assessments.
Since water management for transboundary karst aquifers is a highly important
and sensitive issue, this topic should be considered carefully in future research, with
the participation of experts from various fields.
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Part 2
Karst aquifer
characterisation and
monitoring
Chapter 8
Optimal water management

Prerequisite for regional
socio-economic development in
the karst of the south-eastern
Dinarides
Petar Milanovic
President of IAH Serbian Chapter, Belgrade, Serbia
ABSTRACT
In the south-eastern Dinarides, with the highest precipitation in Europe, people still suffer
from water shortages. The Dinaric Karst Aquifer System (DIKTAS) belongs to one of the
largest karst areas extending along the coast of the Adriatic Sea from Slovenia to Albania.
Thelarge water potential of the DIKTAS area is mostly concentrated on the catchment
areas of the Cetina, Neretva, Trebinjica, Zeta and Bojana rivers. This potential underpins
an advanced economic development programme for the region was recognized long ago.
However, the karst phenomena always presented a significant barrier for groundwater use.
The karst presents a variety of hazards and risks associated with human activities, particularly
the construction of dams, reservoirs, tunnels and canals. Successful solutions require seri-
ous and complex approaches and close co-operation with a wide spectrum of scientists and
engineers to define causes and consequences between human activities and impact. The area
of south-eastern Dinarides, particularly Eastern Herzegovina, represents the optimal strategy
for water resources management in karst areas which is a key requirement for regional socio-
economic development.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The area of south-eastern Dinarides is one of the most karstified regions in the world.
It has an average annual precipitation of 12502450mm, locally more than 5000mm,
and maximum of 8000mm (Figure8.1).
Sinking rivers, underground flows, temporary flooded karst poljes and lack of
arable land are the main properties of the region. Arable land, karst poljes, uvalas and
sinkholes are surrounded by bare rocks (Figure8.2).
The people of this region have always had to cope with two kinds of misfortune:
flood and drought (Figure8.3).
Under natural conditions a large portion of the arable land is flooded 150 to
250 days each year. Sowing and harvesting are not determined by man, but by water.
During dry summer periods villagers rely on rainwater collected during winter or on
water from siphon lakes in deep natural karst shafts and caves. For centuries people
have emigrated from this region in search of a better life. The population density per
km2 varies from 21 to 29. The only natural resource of importance for the regional
socio-economic development is water. However, distribution of precipitation is
Figure8.1 The south-eastern Dinarides.
Figure8.2 Settled and cultivated uvala (Photo P. Milanovic).
uneven during the year. More than 70% occurs during the wet season (October
March). The aquifer retardation capacity is extremely poor. Ninety percent of
groundwater turnover occurs annually. The groundwater potential of all springs in
the area of Eastern Herzegovina and Boka Kotorska Bay is estimated with a yearly
Optimal water management 105
Figure8.3 Fatnica Polje under water (upper). Dry Trebinjica river bed (lower). Photos P. Milanovic.
average of 300 m3/s. No doubt, this region is the largest and most important fresh
water source in the Mediterranean area. However, only a small amount of this water
is successfully tapped.
8.2 GENERAL GEO-STRUCTURAL FEATURES
More than 90% of the entire area consists of soluble Mesozoic carbonate formations.
The depth of these rocks exceeds 3000 m. The Eocene flysch does not represent a
significant lithostratigraphic unit, however, according to its hydrogeological role and
location along reverse faults, it has a huge effect on karst aquifers at many karst
poljes. The existing geo-structural features of the entire Dinaric Karst Aquifer System
(DIKTAS) area are the result of subduction movement by the Adriatic microplate
beneath the Dinarides mountain chain. The dominating tectonic stress is oriented
from the south west to north east and subsequently the regional structures are ori-
entated north west to south east. The main structural features are the thrust faults
locally separating the flysch from the carbonate complex limestones and dolomites.
Inclination of the reverse fault planes, dipping toward the north east, ranges between
55 and 75. Strong tectonic movements cause folding and cascade lifting of the ter-
rain parallel to the present-day coastline. Starting at an altitude of over 1000 m, these
stepwise depressions, which erosion and sedimentation have turned into spacious
karst valleys known as poljes, are the outstanding feature of the Dinaric, and of the
entire DIKTAS karst region.
8.3 NEEDS FOR WATER MANAGEMENT

OLD SOLUTIONS
Organisation of the water regime of this part of south east Dinarides is the only
way forward for regional economic development. To minimise floods and to keep
water at the surface as long as possible is a basic requirement for economic progress.
Protection of ponors (swallow holes) against natural plugging, construction of small
surface water storage ponds and construction of water-driven mills at ponors have
been ongoing for centuries. The aqueduct constructed in Roman times for the water
supply of Epidaurus (Cavtat) and the tapping of three karst springs for Dubrovnik
water supply are some of the ancient examples. The first dam in the DIKTAS area
(Klinje Dam, in Herzegovina) was constructed in 1896 for the Gatacko polje irrigation
system (Figure8.4). By excavation of many dewatering tunnels, after World War II,
a number of karst poljes in the DIKTAS region have been protected against floods.
Intensive construction of dams and reservoirs, mostly in Europe and the United
States, started in the first half of the 20th century. One of the first successful proj-
ects was the American Tennessee Valley Project. In that time understanding of karst
and karstification, from an engineering view point, was in its infancy. A number of
large structure failures were registered in this period. Dried reservoirs or reservoirs
with unacceptable heavy leakage were frequent (e.g. Hales Bar, US; Montejaque,
Spain; Vrtac, Montenegro). Failure in karst occurred despite extensive investigation
Figure8.4 Klinje Dam, Gatacko Polje (Photo P. Milanovic).

programmes and sealing treatment. However, experience gathered during construction

and operation of many large structures in karst, eventually enabled the construc
tion risk to be reduced to an acceptable level.
8.4 OPTIMAL WATER MANAGEMENT IN KARST

TREBINJICA MULTIPURPOSE HYDROSYSTEM
Large and successful reservoirs constructed in the Dinaric karst area after World War
II (Peruca at Cetina River, Bileca at Trebinjica River and Krupac + Slano at Zeta
River) promoted the Yugoslav school of engineering karstology. The Grancarevo
Dam and Bileca Reservoir, as part of the Trebinjica Multipurpose Hydrosystem
(TMH), are excellent examples of successful construction of large structures in
hazardous a and unpredictable karst geological environment (Figure8.5). This
Hydrosystem is situated in the Eastern Herzegovina, in the middle of the DIKTAS
project area.
Stepwise placement of karst poljes in Eastern Herzegovina allows optimal mul-
tipurpose use of the great water potential from an elevation 1000 m down to the sea
level. The water storage at the surface from the rainy period of year allows continued
use during the drier months. This goal can be achieved only by construction of dams
and reservoirs interconnected by tunnels and canals, and the construction of an inte-
grated regional hydrosystem. The Trebinjica Multipurpose Hydrosystem was initi-
ated in early 1950s. The idea is to construct a huge surface water way in the shape
of letter S (Milanovic, 2010) (Figure8.6).
In this way part of the water potential will be accessible to the majority of the
population in the region, for different purposes, through the year. The impacts from
Figure8.5 Grancarevo Dam and Bileca Reserovir (photo P. Milanovic).

0 2 4 6 8 10 20 km
1
2
3
4
A
5 d
r
ia
6
t
ic
7
s
8 11 e
a
9 12
10 13
Figure8.6 General concept of integral water management in Eastern Herzegovina. 1. Reservoirs,

2. karst polje, 3. alluvium and wetland, 4. permanent spring, 5. ponor (swallow hole),
6. submarine spring, 7. large fault zone, 8. established underground connection, 9. permanent
river flow, 10. temporar river flow, 11. state border, 12. entity border, 13. general direction
of underground flows. Light blue stripe general direction of the man-made water route.
floods and droughts will be considerably reduced. The first governmental document
for the construction of this integral reclamation and hydropower system was accepted
in 1960. All structures of the Hydrosystem have been designed in such a manner that
the water potential could be used for food production; water supply; flood reduction;
irrigation; hydropower production; industry; fish farming; recreation; and prevention
of deforestation. It was also designed to have a positive influence on the critical min-
imal flows in urban and nature protected areas with a number of secondary benefits,
including the most important benefit to decrease the strong emigration trend away
from the region.
The TMH (Figures 8.7 and 8.8) consists of seven dams, six reservoirs, six tunnels
(with a total length of 74 km) and four canals (with a total length of 74 km). A large
part of TMH (Phase I) is already operational.
The Phase I includes waters from the Trebinjica springs which are at sea level.
The Trebinjica River is the most important in the area as it is the longest sinking river
in Europe with a total length of 90 km of which about 30 km has permanent flow.
The TMH aims to harness the potential energy of this river. The main structures of the
Phase I are: Grancarevo Dam (123 m high); Bileca Reservoir (V = 1280 hm3); Gorica
Reservoir (V = 15 106 m3); Gorica Dam (33.5 m high); tunnel Gorica Dubrovnik PP
Legend
250 1 A
d
2 r
i a
3 t i
c
4 S
5 e
a
6
7 0 5 10 15 20 km
Figure8.7 General scheme of the Trebinjica Multipurpose Hydrosystem, layout. Altitude; 2. Tempo
rary flow; 3. Permanent flow; 4. Tunnel route; 5. dam; 6. power plant (operational); 7. power
plant (designed).
Altitude
NADANICI DAM HYDROSISTEM TREBISNJICA
PP NEVESINJE 60MW
GATACKO POLJE
1300
RILJA DAM
longitudinal profile
POSCENJE DAM
1200
1100
reservoir Zalomka
973 970 973
1000
PP DABAR 160 MW
D-4,6 m
GRANCAREVO DAM
900 L - 4,3 km 980
PP BILECA 33 MW
Dabarsko polje
791
PP TREBINJE l 180 MW
D-4,6 m
PP TREBINJE ll 8 MW
Fatnicko polje
800 L - 11,08 km
reservoir Nevesinje
700
PP DUBROVNIK 216 MW
600
476 470 D-5,0m 450
500 D-5,4 m reservoir Bileca
L - 3,24 km 421 420
L - 15,84 km
400
295
300 231.5 D-6,0 m 246
lower and upper compens. reservoir L - 16,6 km
200 CANAL L-68
D - 8,0 m
Reservoir Trebisnjica
100 L - 8,09 km
3 00
ADRIATIC Sea river NERETVA SEA
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120
48
RPP CAPLJINA 420 MW L (km)
km 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Figure8.8 General scheme of the Trebinjica Multipurpose Hydrosystem, longitudinal profile.

(16.57 km); Trebinjica river bed, paved by shotcrete (65 km); Hutovo Reservoir (V =
5 106 m3); tunnel for reversible PP Capljina (8.093 km), and power plants Trebinje I,
Trebinje II, Dubrovnik and Capljina.
The Phase II (so-called Upper Horizons) is now under construction. This part of
the project requires the transfer of 30% of the water from the upstream part of the
Neretva River (springs Buna + Bunica + Bregava, Qav = 59.6 m3/s), to be used at the
existing operational power plants (Phase I), and is then returned to the downstream
part of Neretva River. As part of the water re-routing three temporary flooded karst
poljes will be flood free and available for agriculture. According to the l hydrogeolog-
ical and hydrological analysis, including four mathematical models, it was confirmed
that the consequences of water transfer would be negligible on the Buna Spring dis-
charge. In the case of the Bunica Spring the maximum flow (high precipitation period
of year) would be reduced to about 70%, however in the period of low flow (dry
period of year) a negative influence of water transfer is not possible. A similar result
occurs in the Bregava Springs and Bregava sinking river. According to the design,
the geotechnical measures are intended to improve the watertightness of the pervi-
ous Bregava river bed, with the consequence that the flow in the dry period would
increase 3 to 5 times over the natural conditions (Milanovic, 2006).
Once completed the TMH will enable irrigation of about 240 km2 of arable land
and an average annual hydropower output of 856 GWh. The Bileca Reservoir, sit-
uated in karstic carbonates (volume 1.3 109 m3), without leakage, is one of largest
and most successful reservoirs in karst. The question of reservoir watertightness was
the key question of the entire project feasibility.
After construction the first phase of the TMH, the surface and underground water
regime at one of world famous karst phenomena Popovo polje has been drastically
changed (Figure8.9). The possibility of massive floods (up to 40 m deep), which fre-
quently happened under natural conditions, are now possible only at the very end of
polje, but the flood water is shallow and of short duration.
Popovo Polje natural conditions
Flood level in natural conditions
Popovo Polje after construction

of hydropower system
Figure8.9 Popovo polje before and after construction of first phase of the Trebinjica multipurpose
hydrosystem.
No doubt Trebinjica Multipurpose Hydrosystem is one of the world most suc-

cessful projects in karst. Important lessons learned during the investigation, design,
construction and operation are contributed to the development and promotion of
scientific karstology and engineering karstology.
8.5 NECESSITY FOR BALANCE BETWEEN REGIONAL

DEVELOPMENT AND PRESERVATION OF NATURE
From the beginning the project was strongly supported by people from all communi-
ties from this part of the Dinarides and approved by responsible governmental insti-
tutions. At the same time the important question of possible environmental impact
arises as a consequence of natural water regime changes. Some large springs, tapped
for water supply (Trebinjica Spring and Oko Spring) were submerged by reservoirs
(Figure8.10). The possible impact of Trebinjica Spring submergence on reservoir
integrity was also one of important questions to be answered in the stage of design.
Concern over the possible negative impact on the flow regime downstream from
springs often creates conflicts between the owners of the reservoirs and the user of the
springs. This too needs addressing.
Karst is rich with various fauna including a number of endemic species. Changes
in the underground and surface water regimes can cause a negative effect on the fauna
of subterranean karst. The important issue was how to keep the balance between
the necessity for regional development and preservation of the sensitive and complex
karst ecological system (Milanovic, 2002).
Subterranean terrestrial and aquatic species exist in karst systems all over the
world. As a consequence of the natural underground and surface water regime distur-
bance, a very distinct impact on a wide spectrum of biodiversities is expected. Often,
construction of any structure in karst, particularly dewatering of temporarily flooded
karst depressions and construction of dams and reservoirs has resulted in negative
influence on fauna in the caverns.
In the East Herzegovina karst area a number of aquatic and terrestrial species have
been found. Particularly well known is Vjetrenica cave (Popovo Polje) with several
endemic species. A well-known cave-dwelling aquatic species is the blind salamander
Main outlet of Trebisnjica Spring

Trebisnjica submerged by 75 m
Spring of Bileca reservoir
Figure8.10 T
rebinjica Spring, dry and submerged by a 75 m depth of water, in period of high
discharge (Photos P. Milanovic).
Proteus anguinus known as human fish is common in the Dinaric karst. At Popovo
Polje Proteus was found at more than 40 localities (Cuckovic, 1978). A problem arises
in the case of the fish Paraphoxinus ghetaldi that inhabit siphons of estavelles in the
Popovo Polje (Bosnia Herzegovina) during dry periods of the year and intermittent
lakes of the karst poljes during the flood season. After the karst polje is permanently
protected from flooding, fishing at the openings of estavelles, for centuries an import-
ant traditional food source for the local inhabitants, is no longer practical.
The unique tubeworm Mariphugia cavatica (Figure8.11) that colonises the tem-
porary flooded karst channels are seriously endangered after dewatering temporarily
flooded karst poljes. A large colony of this warm was discovered, also in a karst
channel beneath, 10 m of alluvium (Popovo Polje, Figure8.9). After construction of
the impervious blanket over the alluvial deposits to prevent seepage from the reservoir
bottom the survival of Mariphugia is questionable.
To avoid possible conflicts and to provide the sustainable and peaceful utilisa-
tion of transboundary waters the designers of TMH undertook a series of long last-
ing investigations. These were carried out collaboratively with a wide spectrum of
scientists and engineers including geologists, hydrologists, chemists, civil engineers, biol-
ogists, archeologists and seismologists. An inventory of 120 springs and a monitoring
programme began 8 years before the project was operational; a programme of regional
water quality monitoring has been organised; the possible influence of TMH on a shell
farm at the sea coast was investigated; while some important historical monuments
were displaced by the reservoir water (Figure8.12); submerged water sources were
replaced by new capturing structures; and number of different environmental analyses
were performed. In most instances the impact is positive and predictable. However, some
impacts are negative and unpredictable, such as, for example, karst induced seismicity.
8.6 NEEDS FOR PREVENTION AND REMEDIATION
With the initiation of the construction of large structures the technology of investi-
gating karst phenomena, including many new methods in hydrogeology, hydrology,
20 mm
Figure8.11 Mariphugia cavatica (photo P. Milanovic).

Reservoir Bileca impounding

Monastiry displace from
reservoir
Figure8.12 Monastery displaced from Bileca Reservoir.
Figure8.13 Trebinjica river bed blanketed with reinforced shotcrete.
geophysics developed quickly. Specific prevention and remediation methods are

required to cope with geotechnically unconventional problems. The most frequent
technical difficulties were the presence of caverns along tunnel routes or at dam
sites, leakage from reservoirs, groundwater intrusion during underground excava-
tions and induced subsidences in reservoir bottom, which all needed unconventional
prevention and remediation methods (Milanovic, 2000). To reduce or eliminate
these difficulties two approaches were feasible. Surface treatment and sealing under-
ground was dealt with by compaction of surface layer blankets, construction of
shotcrete blankets, use of geosynthetics, plugging and grouting, and construction
ofcylindrical dams, aeration pipes and one-way valves. To secure the impermeability
of the highly karstified bed of the largest Trebinjica River an area of 2.2 106 m2 was
blanketed with shotcrete (Figure8.13). Common underground structures are grout
curtains, cut-off walls, concrete plugs and underground dams. A number of these
methods has been applied during the construction of the different TMH structures.
During past 50 years the constructed part of the TMH has considerably improved
the quality of life.
One of the important lessons learned is that in karst engineering a certain degree
of flexibility is necessary during the construction of large structures in order to find
the best compromise between different possibilities and solutions, including protec-
tion of environment and historical heritage.
Experience and knowledge are important bases for further utilisation of the
groundwater potential, as water is presently lost to the sea through a number of per-
manent, temporary and submarine springs. Successful safe reservoirs and impervious
canals, as well as long tunnels, confirm high level of knowledge and high quality of
experience in engineering karstology.
8.7 LARGE WATER POTENTIAL FUTURE OF

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The large water potential of this region will be of great importance in the future. The
water potential of the Eastern Herzegovina and Boka Kotorska Bay area is not only
of local importance but is internationally significant as well. This region would have
a role of the Mediterranean Water Treasure (Milanovic, 2004). New technologies
make possible tapping and control of groundwater flows deep underground.
By abstracting underground water in periods of high precipitation, at elevation
between 200 and 300 m, distribution is possible by gravity over large distances.
Particularly important is the large, but temporary stored amount of water in the Orjen
Mountain (Figure8.14).
Successful abstraction of only 20% of Orjen water provides 1015 m3/s through-
out the year. The Water Treasure concept requires permanent and perfect protection
of surface and underground water over the entire region of Eastern Herzegovina and
the wide area of the Boka Kotorska Bay. Eventual problems caused by transbound-
ary aquifers have to be overcome and the entire region should be treated as a unique
hydrogeological and hydrological entity.
8.8 CONCLUSIONS
Large sinking rivers, numerous sinkholes, ponors, temporarily flooded karst poljes
and deeply concentrated underground flows characterise the Eastern Herzegovina
karst region. In spite of abundant rainfall, karstic terrain and uneven distribution of
precipitation makes its inhabitants vulnerable to frequent floods and droughts. To
provide optimum water management the TMH was initiated as the best feasible solu-
tion. The ultimate aim was to improve the livelihoods of the people in the region by
regulating water availability all year round for all users. The Reservoir Bileca was the
first reservoir with a volume of more than 1 billion cubic meters of water constricted
entirely over heavily karstified rock. There was no seepage. The TMH is ongoing
and is the most important agent of economic development in Eastern Herzegovina.
Map of izohyet
Average annual Precipitation in the area of Orjen Mauntain
Ad
ri
at
ic
Se
a
Precipitation station
Large karstic spring
0 Precipitation in mm 0 10 20 km
250
Figure8.14 Orjen Mountain. Area with largest precipitation in Europe.
However, the environmental properties of complex karstic system and the state bor-
ders dissecting the region make integrated management of water resources extremely
complex. The need for optimal use of the large water resources still calls for a great
effort by all users in the region and for a holistic approach.
REFERENCES
Cuckovic S. (1978) The question of the survival of well known endemic Proteus Anguinus in
the Trebinjica Power System. Conference on environmental effects of storage reservoirs.
Yugoslav Committee for Large Dams. Trebinje.
Milanovic P. (2000) Geological engineering in karst. Zebra, Publishing Ltd, Beograd.
Milanovic P. (2002) The environmental impacts of human activities and engineering construc-
tions in karst regions. Episodes, 25(1), 1327.
Milanovic P. (2004) Water without boundary water resources potential in deep karst of South-
Eastern Dinarides. Book of abstracts 32th International Geological Congress, Florence, Italy.
Milanovic P. (2006) Karst of Eastern Herzegovina and Dubrovnik littoral. ASOS, Belgrade.
Milanovic P. (2010) Transboundary aquifers in karst source of water management and political
problems. Case study, S-E Dinarides. ISRAM 2010 International Conference. Transboundary
aquifers. UNESCO, Paris.
Chapter 9
Spring hydrograph recession:

Abrief review focused on
karst aquifers
Francesco Fiorillo
Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie, University of Sannio,
Benevento, Italy
ABSTRACT
Spring hydrograph recession analysis is a well-known topic in karst hydrogeology. The different
models in the literature can be separated into empirical and physically-based models; in the
latter, only analytical models provide the discharge equation during recession. Under constant
geometrical and hydraulic aquifer characteristics, the exponential form appears to be the most
recurrent theoretical type, at least during the long-term flow recession. During this stage, any
deviation from the exponential form, may suggest hydraulic anisotropy of the aquifers, as well
as aquifer geometry which has a fundamental role in controlling the shape of spring hydro-
graphs. Karst aquifer hydraulics, under different hydrological conditions, are described along
with the relationship to different spring hydrograph segments.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Spring discharge hydrographs can be used to define the regime of springs, and shape
provides a useful tool to investigate some of the karst features of the aquifers. Well
developed karstification results in spring hydrographs characterised by pronounced
peaks, which follow the main rainfall events, and indicate both a good connection of
the conduit networks with the spring and the presence of active recharge pathways.
A smoother shape, without sharp peaks and characterised by one or few flood peaks
during the hydrological year, indicates a coarse development of karst conduits or that
they are poorly connected.
During the recession, the hydrograph is generally the most stable, and it is believed
to express some geometrical and hydraulic characteristics of aquifers. This has stim-
ulated numerous studies, and hydrograph recession analysis is a well-known topic in
hydrogeology. There are a large number of studies recorded in the literature, and these
try to describe the analytical expressions of the recession and their physical meaning
(Dewandel et al., 2003; Bailly-Comte et al., 2010; Fiorillo, 2014).
Figure9.1 is a theoretical example of the spring hydrograph and its recession limb.
In this example, an intense pulse is transmitted through the system, which causes the
water to rise in spring. The recession limb is considered here as an exponential function,
characterised by the response time, tR, which is the inverse value of the recession coef-
ficient, (tR = 1/). The beginning of the recession would occur at the inflection point,
Q0, which splits a convex (left side) and concave (right side) form of the hydrograph.
Hydrograph recession can occur for short periods (several days or weeks) between two
main rainfall events, but has a longer duration in the dry season.
Rising limb
Recession limb
Peak flow = Qmax
tL Q0 where d2Q/dt2 = 0
Q=Q0 e t
Discharge, Q
=1/tR
tB
Base flow = QB
Time, t
Figure9.1 Different parts of a spring hydrograph triggered by a storm pulse (modified from White,
1988): tL, length of time between the storm pulse and the peak in the discharge hydrograph;
tB, time to return to base flow; a, recession coefficient; tR, response time.
Figure9.2 shows an example of a spring hydrograph in a Mediterranean area,

where several intra-annual recessions occur during the wet season, and a long sea-
sonal recession occurs during the late spring-summer period, extending also into the
following hydrological year.
The most simple equations to describe the discharge, Q(t), during the recession
phase are the linear:
Q(t) = Q0 - T t (9.1)
and the exponential:
Q(t) = Q0 e - t (9.2)
where Q0 is the initial discharge at time t = 0, and the recession coefficient T and depend
only on the aquifer hydraulic systems; they are constant during the recession period.
Equation 9.1 describes the linear decrease of discharge with time; the main conse-
quence of this behaviour is the constant slope of the discharge-time plot at any time,
independently of the initial value, Q0. This equation is obtained by draining a cylin-
drical tank-reservoir, where no energy is lost during the emptying (Table9.1).
Equation 9.2 was first provided by Maillet (1905) to describe the spring drainage
from a porous aquifer, obtained from a cylindrical tank with a porous plug. The phys-
ical meaning of the recession coefficient, , using different hydraulic laws to drain
Spring hydrograph recession: A brief review focused on karst aquifers 119
4000 120
hydrological year
wet season dry season
3500 100
intra-annual recession
daily rainfall, mm
discharge, l/s
80
3000 seasonal recession
60
2500
40
2000
20
1500 0
1-Sep
1-Dec
1-Mar
1-Jun
1-Sep
1-Dec
Figure9.2 Example of karst spring hydrograph recession in a Mediterranean climate: Torano daily
spring discharge (Matese Mountain, southern Italy) and daily rainfall recorded in the
recharge area (Lago Matese rain gauge, annual mean 1948 mm). Intra-annual recession
occurs during the wet season, interrupted by the next rainfall event; during these peri-
ods, recharge processes progressively increase the basal water table level of the aquifer.
A seasonal recession begins when recharge processes decrease as a consequence of tem-
perature increase and rainfall decrease throughout the (Mediterranean) summer and can
extend in the following hydrological year (modified from Fiorillo, 2014).
Table9.1 Discharge equations found from draining a cylindrical tank-reservoir using different physical
laws (from Fiorillo, 2011). Application of Darcys Law is carried out filling the connected
tank-tube (with area A2 and length L) by sand with hydraulic conductivity K. Application of
Poiseuilles Law is carried out considering a small diameter d of the connected tank-tube;
is the dynamic viscosity of water; is the water density; g is the gravity acceleration.
Tank shape Physical law Discharge equation Recession coeff. Discharge for t = 0
A22
Torricelli Q( t ) = Q0 - T t T = g Q0 = A2 2 gh0
A1
A1
h0 K A2 KA2 h0
Darcy Q( t ) = Q0 e - D t D = Q0 =
L A1 L
L A2 d4 g d 4 g h0
Poiseuille Q( t ) = Q0e - P t P = n Q0 = n
128 L A1 128 L
a cylindrical tank-reservoir is shown in Table9.1. Equation 9.2 is that of a linear

reservoir where the discharge, Q(t), is proportional at any time to the water volume
stored, V(t), into reservoir:
Q(t) = V (t) (9.3)
As it gives a straight-line in the semilogarithm plot, the exponential form of the reces-
sion has found wide use in hydrogeology. It can describe a large part of the recession.
Real examples of the recession limb of karst spring hydrographs in the semilog-
arithmic plot have shown a variation in the angle of the straight line. This indicates
the presence of more than one recession coefficient during the entire recession period
(Forkasiewicz & Paloc, 1967; Milanovic, 1976; Atkinson, 1977).
Other equations describing the recession exist and differ from the linear and
exponential form.
9.2 LITERATURE MODELS
The main models analysing the spring hydrograph recession have been discussed in
Fiorillo (2014). They vary from pure empirical to physically-based models. In the
last ones, only analytical models provide the discharge equation during the recession
phase. Most models which analyse the spring hydrograph recession can be considered
as lumped (or global) models, as the flow of the total catchment is often focused on
one single spring and, therefore, allows for an integral characterisation of the flow
behaviour of the whole catchment just by measuring the outflow at a single point
(Jeannin & Sauter, 1998). Only a few models are able to consider the spatial hetero-
geneity of the aquifer.
Most of theoretical models consider the hydrograph recession that is not condi-
tioned by recharge processes. Under this assumption, the only aquifer zone believed
to be involved is the saturated zone, and the role of the vadose zone is generally
neglected. However, during the recession, some recharge will reach the saturated zone
and influences the discharge of springs; this process occurs especially during the first
part of the recession and characterises the influenced-stage. Only the last part of the
recession, which is the most stable part of the hydrograph, could be considered as a
non-influenced stage and it is known as the recession limb.
Empirical models do not consider any geometrical and hydraulic characteristics
of the aquifers, as they are generally based on the best fits of experimental reces-
sion data; thus, they could not provide any information on the structure of aquifers.
However, many empirical models start from very simple reservoirs to obtain discharge
equations or try to obtain some hydraulic parameters of aquifers from hydrographs.
As these last models evaluate some physical characteristics of the aquifers, they can be
considered as semi-empirical models.
Physically-based models require a definition of the geometrical and hydraulic
conditions of the aquifers, and also need specific physical laws which describe the
drainage. These characteristics are very difficult or impossible to obtain for actual
karst aquifers, and for this reason many physical models are based on simple theoret-
ical geometric and hydraulic characteristics of the aquifers, which allow the equation
of the discharge to be obtained from analytical models. Most models were developed
for porous media, but they have been largely applied to karst media; in any cases
no-recharge is assumed in the models.
Forkasiewicz & Paloc (1967) characterised the karst aquifer with different paral-
lel linear reservoirs, all contributing to a spring hydrograph. They reconstructed three
segments of the hydrograph in a semilogarithm plot as the different contributions of
each reservoir: the conduit network, the intermediate system of well integrated karsti-
fied fissures, and the low-permeability network of pores and narrow fissures.
Nutbrown & Downing (1976) stated that different exponential terms can derive
exclusively from groundwater flow dynamics. Szilagyi (1999) has highlighted that the
changing slope in the recession plot can be simply the consequence of baseflow drain-
age. Estrela & Sahuquillo (1997) also modelled the recession hydrograph by several
decreasing exponentials, without identifying different flow regimes. Eisenlohr et al.
(1997) showed that the sum of three exponentials can be fitted on the hydrograph of
a system consisting of only two classes of hydraulic conductivities.
Baedke and Frothe (2001) state that the largest slope of the hydrograph is related
to the conduit flow system and the smallest slope to the diffuse flow system (and
deriving the aquifer diffusivities from each slope following the approach proposed by
Rorabaugh, (1964) and Sahuquillo & Gmez-Hernndez (2003). They highlighted
that the different slopes are never representative of the response of a more or less
pervious portion of the aquifer.
Similarly, Kovacs & Perrochet (2008) showed that different exponential compo-
nents do not correspond to aquifer volume with different hydraulic conductivities as
they can be extracted from a 2D analytical solution for diffuse flux from symmetric
and asymmetric rectangular blocks.
These exampes indicate that it is possible to explain the different slope of the
hydrograph in the semilogarithmic plot without requiring different flow regime (in the
conduits, minor fracture, etc.). The exact analytical solution provides a shape of the
hydrograph which is a sum of different exponentials, as in the model of Rorabaugh
(1964), Brutsaert (1994) or Kovacs et al. (2005). Only the latest part of the hydro-
graph can be approximated to an exponential, as it follows an initial non linear part
on the semilogarithmic plot.
Most physically-based models are based on the assumption that the aquifer is
characterised by homogeneous and isotropic media and the formation constants
Physically-based models generally assume that flow is Darcian.
Table9.2 shows analytical solutions found draining two different tank-shapes:
the exponential function (Equation 9.2) can be obtained using the Torricelli Law, and
the linear function (Equation 9.1) can be obtained using the Darcy/Poiseuille Laws,
contrary to the cylindrical tank-reservoir of Table9.1. Table9.2 show that it is possi-
ble to back-calculate the variation of the shape of the reservoir to obtain the desired
hydrograph, but it is more difficult to fix the type of flow and the geometrical model
for an actual karst aquifer. Analysing an actual spring hydrograph is difficult when
Darcian flow occurs, and unclear how the aquifer geometry controls the recession.
Fiorillo (2011) noted that many of the equations for the recession coefficient
could be linked to:
c
= (9.4)
neff Ac
where neff is the effective porosity computed along the water table with an area Ac
and c is the hydraulic constant, involving the geometric and hydraulic characteristics
of the discharge zone which does not vary during the drainage. This means that,
when the exponential form is expected (during the long-term flow recession), any
variation of the recession coefficient would depend on the product neff Ac (Fiorillo,
2014).
Table9.2
Discharge equations obtained while draining tank-reservoirs that are characterised by
different geometry using different physical laws (extracted from Fiorillo, 2012): l, length of
the reservoir in the orthogonal direction of x; B, constant of the reservoir; C=A1/l for x=0;
other symbols are described in the text. Hyperbolic tank shape has a rectangular base area
A1=x l; triangular tank shape has a rectangular base area A1 = (C x ) l.
Discharge
Tank shape Physical law equation Recession coefficient
A1 = x l
A2 2g
Torricelli Q( t ) = Q0 e - t T =
2l B
B
h=
h0 x2
L
X A2
A1 = (C X) l 2
A K B
Darcy/ Q( t ) = Q0 - t D = 2
L l
arc
tan
(B)
Poiseuille
2
n d4 g B
P =
128 L l
h0
h(t) = (C X)B
L
A2
X
The effective porosity is an important factor controlling the recession coefficient,

as it can vary across a wide range due to the heterogeneity of the karst media, and
can approximated to storativity for unconfined aquifers (Stevanovic et al., 2010). The
change in the effective porosity inside the epiphreatic zone could be connected to the dif-
ferent ways of development of the karst system, caves, conduits and voids, according to
the main theories on karst development (Ford & Ewers, 1978). Numerical models have
shown how the phenomenon of chemical solution and attrition causes the development
of conduits and porosity just below the water table of an unconfined aquifer (Gabrovek
& Dreybrodt, 2010; Dreybrodt et al., 2010). Just below the water table there could be a
strong variation in void distribution. This means that during the recession, the effective
porosity can change along the water table, conditioning the shape of the hydrograph,
independently from other hydraulic parameters and the catchment area (Fiorillo, 2011).
Many highly-elevated springs (non-basal springs) dry up during the recession, and
remain dry for some time. These springs follow a recession law which is different from
the exponential form, as the discharge decreases faster than exponential decay. The
simplest explanation of this behaviour is the progressive reduction of the water table
area, Ac, as the aquifer is drained.
Commonly, basal karst springs tend to have a progressively decrease in their
recession coefficient during the recession phase, whereas other spring types may
present a different hydrograph shape. Analysing the spring recession in the semi
logarithmic plot, a deviation from the straight line produced by a simple exponential
2.5 1) Q=Q0e t ; =0.005 d1; Q0=2.0 m3/s 1.00

2) =0.0035 d1, 60<t<240 days; =0.002 d1, t >240 days
3) =0.0065 d1, 60<t<240 days; =0.085 d1, t >240 days
0.50
2
decreasing
0.00
2
1.5 increasing
1
In(Q)
Q, m3/s
0.50
3 constant
1
2 1.00
Q 1
0.5 In(Q) 3
1.50
0 2.00
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
t, days
Figure9.3 Arithmetic and logarithmic plots of constant (curve 1) and non-constant (curve 2 and 3)
recession coefficient value a during emptying (modified from Fiorillo et al., 2012).
decay of discharge through time provides information on the actual emptying rate
of the aquifer compared to a simple exponential decline (Figure9.3). If the reces-
sion coefficient, , decreases under drought conditions (curve 2), springs guaran-
tee water during a long dry period and can be considered drought-resistant (Fiorillo
etal., 2012). This hydraulic behaviour could be connected to an increase of the effec-
tive porosity with depth. If the recession coefficient increases under drought con-
ditions (curve 3), a different hydraulic behaviour occurs, as the aquifer is drained
more quickly than expected, and the springs can be considered as drought-vulnerable
(Fiorillo et al., 2012). This hydraulic behaviour could be connected to a decrease of
the water table area, Ac, or to the fact that the aquifer is also drained by other springs
with lower ground-elevation.
The different hydraulic behaviour of springs suggests that the common and dif-
fuse computation of the water stored in a karst aquifer obtained by integrating the
Maillet formula (Equation 9.2), over the time interval t0 to t, should be used with
caution in the evaluation of water resources, as it underestimates or overestimates the
volume discharged for drought-resistant and drought-vulnerable springs, respectively.
Independently from other hydrogeological and hydrological features of karst aquifers,
this observation may provide useful tools for water management purpose, especially
under droughts.
9.3 KARST AQUIFER HYDRAULIC UNDER DIFFERENT

HYDROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
Ford & Williams (2007) provided a discussion on the applicability of the Darcys
law to karst and highlighted how a large part of the flow passes through the conduit
system, Thus, according to Mangin (1975), they assumed that the range of condi-
tion under which Darcys Law is valid is very restricted. The restriction has to refer
to different parts of the aquifer (spatial meaning), but also to the different recharge
conditions of the aquifer, which vary during the hydrological year (temporal meaning)
(Fiorillo, 2014). A Darcian flow prevalently occurs during the latest part of the reces-
sion, when the mean water flow velocity in the aquifer is the lowest with respect to all
previous stages. The Darcian hydraulic behaviour has to be connected to the drainage
of the water from the minor fissures, even if the conduit network provides the final
water transfer to spring (Fiorillo, 2014).
During the initial part of the recession, due to higher water flow velocites in the
conduit network, a different hydraulic flow type could occur. The initial and steepest
part of the recession can be modelled by a non-Darcian flow (Bailly-Comte et al.,
2010; Fiorillo, 2011; Malk & Vojtkov, 2012). The exchange of water between con-
duits and matrix occurs during floods (Haliban et al., 1998; Martin and Dean, 2001;
Bailly-Comte et al., 2010), and it is caused by the higher conduit head in the conduit
network than the matrix (Atkinson, 1977; Drogue, 1980; Bailly-Comte et al., 2010;
Fiorillo, 2011). This hydraulic behaviour depends on two main hydraulic heads which
characterise karst aquifers, and is caused by the two main permeability characteristics
of the medium: (i) the hydraulic head of the saturated zone (water table) and (ii) the
hydraulic head of the conduit network. Only during the long-term flow recession do
the two main different hydraulic heads tend to be the same, and they diverge after
recharge events, due to faster increase of the conduit hydraulic head.
Schematic illustrations highlight the main points of the aquifer hydrodynamics,
and help to associate the different parts of a hydrograph to specific hydraulic con-
ditions (Figure9.4). Non-allogenic recharge has been considered here, and a single
outlet (spring) drains the aquifer. In each sketch, the hydraulic head into the conduit
network is marked by the water level in the shafts; this level can be different from the
saturated aquifer zone, which is a function of the hydrologic condition of the aquifer.
Phase A shows the hydrological condition after a non-recharge period, character-
ised by a decreasing trend in the discharge, and the contribution from the vadose zone
can be neglected. In this phase the saturated zone is drained by the conduit network,
which has an hydraulic head similar or little lower than the saturated zone.
Phase B occurs after an intense rainfall event and is characterised by several rainy
hours or a few days of rainfall. The shafts and sinkholes allow surface runoff to
infiltrate and rapidly reach the saturated zone of the aquifer. The amount of rainfall
which causes the concentrated infiltration depends on the rainfall intensity and its
distribution over time, but is strongly controlled by the hydraulic characteristics of the
vadose zone, such as its thickness, the presence of shafts and the morphological char-
acteristics of the ground surface (presence of endorheic areas and swallow holes, slope
angle distribution, etc.). During phase B, shafts are temporarily filled with water, and
an increase of hydraulic head in the karst conduit network occurs, up to the spring
(Figure9.4). As the concentrated recharge varies according to the catchment fea-
tures, it provides a different water level for each shaft, which can cause a temporary
and locally different water flow direction into the saturated aquifer zone. The rapid
response of a spring to an intense rainfall event, with a typical peak in the spring
hydrograph, can be associated with the rise and lowering of the water level inside
conduits above the saturated zone terminating into the phreatic zone (Drogue, 1980;
Karst aquifer Aquiclude
a
LEGEND b WT, water table
A B C D E c
d HL, horizontal line
Q01 A)
Q =Q 0
Discharge, Q
1

t
Q011 WT
Q= HL Spring
Q 11
0 e
2 t
Q0111Q=Q 111e 3 t
lt
0
Fau
Time, t
B) rainfall
C)
Concentrated
Run off infiltration
diffuse
infiltration
Conduit network Conduit network
hydraulic head hydraulic head percolation
WT WT
HL Spring HL Spring
lt
lt
Fau
Fau
D) E)
Conduit network
hydraulic head
WT
WT
HL Spring HL Spring
lt
lt
Fau
Fau
Figure9.4 Spring hydrograph triggered by a storm pulse, where the different parts are associated with
sketches AE (modified from Fiorillo, 2014), showing the hydrodynamics in a karst aquifer.
Recharge occurs by diffuse percolation through the vadose zone, and in a concentrated
manner at points such as sinkholes/swallow holes and shafts; a basal spring drains the water
table by a conduit network. The hydrodynamics is shown by different sketches where the
slope of the water table is exaggerated. A, after a period of no recharge (a conduits and
shafts; b vadose zone; c and d saturated zone with different effective porosity). B, during a
period of strong recharge, concentrated infiltration causes the temporary filling of shafts,
later the aquifer water table rises as a consequence also of the diffuse infiltration. C, after a
period of strong recharge, water level in the shafts falls, and the water table could still rise.
D, lowering of the water table during a non-recharge phase; E, lowering of the water table
after a long period without recharge.
Bonacci & ivaljevic, 1993; Bonacci, 1995; Halihan et al., 1998). However, the very
high hydraulic conductivity of the conduit network can limit the rise (and lowering)
of the water level in conduits.
After the beginning of the increase in flow, a decrease of the chemical hardness
of the spring water is observed, which may mark a large part of the peak hydrograph
zone. Ashton (1966) provided a simple procedure to evaluate the volume of storage
in fully submerged conduits feeding a spring using discharge and the hardness of the
spring water. These observations indicate that the first part of the recession (the steep-
est part) discharges fresh water, which comes from the shafts and conduits, connected
to the springs by the conduit network.
The exchange of water between conduits and matrix occurs during floods (Martin
& Dean, 2001; Bailly-Comte et al., 2010), and it is caused by the higher conduit head
in the conduit network than the matrix (Atkinson, 1977; Drogue, 1980; Bailly-Comte
et al., 2010; Fiorillo, 2011). During phase B shafts and the conduit network feed the
water table as diffuse infiltration takes place as well. Under such hydraulic conditions,
spring discharge is connected to concentrated recharge processes and depends on the
hydraulic head in the conduit network. Some karst springs (for example, weakly
karstified systems) do not show this hydraulic behaviour, and their hydrograph shape
may appear completely smooth; in this case, spring discharge increases or decreases as
a function of long wet or dry periods, respectively (Fiorillo, 2011).
In heavily karstified systems, when recharge reduces or ends, a fall of discharge
can be observed at each spring. This process reflects rapid drainage of the conduit
network which and its temporarily filled shafts (Phase C). Phase C has a linear equa-
tion (which represents the nonlinear part in the semilogarithmic plot), but it may have
also another analytical form (Malk & Vojtkov, 2012). Mangin (1975) explained
this initial part of the recession as the influenced stage, characterised by the arrival (at
the water table) of the diffuse recharge from the unsaturated zone, which decreases
with time.
During phase C the hydraulic head in the conduit network decreases but it is still
higher than the water table. It may increase due to percolation from diffuse recharge.
When the water level in the shafts decrease and reach the water table level, the
hydraulic head in the conduit network reaches that of the matrix/minor fractures,
causing the drainage of the saturated zone by the conduit network, and phase D
begins. Many karst springs show an abrupt change of the hydrograph slope from
phase C to phase D; the gently sloped part of phase D highlights the higher water
volume stored in the saturated zone, which causes a lower decrease of the discharge
through time (Fiorillo, 2014). During this stage, the emptying processes cause the
lowering of the water table and involves water from minor conduits and the matrix,
where fluid viscosity and friction control the hydrograph recession shape. The con-
cave shape of this part of the hydrograph highlights, at least in part, the energy lost by
the water flow. Figure9.4 shows the recession during phase D by a single exponential
term, but the first part could still be influenced by the arrival of the diffuse infiltration,
and only later the exponential form could appear. Besides, following the theoretical
models (Rorabaugh, 1964; Brutsaert, 1994; Kovacs et al., 2005), this first part of
Phase D could be characterised by the sum of several exponentials.
Phase E refer to the hydrological condition after a long period without recharge,
during which the water table reaches the minimum height, following a different
recession coefficient, a 3 (or a n). If the exponential form is expected, the changing of
the recession coefficient, from a 2 (phase D) to a3 (phase E) may depend on several
factors, and reflects the anisotropy of the aquifer or its non constant area during
drainage (Fiorillo, 2011).
9.4 CONCLUSION
Interpretation of the recession curve of a spring hydrograph could be complex in any

attempt to characterise karst aquifers, without any knowledge of the actual physi-
cal characteristics of the aquifers. Generally, the initial part of the recession (in the
arithmetic plot) can be approximated linearly and could mean drainage following of
non-Darcian type. The last part of the recession, especially for basal springs, presents
a concave shape and indicates drainage according to Darcian flow. The concave shape
is generally associated with the lowering of the water-table, and highlights the energy
lost through water transport. If this concave shape follows the exponential decay
(linear reservoir) model, a single value of the recession coefficient is able to explain the
entire draining of the aquifer. This condition appears to be rare in nature, especially
under drought conditions, but provides an opportunity to investigate the lowest part
of the recession limb of spring hydrographs. Under such conditions, hydrographs
tend to be similar to curves 2 or 3 in Figure9.3, indicating a non-constant recession
coefficient during drainage. Many karst springs show a typical variation of the reces-
sion coefficient during drainage, especially if several continuous years are considered,
including droughts (Fiorillo et al., 2012). Fiorillo (2011) explained that the variation
in the recession coefficient is due to non-constant geometric or hydraulic characteris-
tics during the emptying process. In particular, the recession coefficient appears to be
strongly controlled by the product of the effective porosity along the water table and
the area occupied by the water table. Both parameters can vary during the emptying
process, and they control the shape of the hydrograph on the semilogarithmic plot.
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Chapter 10
Characterisation of selected
karst springs in Slovenia by
means of a time series analysis
Gregor Kovac ic 1 & Nataa Ravbar 2,3
1
University of Primorska, Faculty of Humanities and Science and
Research Centre, Koper, Slovenia
2
Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU, Postojna, Slovenia
3
Urban Planning Institute of the Republic of Slovenia, Ljubljana,
Slovenia
ABSTRACT
The relation between discharge or water level, temperature and rainfall is evaluated for nine
karst springs/rivers using a daily time series analysis (autocorrelation and cross-correlation)
covering a 30-year period (19842013). The study was conducted in order to qualitatively
assess the applicability of long-term hydrological data set usage in time series analysis in order
to compare different karst springs and their catchments characteristics. The results reveal that
the storage capacity of larger systems and systems characterised by a more complex structure
is typically greater, although such systems should not necessarily be defined as poorly karsti-
fied. Factors influencing the obtained results are determined in the study. Application of longer
hydrological data sets is shown to provide valuable information on the hydrological properties
of springs, hydrodynamic behaviour and the hydraulic properties of the corresponding aqui-
fers. However, caution should be used when classifying karst systems into groups solely on the
basis of the results of a time series analysis.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Univariate and bivariate time series analysis of hydrological data sets in the time
(autocorrelation and cross-correlation) and frequency (single spectral density and
cross-spectral density with corresponding amplitude, coherence, gain and phase func-
tions) domains have been widely used in karst hydrology. Jeannin & Sauter (1998)
argue that it is inappropriate to use these methods without good knowledge of the
investigated area to characterise the hydrogeological structure of karst aquifers, and
that the results obtained should be verified by deterministic models and/or direct obser-
vations. Despite this, the time series analysis methodology, first applied by Mangin
(1984) to study the input-output relationship in karst aquifers, has been further devel-
oped, improved and applied by many authors (e.g. Benavente etal., 1985; Padilla &
Pulido-Bosch, 1995; Angelini, 1997; Eisenlohr etal., 1997; Larocque etal., 1998;
Labat etal., 2000; Samani, 2001; Amraoui etal., 2003; Jukic & Denic-Jukic, 2004;
Mathevet etal., 2004; Rahnemaei etal., 2005; Valdes etal., 2005, 2006; Massei
etal., 2006; Panagopoulos & Lambrakis, 2006; Novel etal., 2007; Bailly-Comte
etal., 2008; Covington etal., 2009; Herman etal., 2009; Jemcov & Petric, 2009;
Fiorillo&Doglioni, 2010; Jemcov& Petric, 2010; Kovacic, 2010b; Terzic etal., 2012;
Delbart etal., 2014; Mayaud etal., 2014; Katsanou etal., 2015). All these studies of
various hydrological data sets (discharge, water level, precipitation, electrical conduc-
tivity, temperature, turbidity) have proved the usefulness of time series analysis as a
stand-alone or complementary method for the study of the functioning, hydrodynamic
behaviour and dynamics of karst springs and the corresponding aquifers.
Time series analysis has mostly been applied to periods covering i) one hydro-
logical year with daily or hourly time series (e.g. Larocque etal., 1998; Massei etal.,
2006; Herman etal., 2009; Kovacic, 2010b; Terzic etal., 2012) and ii) several suc-
cessive hydrological years with daily data (e.g. Benavente etal., 1985; Padilla &
Pulido-Bosch,1995; Angelini, 1997; Eisenlohr etal., 1997; Larocque etal., 1998;
Labat etal., 2000; Samani, 2001; Amraoui etal., 2003; Mathevet etal., 2004;
Rahnemaeietal., 2005; Panagopoulos & Lambrakis, 2006; Novel etal., 2007; Bailly-
Comte etal., 2008; Herman etal., 2009; Jemcov & Petric, 2009; Fiorillo & Doglioni,
2010; Jemcov& Petric, 2010; Kovacic, 2010b; Delbart etal., 2014; Katsanou etal.,
2015). Only a few studies (e.g. Valdes etal., 2005, 2006; Bailly-Comte etal., 2008;
Covington etal., 2009; Mayaud etal., 2014) have applied the method to a very short
or single-event timescale with hourly or even shorter time series. These studies have
demonstrated that single-event analysis provides relevant information on how a karst
system reacts to a single recharge event. However, long-term analysis provides infor-
mation about more average karst aquifer functioning (Panagopoulos & Lambrakis,
2006; Kovacic 2010b).
Herman etal. (2009), Delbart etal. (2014) and Kovacic (2010b) have shown
that the selection and duration of the reference period (one or more hydrological
years, parts of an individual hydrological year) within a time series analysis can
have strong effects on the results. For example, a comparative autocorrelation and
cross-correlation analysis performed for the Unica karst spring (Slovenia) in the five
successive hydrological years 19972002 revealed important differences in the cal-
culated memory effects (rk = 0.2) and the response times and values of maximum
precipitation-discharge cross-correlation coefficients (Kovacic, 2009). The charac-
teristic lags for the Unica spring for an individual hydrological year range from 17
to 86days, whereas the maximum cross-correlation coefficients vary between 0.21
and 0.33 with lags of 0 to 3 days (Kovacic, 2009). According to Mangins classifi-
cation (1984), the Unica spring could, therefore, be classified as a system with a low
(well-karstified) or very high memory effect (poorly karstified), which is rather con-
fusing. The study showed that the selection of the hydrological year (the structure of
the time series itself) could have significant effects on the results of a time series anal-
ysis (Kovacic, 2010b). Additionally, the study confirmed that the calculated memory
effects and response times to precipitation events also depend on the selection of the
beginning and the end of the hydrological year(s) in an investigated period.
Since in the literature time series analyses are only rarely employed for the char-
acterisation of karst aquifers for periods longer than 10 hydrological years (e.g.
Labat etal., 2000; Mathevet etal., 2004; Fiorillo & Doglioni, 2010), this chapter
represents a step forward, in that it is a comprehensive study of nine well-investigated
karst springs, the sinking rivers recharging these springs and the corresponding karst
aquifers in Slovenia. Time series analysis was performed on daily precipitation, dis-
charge, water level and temperature data sets for the 30-year period 19842013.
A30-year period was selected because this is a standard long-term reference period
Characterisation of selected karst springs in Slovenia 133
used in climatology and hydrology. The objective of this study is to contribute to

existing knowledge of the hydrodynamic characteristics and hydraulic properties of
selected karst aquifers, previously studied by means of other investigation techniques
used in karst hydrology. The results of the time series analysis can, therefore, be
properly validated. A comparison of these results allows a qualitative assessment of
the applicability of the long-term hydrological data sets used in the time series anal-
ysis that provide different information about the hydrogeological characteristics of
karst aquifers.
10.2 METHODS AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
In karst hydrology, time series analysis of hydrological data requires the mathemati-
cal analysis of the response of a karst system to recharge (precipitation, concentrated
infiltration via ponors) and indirectly provides information regarding the structure
and functioning of karst aquifers (Box & Jenkins, 1970; Mangin, 1984; Box etal.,
1994). Univariate analysis reveals the structure of an individual time series, in terms
of either the time domain (autocorrelation) or the frequency domain (spectral den-
sity). The autocorrelation function, presented in a correlogram, quantifies the mem-
ory effect of the system, which is computed on the basis of the decorrelation lag time,
defined as the time at which the autocorrelation function attains a predetermined
value, usually 0.2 (Mangin, 1984; Benavente etal., 1985). The value of rk = 0.2 was
also used in this study. The memory effect reflects the inertia of the system. The slope
of the correlogram is determined by the response of the system to an event and gives
indirect information on the storage capacity of the system and its degree of karsti-
fication. Generally, a high memory effect indicates that the system is influenced by
an event for a long time, which often relates to a large storage capacity (Mangin,
1984). The correlogram of such karst aquifers will decrease slowly. Such systems
are characterised by a network of smaller fissures through which the water flows at
much lower velocities. In contrast, according to the literature (e.g. Larocque etal.,
1998; Panagopoulos & Lambrakis, 2006), a well-developed karst aquifer with larger
conduits and without a significant water storage capacity should correspond to a
low memory system, which, however, is a rather problematic statement. In general, a
correlogram of a well-developed karst system decreases steeply and quickly. Kovacic
(2010b) proved that large and well-developed karst aquifers such as the Malencica
and Unica karst springs systems can also have a large storage capacity, even though
the water flows through the system of unobstructed conduits at relatively high veloci-
ties (several tens of m/h; Gabrovek etal., 2010), and cannot be considered as poorly
karstified. In this regard caution is needed when interpreting the results on the basis of
the expected values. A spectral density function quantifies the regulation time, which
defines the duration of the influence of the input signal and gives an indication of the
length of the impulse response of the system (Larocque etal., 1998).
Cross-correlation and cross-spectral density functions imply the transformation
of input signals to output signals. In karst hydrology these are mostly discharge-
discharge, precipitation-discharge or water level-discharge relationships. The shape
of the cross-correlogram indicates the degree of karstification of a karst system.
The delay, which is the time lag between lag 0 and the lag of the maximum value
of the cross-correlation coefficient (rxy(k)), gives an estimation of the pressure pulse

transfer time through the aquifer (Panagopoulos & Lambrakis, 2006). Gently slop-
ing cross-correlograms indicate a significant storage capacity and a low degree of
karstification. However, a well-developed karst aquifer is characterised by much
shorter response times (steep cross-correlogram), usually showing no delay (Padilla
& Pulido-Bosch, 1995). Cross-spectral density function allows a calculation of ampli-
tude, phase, coherence and gain functions. In the present study the values of mean
coherence functions, periods of mean delays and cut-off frequencies between variables
were also calculated. The coherence function expresses the linearity of karst systems.
Higher values correspond to highly karstified aquifers and vice versa (Panagopoulos
& Lambrakis, 2006). Cut-off frequency defines the duration of precipitation events
that can be efficiently filtered by the karst system and is determined by the period
when the amplitude function drops below 1 (Mathevet etal., 2004). A mean delay
is defined on the basis of a phase function and shows an average delay between pre-
cipitation and discharge, or discharge and discharge in the case of the concentrated
recharge of karst aquifers (Padilla & Pulido-Bosch, 1995; Rahnemaei etal., 2005). It
is important to mention that the mean delay and cut-off frequency parameters are not
often used in karst hydrology, owing to the many uncertainties regarding the calcula-
tion and interpretation of their values.
The study deals with nine karst springs/rivers in Slovenia: the Malencica, the
Unica, the Stren, the Pivka, the Ljubljanica, the Bistrica, the Vipava, the Hubelj and
the Riana; and five precipitation stations: Pokojice, Podgrad, Postojna, Jurce and
Podkraj. Daily data, used in the time series analysis (discharge, water level, precipita-
tion and temperature), were obtained from the Environmental Agency of the Republic
of Slovenia (EARS, 2014a, 2014b). The selection of the reference precipitation sta-
tions for some of the karst springs (Riana, Bistrica and Ljubljanica) was difficult,
since precipitation data for the observed 30-year period were not available for thesta-
tions in their catchments. Nevertheless, the analysis conducted by Kovacic (2010b)
showed that the precipitation regime within the broader regions in Slovenia is more
or less homogeneous at a daily time step (almost simultaneously) in terms of rainfall
events occurrence, which means that some of the remote precipitation stations (e.g.
Podgrad, Pokojice) could also be considered as relevant for the individual cross-
correlation analysis. Not all of the hydrological data sets included in the study were
complete, a fact that has been taken into account when performing the analysis. All
the analyses were performed using Statistica software. The autocorrelation time series
analysis for the 30-year period 19842013 (N = 10,958) was carried out at a daily
time step and at a 130-day cutting point for autocorrelation and at a 100-day cutting
point for cross-correlation analysis. All the time series were previously automatically
detrended by a software module to avoid the influence of long-term changes in the
time series on the final results.
10.3 STUDY AREA
The catchment areas (relating to karst aquifers) of the karst springs (rivers) included
in this study are mostly developed in deep sequences of Mesozoic limestones and
dolomites, with the exception of the Pivka and Riana springs, where Palaeocene
limestones also occur (Figure 10.1). The Riana, Malencica, Hubelj, Vipava and
Bistrica karst springs are tapped for drinking water supply.
10.3.1 The Ljubljanica river basin

The Stren, Pivka, Malencica and Unica karst springs (rivers) with their catchments
are part of the common Ljubljanica karst river basin (Figure10.2, Table10.1). The
major outflow from the binary karst system (1,100 km2), which has a complex
structure, is the Ljubljanica karst spring (several outflows) (ibrik etal., 1976).
The mean discharge of the Ljubljanica spring at the Vrhnika gauging station (the
Ljubija and Bistra karst springs lie downstream of the station) in the reference
period 19842013 is 22.68 m3/s, with a minimum of 0.95 and a maximum of
120.48m3/s (EARS, 2014a). The ratio between minimum, mean and maximum
discharge is 1: 24.8: 126.3. Long-term mean annual precipitation is estimated at
1800 mm (ibrik etal., 1976).
The catchment of the Ljubljanica springs is characterised by (i) autogenic recharge
from the high Dinaric plateaus (Snenik, Javorniki, Meniija) and (ii) numerous sink-
ing streams on higher-lying poljes in the Notranjska region, the Pivka river basin (the
Pivka) and the Bloke plateau (the Blocica) (Figure 10.2). Waters from Babno Polje,
the Snenik plateau and the Racna Gora plateau emerge on Loko Polje as the Obrh
sinking stream. To the north east is Cerknica Polje, the biggest of the poljes in the area,
which is famous for its intermittent Lake Cerknica and is an important confluence of
Legend
Karst spring
Ponor
Gauging station
Precipitation station
Surface water
National boundary
Carbonate rocks
Intermittent lake
General groundwater
flow drainage
N
0 5 10 km Cartography:
N. Ravbar.
Figure 10.1 Location of investigated karst springs (rivers), precipitation and gauging stations.
Rovte
a
Vrhnika
ic
anica N
vsc
Ljubljanica Ljublj
tko
springs
Pe
Ljublja
jka
ten
Logatec polje Bistra
Ho
Hru
cica
Logas
sic
Men
a
isija
Pokojisce
Planina polje
Unica
Hasberg a
cic
Unica Malni r k nis
Malenscica Ce
Rakov Bl
a os

s cic Postojnska Skocjan cic
a
n o jama Kotlic i Rak
a Blo
towa N
rds V Postojna ke
ipava St
sprin Strzen r erovniscica
g z
en Z
Prestranek Dolenje
Jezero Cernica polje Lipsenjscica
Pivk
Pocek
Piv
Legend Losko polje

a
Jav
ka
Surface river, Petelinjsko jezero

or
Ob Veliki
bas
sinking stream (intermittent lake) rh

nik
Paksko jezero Obrh

Topographic
in
watershed (intermittent lake) Ra

cn
G ora a
Supposed karst Jursce Mali
watershed Obrh
Polje
Pivka
Gauging station Babno polje
Sneznik Tr
bu
Precipitation station ho
vic
Proved underground connection a
Important karst spring
0 5 10 km
Cartography: G. Kovacic, 2015
Figure 10.2 Ljubljanica karst river basin (modified after ibrik etal., 1976; Kovacic, 2010a). Precipitation
and gauging stations included in the study are underlined.
karst waters from the Javorniki plateau, Loko Polje and the Bloke plateau. The major
sinking stream flowing into the polje is the Stren, which collects karst waters emerging
from numerous karst springs of varying abundance on the poljes eastern and southern
sides and partly on the western side at the foot of the Javorniki and Bloke plateaus
(Habic, 1976; Kovacic, 2010a). The right tributary of the Stren is the Cerknicica,
a surface river with a catchment of about 45 km2 (EARS, 2014a). The sum total of
inflows to the polje is 210240 m3/s; maximum runoff can surpass 90 m3/s (Kranjc,
1986; Kovacic, 2010a). As well as disappearing underground in the principal ponor
caves on the poljes north western margin (underground flow towards Rakov kocjan),
water from the polje sinks in numerous swallow holes. The water sinking through
Table 10.1 Key characteristics of the karst springs and watercourses in the study area (daily data for the period 19842013) with characteristic lag
times (days), where the autocorrelation coefficient exceeds the 0.2 value, and calculated regulation times. The locations of the measuring
sites are shown in Figures 10.1 and 10.2.
Characteristic
lag (days)
Spring or river Mean Min Max q5 q95 Qmin: Qmean: Qmax SD CV (%) (rk = 0.2) Treg
Malencica
Q (m3/s) 6.38 1.10 11.24 2.20 9.90 1: 5.80: 10.21 2.39 37.44 56 32
Unica
Q (m3/s) 20.25 1.08 89.22 2.29 62.10 1: 18.72: 82.46 19.96 98.57 47 39
T (C) 8.96 0.8 18.4 3.60 14.40 3.23 36.14 72 107
Stren
h (cm) 225.88 0 654 33 437 120.96 47.27 51 32
Pivka (Prestranek)
Q (m3/s) 2.49 0 43.35 0 11.10 3.95 158.61 40 13
Pivka (Postojnska jama)
h (cm) 123.55 7 829 34 220 60.24 48.76 39 17
Ljubljanica
Q (m3/s) 22.68 0.95 120.48 2.14 75.40 1: 23.77: 126.29 23.80 104.95 37 39
T (C) 9.88 3.7 14.8 6.1 13.2 2.30 23.25 78 58
Bistrica
Q (m3/s) 1.33 0.04 24.90 0.13 4.16 1: 30.11: 565.93 1.38 104.20 45 25
Vipava
Q (m3/s) 6.25 0.73 81.42 1.11 21.90 1: 8.59: 112.00 7.75 124.09 7 7
T (C) 10.35 8.0 15.0 8.8 13.0 1.28 12.38 r(999) = 0.385
Hubelj
Q (m3/s) 2.76 0.18 51.26 0.34 9.38 1: 15.77: 229.94 3.67 132.79 12 25
T (C) 8.53 5.0 13.3 7.3 10.3 0.92 10.78 72
Riana
Q (m3/s) 3.37 0.03 63.16 0.13 15.50 1: 112.3: 2105.27 5.48 162.60 15 22
these swallow holes re-emerges in the Ljubljanica springs (Behrens etal., 1976). Within
the Rakov kocjan karst depression, waters from Cerknica Polje and, in part, from the
Javorniki plateau flow into the Rak, a surface stream. When the Rak finally disappears
underground, it flows towards the Unica and Malencica springs.
To the north west is Planina Polje (the outflow of the Malencica and Unica
springs), an important confluence of karst waters from three contributing sub-
catchments of the Ljubljanica basin: Cerknica Polje, the Pivka basin, and the Snenik
and Javorniki karst plateaus. The Malencica karst spring is a tributary of the more
abundant Unica river. Their catchment areas almost completely overlap, with the
exception of the Lower Pivka basin area (the Pivka with the Nanocica), which is a
part of the Unicas catchment but not part of the Malencicas catchment. In compar-
ison to the Unica spring, the portion of autogenic recharge in the Malencica spring
is greater. The Unica river sinks on the eastern and northern rim of Planina Polje
and flows directly towards the Ljubljanica karst springs. Surface drainage occurs in
the Lower Pivka basin (Eocene flysch) and in the Cerknicica and Blocica drainage
basins (Triassic clastic formations). Alluvial deposits from the Quaternary period
are found along the Cerknicica, Blocica and Pivka rivers and at the bottom of the
higher-lying poljes.
According to the results of the water balance analysis for the 30-year observa-
tion period (19712000), the Malencica spring has a catchment area of 200km2
(Kovacic, 2010b). However, tracer test results conducted in the past show that its
catchment is much larger and extends over 726km2 (EARS, 2009). The catchment
area of the Unica is estimated at 800 km2 (ibrik etal., 1976). The mean discharge
of the Malencica and Unica springs in the reference period 19842013 is 6.38 and
20.25 m3/s respectively (EARS, 2014a). The ratio between minimum, mean and max-
imum discharge of the Malencica spring is 1: 5.8: 10.2, with a minimum discharge
of 1.10 and a maximum of 11.24 m3/s. Minimum discharge of the Unica spring in
the reference period is 1.08 while the maximum is 89.22 m3/s (EARS, 2014a). The
ratio between minimum, mean and maximum discharge is 1: 18.7: 82.5. When water
levels are low, the Malencica contributes almost all of the water in the Unica. Mean
annual precipitation in the common catchment area over the long-term period is
estimated at 1780 mm; mean annual evapotranspiration is 720 mm and mean annual
run-off is 1060 mm, with a runoff coefficient of around 60% (Kovacic, 2010b).
The Pivka river basin has a dual hydrogeological structure. The upper part of
the basin (Prestranek gauging station), which also drains the western parts of the
surrounding Javorniki and Snenik karst plateaus, is in limestones, while the lower
part is in almost impermeable Eocene flysch. The Pivka sinks in the world-famous
Postojna Cave and flows towards Planina Polje as the Pivka branch of Planina Cave.
The cave is a spring of the Unica river, where two subsurface river channels (the
Rak and Pivka branches) meet. The Rak branch drains the waters from the Rakov
kocjan karst depression and the Javorniki plateau. The catchment area of the Pivka
river at its ponor is estimated at 300 km2 (ibrik etal., 1976). In the reference period
19842013 the discharges of the Pivka (Prestranek gauging station) ranged between 0
and 43.35 m3/s, with a mean of 2.49 m3/s (EARS, 2014a). When water levels are low,
the Pivka dries up completely in the upper part of the basin.
North of Planina Polje is Logatec Polje with several small sinking streams
(Figure10.2). Together with the Logatec and Rovte plateaus, this part of the
Ljubljanica catchment covers about 100 km2 (Habic, 1976). The area is mainly built
of Triassic dolomites where surface drainage occurs. Streams sink underground in

numerous ponors at the point of contact with Cretaceous limestones and flow towards
the Ljubljanica springs.
10.3.2 The Vipava and Hubelj catchments

The catchment area of the Vipava karst spring (several outflows) is estimated at
149km2 (Kranjc, 1997; Jemcov & Petric, 2009). It encompasses the Nanos karst
plateau, which is mostly built of Cretaceous limestone. Only a small part of the catch-
ment (an area of 9 km2) is developed on very low permeable Eocene flysch rocks of
the lower Pivka basin, where several surface streams sink into the karst aquifer and
flow towards the Vipava springs (Kranjc, 1997). Though the results of the tracer test
proved an underground connection of the Vipava springs with the Stren (tributary of
the Pivka) (Habic, 1989) and the Pocek area of the western part of the Javorniki karst
plateau (Kogovek, 1999; Kogovek etal., 1999), neither area is included in the esti-
mated area of the springs catchment. The mean discharge of the Vipava spring in the
reference period 19842013 is 6.25 m3/s, with a minimum of 0.73 and a maximum
of 81.42 m3/s (EARS, 2014a). The ratio between minimum, mean and maximum
discharge is 1: 8.6: 112.0. Mean annual precipitation (19842013) in the catchment
(Podkraj precipitation station) is 2068 mm (EARS, 2014b).
The Hubelj spring drains the high karst plateau of Trnovski Gozd in South West
Slovenia, with elevations ranging from 800 to 1200 m asl. The plateau is built of
highly karstified carbonate rocks, mainly Jurassic limestones and dolomites, which
are bounded by Triassic dolomites in the north and Eocene flysch in the south and
east (Jane etal., 1997), acting as a partial hydrogeological barrier. Mean annual
precipitation on the plateau ranges from 2000 to 3000 mm. The Hubelj spring rep-
resents an outflow of karst waters stored in the south-eastern part of the plateau. Its
catchment is estimated at 5090 km2 (Kranjc, 1997; Turk etal., 2013). The spring
discharges at 240 m asl when the water level is low and 40 m higher when the
water level is high. The mean discharge of the Hubelj spring in the reference period
19842013 is 2.76m3/s, with a minimum of 0.18 and a maximum of 51.26 m3/s
(EARS, 2014a). The ratio between minimum, mean and maximum discharge is 1:
15.77: 229.94.
10.3.3 The Bistrica and Riana catchments

The Bistrica karst springs emerge at the western foot of the Snenik karst plateau (700
to 1796 m asl), at the contact with the highly impermeable Eocene flysch of the Reka
Valley. The Ilirska Bistrica gauging station does not include all the water emerging at
the contact. Cretaceous and Jurassic limestones, dolomites and dolomite-limestone
breccias predominate on the deeply karstified plateau. The unary recharge area of
the Bistrica springs only stretches over a small part of the plateau and is estimated
at 50 km2 (Kovacic, 2003). The mean discharge of the Bistrica spring in the period
19842013 is 1.33 m3/s, with a minimum of 0.04 and a maximum of 24.90 m3/s
(EARS, 2014a). The ratio between minimum, mean and maximum discharge is 1:
30.1: 565.9. If in the calculation the amount of water abstracted for water supply is
included (100 l/s), the ratio changes to 1: 9.2: 172.9. Mean annual precipitation in the
catchment is estimated at 1800 mm (Kovacic, 2003).
The mean discharge of the Riana spring in the period 19842013 is 3.37m3/s,
with a minimum of 0.03 and a maximum of 36.16 m3/s (EARS, 2014a). The ratio
between minimum, mean and maximum discharge is 1: 112.3: 2105.3. If in the calcu-
lation the amount of water abstracted for water supply is included (200 l/s), the ratio
changes to 1: 15.5: 275.5. Mean annual precipitation (19842013) in the catchment
(Podgrad precipitation station) is 1465 mm (EARS, 2014b). The recharge area of
the Riana spring covers an area of 245 km2. The spring discharges at an elevation
of 70m asl, while the recharge area is at 500 to 1100 m asl. It is predominantly
composed of carbonate rocks (Cretaceous and Palaeocene limestones). Several small
surface streams from the Eocene flysch of the Brkini hills sink underground and addi-
tionally recharge the karst aquifer (Krivic etal., 1987; Krivic etal., 1989).
10.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
10.4.1 Univariate time series analysis

The autocorrelation functions of daily data from precipitation stations diminish rap-
idly and reach the rk = 0.2 value immediately, reaching maximum values of between
0.204 (Pokojice) and 0.255 (Postojna) after 1 day and the rk = 0 value after 18 to
19days. This means that no memory effect can be detected in precipitation on a daily
scale and that signals (events) appear to be rather random and homogeneous within a
daily period in the investigated area.
The spectral density functions of the daily discharges (water levels) of the springs
(rivers) and those of daily precipitation show peaks at the low frequencies of 0.0027
(364 days) and 0.0055 (182 days), which confirm the presence of important annual
and seasonal (half-year) cycles. The latter is most likely associated with the sub-
Mediterranean precipitation regime with a precipitation maximum in autumn. The
seasonal cycle is less evident in the spectral density functions of the Pivka and almost
invisible in those of the Riana spring. However, the spectral density functions of daily
precipitation also show a periodicity at a frequency of 0.0059 (169 days), which is not
so clearly expressed in the spectral density functions of discharge (water level).
Autocorrelation functions for the daily discharge series show that the Malencica
spring has the largest storage capacity (Table 10.1, Figure 10.3) of all the springs. The
autocorrelation coefficient of the spring reaches the characteristic lag after 56 days,
revealing that the memory effect of the system is high according to the theoretical
values (Mangin, 1984). The results are in accordance with the calculated characteris-
tic lags (16 to 80 days), calculated for the individual hydrological years of the period
19972002 (Kovacic, 2010b). The regulation time of the spring (32 days), however,
indicates the medium storage capacity of the system.
The absence of a fast recharge component is the reason why the density function
of the Stren stream water level has a relatively high regulation time of 32 days, which
is comparable to the high memory effect (51 days) of the stream. The Stren stream
floods all the watercourses emerging on or flowing on the surface into Cerknica Polje.
Once it has reached its flood, the water level of the stream shows long-term persistence
and small variability (CV = 47%). The rank correlation coefficient (Spearmans rho)
between the water level of the Stren and the discharge of the Malencica is high
(0.92). In a study conducted by Kovacic (2009), the calculated memory effects of the
1.0
Unica
Malenscica
Pivka Prestranek
0.8 Pivka Postojnska. h
Strzen h
Ljubljanica
0.6
0.4
r (k)
0.2
0.0
0.2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
k (lag in days)
Figure 10.3 Autocorrelation functions of daily discharges for the Unica, Malencica, Ljubljanica, Stren
(water level) and Pivka (water levels in its middle course and at its ponor).
water levels of the Stren and the Malencica in one hydrological year were identical;
both autocorrelograms reached the rk = 0.2 value after 32 days.
Only the Pivka spring has two gauging stations that show a good correlation
(Spearmans rho = 0.86). The upper and lower courses of the Pivka show slightly dif-
ferent results in the time series analysis. The upper part of the basin is characterised
by a shallow karst aquifer with relatively fast recharge at high water levels (floods),
but is also subject to fast subsurface drainage towards the Planina Polje springs when
the water level is low. Unlike the lower course, the upper course of the Pivka at the
Prestranek gauging station usually dries up completely. The autocorrelation of the
Pivka (Prestranek) discharges exceeds the characteristic lag after 40 days and has a
regulation time of 13 days, showing that the storage capacity of the upper part of
the Pivka basin is small to medium. Data for the levels of the Pivka at the Postojna
Cave ponor show similar values: the characteristic lag is reached after 39 days and
the regulation time is 17 days which, surprisingly, is four days longer than at the
Prestranek gauging station. In its lower course, the Pivka is highly influenced by the
surface-flowing Nanocica, which ought to considerably decrease the memory effect
of the Pivka at its ponor (Postojnska jama) and shorten the regulation time. This,
however, is not the case, owing to: i) floods that occur outside the Pivka ponor when
the amount of incoming water exceeds the swallow capacity of the ponor, which
results in a prolongation of the water level time series persistence and ii) the use of
a water level hydrological time series in the analysis, which generally show smaller
variability (CV = 49%; Table10.1) than discharges. The influence of the Nanocica is
apparent in a CV for the temperature of the Pivka that is higher than that for any of
the other springs in the study (63%). The temperature characteristic lag at the Pivka
ponor is 77 days. The highest value of rxy between the temperatures of the Pivka ponor
and the Unica is reached at k= 14 (rxy = 0.74), indicating that the temperatures of
the Unica react faster.
The most abundant of the karst springs in the Ljubljanica river basin is the Unica.
Its memory effect is 47 days (Figure 10.3), which corresponds to a medium to high
storage capacity. Surprisingly, and for an unexplained reason, the regulation time of
the spring (39 days) exceeds that of the Malencica by seven days and indicates a
longer impulse response, which is exactly the opposite of the results calculated in the
study conducted by Kovacic (2009). The daily temperature autocorrelation function
of the spring shows a memory effect of 72 days, meaning that the impulse response
of the system to temperature is long. This has also been observed in the study area
by means of short-term time series analysis (Kogovek & Petric, 2010). Temperature
commonly shows a longer memory effect than other hydrological time series (dis-
charge, water level, electrical conductivity, turbidity), which corresponds to the low
variability of temperatures (Table 10.1). At the same time, a temperature time series
provides less information about the structure of the karst system, since it is not a con-
servative tracer (Larocque etal., 1998; Kovacic, 2009).
As we have already mentioned, the characteristics of the discharges of the
Malencica (Malni gauging station) are reflected in those of the Unica (Hasberg gaug-
ing station); the Spearmans rho between the stations is 0.96. A minor part of the
recharge of the Unica spring comes from the Pivka. The value of the same correlation
coefficient between water levels at the Pivka ponor and discharges of the Unica is 0.93.
The Spearmans rho correlation between the Unica and the Ljubljanica (0.94) also
confirms the significant contribution of the Unica to the recharge of the Ljubljanica
springs; their mean discharge exceeds the Unicas by just 12%. The Ljubljanica springs
have the same regulation time of 39 days as the Unica, showing that the length of the
impulse response of the system is medium. The memory effect of the springs is, how-
ever, slightly lower (37 days), which still indicates the medium storage capacity of the
system, although the latter value is the lowest among all the gauging stations studied
in the Ljubljanica river basin. One of the reasons for this could be the relatively high
outflow capacity of the Ljubljanica permanent and intermittent karst springs, which
can exceed 110 m3/s, meaning that the system could be subject to rapid drainage. The
Ljubljanica karst springs (CV = 105%) are also characterised by greater discharge
variability in comparison to the Unica (CV = 99%). Another reason could be the
influence of the Bela surface stream during intense precipitation. The latter collects
water from partly karstified dolomite and flows into the Ljubljanica upstream of the
gauging station (Habic, 1976). The temperature memory effect of the Ljubljanica
spring (78 days) is similar to that of the Unica. The cross-correlation temperature
function between the Unica and Ljubljanica shows a clear asymmetry towards posi-
tive k values, reaching the maximum value at k = +10 (0.872) and once more indicat-
ing the significant influence of the Unica on the Ljubljanica springs.
The autocorrelation function of the Bistrica spring, recharged only by autogenous
precipitation from the Snenik plateau, shows that the memory effect of the spring is
medium (45 days), while the regulation time of 25 days indicates the relatively short
duration of the influence of the input signals (Figure 10.4). It is uncertain whether
the memory effect also reflects the medium storage capacity of the spring or can be
attributed at least to some extent to the small total outflow capacity of the springs.
Unlike in the Ljubljanica river basin, where some large spring caves are present, there
are no known caves in the outflow zone of the Bistrica springs (Cave Registry, 2014).
The Hubelj karst spring drains the deeply karstified Trnovski Gozd plateau. The low
memory effect of the spring (12 days) corresponds to the small storage capacity of the
1.0
Bistrica
Vipava
0.8 Hubelj
Rizana
0.6
0.4
r (k)
0.2
0.0
0.2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
k (lag in days)
Figure 10.4 Autocorrelation functions of daily discharges for the Bistrica, Vipava, Hubelj and Riana
karst springs.
system and indicates the very rapid flow of infiltrated precipitation water through the
system of a hydraulically connected network of fissures and conduits in its vadose and
phreatic zones towards the spring. Over a shorter period, Kranjc (1997) calculated the
memory effect of the spring to be 10 days. The high value of the springs discharge CV
(133%) and groundwater level fluctuations of several tens of metres show that the out-
flow capacity of the spring is not limited and the spring can drain large amounts of water
in a short period of time. Surprisingly, the regulation time (25 days) is not completely in
accordance with the calculated memory effect of the spring, but again it implies the small
storage capacity and short impulse response of the spring. In terms of the temperature
autocorrelation function, the spring shows similar values to the Unica and Ljubljanica
springs (72 days). It also has the smallest variability (CV= 11%) of the temperature time
series in this study. The regulation time of the daily temperatures could not be calculated.
The highest discharge variability among all the spring studied is that of the Riana
karst spring (CV = 163%). The memory effect of the spring is low (15 days) which
corresponds to the small storage capacity of the aquifer, while the regulation time
(22days) indicates that the length of the impulse response of the system is short.
Among all the springs studied, the Vipava spring has the lowest memory effect
(7 days) which indicates a well-drained karst aquifer with larger and well-connected
conduits that prevent significant water storage. For a much shorter period, Jemcov &
Petric (2009) calculated a memory effect of 6 days. Although the Vipava springs are
also recharged by sinking streams, the importance of the latter is insignificant when
compared to autogenic recharge by precipitation water. The hydraulic conductivity of
the system of active fissures and conduits within the vadose zone of the Vipava aquifer
must be quite high to immediately transport the pressure pulse of infiltrated precipi-
tation water from the Nanos plateau towards the springs. The regulation time of the
spring is 7 days, compared to 14 days (Jemcov & Petric, 2009) and 12 days (Kranjc,
1997). The temperature autocorrelation function decreases slowly and shows values
above rk = 0.2 at lags exceeding 999 days.
The memory effects (rk = 0.2) of the various springs show no significant (p<
0.05) correlation (Spearmans rho = 0.32) with regulation times, while they do show
a weak positive (though not statistically significant) correlation with mean discharges
(Spearmans rho = 0.50). Generally, this means that more abundant karst springs with
larger catchments show higher memory effects, although these aquifers cannot as a
rule be considered poorly karstified. Interestingly, the values of the springs coefficient
of variation show a relatively high and statistically significant negative correlation
with the memory effects of the springs (Spearmans rho = -0.82), meaning that the
greater the variability of the springs discharges, the shorter the memory effects of the
springs.
10.4.2 Bivariate time series analysis

Delays between precipitation events and the reaction of the discharges of springs
vary between 0 and 7 days and the values of maximum correlation coefficients vary
between 0.19 and 0.68 (Table 10.2). The lowest are the cross-correlation functions
between the Jurce precipitation station and the Malencica spring (rxy(1) = 0.19)
and the water levels of the Stren stream (rxy(7) = 0.19) (Figure 10.5). In compar-
ison to the Vipava, Hubelj and Riana springs, the precipitation-discharge (water
level) cross-correlation functions in the Ljubljanica basin (Unica, Malencica, Pivka,
Ljubljanica, Stren) and those of the Bistrica spring decrease relatively slowly with
gentle slopes (maximum rxy ranging between 0.19 and 0.44), which indicate their
higher filtration capacity of rainfall signals. The highest cross-correlation coefficient
is that of the Pivka at its ponor (water levels) with the Postojna precipitation sta-
tion (rxy(0) = 0.44), although the shape of the function in distant lags does not differ
considerably from the rest of the functions (Figure 10.5). The response of the Pivka at
its ponor to precipitation events is immediate, which is partly due to the influence of
the surface drainage in the lower Pivka basin, while at the Prestranek gauging station
the Pivka shows a delay of two days. Its discharge does not start to increase until the
shallow aquifer in its upper course fills up and the river appears on the surface. The
mean values of the precipitation-discharge coherence function in the Ljubljanica basin
vary between 0.48 and 0.64 (Figure 10.6), which is comparable to the results from
the literature (Larocque etal., 1998; Panagopoulos & Lambrakis, 2006) and does not
indicate highly karstified aquifers.
According to the precipitation-discharge cross-correlation analysis, the Vipava,
Hubelj and Riana springs show an apparently smaller filtration capacity of precip-
itation events in their catchments, with higher maximum values of cross-correlation
coefficients (0.54 to 0.68) and shorter response times (Table 10.2, Figure 10.7). The
reaction to precipitation events is immediate and more intense, which indicates that
the systems can be characterised as being well-karstified, something that is already
shown by the results of the autocorrelation analysis. All three systems have a more lin-
ear response to precipitation (coherence functions vary between 0.63 and 0.72). The
Vipava spring shows the greatest cross-correlation and highest coherence function
coefficient of all the springs studied.
The mean delay between precipitation and discharges varies between 0.47 days
(Pivka, Prestranek gauging station) and 5.98 days (Bistrica); in general the results cor-
respond to the calculated values of the cross-correlation function. Cut-off frequencies
Table 10.2 Summary results of precipitation-discharge and discharge-discharge cross-correlation analysis with maximum values of cross-correlation
coefficients (rxy) with corresponding lags in days (k), average coherence function (COxy), mean delay (MD) and cut-off frequency (COFF)
of a cross-spectral analysis in the study area (daily data for the period 19842013). The locations of the measuring sites are shown in
Figures10.1 and 10.2.
Jurce Postojna Pokojice Podgrad Podkraj Stren Pivka (river) Pivka (ponor) Unica
Spring or river (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (h) (Q) (h) (Q)
Malencica
Max rxy(k) 0.194 (1) 0.907 (-1) 0.692 (0)
COxy 0.519 0.508 0.417
MD 5.92 0.72 0.93
CUFF 16.89 9.24 17.17
Unica
Max rxy(k) 0.266 (1) 0.293 (1) 0.806 (-2) 0.906 (0) 0.756 (0)
COxy 0.577 0.627 0.529 0.534 0.559
MD 1.30 0.48 6.60 1.50 5.50
CUFF 5.25 3.18 5.60 7.95 3.32
Stren (h)
Max rxy(k) 0.191 (7)
COxy 0.538
MD 1.53
CUFF 3.44
Pivka (river)
Max rxy(k) 0.249 (2)
COxy 0.482
MD 0.47
CUFF 11.46
Pivka (ponor) (h)
Max rxy(k) 0.384 (1) 0.436 (0) 0.756 (0)
COxy 0.587 0.631 0.569
MD 1.85 3.64 2.82
CUFF 2.32 3.16 5.55
(Continued)
Table 10.2 (Continued).
Jurce Postojna Pokojice Podgrad Podkraj Stren Pivka (river) Pivka (ponor) Unica
Spring or river (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (h) (Q) (h) (Q)
Ljubljanica
Max rxy(k) 0.392 (1) 0.355 (1) 0.934 (0)
COxy 0.631 0.636 0.703
MD 2.74 1.32 0.66
CUFF 2.91 3.00 3.27
Bistrica
Max rxy(k) 0.278 (2)
COxy 0.552
MD 5.98
CUFF 17.05
Vipava
Max rxy(k) 0.679 (0)
COxy 0.722
MD 0.49
CUFF 3.02
Hubelj
Max rxy(k) 0.634 (0)
COxy 0.634
MD 0.61
CUFF 9.51
Riana
Max rxy(k) 0.538 (0)
COxy 0.645
MD 1.16
CUFF 4.76
1.0
Jursce Malenscica
Jursce Pivka Prestranek
Jursce Unica
0.8 Jursce Strzen (h)
Postojna Pivka Postojnska j. (h)
Pokojisce Ljubljanica
0.6
rxy (k)
0.4
0.2
0.0
40 20 0 20 40 60 80
k (lag in days)
Figure 10.5 Cross-correlation functions of discharges and daily precipitation series as inputs for the
Unica, Malencica, Ljubljanica, Stren (water level) and Pivka (water levels in its middle
course and at its ponor).
range from 2.32 days (Pivka, Postojnska jama) and 17.05 days (Bistrica), which points
to evident differences in the abilities of the springs in question to filter precipitation
events of varying duration.
Discharge (water level)-discharge (water level) cross-correlation coefficients
show higher values then precipitation-discharge cross-correlation values, and range
from 0.69 to 0.93 with delays of between -2 and 0 days (Figures 10.8 and 10.9). The
negative time lags (Stren-Malencica and Stren-Unica) correspond to the faster
response to recharge of the gauging station positioned downstream in comparison
to the upstream station. The highest cross-correlation coefficient is calculated for
the Unica-Ljubljanica springs (rxy = 0.93). The cross-correlogram shows a slight
asymmetry to the negative values, but an instant response to the recharge of both
springs. The value of the average coherence function (0.70), the mean delay (0.66
days) and the cut-off frequency (3.27 days) all imply well-developed underground
connections and a similar response of the springs to the more or less homogeneous
recharge of karst aquifers by precipitation in the catchments. The second highest
cross-correlation coefficient is calculated for the Stren-Malencica pair of variables
(rxy = 0.91). The high correlation value of the almost symmetrical function reflects
the fact that both time series have a similar structure. The discharge variability is
small, whereas the water levels of the Stren show a slow increase once the water in
the river channel starts to overflow and induces the appearance of Lake Cerknica
(Kovacic, 2010b).
The Pivka (Prestranek gauging station) is not directly connected to the Malencica
and Unica springs, but the cross-correlation coefficient shows how the springs react to
recharge from the upper part of the Pivka basin. Due to the complexity of its aquifer,
the Malencica spring shows much lower cross-correlation coefficient and coherence
function values than the Unica. However, the cross-correlation coefficient between the
Vrhnika
a
ic
nica N
Ljublja
vsc
tko
Pe
jka
0.3
ten
6(
Ho Logatec polje
1)
0.6
3
) 0.70
cica
0.6
Logas
4
(1)
0.93 (0
9
0.3
Un Pokojisce
ica
Planina polje
0.91 (0) 0.53 Hasberg ca

Malni nisci
0.76 (0) 0.56 0.8 C erk
0.9 1( Bl
2
0.63
1( )0 os
1
)0 .53 cic
Postojnska a
(1)
.51 Dolenje
0.44 (0) 0.63 jama Jezero
0.29
a
cic Postojna
0.19 (1
s Str
a no 2 ze
N (0) 0.4 n
0.69
0.27
0.76 (0) 0.57

) 0.52
Prestranek
0.3
Cernica polje
(1)
8(
Legend
0.58
4
1)
Losko polje
0.5
0.5
Surface river, 0.2

7)
Ob
9
5
9(
sinking stream (2
)0 rh
0.1
Watershed .48
Polje
Important karst spring Jursce
Piv
Gauging station
ka
Precipitation station Babno polje

CCF P Q (h) Tr
b uh
CCF Q (h) Q (h) ov
Maximum rxy (k)
ica
0.45
(1) Lag in days at max rxy (k)
0.35 Average coherence function
0 5 10km
Cartography: G. Kovacic, 2015
Figure 10.6 Results of precipitation-discharge and discharge-discharge cross-correlation and coher-

ence function of daily time series in the period 19842013 in the Ljubljanica river basin.
water levels of the Pivka at its ponor and the discharges of the Unica is not high either
(0.76), which means that the input signal of the Pivka ponor is significantly trans-
formed on its way to the Unica spring. The influence of the Nanocica on the Pivka
at its ponor is reflected in the low value of the cross-correlation coefficient (0.76)
between the Prestranek and Postojnska jama gauging stations.
In comparison to the calculated precipitation-spring mean delays are much shorter
(ranging from 0.66 to 6.6 days) between sinking streams and springs, while the values
of the cut-off frequencies are very similar (Table 10.2).
Calculations of Spearmans rho show that a statistically significant (p < 0.05) neg-
ative correlation exists between the calculated memory effects of the springs (rivers)
1.0
Podkraj Vipava
Podkraj Hubelj
Podgrad Bistrica
0.8 Podgrad Rizana
0.6
rxy (k)
0.4
0.2
0.0
40 20 0 20 40 60 80
k (lag in days)
Figure 10.7 Cross-correlation functions of discharges and daily precipitation series as inputs for the
Bistrica,Vipava, Hubelj and Riana karst springs.
1.0
Strzen (h) Malenscica
Strzen (h) Unica
0.8 Unica Ljubljanica
0.6
0.4
rxy (k)
0.2
0.0
0.2
100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100
k (lag in days)
Figure 10.8 Cross-correlation functions of discharges (water levels) as inputs and discharges as out-
puts for the Unica, Malencica and Ljubljanica karst springs.
and the values of precipitation-discharge (water level) average coherence functions

(0.65), meaning that the higher the coherence function the lower the memory effect
of the spring. Furthermore, a statistically negative correlation also exists between
the average coherence function and the cut-off frequency (0.64). Both values are
consistent with expectations. The cut-off frequencies also show a significant positive
1.0
Pivka Prestranek Malenscica
Pivka Prestranek Pivka Postojnska j. (h)
Pivka Postojnska j. (h) Unica
0.8 Pivka Prestranek Unica
0.6
0.4
rxy (k)
0.2
0.0
0.2
100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100
k (lag in days)
Figure 10.9 Cross-correlation functions of discharges (water levels) as inputs and discharges (water
levels) as outputs for the Unica and Malencica karst springs and for the Pivka river at its ponor.
correlation with the mean discharges (0.66), meaning that more abundant karst
springs filter longer-lasting precipitation events.
10.4.3 Significance of the results and outlook

The results of the time series analysis for daily data (period 19842013) of nine
selected karst springs show that springs and their corresponding aquifers in Slovenia
can be characterised as poorly karstified (high memory effect), medium karstified or
well-karstified systems (low memory effect). A generalised comparison is shown in
Figure 10.10.
For the Vipava, Hubelj and Riana springs, it can be concluded that their systems
are characterised by rapid drainage of the infiltrated precipitation water through a
hydraulically well-connected network of conduits and fissures, which corresponds to
the calculated low to very low storage capacity. On the other hand, the karst springs
of the Ljubljanica river basin (Malencica, Stren, Unica, Pivka and Ljubljanica) and
the Bistrica karst spring show higher memory effects, which indicates the larger stor-
age capacity of these aquifers.
The results of the auto- and cross-correlation analysis in the present study show
that well-developed karst aquifers of complex structure (autogenic plus allogenic
recharge) can also have a relatively large storage capacity, although water flows
through the system of unobstructed conduits (caves) at high velocities (Gabrovek
etal., 2010) of up to several hundreds of m/h. One would expect these systems to
have lower memory effects, as is the case of the Malencica and Unica springs. These
aquifers cannot, however, be considered systems with low hydraulic conductivity in
absolute terms (Mangin, 1984). According to these findings, not all karst systems
Autocorrelation Q
High MEMORY EFFECT Low
High STORAGE CAPACITY Low

IMPULSE RESPONSE
Long Short
OF THE SYSTEM
Long
Low
Malenscica
Strz en
Unica
Cross-correlation PQ
CROSS-CORR. COEFF.
RESPONSE TIME
Ljubljanica Pivka (Prestranek)

Bistrica Pivka (Postojnska jama)
Riz ana
Hubelj
Vipava
Short
High
well
karstified
Figure 10.10 Classification of the studied springs into groups according to the results of the time
series analysis. Binary karst systems are marked in bold.
characterised by a higher memory effect should be considered to be poorly karstified

(i.e. the Malencica, Unica, Stren (Figure 10.10). The higher memory effect of these
springs can also be attributed to the limited discharge capacity of their aquifers, which
is reflected in the low values of coefficients of variation (e.g. the Malencica spring).
The last parameter shows an inverse correlation with the calculated memory effects
of the studied springs, meaning that the greater the variability of the springs dis-
charges, the shorter the memory effects of the springs (see the Vipava and the
Malencica as examples). For the same reason, in cases where only water level data
sets are available, as o
pposed to discharges (meaning a lower variability of the vari-
able), caution is needed, since the results of the autocorrelation will as a rule show
higher memory effects.
An important conclusion of the study is that there is no link between the type of
karst aquifer in terms of its recharge characteristics (binary or unary system) and the
calculated memory effects. For example, the Bistrica and Hubelj springs (both unary
karst systems) show completely different values for the calculated memory effects and
the corresponding storage capacities of their aquifers.
In view of the above, caution needs to be used when classifying karst systems into
groups on the basis of the results of a time series analysis. Furthermore, in order to
obtain a more general picture of the hydrogeological structure and functioning of a
karst system in absolute terms, it is important to consider longer hydrological data
sets (more successive hydrological years), since they include more information and
reflect more average conditions. Finally, the results of the time series analysis should
be interpreted together with the results of other methods (e.g. speleological investiga-
tions, tracer tests, modelling, etc.) used in karst hydrology in order to avoid bias in
conclusions.
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ibrik K., Lewicki F., Picinin A. (1976): Hydrologic investigations. Investigations in Ljubljanica
river basin, Investigations before the tracing test 19721975. In: Gospodaric R., Habic P.
(editors) Underground water tracing: Investigations in Slovenia 19721975. Third
International Symposium of Underground Water Tracing (3. SUWT) Ljubljana-Bled, 156.
Chapter 11
Characterisation of the influence

of evaporite rocks on the
hydrochemistry of carbonate
aquifers: The Grazalema
Mountain Range (Southern Spain)
Damin Snchez & Bartolom Andreo
Department of Geology and Centre of Hydrogeology of the University
of Mlaga ( CEHIUMA). Faculty of Science, Mlaga (Spain)
ABSTRACT
Alpine and Mediterranean karst aquifers are frequently associated with Upper Triassic (Keuper)
deposits which generally constitute the substratum or impervious base of the system given their
predominantly clayey nature. When the groundwater stored in the carbonate aquifer comes
into direct contact with the Triassic formation, the result is a modification of the chemical com-
position of the water due to the dissolution of high solubility evaporite rocks interspersed with
the Triassic clays. A hydrochemical and temporal characterisation of the effect of evaporites on
the chemical composition of two carbonate aquifers located in Sierra de Grazalema Mountain
Range (Southern Spain) has been undertaken. Results show differences in the intensity of the
evaporite signal as well as in the mineral species responsible for the hydrochemical modifica-
tion: from sulphate-related minerals (gypsum/anhydrite) to rock salt.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Numerous carbonate aquifers located in Alpine regions are made up of Jurassic

limestones and dolostones the base of which comprises rocks of Upper Triassic age.
These rocks largely consist of fine terrigenous deposits of continental or shallow-
marine origin (Martn-Algarra & Vera, 2004) which do not allow water to circulate
through them.
The origin of these Triassic deposits is related to the first stages of the Alpine cycle,
when large sedimentary basins were created after the rifting of the Pangea during the
Upper Permian-Lower Triassic. The basins were filled with thick clayey-sandstone
and evaporite sequences locally accompanied by basic volcanism (Martn-Algarra
& Vera, 2004). This sedimentation took place over large areas located to the south
and south east of the Iberian Massif as well as over other areas of central Europe.
Subsequent tectonic movements during the Alpine orogeny led to the current cha-
otic mixture of clays, sandstones, carbonate and subvolcanic rocks, and evaporites.
The extensive areas occupied by these deposits became shallow carbonate platforms
during the Lower Jurassic.
The Triassic rocks have traditionally been considered as impervious units given
their primary clayey nature, constituting both the lower and lateral hydrogeological
boundaries of many alpine carbonate aquifers. Nevertheless, the high solubility of
the evaporites contained in this unit leads to a process of cross formational flow,
or karstification processes that resulted in an increase in permeability, at least on a
local basis. The presence of karst features such as dolines, sinkholes, groundwater-
dependent wetlands, pumping wells and saline springs reflect both the karstification
processes and groundwater flow (Carrasco et al., 2005; Snchez et al., 2009).
The presence of evaporite rocks in carbonate sedimentary sequences is a charac-
teristic inherent to the alpine aquifers in southern Spain (Lpez-Chicano et al., 2001;
Moral et al., 2008; Mudarra & Andreo, 2011). Alpine aquifers are generally found
in Jurassic limestones and dolostones overlaying Upper Triassic deposits. Similar geo-
logical configurations can be found in other European regions such as the Northern
Appennines in Italy (Capaccioni et al., 2001), south western Switzerland (Kilchmann
et al., 2004) and Southern France (Aquilina et al., 2002).
The most common mineral species in the Triassic evaporite facies are sulphates
and halides: gypsum (CaSO42H2O), its dehydrated equivalent anhydrite (CaSO4) and
halite or rock salt (NaCl). They all originate from precipitation in over-saturated
water under arid climatic conditions (Goldscheider & Andreo, 2007).
The effect of evaporites on the chemical composition of groundwater stored in
carbonate aquifers is mainly reflected in the concentrations of the ions that consti-
tute the mineral composition of evaporite rocks: SO42-, Ca2+, Na+ and Cl-. This effect
can range from slight increases of some or all of these components to high contents
which determine the chemical facies of the water (Plummer et al., 1990; Capaccioni
et al., 2001; Ma et al., 2011). Since Ca2+ can also come from the dissolution of car-
bonate minerals including calcite, aragonite and dolomite, SO42-, Na+ and Cl- are the
best elements to assess the contribution of evaporite rocks to the final composition
of groundwater draining from carbonate aquifers. Water that was in contact with
evaporites has sometimes also a higher concentration of trace elements (Hunkeler &
Mudry, 2007).
This chapter aims to characterise the effect of the evaporite rocks on the chem-
ical composition of the water drained by karst springs as well as their temporal
evolution and their relationship with the hydrodynamic response. The study area is
the westernmost part of the Sierra de Grazalema Mountain karst system in Southern
Spain.
11.2 THE GRAZALEMA MOUNTAIN RANGE
The area of interest corresponds to the El Bosque and La Silla carbonate aquifers,
which are located in the western sector of the Grazalema Mountain Range in the
province of Cdiz, Southern Spain (Figure11.1).
The relief is rugged with altitudes ranging from less than 300 m asl in the western-
most part of the study area to almost 1000 m asl in the central sector of the El Bosque
aquifer. The latter is separated from La Silla aquifer by a clayey valley (Figure11.1).
The prevailing climate is semi-continental Mediterranean. In general, the annual dis-
tribution of precipitation presents a marked seasonal pattern. The first rainfall nor-
mally takes place in the autumn, at the beginning of the hydrological year. This is
often in the form of intense storms from the Atlantic Ocean, featuring heavy precip-
itation. Winter rainfall and, to a lesser extent, spring rains are commonly associated
276.000 278.000 280.000 282.000 284.000

N
W E
4.072.000
S SPAIN
sea
ean
ran
ter
Atlantic
M edi
ocean
4.070.000
Grazalema
Mountain
Range
4.068.000
Spring Lithology
4.066.000
Water reservoir Quaternary desposits

River or stream Travertines (Quaternary)
Aquifers boundaries Flysch. Clays and sandstones
(Cretaceous-Miocene)
Unconformity
Maris (Cretaceous-Oligocene)
Fault
4.064.000
Limestones with chert

Normal fault (Middle-Upper Jurassic)
Inverse fault Limestones (Lower Jurassic)
Dolostones (Lower Jurassic)
Syncline
Clays and evaporites (Triassic)
Figure 11.1 Location and geological map of the study area.
with humid winds, which account for most of the annual precipitation. During the
rest of the year, rainfall is scarce to non-existent, particularly in summer. The historic
mean annual precipitation for the period 19652006 ranges from 900 to 1000 mm/
year, with a positive gradient towards the east where values exceeding 1000 mm/year
are recorded. The mean annual temperature in the region is about 16C (Glvez-
Maestre, 2005) and both precipitation and temperature vary with the altitude.
Geologically, the two aquifers consist of rocks belonging to the External Zone
of the Betic Cordillera. The stratigraphic sequence begins with clays and evaporites
from the Upper Triassic age, continues with a thick Jurassic dolostones and limestones
series and finishes with Middle-Upper Jurassic limestones with chert and Lower
CretaceousOligocene marly limestones and marls at the top (Peyre, 1974; Martn-
Algarra, 1987) (Figure11.1). Flysch-type clays and sandstones outcrop in the central
and eastern sector of the area. The structure of both aquifers consists of north west
to south east (El Bosque) and north north west to south south east (La Silla) synclines
the cores of which are occupied by Jurassic-Cretaceous marly-limestones. The entire
folded structure has been affected by more recent fractures, predominantly with north
east to south west and north west to south east directions.
El Bosque and La Silla aquifers are made up of fractured and karstified Jurassic
dolostones and limestones. Adjacent marly-limestones behave as an aquitard.
Impervious lateral boundaries are the Triassic clays (mainly the western and southern
limits), flysch clays to the east and Cretaceous marls (only in El Bosque aquifer). The
base of La Silla aquifer and probably most of El Bosque aquifer consists of Triassic
clays with evaporites.
Recharge to the aquifers takes place exclusively by direct infiltration of rainwa-
ter into dolostones, limestones and, to a lesser extent, limestones with chert, while
discharge is produced through springs located at the edges of the mountains, coin-
ciding with the contact between the permeable carbonate rocks and the aquitards, as
well as by pumping intended for drinking water supply (only in El Bosque aquifer).
Table11.1 summarises the main characteristics of the discharge points that were anal-
ysed. Springs are located at altitudes ranging from 290 to 345 m asl. El Bosque aquifer
has a total area of 18 km2 from which 16 km2 correspond to permeable outcrops,
while La Silla has an area of 11.5 km2, from which 10 km2 are permeable.
Karst surface landforms are not well developed in the area. Karrenfield is rare and
the presence of exokarstic forms such as dolines is scarce. Travertine formations are
recognised in the borders of both aquifers. On the south west edge of El Bosque unit
there is an inactive travertine outcrop indicating the existence of a former drainage
point at this place. The western limit of La Silla aquifer has clusters of small travertine
outcrops, one of them is associated to the discharge of Esparragosilla spring and is
still active.
Vegetation is mostly Mediterranean shrub. No known sources of pollution exist
on the recharge areas apart from some extensive livestock farming.
11.3 METHODOLOGY
Field measurements and spring sampling were undertaken between November 2012
to November 2013. Records were kept of the discharge rate and the chemical com-
position of the water drained by selected springs. At the same time as samples were
taken, water temperature, pH and electrical conductivity were measured in situ, using
portable equipment (WTW Cond 3310, HACH HQ40d), with an accuracy of 0.1C,
0.01 and 1 S/cm respectively. Spring discharge was also measured using a propeller
flowmeter model OTT C31 mostly during low and medium flow conditions, and a
salt-dilution flowmeter model SalinoMADD was used in high flow conditions. On
average, flow measurements and water sampling were performed every 23 weeks,
although during flood events monitoring was conducted more frequently; sampling
was reduced to fortnightly and monthly during low flow periods.
Table 11.1 General description of the selected springs.
Spring Aquifer Discharge elevation (m asl) Annual discharge (hm3)a
Fuente Santa El Bosque 310 0,5

Quejigo El Bosque 312 1,0
Vihuelo El Bosque 296 1,4
Mquina El Bosque 345 0,8
Esparragosilla La Silla 290 3,0
: for the period Nov12Nov13

a
Chemical analyses were carried out at the Centre of Hydrogeology of the

University of Mlaga. Alkalinity (Alk) was measured by volumetric titration using
0.02 N H2SO4 to pH 4.45. The chemical analyses of the major components (Ca2+,
Mg2+, Na+, Cl-, SO42-, NO3-) were carried out using high pressure liquid chro-
matography (Metrohm 791 Basic IC model) with 0.1 mg/l of accuracy. Samples
were filtered before being introduced in the system (filter in line as well as a
precolumn-filter).
11.4 RESULTS
11.4.1 Hydrochemical characterisation

Statistical parameters for the chemical composition of the groundwater drained by the
monitored springs are shown in Table11.2. The mean values of electrical conductiv-
ity (EC) cover a wide range. The water samples taken at Vihuelo spring are the least
mineralised, with a mean value for the monitored period of 551 S/cm. Esparragosilla
drains the most mineralised water with EC values over 2000 S/cm. Coefficients of
variation of EC values are relatively low in all cases (2.37.5%). Mean water tem-
peratures are all over 17C, with a maximum of 17.5C in Esparragosilla. The spring
water temperatures are slightly higher than the average air temperature for the area
(16C; Glvez-Maestre, 2005). This average temperature is from El Bosque weather
station, which is located at a lower altitude (285 m asl) with respect to the recharge
areas of both aquifers (230 to 970 m asl), where mean annual temperatures should
be slightly colder.
The water drained by the springs can be classified into three groups accord-
ing to their chemical facies: calcium sulphate (Esparragosilla), calcium bicarbonate
Table 11.2 Main statistical descriptors of a selection of physico-chemical parameters of all water
samples analysed (period November 2012November 2013). (n) number of samples, (cv)
coefficient of variation, EC (electrical conductivity), T (temperature), Alk (alkalinity).
EC Alk SO42- Ca2+ Mg2+ Cl- Na+

Spring (mS/cm) T(C) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
Fuente Santa n 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11
Mean 853 17.1 318 72 102 24 121 77
cv (%) 5.1% 1.5% 6.6% 5.5% 8.2% 1.3% 12.1% 9.8%
Quejigo n 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24
Mean 631 17.1 325 62 96 25 43 30
cv (%) 7.5% 1.1% 3.6% 8.4% 6.5% 2.5% 34.3% 31.9%
Vihuelo n 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24
Mean 551 17.4 320 57 94 26 17 11
cv (%) 4.2% 1.1% 3.8% 5.4% 9.6% 1.9% 7.7% 4.2%
Mquina n 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22
Mean 564 17.4 310 89 95 32 11 8
cv (%) 2.3% 2.6% 1.9% 5.2% 4.2% 1.5% 7.4% 2.7%
Esparragosilla n 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21
Mean 2,243 17.5 278 831 324 68 322 193
cv (%) 5.2% 1.2% 12.4% 12.4% 8.2% 9.1% 6.7% 5.9%
A) 100
Esparragosilla
B) 30
Vihuelo 20 Esparragosilla
Quejigo Fuente Santa
Fuente Santa
3
Mquina Mquina
NO
10 9 Quejigo
1:1
Cl+
Ca
Vihuelo ip
8 sh
+M
4+ on
(Ca2++Mg2+)Alk (meq/l)
7
ti
ela
SO
g
6
icr
etr
5
4 iom
ich
3 Sto
0 0
2
0
10
0
0
10
0
1
0.9
O3
0.8
0.7
HC
Na
SO
Mg
0.6
+K
3+
4
0.5
CO
0.4
0.3
100 0.6 0.8 2 4 6 8 20

1 10
100
0
0
0
10
SO42 (meq/l)
100 Ca 0 0 Cl+NO3 100

Figure 11.2
(A) Piper diagram. (B) Binary diagram showing the relationship between SO42 and
non-alkalinity Ca2++Mg2+.
(Vihuelo, Quejigo and Mquina) and calcium-sodium bicarbonate-chloride facies

(Fuente Santa) (Figure11.2A).
In Figure11.2B the SO42- concentration has been plotted versus the non-alkalinity
Ca +Mg2+ content, the latter being calculated as the sum of the concentrations of
2+
these two components minus the alkalinity, in meq/l. The stoichiometric line 1:1 is
shown in the graph. Water samples from Esparragosilla spring show the highest con-
tents of SO42- and non-alkalinity Ca2++Mg2+, with values exceeding 10 meq/l for both
parameters, whereas the rest of springs display much lower values ranging from 0.5
to 2.5 meq/l for non-alkalinity Ca2++Mg2+ and from 1 to 2 meq/l for SO42-.Water
samples taken at Esparragosilla spring plot on the stoichiometric line 1:1, indicating
that the Ca2+ and Mg2+ are not related to the dissolution of carbonate species (calcite,
dolomite). The increases/decreases in SO42- concentrations registered during the mon-
itoring period are accompanied by similar stoichiometric variations of non-alkalinity
Ca2++Mg2+, suggesting a similar origin for the three components which should be
related to the dissolution of evaporite rocks. The calcium sulphate facies of the water
drained by this spring (Figure11.2A) suggests that the chemical composition is mainly
controlled by the dissolution of sulphate mineral species (gypsum and anhydrite).
Nevertheless, some of the water samples show slight increases in Na+K concentration,
which might be indicative of halite dissolution also contributing to the final chemical
composition of the groundwater drained by Esparragosilla spring.
Water samples from the rest of springs show a different pattern. They do not plot
on the 1:1 stoichiometric line. Most of them are above this line, suggesting an excess
of dissolved Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the water drained by these springs.
In Figure11.3A the SO42-/Cl- ratio (mg/l) has been plotted against Na+ concen-
tration for each water sample analysed, whilst the Cl- concentration is represented
as the diameter of each circle. The line representing the SO42-/Cl- ratio=1 has been
highlighted since it separates samples with higher SO42- (ratio>1) or Cl- (ratio<1) con-
centrations with respect to the other ion. The value of this ratio can be related to the
A) 250 B) 600
550 Esparragosilla
225 Esparragosilla
Fuente Santa Fuente Santa
500 Mquina
Mquina
200 Quejigo 450 Quejigo
Vihuelo Vihuelo
175 400
150 Cl- (mg/l) 250 30
Cl+Na+ (mg/l)
Na+ (mg/l)
125
350 200
28
100
150
75
250 26
100 100
50 50 24
10 50 52 56 60
25
0
0 50 150 700 900
1 3 5 7 9 0 100 200 600 800 1,000
0 2 4 6 8 10
SO42/Cl SO4 (mg/l)
2
Figure 11.3 (A) Diagram showing the SO42-/Cl- ratio versus Na+ concentration and the Cl- content
(circles size). (B) Binary diagram showing SO42- against (Cl-+Na+) concentrations.
relative contribution of gypsum/anhydrite dissolution (CaSO4) with respect to halite

dissolution (NaCl) in each water sample.
Water samples collected at Mquina spring show the largest SO42-/Cl- ratio val-
ues, ranging from 7.5 to 8.3 (Figure11.3A). Mquina is, after Esparragosilla, the
sampling point with the highest dissolved SO42- contents, with a mean value of 89mg/l
(Table11.2). During the 12-month monitoring period the water drained by this spring
displayed small variations in both Cl and Na+ contents (circles of the same diameter
and no vertical deviations).
The greatest Na+, Cl- and SO42- concentrations were found at Esparragosilla
spring (Table11.2). All samples show SO42-/Cl- ratios higher than 2.3, indicating
that SO42- concentrations are at least more than double those of Cl-. The only water
samples with Cl- being more abundant than SO42- are those drained by Fuente Santa
spring (SO42-/Cl- <1, Figure11.3A).
Quejigo spring is characterised by lower concentrations of Cl- and Na+ and greater
SO4 /Cl- ratios compared to those coming from Fuente Santa spring. This suggests
2-
a more important contribution of gypsum/anhydrite dissolution to the hydrochemis-

try of Quejigo waters as opposed to halite dissolution. Finally, the water drained by
Vihuelo spring has low Cl and Na+ concentrations and intermediate SO42-/Cl- ratios.
Figure11.3B shows the relationship between SO42- and (Cl-+Na+) concentrations.
The SO42- concentrations range from 51 mg/l in Vihuelo to 963 mg/l in Esparragosilla,
and those of (Cl-+Na+) from 18 mg/l in Mquina to 549 mg/l in Esparragosilla.
Water samples from Fuente Santa and Quejigo springs plot along an almost
vertical pattern. This indicates that during the 12 month period of monitoring the
water drained by these outlets has undergone large variations with respect to Na+ and
Cl+ and small changes with respect to SO42-. The difference between the maximum
and minimum values for (Cl-+Na+) concentrations is 65 mg/l for Fuente Santa and
67mg/l for Quejigo, while SO42- variations for both springs are 12.5 and 15.1 mg/l
respectively.
Points representing water samples from Mquina spring show a nearly horizontal
trajectory. This pattern is the result of larger SO42- variations throughout the moni-
toring period than those of Cl- and Na+, which remained quite stable (Figure11.3B).
Water samples collected at Esparragosilla and Vihuelo springs have inclined
trajectories. This reflects increases in dissolved SO42- in these springs accompanied
by increases in Cl- and Na+ concentrations, and vice versa. However, the ranges of
variation in both springs are not the same. The difference between the maximum
and minimum values measured in Esparragosilla has been 377 mg/l (SO42-) and
138 mg/l (Cl-+Na+), in contrast to 11.2 mg/l for SO42- and 5.4 mg/l for (Cl-+Na+)
in Vihuelo.
11.4.2 Temporal evolutions

The temporal characterisation of the evaporite signal on selected springs has been
carried out by means of temporal evolutions of discharge, water temperature and
chemical components of the water. The springs are those in which the signal of evapo-
rites on their chemical compositions is the most intense: Esparragosilla, Fuente Santa
and Quejigo (Figure11.4).
A) 240 Cl 360 B) 100 150

Na+ Cl
220 320
Cl (mg/l)
Na+ (mg/l)
135
Na+ (mg/l)
Cl (mg/l)
90 Na+
200 280 120
80
180 240 105
160 70
450 200 90
Mg2+ 80
25
Ca2+ (mg/l)
Ca2+ 135 Mg2+

Mg2+ (mg/l)
400 70 Ca2+
Ca2+ (mg/l)
Mg2+ (mg/l)
24
350 120
60
23
300 50 105
22
250 90
1000 21
Alkalinity (mg/l)
315 SO4 2
400 80
SO42 (mg/l)
Alk
Alkalinity (mg/l)
SO42
SO42 (mg/l)
300 800 Alk 70
350
285 600 60
300
270 400 50
18.0 250
Temperature (C)
T 18.0
EC (S/cm)
2,600
Temperature (C)
EC T
17.5 1,000 17.5
EC (S/cm)
EC
2,400 17.0
17.0 900
2,200 16.5
16.5 800 16.0
500
Discharge (l/s)
Rainfall 100
80
Rainfall (mm)
Discharge (l/s)
400 200
Rainfall (mm)
80 Rainfall
300 Discharge 60 150
60 Discharge
200 40 100
40
100 20 20 50
0 0 0 0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Nov
Dec
2012 2013
2012 2013
(A) Esparragosilla (B) Fuente Santa
Figure 11.4 (Continued).

C) 60 Cl
75
Na+ 60
Na+ (mg/l)
50
Cl (mg/l)
40 45
30 30
20 15
130 Mg2+ 27
120 Ca2+
Ca2+ (mg/l)
26
Mg2+ (mg/l)
110 25
100 24
90 23
80
375
Alkalinity (mg/l)
SO42 72
Alk
SO42 (mg/l)
350 68
325 64
60
300
56
T
Temperature (C)
800 EC 17.5
EC (S/cm)
700 17.0
16.5
600
16.0
120
Discharge (l/s)
100 Rainfall 200
Rainfall (mm)
80 Discharge 150
60 100
40
20 50
0 0
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
2012 2013
(C) Quejigo
Figure 11.4 Temporal evolutions of discharge, water temperature and the principal chemical compo-
nents of the water drained by Esparragosilla (A), Fuente Santa (B) and Quejigo (C) springs.
The hydrograph of Esparragosilla spring shows a relatively gradual increase of

flow in response to rainfall (Figure11.4A). No intermediate peaks are identified
during the flood period, even after intense precipitation events, and the discharge
peak is followed by a gentle recession limb. The effect of recharge on Esparragosilla
spring is a progressive increase of water mineralisation. The highest EC values occur
during the peak of flow discharge, whereas in low water conditions the EC decreases.
Water mineralisation is mainly controlled by SO42-, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl- and Na+ con-
tents, which are representative of the saturated zone of the aquifer and the evapo-
rite substratum. The temporal evolution of alkalinity is opposite to that of EC and
evaporite-related ions, showing minimum values during flooding and a rising trend
in low water conditions.
Fuente Santa is a seasonal spring in which water usually starts flowing several
months after the beginning of the recharge season and dries up in summer. During
the 12 months of monitoring, Fuente Santa was active from the middle of February
until August 2013 (Figure11.4B). The hydrograph shows a gradual increase in dis-
charge until April, when the maximum value is achieved, and a subsequent flow
rate decrease, which ends in August when the spring dried up. The water drained
by Fuente Santa was more mineralised during flooding, when the discharge rate was
maximum. Hence, the highest electrical conductivity values (over 900 S/cm) were
measured in March and April. During the sampling period the mineralisation of water
was mainly controlled by Cl- and Na+ contents; their temporal evolutions and that
of EC are almost similar (Figure11.4B). This dependency is especially evident for the
three first months of sampling, when alkalinity, SO42- and Ca2+ concentrations stayed
almost constant. This indicates that the changes in electrical conductivity observed
during that period (>120 S/cm) were neither caused by the dissolution of carbonate
nor sulphate mineral species.
The hydrograph of Quejigo spring also shows a gradual evolution in which sudden
discharge variations do not occur even after the major rainfall events (Figure11.4C).
Unlike Esparragosilla and Fuente Santa springs, in which recharge coincides with the
drainage of the more mineralised water, at Quejigo spring the recharge tends to dilute
the mineralised water. This dilution, nevertheless, is lagged behind the start of the
rainfall season.
The mineralisation of the water from Quejigo spring is principally controlled
by Cl- and Na+ concentrations. The dilution recorded in January 2013 was pro-
duced by decreased concentrations of both ions, while other chemical components
such as SO42- or Mg2+ showed little variation. In low water conditions the EC
increased and coincided with an increase in both Cl- and Na+ concentrations (their
concentrations doubled in flood conditions) and with a slight increase in SO42-
concentration. This suggests the arrival at the spring of less mineralised water
(mainly due to lower Cl- and Na+ concentrations) during flooding conditions. Thus
recharge promotes the drainage of water from the unsaturated zone of the aquifer
which has not been in contact with the Triassic evaporite rocks located at deeper
zones. The steep decrease in alkalinity during May seems to be the consequence
of a common ion effect caused by a higher rate of gypsum/anhydrite dissolution,
which produces an increase in Ca2+ and SO42- concentrations and the removal of
CaCO3 by precipitation.
11.5 DISCUSSION
The mean annual temperature of the water drained by all springs was stable during
the monitoring period (coefficients of variation ranging from 1.1 to 2.6%, Table11.2)
and slightly higher than the average air temperature at the study area (16C). These
increased spring water temperatures suggest relatively deep groundwater flow through
the saturated zone of the aquifers, where water temperatures are higher than in the
shallower recharge parts of the system.
Groundwater stored in the aquifer drained by Esparragosilla spring is in direct
contact with the Upper Triassic deposits which constitute the lower and lateral hydro-
geological limits of La Silla aquifer (Figure11.1). Thus, dissolution of evaporites
mainly gypsum/anhydrite and halite occurs and, as a consequence, water becomes
more mineralised principally because of large increases in the concentrations of
SO42-, Ca2+, Na+ and Cl-. The water from this spring is the most mineralised and
has the greatest SO42-, Na+ and Cl- concentrations (Table11.2, Figure11.3A). This
suggests the existence of groundwater flowpaths through the more permeable parts
of the Upper Triassic body, or longer residence times of groundwater in contact with
the evaporites.
The hydrochemistry of Esparragosilla spring water is influenced by both gypsum
and halite dissolution (Figure11.3B), although their contribution is not similar. Mean
SO42 concentrations are considerably higher than those of Cl- and Na+ (Table11.2),
and all samples are of a calcium sulphate facies (Figure11.2A). These data indicate
that the chemical composition of the groundwater drained by this spring is principally
controlled by the dissolution of gypsum/anhydrite.
The temporal evolution of the chemical composition of Esparragosilla spring
water is mainly controlled by a piston-flow effect in the saturated zone of the aquifer
(Figure11.4A). Recharge produces the mobilisation of water from deeper zones of the
aquifer where groundwater is characterised by longer residence times in contact with
the evaporites and higher mineralisation, temperature and SO42-, Ca2+ and Mg2+ con-
centrations. The evaporites located at the bottom of the aquifer drained by this spring
contain both gypsum and halite. While the effect of the dissolution of these minerals
on the hydrochemistry of the water is evident, the role played by carbonate-related
minerals in the temporal evolution of the water chemistry of this spring is much more
attenuated. The hydrodynamic and hydrochemical evolution of Esparragosilla is
characteristic of aquifers with a low degree of karstification whose output signal (flow
discharge) tends to smooth the input signal (rainfall).
The effect of the Triassic substratum on the chemical composition of the water
drained by Fuente Santa and Quejigo springs (El Bosque aquifer) is mainly the result
of dissolution of halite. The water samples collected at these discharge points show the
highest Cl- and Na+ contents with respect to SO42- concentrations (Figure11.3A). In
the case of Fuente Santa the mean concentrations of Cl- and Na+ during the monitor-
ing period have exceeded that of SO42- (SO42-/Cl- ratio <1 in Figure11.3A). The con-
tribution of halite to the hydrochemistry of Quejigo spring water is less evident since
Cl and Na+ concentrations are lower and the SO42-/Cl- ratio is higher (Figure11.3A).
In both springs the annual variations of Cl- and Na+ concentrations are larger than
that of SO42- (Figure11.3B), suggesting a limited and not variable contribution of the
latter (i.e. gypsum/anhydrite) to the final chemical composition of the water flowing
out of these two springs.
In Fuente Santa spring recharge produces the drainage of more mineralised water
stored in deeper zones of the aquifer, where it has been in contact with Triassic evap-
orites for long periods (Figure11.4B). The relatively high mean temperature of the
water (17.1C) also suggests the existence of groundwater flow paths through deeper
parts of the aquifer.
Recharge produces the dilution of the water drained by Quejigo spring
(Figure11.4C). This is consequence of the mixing of groundwater stored in the
saturated zone of the aquifer with more recent and less mineralised infiltrating
water coming from the unsaturated zone of the aquifer. The chemical composition
of the recently infiltrated water is characterised by lower Cl- and Na+ concentra-
tions (Figure11.4C). The EC of the spring water is principally dependent upon the
concentrations of these two components. The final chemical composition of the
water is controlled by the dissolution of halite as well as by other hydrochemical
processes such as the common ion effect, which can provoke relatively sudden
reductions in alkalinity.
The contribution of evaporites at Mquina spring is the dissolution of sulphate

minerals since it is only reflected by increased SO42- concentrations, while Cl- and Na+
concentrations remained low and stable during the monitoring period (Figure11.3B);
this indicates little halite dissolution.
The chemical composition of Vihuelo spring water is the least influenced by the
Triassic evaporites. Mean annual concentrations of Cl- and Na+ are similar to those
from springs draining aquifers with similar characteristics elsewhere (Lpez-Chicano
et al., 2001; Barber et al., 2014; Mudarra & Andreo, 2011). Nevertheless, dissolu-
tion of sulphate minerals contribute to a mean annual SO42- concentration higher than
the average in springs draining karst aquifers (Table11.2 and Figure11.3A).
11.6 CONCLUSIONS
Groundwater stored in carbonate aquifers can be in direct contact with underlying

evaporites which constitute the base of the systems. The consequence is a change in
the chemical composition of the groundwater mainly reflected in SO42-, Ca2+, Cl- and/
or Na+ concentration increases. The strength of this hydrochemical modification and
the ions involved in it depend to a large extent on the characteristics of each individual
karst system. Thus, the groundwater may only show slight concentration increases of
these ions, in keeping with the original calcium bicarbonate facies derived from the
carbonate aquifer. In other cases the dissolution of evaporites is much more intense
and can lead to a change of the chemical facies of the water towards calcium sulphate
or sodium chloride.
The most mineralised and warmest waters, coming out from La Silla aquifer,
have their origin in deeper flow paths through the Triassic substratum and/or longer
residence times in contact with the evaporites.
The hydrochemical characterisation of the water flowing out of the five springs
has permitted two different patterns regarding the dominant mineral species in the
evaporite body to be identified. The chemical composition of the water drained by
some springs is mainly controlled by the dissolution of gypsum/anhydrite, although
halite dissolution can also exist. The chemical facies of other springs is principally
dependent upon the dissolution of halite, with sulphate-related minerals playing a
secondary role.
The analysis of the temporal variations of discharge, water temperature and the
main chemical components of the water has led to the identification of different hydro-
geological patterns in the groundwater drained by the springs. Some springs have shown
an increase in water mineralisation during flood periods, coinciding with the highest
discharge rates, and a subsequent and progressive reduction during low flow condi-
tions. In these cases recharge water produces the mobilisation of groundwater stored in
deeper zones of the aquifer (piston-flow effect), which is characterised by longer resi-
dence times and higher mineralisation. The contribution of carbonate-related minerals
to the final composition of the water drained by these outlets is limited. In other springs,
recharge tends to dilute the minerals in solution due to the mixing of recently infil-
trated water with more mineralised flows coming from the saturated zone of the system.
During low flow conditions, when recharge is minimum or inexistent, water only comes
from the saturated zone of the aquifer and, consequently, is more mineralised.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is a contribution to the projects RNM-02161, CGL-2012-32590 of

DGICYT and IGCP 598 of UNESCO, and to the Research Group RNM-308 of the
Junta de Andaluca.
REFERENCES
Aquilina L., Ladouche B., Doerfliger N., Seidel J.L., Bakalowicz M., Dupuy C., Le Strat P. (2002)
Origin, evolution and residence time of saline thermal fluids (Balaruc springs, southern France):
implications for fluid transfer across the continental shelf. Chemical Geology 192, 121.
Barber J.A., Andreo B., Almeida C. (2014) Using non-conservative tracers to characterize
karstification processes in the Merinos-Colorado-Carrasco carbonate aquifer system (south-
ern Spain). Environmental Earth Science 71, 585599.
Capaccioni B., Didero M., Paletta C., Salvadori P. (2001) Hydrogeochemistry of groundwaters
from carbonate formations with basal gypsiferous layers: an example from the Mt Catria Mt
Nerone ridge (Northern Apennines, Italy). Journal of Hydrology 253, 1426.
Carrasco F., Andreo B., Linares L., Snchez D., Rendn M., Cobos A., Ortega F., Vadillo I.,
Prez I. (2005) Contexto hidrogeolgico de humedales del norte de la provincia de Mlaga
[Hydrogeological context of wetlands located in northern Mlaga province]. In: Lpez-Geta
J.A., Rubio-Campos J.C., Martn-Machuca M. (editors) VI Simposio del Agua en Andaluca,
Sevilla, Espaa. Serie Hidrogeologa y Aguas Subterrneas, vol. 14. Publicaciones del IGME,
605618.
Glvez-Maestre M.J. (2005) Climatologa [Climatology]. In: Lpez-Geta J.A. (editor) Atlas
Hidrogeolgico de la Provincia de Cdiz. Instituto Geolgico y Minero de Espaa y
Diputacin de Cdiz. Madrid, Spain, 5358.
Goldscheider N., Andreo B. (2007) The geological and geomorphological framework. In:
Goldscheider N., Drew D.P. (editors) Methods in Karst Hydrogeology. Taylor & Francis,
London, United Kingdom, 924.
Hunkeler D., Mudry J. (2007) Hydrochemical methods. In: Goldscheider N., Drew D.P. (edi-
tors) Methods in Karst Hydrogeology. Taylor & Francis, London, United Kingdom, 93121.
Kilchmann S., Waber H.N., Parriaux A., Bensimon M. (2004) Natural tracers in recent ground-
waters from different Alpine aquifers. Hydrogeology Journal 12, 643661.
Lpez-Chicano M., Bouamama B., Vallejos A., Pulido-Bosch A. (2001) Factors which deter-
mine the hydrochemical behaviour of karstic springs: a case study from the Betic Cordilleras,
Spain. Applied Geochemistry 16, 11791192.
Ma R., Wang Y., Sun Z., Zheng C., Ma T., Prommer H. (2011) Geochemical evolution of
groundwater in carbonate aquifers in Taiyuan, northern China. Applied Geochemistry 26,
884897.
Martn-Algarra M. (1987) Evolucin geolgica alpina del contacto entre las Zonas Internas
y Externas de la Cordillera Btica [Alpine geological evolution of the contact between the
Internal and External Zones of the Betic Cordillera]. PhD thesis, University of Granada.
1171 p.
Martn-Algarra M., Vera J.A. (2004) Evolucin de la Cordillera Btica [Evolution of the Betic
Cordillera]. In: Vera J.A. (editor) Geologa de Espaa. Sociedad Geolgica de Espaa e
Instituto Geolgico y Minero de Espaa, 437444.
Moral F., Cruz-Sanjulin J., Olas M. (2008) Geochemical evolution of groundwater in the car-
bonate aquifers of Sierra de Segura (Betic Cordillera, southern Spain). Journal of Hydrology
360, 281296.
Mudarra M., Andreo B. (2011) Relative importance of the saturated and the unsaturated zones
in the hydrogeological functioning of karst aquifers: the case of Alta Cadena (Southern
Spain). Journal of Hydrology 397, 263280.
Peyre Y. (1974) Gologie dAntequera et de sa rgion (Cordillres Btiques, Espagne) [Geology
of Antequera and its region (Betic Cordillera, Spain)]. PhD thesis, Institute National
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Plummer L.N., Busby J., Lee R., Hanshaw B. (1990) Geochemical modelling of the Madison
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15231533.
Chapter 12
3D Spatial modelling of karst

channels The Beljanica karst
massif
Saa Milanovic
University of Belgrade Faculty of Mining and Geology, Centre for Karst
H ydrogeology of the Department of Hydrogeology, Belgrade, Serbia
ABSTRACT
It is very difficult to define hydrogeological parameters in an anisotropic aquifer such as
carbonate matrix. Even the application of many different methods cannot provide a robust
case for the karst aquifer. However, in the past decade a whole new branch of karst investiga-
tion, 3D modeling of karst aquifers and karst conduits, has become widely used in the earth
sciences. The main topic of this chapter is 3D reconstruction and modelling of the Beljanica
karst aquifer. The input parameters of the model are represented by the 69 caves, 15 sink-
holes and 1682 dolines, 7 major karst springs, around 70 minor springs, and all available
geological, morphological and hydrogeological data. As output from the model, more than
6000 nodes (registered in the database) were calculated. There are in some cases 60 different
numbers for each node. The 3D model of the karst conduit network, enables the reconstruc-
tion of a complex karst aquifer, including its spatial, temporal, quantitative and qualitative
characteristics.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Creating 3D (physical) models of karst conduits as well as 3D models of a karst

aquifer has been the interest of several researchers for many years (Fish, 1996;
Gogu et al., 2001; Ohms and Reece, 2002; Kovacs, 2003; Strassberg, 2005;
Kincaid, 2006; Butscher and Huggenberger, 2007; Jeannin et al., 2007; Filipponi
and Jeannin, 2008, Filipponi, 2009; Borghi et al., 2010). All of these authors, and
many others, have practiced a method of forming a 3D model of the karst system
based on large scale parameters that are collected first by the ground survey and
further by special speleological or cave diving survey. The modelling technique
used here is based on a multiparameter approach with 3D shape of conduits as
output, connected to the data base with all collected spatial data. Generally, the
field of physical or 3D modelling of the karst is a work in progress, as creating a
3D model depends on the development both of software and underground karst
survey techniques.
The model of the Beljanica karst aquifer was developed using ArcGIS software
and its 3D Analyst, Spatial Analyst and Network Analyst extensions, as well as
COMPASS software and with some special programs made especially for recon-
struction of conduit distribution. All spatial data, such as geological maps and cross
sections, caves, sinkholes, springs and karst channels were converted into digital
form, and each spatial unit was defined by its x, y and z coordinates. The compila-
tion of all elements in the 3D environment produced a real, spatially oriented net-
work of potential karst-conduit pathways. The case study of the Beljanica aquifer
generally shows the procedure and results of the 3D modelling methodology of karst
conduits, and further analysis for the purpose of watershed delineation, water path-
way determination and assessment of karst reservoir storativity and consequently
static and dynamic reserves.
12.2 OVERVIEW AND METHODOLOGY
Analysing the geometry of the main karst conduits in the saturated zone and the
connection with conduits in the aeration zone, provides insight into karst channels
and has enabled the creation of a 3D model. Analysis of various parameters obtained
by quantitative and qualitative monitoring of groundwater characteristics and their
analysis through the established physical model provides data on the relationship
between the water recharge and discharge zones. Such a model can be further used for
an analysis of the speleogenesis and hydrogeology of the area.
Generally there are three zones of research in karst aquifer spatial modelling.
The first is the recharge zone and all underground forms that are related to this
area such as dolines, sinkholes, caves and pits. The third zone is the phreatic zone
with main forms such as karst springs and their submerged karst channels that
often lead to the deeper parts of karst aquifers. The most problematic is the sec-
ond zone between these two sections, but with the support of different software
for 3D modelling and knowledge of karst development and intensity, this part can
be reconstructed and the pathways (conduits) connections from inlet to outlet can
be made.
The basic problem in the determination of the methodology was how to perform
a quality analysis, or how to state the problem whose goal was to develop a model
which would be an analysis of the geometry of karst conduits, integrating hydrogeo-
logical laws and geological characteristics.
The methodology is illustrated with the case study of the Beljanica karst aquifer
(area of around 300 km2). This study shows the procedure and results of the 3D
modelling methodology for karst conduits, and further analysis is made for the pur-
pose of watershed delineation, water pathways and the definition of karst reservoir
storativity.
Data entry is the starting point for the establishment of a karst aquifer model and
includes the conversion of available data into a digital format (graphic and alpha
numeric). Such a model-designed system includes four main elements:
1. Preparation and data entry

2. Logical grouping and data connections
3. Data analysis and
4. Visualization and interpretation
3D Spatial modelling of karst channels The Beljanica karst massif 171
Data preparation includes:
1. Ensuring appropriate graphic layers are in place topographic, hydrographic,

geological, hydrogeological, speleological and geomorphological.
2. Geocoding of available layers, or merging in the appropriate map projection.
Main layers collected (as raster and vector entities) from detailed field studies are:
1. Topographic layer
1. DEM (Digital Elevation Model)
1.
DEM of Surface
2.
DEM of Base of Karstification
2. Geological map
3. Hydrogeological map
4. Map of sinkholes and dolines
5. Map of groundwater levels
6. Map of forests, small plants and bare karst
7. Map of cave channels distribution
8. Tectonic map
9. Map of base of karstification
10. Map of the hypsometric location of the sinkholes, caves and karst springs.
12.3 ESTABLISHING OF PHYSICAL MODEL AND ITS

R ELATION BASE
The model with all the layers can generally be shown through the relationship of the
spatial entities as a single model (Figure12.1).
Components of the model include all of the classes and entities which, through a series
of computational network and geostatistical analyses, form the 3D output of the Beljanica
karst aquifer. The result of the output data is the connection of surface spatial-oriented
data with the defined position of karst channels in the karst systems that are in connection
between the implemented database and the spatial 2D and 3D entities (Figure12.1).
Network spatial data 2D and 3D entities represent their field of numerical clusters
that are 2D data transformed into a 3D object through a simulation model. 3D objects
belong to the multipatch feature class and contain three-dimensional information.
12.4 CREATING THE 3D KARST CONDUIT
The creation of a 3D model of karst channels is the conversion of known nodes of

groundwater and conduit directions from a 2D to a 3D model. It is built through
the known factors that could be used to create a 3D mesh. One of the basic param-
eters of the formation of a 3D model are faults and other tectonic features and their
2D map of karst conduit

distribution
Aquifer
Geological data
Borders Hydrogeological data
Surface morphological features

(distribution of dolines)
Dreinage network
DEM
Caves, pits, sinkholes
3D channels distibution
Hydrogeological objects
(boreholes wells)
Hydrogeological features
(spring, sinkholes)
Karst aquifer
volume
Vertical logg interval
Tectonic
GWL
Base of karstification
Figure 12.1 Scheme of 3D karst model forming.
inter-sections, together with dolines, sinkholes and speleological features. These

parameters convert 2D to 3D points and determine the z coordinates and possible
corrections of the x, y coordinates to a new position (Milanovic, 2015).
The interactive interface of well-known 2D and 3D partially defined parameters
can produce the three-dimensional character. The resulting surface potential distribu-
tion of karst channels is the basis for the definition of the orientation of a channel of
karst aquifer features and follows the deterministic law that can be established with
only small errors.
The basic steps of physical modelling of karst conduits formed from an initial 2D
model or map of the distribution of karst channels to form the final 3D model of karst
channel network is presented in Figure12.2.
12.5 CASE STUDY BELJANICA KARST AQUIFER
The Beljanica karst massif is located in the eastern part of Serbia (Figure12.3), and
the mountain range is an anticline (Kucaj-Beljanica structure) composed of Jurassic
and Cretaceous carbonate rocks generally inclined from the central to peripheral parts
of the massif (Stevanovic, 1991). The carbonate rock complex of the Beljanica mas-
sif is the result of the Alpine orogenic phase. Tectonic events resulted in a complex
system of faults and fractures which are preferred subterranean water flow path-
ways. The main forms are dolines, caves, pits, sinkholes and karstic springs and their
Layers calculation for 2D model
+
+
+
+
2D map of observed and Creating 3D
+ calculated model points conduit network.
+
+
Merging 2D data with 3D analyst of faults,

Forming 3D model of topology 3D spatial position for model points z (m a.s.l)
and base of karstification definition
Real spatial position of karst channels

Calculated spatial position of conduit
Overlaping data of 2D model

to 3D model net Recharge points inlet to karst system (dolines, sinkholes, pits, caves etc.)
KARST
SPRING
Figure 12.2 Schematic procedure of creating the 3D physical model (Milanovic, 2015).
classification and exploration was of great importance in the process of creating the
Beljanica karst aquifer physical model. The main hydrogeological characteristic of the
aquifer is its deep circulation. Cave divers explored channels from the Krupaja Spring
to a depth of 133 m and Mlava Spring to a depth of over 73 m (Figure12.4), the latter
channels go deeper (survey not yet completed) (Milanovic, 2007).
This case study includes an analysis of the 3D ArcGIS physical model of the
karst system. The input data for the model are represented by the 69 caves, 15 sink-
holes and 1682 dolines, 7 major karst springs and around 70 minor springs that were
also explored plus the geological, morphological and hydrogeological data connected
with the area of investigation (Figure12.5A). As 2D output from the model, more
than 6000 data points (registered in the database) were calculated. There are 60 dif-
ferent data for each point (coordinates, groundwater level, type of channel, dimen-
sions of channels, next point of conduit, connection with (conduit), orientation of
channel, hydrogeological function etc.). Eventually, the model is determined by more
than 360 000 data inputs (Milanovic et al., 2010). The 2D model mesh is shown on
Figure12.5B.
The total length of the karst channel network, which is calculated using this
model and presented in a 3D environment, is 647.3 km. Detail for the model are
shown on Figure12.6.
7400000000000 7500000000000 7600000000000
5100000000000
5100000000000
DEM Serbia
Legend
Value
High : 2600 m a.s.l.
Low : 50 m a.s
5000000000000
5000000000000
4900000000000
4900000000000
4800000000000
4800000000000
4700000000000
4700000000000
7400000000000 7500000000000 7600000000000
Legend
Karst Spring Karst
Small Spring Beljanica
Ponor
GW direction Cave
River
Figure 12.3 Geographic position of Beljanica massif with main ponors and karstic springs.
5m
ENTRANCE 0m
10
20
30 m entrance to 30
siphonal channel
40
50
Aluvial deposit
Neogen deposit Spring
60
Fault
? 70
73 m depth of
Assum direction of investigated channel ? 75
main karstic channel
Figure 12.4 Result (cross section) of Mlava spring cave diving investigation.
A) B)
Figure 12.5 Map of Beljanica karst massif including position of hydrogeological, geological, geomorpho-
logical and speleological features A, 2D model mesh according Beljanica physical model
data B.
12.6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
A spatial-oriented network, the potential karst channels providing a base for the
assessment of storativity, is a crucial component for groundwater resources analysis.
The underground karst development along with the saturation status were important
elements from the 3D model to be correlated with data collected from simultaneous
groundwater quantity (discharge) observations (Milanovic et al., 2013).
2D map of Beljanica GW circulation

above 3D model of Beljanica conduits and GWL
Recharge zone dolines, caves and sinkholes
GWL max
GWL min
Figure 12.6 3D model of conduit system of the Beljanica karst aquifer with Mlava spring physical
model.
Despite inconsistencies the complex 3D model enables an approximation of the

hydrogeological watersheds to be determined. As watersheds have been proclaimed
realistic they represent a scenario for periods of medium flow (neither extreme max-
imum nor minimum). In this case, the largest is the Mlava Spring catchment which
comprises some 124 km2. The Belosavac Spring watershed covers 27 km2, while 85 km2
belongs to the Krupajsko Spring. MaloVrelo Spring is the smallest catchment in
Beljanica covering some 7 km2, while VelikoVrelo Spring comprises some 24 km2
(Figure12.7). The spatial position of watersheds is shown on Figure12.7 (Milanovic,
2010).
Finally, we should emphasize that the complex field research and its results, along
with continuous monitoring and the correlation of those results with the newly cre-
ated 3D model of the karst conduit network, enable the reconstruction of the complex
karst aquifer, including a forecast of its spatial, temporal, quantitative and qualitative
characteristics. The results favour wide application of such an approach as a basis for
sustainable water management and appropriate utilisation of aquifers elsewhere with
large groundwater reserves.
Legend Karst Non karst
Figure 12.7 Delineation of watershed of Beljanica karst aquifer through analysis of karst channels
distribution (3D analyses).
REFERENCES
Borghi A., Renard P., Jenni S. (2010) How to model realistic 3D karst reservoirs using a
pseudo-genetic methodology Example of two case studies, Advance in Research in Karst
Media, Springer.
Butscher C., Huggenberger P. (2007) Implications for karst hydrology from 3D geological
modeling using the aquifer base gradient approach, Journal of Hydrology 342, 184198.
Fish L. 1996. Compass, http://members.iex.net/lfish/compass.html.
Filipponi M., Jeannin P.Y. (2008) Possibilities and Limits to predict the 3D Geometry of Karst
Systems within the Inception Horizon Hypothesis, Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 10,
EGU General Assembly 2008, EGU2008-A-02825.
Filipponi M. (2009) Spatial Analysis of Karst Conduit Networks and Determination of
Parameters Controlling the Speleogenesis along Preferential Lithostratigraphic, Horizons,
thse no 4376, Suiss.
Gogu R. C., Carabin G., Hallet V., Peters V., Dassargues A. (2001) GIS-based hydrogeological
databases and groundwater modelling, Hydrogeology Journal 9, 555569.
Jeannin P.Y., Groves C., Hauselmann P. (2007) Speleological investigations, Methods in karst
hydrogeology, IAH Book Series, Taylor & Francis, London.
Kincaid T.R. (2006) A method for producing 3-D geometric and parameter models of satu-
rated cave systems with a discussion of applications, Groundwater Flow and Contaminant
Transport in Carbonate Aquifer, Taylor & Francis, 2000, pp. 169190.
Kovacs A. (2003) Geometry and hydraulic parameters of karst aquifers: a hydrodynamic
modeling approach, Doctoral theses, University in Neuchatel.
Milanovic S. (2007) Hydrogeological characteristics of some deep siphonal springs in Serbia
and Montenegro karst. Environmental Geology. 51(5), 755759.
Milanovic S. (2010) Creation of physical model of karstic aquifer on example of Beljanica Mt.
(eastern Serbia), Doc. dissert, FMG, University of Belgrade, Belgrade.
Milanovic S., Stevanovic Z., Vasic Lj. (2010) Development of karst system model as a result of
Beljanica aquifer monitoring. Vodoprivreda Vol. 0350-0519, 42 (2010) pp. 209222.
Milanovic S., Stevanovic Z., Vasic Lj., Ristic-Vakanjac V. (2013) 3D Modeling and monitoring
of karst system as a base for its evaluation and utilization A case study from eastern Serbia,
Environmental Earth Science, 71(2), 525532.
Milanovic S. (2015) Physical modeling of karst environment karst aquifers. In: Karst Aquifers
Characterisation and Engineering. (Ed. Z. Stevanovic), Springer, Professional Practice in
Earth Sciences, pp.267281.
Ohms R., Reece M. (2002) Using gis to manage two large cave systems, wind and jewel caves,
south dakota, Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, April 2002.
Stevanovic Z. (1991) Hydrogeology of Carpathian-Balkan karst of eastern Serbia and water
supply opportunities (in Serbian). Spec. ed. Fac. Min. & Geol., pp. 1245, Belgrade.
Strassberg G. (2005) A geographic data model for groundwater systems, Doctoral thesis, The
University of Texas at Austin December, 2005.
Chapter 13
A field work oriented approach

for complex karst aquifer
characterisation
Philipp Stadler 1,2, Hermann Husler 3, Magdalena
Rogger 1,4, Domenico Savio 1,5 & Hermann Stadler 6
1
TU Wien, Centre for Water Resource Systems, Vienna, Austria
2
TU Wien, Institute for Water Quality, Resources and Waste
M anagement, Vienna, Austria
3
University of Vienna, Department of Environmental Geosciences,
Vienna,Austria
4
TU Wien, Institute of Hydraulic Engineering and Water Resources
Management, Vienna, Austria
5
TU Wien, Institute of Chemical Engineering, Research Group
E nvironmental M icrobiology and Molecular Ecology, Vienna, Austria
6
Joanneum Research, Institute for Water, Energy and S ustainability,
Department for Water Resources and Environmental Analyses,
Graz,Austria
ABSTRACT
Hydrogeological and geological field surveys are the indispensable basis for purposeful mon-
itoring campaigns and catchment characterisation. In order to acquire, within a given time-
frame, comprehensive information about complex hydrogeological settings or under-studied
catchments it is not only advisable, but essential to follow a step-by-step protocol that is based
on goal-oriented field work. Information from such an approach applied to the delineation
of catchment characteristics enables the conduct of process-oriented monitoring at strategic
locations and a more meaningful interpretation of resulting data. The approach described in
this chapter becomes particularly important regarding the complexity of karstified aquifers
and overlying catchments. Implementation of the methodology was applied to investigations
in a karst area within the Outer Dinarides (Gorski Kotar, Western Croatia). In this study,
information about the complex local hydrogeology was obtained through geological mapping,
hydrogeological field surveys, and hydrological monitoring using stableisotopes.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.1.1 Objectives
The aim of the study is to describe, how comprehensive information about the
complex karst system around Zeleni Vir spring was gained, particularly regarding
discharge and storage dynamics, as well as catchment- and aquifer characteris-
tics. These were obtained by applying a process-orientated scheme of combined
hydrogeological field methods, such as mapping springs, hydrogeological quality
rating of rocks, geological investigations on local lithologies, and stable isotope
hydrology.
13.1.2 Research area

The hydrogeology of the upper Curak Valley north east of Delnice in western Croatia
gives an insight to an interlaced geological setting which represents and affects the
characteristic karst hydrology of the Gorski Kotar, a south east trending green karst
mountain range with elevations between 1000 and 1200 m asl (above sea level) and
well known for big karst springs such as Kupa, Kupica and Zeleni Vir.
The sedimentary rocks comprise Permian sandstone, Triassic- and Jurassic
dolomite and limestone (Figure13.1). During the Dinaric Orogeny these formations
were folded and locally overthrusted (Herak, 1980). In terms of structural geology
the area east of Delnice around Zeleni Vir appears as a tectonic window, where karst-
ified Jurassic rocks were overthrusted by confining Permian formations (Figure13.1).
From the hydrogeological point of view, the karstified Jurassic formation acts as a
basal karst aquifer (Karst floor 1) overlain by an aquiclude consisting of Permian
rocks. In the Skrad-mountains (1043 m asl) the Permian rocks are overlain by Triassic
carbonates forming a second karst floor Karstfloor2.
Karst floor 1 can be described as Hidden Karst with deep groundwater flow
underneath the confining hanging wall formation. This is represented by Zeleni Vir
spring which discharges from Karst floor 1 with a maximum volumetric rate (Q-max)
of 75 m/s (Biondic et al., 2006). Zeleni Virs spring water is collected in a pressure
pipe line for a power plant and discharged into the Curak river downstream. The
hydrogeological catchment of Zeleni Vir spring can be located 10 km to the south
where highly karstified Triassic rocks crop out at Ravna Gora at an altitude of 620 m
asl. Points of interest for local hydrogeology are springs discharging close to the con-
tact of Permian rocks and their Triassic cover (Karst floor 2). Such springs are located
near the village of Skrad (Figure13.1).
spring
stream
water
fall
cave
sampling
point
Jurassic Triassic Permian

karstified karstified confining
carbonates carbonates clastics
Figure13.1 South view into the Curak valley. Map showing lithology, springs, streams and sampling
locations.
A field work oriented approach for complex karst aquifer characterisation 181
13.2 METHODS
The methodological concept follows the scheme of prior assessing local geology and
hydrogeology by field surveys, to gain an overview about the catchment and then
to determine the most useful locations for monitoring and sampling (Figure13.2).
This approach will support an emerging insight to the complex hydrogeology of the
research area, allow a focused data interpretation and consolidate results from field
survey and lab analyses in a comprehensive way.
13.2.1 Local geology

Geological information was gathered from existing maps (e.g. Savic & Dozet, 1985;
HGI, 2011) followed by a detailed geological mapping and studies of fault and
fold structures in the research area. Some 21 outcrops (Figure13.3) in the Jurassic,
Triassic and Permian formations were surveyed. The striking and dipping of bedding,
thrust planes and faults were measured, the lithology determined and assigned to
stratigraphy.
13.2.2 Hydrogeology
A hydrogeological quality rating of rocks in the catchment was conducted to obtain
an overview of the hydrogeological characteristics of local lithologies. This method is
focused on the capability of rocks to act as a potential aquifer or aquiclude. Therefore,
peculiarities of rocks such as grade of karstification, open joints and infiltration capac-
ity are important, rather than petrographic or stratigraphic aspects. Seven represen-
tative outcrops in the catchment (Triassic) and spring (Jurassic) area were assessed
(Figure13.3). Bedding thickness, joint frequency, number of water-transmitting joints
and bedding planes, unfilled joints and karstification grade were determined for each
outcrop every 5 m.
Geological and hydrogeological information, including discharge (Q), electrical
conductivity (EC) and temperature, was used to identify springs and streams of inter-
est for subsequent monitoring and sampling.
Target oriented surveys as valuable field tools

Choosing f ield methods appropriate to the science question
enable step 2
Process oriented sampling campaigns and monitoring

Knowledge about catchment characterisitcs allows the selection of
strategic sampling and monitoring locations
Consolidate results to a comprehensive picture

Focused interpretation of results from field surveys and lab
analyses leads to comprehensive information about the catchment
Figure13.2 Proposed step-by-step work scheme.

Jurassic
Triassic
Permian Karst stratigraphic outcrops outcrops

water flow cross section geological mapping hydrogeological quality
rating of rocks
Figure13.3 Geological map (modified after Savic & Dozet, 1985) of the research area with recorded
outcrops, showing the Zeleni Vir window and indicating the Karst water flow under-
neath the confining Permian formation. Dashed line marks the cross section shown in
Figure13.10.
13.2.3 Event monitoring

Event monitoring by means of environmental isotopes was chosen, because stableiso-
topes of hydrogen and oxygen are ideal tracers, the conduction involves a manageable
effort in time and staff and is a well-established method of isotopic investigations
(Clark & Fritz, 1997). Furthermore, precipitation-event monitoring and sampling are
indispensable tools to obtain detailed information about aquifer response character-
istics, as well as vulnerability to contamination, storage dynamics, and runoff charac-
teristics (Stadler et al., 2008).
In June 2010 several weeks of dry weather were followed by a rainfall event.
This allowed a measurement of the baseflow as well as the characteristic signal of
coastal Adriatic summer rain (enriched 18O values, compared to the signal of the
baseflow) in two monitored streams. To obtain representative samples during the
event, a strategic position was chosen that allowed a parallel sampling of the two
streams, each draining geologically diverse sub-catchments. The selection of mon-
itoring locations was based on the previous hydrogeological investigations. One
sampling location was located at Zeleni Vir stream (ZV), which drains what was
assumed to be a karstic aquifer, discharging at the contact between Karst floor 2 and
Permian formations. During the monitored precipitation event the entire discharge of
Zeleni Vir spring was captured in the power plants pressure pipeline, the overflow
was not active and, therefore, only water originating from the springs close to Skrad
was monitored at the sampling location Zeleni Vir stream. The second sampling
location was chosen at Devils Creek (DC), which is dominated by surface runoff
from a nearby gorge, discharging from the capping Permian clastic rocks. Some 50m
downstream of the sampling locations both streams flow together, forming the Curak
river (Figure13.1).
Samples were taken manually with an interval from one hour to three hours,
covering the whole dynamics of the event. Water temperature and conductivity were
measured in hourly intervals. The precipitation event consisted of a short-duration
thunderstorm followed by steady rain. Rainfall data were collected continuously for
the duration of the event (48 h), during which a total 29 mm of rainfall was measured.
A gauge was installed at the Devils Creek sampling location and runoff was
measured applying the tracer dilution method (Hubbard et al., 1982; Benischke &
Harum, 1984) during critical moments of the event. Following this, a discharge stage
relation was calculated using six measurements.
A second gauge was installed at the Curak river where runoff was calculated
applying the Manning-Strickler formula as described in Strobl & Zunic (2006).
Q = kst rH2/ 3 S1/ 2 A (13.1)
Where Q is the calculated discharge, kst is an empirical parameter (Manning-

Strickler coefficient) describing the roughness of the riverbed, rH is the proportion of
wetted area to wetted contour of the profile and S is the base slope of the river bed.
The riverbed was classified as a semi-natural state with respect to the presence
of debris and unevenness. Therefore a kst of 30 was selected. For the base slope of the
river bed 0.3 m difference in height per 100 m stream length was measured, yielding
a S-value of 0.003.
The discharge of the Zeleni Vir stream was calculated as the difference between
the total runoff (measured at Curak river) and the measured discharge of the Devils
Creek. Therefore, a discharge stage relation is given for both sampling locations.
Combined with the results of environmental isotope analysis this enables an interpre-
tation of the hydraulic dynamics of both aquifers during the event. To determine the
isotopic input signal rain samples were taken during the event.
For further characterisation of the discharged aquifers, in addition to the samples
for stableisotope analyses, three samples for water chemistry analyses were taken at
both monitoring locations during different phases of the event.
13.2.4 Long termed sampling campaign

No existing times series data on isotopic composition of spring water was available
for Zeleni Vir spring. Therefore, long-term sampling for stableisotopes compositions
was carried out to gain information about seasonal discharge and storage dynamics,
and to determine the impact of the alternating influence of Adriatic and continental
precipitation on the recharge of Zeleni Virs karstic reservoir.
The sampling campaign started in February 2011 and lasted nine month. Thirty
water samples of Zeleni Vir spring were taken on a regular basis and four precipita-
tion samples during diverse seasons were gathered.
The isotopic composition of the water samples was measured in the labora-
tory by using cavity ring-down spectroscopy (Berden et al., 2001) with a WS-CRDS
(Wavelength-Scanned Cavity Ring-Down Spectroscopy) instrument of Picarro, Inc.
coupled to a CTC HTC-Pal liquid autosampler (LEAP Technologies, Carrboro, NC,
USA) for automated measurements of liquid water samples. CRDS is a direct absorp-
tion technique (Berden et al., 2001) that offers results for pure water samples highly
comparable in precision with classical mass spectroscopy (Brand et al., 2009). The
instrumental setup is comparable to the system described by Gupta et al. (2009).
13.3 RESULTS
13.3.1 Local geology

Jurassic, Outcrop No.: 18, 11, 15, 16, 17 (Figure13.3):
Jurassic formations are composed of north west to south east striking and south
west to west dipping (Figure13.4) limestones and dolomites. Large faults with dis-
tinct slickensides and fracture traces can be found, particularly in Devils Creek gorge.
The Devils Creek gorge is mainly aligned with two major fault systems (K1: 120/85,
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Figure13.4 Stereo plots showing bedding- (1st plot each) and fault planes (2nd plot each).
K2: 030/90). Caves, like the Muzeva Hiza cave and the Zeleni Vir Cave are linked
to strained and notably karstified zones and bound to the major fold systems of the
Gorski Kotar.
Triassic, Outcrop No.: 9, 10, 19, 20, 21 (Figure13.3):
Triassic carbonates are mainly north west to south east striking and north to
north east dipping (Figure13.4). At outcrops, distinct, partly conjugated fault systems
can be found. Slickensides and fracture traces are present. Karstification is strongly
associated with tectonically strained zones, but also cleavages are considerably karst-
ified. The fractured Triassic limestones around Ravna Gora are, due to the high den-
sity of faults and joints with significant karstification, a catchment area with high
infiltration capacity.
Permian, Outcrop No.: 12, 13, 14 (Figure13.3):
Outcrops in the Permian formation are rare. Nevertheless the distribution of
Paleozoic clastic rocks can be tracked because of its smooth morphology that dif-
fers explicit from that of karst. Bedding planes dip around 30 north (Figure13.4).
The tectonic contact between the overthrusted and confining Permian rocks with the
Jurassic carbonates of the footwall can be observed at an outcrop near Dolnje Tihovo
(outcrop No. 14, Figure13.3).
13.3.2 Hydrogeological quality rating of rocks

The field survey determined rocks with different types of infiltration (high, medium,
low), aquifer properties potential (fractures, unfilled joints, karstified cleavages), and
aquicludes. For the field site, five distinguished categories are listed in Table13.1
and in Figure13.5. This rating does not differentiate between rocks in the spring
and catchment areas. Jurassic rocks around Zeleni Vir spring were assigned to the
same type, e.g., Triassic rocks in the catchment area. Such rocks are characterised
Table13.1 Types of hydrogeological rock quality, determined by rating of representative outcrops.
Joint frequency Unfilled joints Water transmitting

Type Characteristics [n per 5 m] [%] joints [%] Comment
1 Limestone Jurassic 0 0 0 Karstified bedding

Bedding (23 m) planes
2 Limestone Jurassic 16 25% 16% Slicken sides,
Fractured Water bearing
joint (120/80)
3 Limestone Jurassic 15 0 0
Bedding (cmdm)
4 Limestone Jurassic 10 60% 10%
Fractured, Karstified
4 Limestone Triassic >100 70% 0 Joints filled with
Bedding (dm) red earth, Bedding
Fractuered, Karstified (225/20)
5 Dolomite Jurassic >100 0 0
Bedded and fractured
5 Dolomite Triassic >100 0 0 Joints filled with
Bedded and fractured calcite
Figure13.5 Example pictures of the five types of hydrogeological rock quality, determined in the
research area.
by comparable properties regarding aquifer capabilities and degrees of karstification

(Table13.1). Whether a rock acts as infiltration lithology or as an aquifer is deter-
mined by its topographical position.
Type 1: Limestone with intact bedding, bedding-planes are unfilled and karstified.
This potential aquifer is characterized by intact limestone with a bedding thick-
ness of several meters. The open and unfilled bedding planes are characterised by
slight dipping and show distinct signs of karstification. Due to intact and gently dip-
ping beddings, Type 1 rocks are assumed to have minimal potential for direct infiltra-
tion of precipitation water and act predominantly as an aquifer allowing lateral water
flow. It can be assumed the aquifer of Zeleni Vir spring exhibits similar properties, at
least in part.
Type 2: Highly fissured carbonates with discordant thrust faults and water-transmitting
joints.
Highly fissured and strained rocks with water-transmitting joints and discordant
fault systems. These rocks allow an interchanging flow between different karst water
levels, due to discordant faults.
Type 3: Fissured carbonates with closed or filled joints.
Dolomite rocks and limestones with closed joints are assumed to act in a manner
similar that of aquiculdes. Much of the flow occurs in the Type 1 and Type 2 rocks.
Type 4: Fissured limestones and highly developed karstification.
The genesis of spelean formations; cavities and caves are mainly linked to these
highly fissured and karstified limestones. Type 4-rocks can be found in the spring area
e.g. in the surrounds of the cave Muzeva Hiza, located in the upper part of Devils
Creek gorge. In the catchment area, Type 4 rocks are assumed to enable dominant
parts of infiltration. Filling of joints and cavities are often palaeosols that contain
iron-rich earth. The geomorphology typically involves karstification characterised by
frequent occurrences of dolines and ponors.
Type 5: Highly fissured Dolomite with closed or filled joints.
The appearance of dolomite is limited to small scaled areas. The infiltration
capability is assumed to be low and the associated landscape does not show the asper-
ity that often characterises karstified limestones.
13.3.3 Event monitoring

Isotopic composition (18O relative to Vienna standard mean ocean water) of base-
flow (June 2010) was determined for Devils Creek 10.32 and 10.43 for
Zeleni Vir stream (Table13.2). Electrical conductivity of Devils Creek baseflow was
200 S/cm and 307 S/cm for Zeleni Vir stream (Table13.2). Precipitation had a
18O value of 5.5 and a deuterium excess of 12.0 (average of three samples taken
during the event). Both phases of the event, the thundershower of 15 June 2010 as
well as the subsequent steady rain of 16 June affected the isotopic signals in the two
monitored streams (Table13.2, Table13.3, Figure13.6). The influence of coastal
Adriatic summer precipitation, which has an enriched isotope signal compared to the
streams baseflow, increased 18O values significantly in both streams. The response of
Devils Creek to the precipitation event was more distinct compared with that exhib-
ited by the Zeleni Vir Stream (Figure13.6). Electrical conductivity in stream water
decreased due to the influence of rain water in the rivulets (Table13.2, Table13.3).
For data interpretation a LMWL (2H=(7.60.4)18O+(10.54.0)) calcu-
lated for Zavazan at Mount Velebit was taken from Vreca et al., (2006) and in addi-
tion an estimated LMWL for Ravna Gora was derived from the nine month sampling
campaign (Table13.4) at Zeleni Vir spring (2H =7.918O +13.0) (Figure13.7).
The Ravna Gora LMWL lies within the range of the LMWL reported by Vreca et al.
(2006) for Mount Velebit. The isotope ratio measured during the monitoring shows
a shift towards the LMWL and higher enriched summer values at the maximum
of the event, indicating the peak of event water arriving at the sampling locations
(Figure13.7).
Applying a two components isotopic separation the proportion of event water
was calculated for both streams. The following equation was used.
CG - C B
Qi = QG (13.2)
Ci - CB
Where Qi is the amount of rainwater in the stream [l/sec], QG is the streams

discharge [l/sec], CG is the isotope signal of the stream [18O in ], CB is the isotope
signal of the stream baseflow [18O in ] and Ci is the isotope signal of rainwater
[18O in ].
Table13.2 Environmental isotope- and hydrologic data from event monitoring at sampling location
Zeleni Vir Stream.
ZELENI VIR STREAM
Water
Date Sample ID EC [S/cm] temp. [C] Q [l/s] O18 D d
15.06.2010 16:30 ZV1 307 10.3 210.9 -10.19 -68.2 14.7

15.06.2010 16:50 ZV2 301 10.7 266.9 -10.13 -67.7 14.6
15.06.2010 17:30 ZV3 305 10.5 258.7 -10.34 -68.8 15.3
15.06.2010 18:20 ZV4 308 10.4 353.6 -10.32 -69.1 14.8
15.06.2010 19:40 ZV5 309 10.5 284.1 -10.27 -68.8 14.7
15.06.2010 21:15 ZV6 313 10.5 249.9 -10.21 -68.5 14.5
15.06.2010 22:15 ZV7 311 11 249.9 -10.23 -68.5 14.7
16.06.2010 02:50 ZV1A 313 11.4 213.9 -10.24 -68.5 14.8
16.06.2010 04:00 ZV2A 311 11.8 249.9 -10.22 -68.1 15.0
16.06.2010 05:00 ZV3A 310 11.7 272.1 -10.26 -68.3 15.1
16.06.2010 06:30 ZV4A 307 10.8 284.2 -10.17 -67.2 15.5
16.06.2010 07:15 306 10.5 284.2
16.06.2010 07:40 ZV5A 306 10.5 284.2 -10.09 -66.6 15.4
16.06.2010 08:50 ZV6A 301 10.8 341.1 -9.98 -66.0 15.2
16.06.2010 09:20 303 10.8 341.1
16.06.2010 10:15 ZV7A 301 10.9 419.0 -10.05 -66.2 15.5
16.06.2010 11:00 301 10.9 341.1
16.06.2010 13:00 ZV8A 300 11.2 314.9 -10.07 -66.0 15.8
16.06.2010 14:00 299 11.3 328.8
16.06.2010 15:00 ZV9A 303 10.9 272.1 -10.06 -66.3 15.5
16.06.2010 17:00 ZV10A 306 10.7 284.1 -10.16 -67.0 15.6
16.06.2010 18:00 307 10.6 284.1
16.06.2010 19:00 308 10.3 230.1
16.06.2010 20:30 ZV11A 310 10.1 230.1 -10.15 -67.5 15.0
16.06.2010 21:45 311 10.3 240.4
16.06.2010 23:00 ZV12A 311 10.3 249.9 -10.35 -69.1 15.0
17.06.2010 06:00 ZV13A 312 9.8 198.3 -10.17 -69.5 13.2
17.06.2010 11:00 ZV14A 309 10.5 213.9 -10.32 -69.6 14.3
17.06.2010 14:00 ZV15A 309 10.7 220.7 -10.19 -69.4 13.5
17.06.2010 16:00 ZV16A 311 10.4 220.7 -10.21 -69.8 13.2
For Devils Creek precipitation water (Qi) contributed a maximum of 21% to total
discharge, whereas in the Zeleni Vir stream a maximum of 9% precipitation water
could be detected (Figure13.8). The maximum event water participation in the Devils
Creek was determined 1.5 hours later than in the Zeleni Vir stream (Figure13.8).
Following the two components isotopic separation method the interflow was cal-
culated from the difference between total discharge and event water in the stream.
This again shows clearly a time shift between the different components. At the Devils
Creek sampling location the interflow reached its peak 3 hours before the event water
component, showing a time shift between hydraulic reaction and maximum rainwater
amount of the spring system in the Permian aquifer (Figure13.9). After the surface
flow passage in the Devils Creek, this signal is dispersed.
Analyses of water samples reveal distinct differences in hydrochemical parame-
ters of both monitored streams (Table13.5). Water from Devils Creek (Table13.5,
Table13.3 Environmental isotope- and hydrologic data from event monitoring at sampling location
Devils Creek.
DEVIL'S CREEK
Water
Date Sample ID EC [uS/cm] temp. [C] Q [l/s] O18 D d
15.06.2010 16:30 K1 200 14.4 68.6 -10.21 -70.1 12.9

15.06.2010 16:50 K2 190 14.7 73.2 -9.96 -67.8 13.2
15.06.2010 17:30 K3 193 14.6 81.3 -9.75 -67.3 12.0
15.06.2010 18:20 K4 194 14.5 121.0 -9.91 -68.1 12.5
15.06.2010 19:40 K5 187 14.5 121.0 -9.84 -68.1 11.9
15.06.2010 21:15 K6 187 14.7 90.1 -9.90 -68.4 12.1
15.06.2010 22:15 K7 192 14.9 90.1 -9.95 -68.4 12.5
16.06.2010 02:50 K1A 200 14.9 65.7 -10.04 -69.1 12.5
16.06.2010 04:00 K2A 198 14.9 90.1 -9.89 -67.9 12.5
16.06.2010 05:00 K3A 195 15.1 133.0 -9.91 -65.9 14.6
16.06.2010 06:30 K4A 179 15.3 190.4 -9.77 -61.8 17.6
16.06.2010 07:15 176 13.9 190.4
16.06.2010 07:40 K5A 174 13.9 190.4 -9.68 -62.0 16.7
16.06.2010 08:50 K6A 170 13.9 207.4 -9.49 -60.6 16.5
16.06.2010 09:20 168 13.9 207.4
16.06.2010 10:15 K7A 159 13.8 207.4 -9.29 -59.7 15.9
16.06.2010 11:00 158 13.9 207.4
16.06.2010 13:00 K8A 168 14.5 159.7 -9.44 -60.7 16.0
16.06.2010 14:00 173 14.7 145.9
16.06.2010 15:00 K9A 176 14.8 133.0 -9.62 -62.2 16.0
16.06.2010 17:00 K10A 183 14.7 121.0 -9.67 -64.0 14.6
16.06.2010 18:00 185 14.7 121.0
16.06.2010 19:00 186 14.7 109.9
16.06.2010 20:30 K11A 189 14.6 109.9 -9.84 -65.6 14.4
16.06.2010 21:45 190 14.5 99.6
16.06.2010 23:00 K12A 192 14.2 90.1 -9.80 -66.6 13.1
17.06.2010 06:00 K13A 196 13.3 81.3 -9.93 -67.7 13.0
17.06.2010 11:00 K14A 197 13.7 65.7 -10.17 -69.8 12.9
17.06.2010 14:00 K15A 198 14.6 58.8 -10.04 -69.1 12.5
17.06.2010 16:00 K16A 198 14.6 58.8 -10.08 -69.5 12.5
DC), discharging the Permian clastics has a lower mineral content (A-sum, K-sum)
than does the Zeleni Vir stream (Table13.5, ZV), discharging an carbonatic aquifer.
This validates the intended selection of sampling locations and also confirms on-site
electrical conductivity measurements during baseflow conditions for both streams
(DC:200S/cm, ZV:307S/cm). The Mg, Ca and HCO3 concentrations and espe-
cially the Ca/Mg ratio of 3.4 for Zeleni Vir stream water determines its hydrochemical
facies to carbonate rocks, most likely Dolomite (Pavuza & Traindl, 1983).
13.3.4 Zeleni Vir spring

18O values of 30 water samples taken at Zeleni Vir spring had a range from -10.24
to -9.4 , with a mean of -9.9 (Table13.4, Figure13.2). The most depleted iso-
tope signal was measured in samples taken in July 2011 und the least depleted 18O
9.00 Zeleni Vir Stream Devils Creek
9.50
18O%
10.00
10.50
15.06 12:00 16.06 04:00 16.06 20:00 17.06 12:00
Figure13.6 18O values of Devils Creek and Zeleni Vir stream during the event monitoring.
signal was determined for samples taken in September 2011 (Table13.4). The deu-
terium excess ranges from 14.0 in July 2011 to 17.1 in February 2011, with a mean
value of 15.7. Complementary to the spring water, rain water was sampled (n = 4) in
Zeleni Vir. The precipitation showed high 18O values during the early summer month
(samples from June and July 2011), when a signal of -5.7 to -5.3 was measured.
Significantly depleted 18O values of -11.5 were determined from samples taken
in September 2011. The deuterium excess in precipitation water ranges from 12.0 in
June 2011 to 17.2 in September 2011, with a mean value of 14.
Although no precipitation samples from the catchment area of Zeleni Vir spring
were available, a Local Meteoric Water Line (LMWL) can be estimated as follows:
assuming that the spring water of Zeleni Vir is a mixture of precipitation infiltrated,
without major fractionation in the hydrogeological catchment around Ravna Gora
and the measured values of the isotope ratio are scattered around a LMWL for Ravna
Gora, a substituted LMWL can be derived:
2H=7.918O+13.0 (13.3)
Evaluation of isotope data from spring water samples taken at Zeleni Vir spring
revealed a range of 18O values significantly lower (B = 0.8 ) than those determined
for monitored summer precipitation (A = 6.3 ). This may reflect a high reservoir
capacity of the aquifer and low dynamics. Partly this may be caused by the relatively
small amounts of summer precipitation compared with the annual mean. Accordingly
the recharge of Zeleni Vir spring is mainly driven by precipitation during the autumn
and winter months. As described by Clark & Fritz (1997) the strong correlation
Table13.4 Environmental isotope data from long term sampling campaign at Zeleni Vir Spring.
ZELENl VIR SPRING
Date Sample ID O18 D d
01.02.2011 ZV Spring 1 -9.86 -63.3 16.9

04.02.2011 ZV Spring 2 -9.80 -63.4 16.3
14.02.2011 ZV Spring 3 -9.95 -64.0 16.9
21.02.2011 ZV Spring 4 -9.96 -64.3 16.7
25.02.2011 ZV Spring 5 -9.88 -64.2 16.1
28.02.2011 ZV Spring 6 -9.98 -64.0 17.1
03.03.2011 ZV Spring 7 -9.95 -64.3 16.6
09.03.2011 ZV Spring 8 -9.96 -64.1 16.9
16.03.2011 ZV Spring 9 -9.97 -64.6 16.5
18.03.2011 ZV Spring 10 -9.78 -63.0 16.5
28.03.2011 ZV Spring 11 -9.82 -64.2 15.6
06.04.2011 ZV Spring 12 -9.77 -64.4 15.1
08.04.2011 ZV Spring 13 -9.72 -63.9 15.1
13.04.2011 ZV Spring 14 -9.76 -63.9 15.4
06.07.2011 ZV Spring 15 -10.17 -68.6 14.0
09.07.2011 ZV Spring 16 -10.24 -68.4 14.9
15.07.2011 ZV Spring 17 -10.02 -66.1 15.4
19.07.2011 ZV Spring 18 -9.93 -66.1 14.6
23.07.2011 ZV Spring 19 -9.98 -66.0 15.1
26.07.2011 ZV Spring 20 -9.88 -66.1 14.2
28.07.2011 ZV Spring 21 -9.93 -65.8 15.0
04.08.2011 ZV Spring 22 -9.87 -65.4 14.9
07.08.2011 ZV Spring 23 -9.73 -63.9 15.3
25.08.2011 ZV Spring 24 -10.00 -65.6 15.6
30.08.2011 ZV Spring 25 -9.99 -65.6 15.6
05.09.2011 ZV Spring 26 -9.93 -64.9 15.8
14.09.2011 ZV Spring 27 -9.98 -64.7 16.5
20.09.2011 ZV Spring 28 -9.41 -61.7 14.8
24.09.2011 ZV Spring 29 -9.65 -63.0 15.5
04.10.2011 ZV Spring 30 -9.97 -65.7 15.3
between temperature and stableisotopes in meteoric water provides a seasonal signal

that can be used to date ground waters. McGuire & McDonnell (2006) described the
following analytical solution for the mean transit time (MTT) parameter for an expo-
nential model by using the damping of the isotope signal:
m = c -1 f -2 - 1 (13.4)
Where m is the calculated mean transit time in days, c is the angular frequency
constant (2p /365) and f is the damping coefficient (f = B/A).
Although a higher number of spring water and precipitation samples are prefera-
ble, this analytical solution still enables an estimate of the mean transit time. Making
use of the available data, a MTT for Zeleni Vir spring water of 1.2 years can be
calculated.
18O%
10.50 10.00 9.50 9.00
62.0
2H%
67.0
72.0
Devils Creek Zeleni Vir Stream Zeleni Vir Spring LMWL (Mt. Velebit) LMWL (Ravna Gora)
Figure13.7 Isotope ratio of deuterium and 18O at both sampling locations during the event monitor-
ing, isotope ratio of Zeleni Vir spring (long termed sampling campaign), LMWL calculated
for Ravna Gora and LMWL for Mount Velebit (Vreca et al., 2006).
25.00 Devils Creek Zeleni Vir Stream
Qi-max Devils Creek

10:15
20.00
15.00
Qi %
10.00
5.00
Qi-max Zeleni Vir stream

08:50
0.00
15.06 12:00 16.06 00:00 16.06 12:00 17.06 00:00 17.06 12:00 18.06 00:00
Figure13.8 Percentage of event water contributing to the discharge of both streams during the event
monitoring.
250.0 Interflow Event Water Total Q
200.0
interflow peak
07:15
150.0
Q [l/s]
100.0
event water peak

50.0
10:15
0.0
15.06 12:00 16.06 00:00 16.06 12:00 17.06 00:00 17.06 12:00 18.06 00:00
Figure13.9 Component separation for the Devils Creek showing a distinct time shift between inter-
flow and event water.
13.4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The study followed the proposed approach based on selected field methods, suitableto
gather information about the complex hydrological and hydrogeological setting of the
Zeleni Vir karst area (Figures13.2 and 13.3). Geological mapping provided a funda-
mental understanding of local stratigraphy and tectonics (Figures13.1 and 13.10).
Hydrogeological investigations, such as the hydrogeological quality rating of rocks
enabled to determine their specific characteristics, governing their overall function
as either an aquifer or an aquiclude (Table13.1, Figure13.5). Mapping of springs
completed this task. This target-oriented survey led to an overview of the local karst
hydrology and enabled the selection of strategic sampling locations for subsequent
monitoring programmes (Figure13.1). Due to the merging of results that were based
on field work with those from laboratory analyses consolidating information about
(i) Zeleni Vir spring, (ii) Devils Creek and (iii) Zeleni Vir stream was gained, provided
information on the local karst hydrogeology.
(i) The estimated LMWL for Ravna Gora lies within the range of the LMWL cal-
culated for Mount Velebit (Vreca et al., 2006) (Figure13.7). This confirms the
hypothesis that the precipitation in coastal mountain ranges of the Dinarides, like
Gorski Kotar and Mount.Velebit emerges mainly from air masses having a com-
parable origin. Enriched isotopic signatures for rain water at Zeleni Vir during
the summer months can be ascribed to precipitation that originates from Adriatic
air masses, whereas decisively lower enrichments are caused by the increased
Table13.5 Results from hydrochemical analyses of samples taken at Devils Creek and Zeleni Vir stream during the event monitoring.
Na K Mg Ca Cl NO3 SO4 HCO3 K-sum A-sum Diff

Sample ID Sampling date [mg/l] [mg/l] [mg/l] [mg/l] [mg/l] [mg/l] [mg/l] [mg/l] [mval/l] [mval/l] [mval/l] %-Dev.
DC4 16.06.2010 06:30 4.72 0.94 6.98 19.41 4.15 1.05 8.82 92.1 1.77 1.83 -0.06 3.11
DC12 16.06.2010 23:00 5.29 0.95 7.61 21.00 4.76 1.00 9.10 99.5 1.93 1.97 -0.04 2.12
DC16 17.06.2010 16:00 5.44 0.88 7.98 21.78 4.87 0.98 9.41 104.3 2.00 2.06 -0.06 2.80
ZV4 16.06.2010 06:30 3.14 0.42 12.59 42.75 4.77 2.74 6.25 183.7 3.32 3.32 0.00 0.09
ZV12 16.06.2010 23:00 3.28 0.50 13.00 43.34 4.78 2.83 6.51 186.7 3.39 3.38 0.01 -0.32
ZV16 17.06.2010 16:00 3.24 0.63 12.96 43.33 4.90 2.81 6.61 186.1 3.38 3.37 0.01 -0.40
Karst floor 2 Triassic
confining clastics Permian

fault zone
Karst floor 1 Jurassic
Figure13.10 Schematic stratigraphy of the Zeleni Vir window. Compare cross section with Figure13.3.
influence of continental air masses in autumn and winter. Comparable results

were reported by Vreca et al., (2006). The low dynamic of spring water isotopic
signature shows also that summer rain has only a marginal influence on the iso-
tope signal of the spring water, as the summer rain fraction is mixed up in the
karst reservoir with the dominant fraction of stored water that has depleted 18O
values. Furthermore the derivation of this LMWL supported the interpretation
of data gained from the event monitoring. For calculating the mean transit time
(MTT) of water in the aquifer of Zeleni Vir spring a higher number of spring
water and precipitation samples are preferable. Nevertheless, by making use of
the available data a MTT of 1.2 years could be calculated. Although this is a first
estimate, it still provides useful information for assessing the rough dimension
and characteristics of the reservoir.
(ii) Hydrographs and stable isotopes data for both streams during the 48 hours
of event monitoring revealed their particular storage- and discharge dynamics
(Table13.2, Table13.3). Environmental isotope analyses and hydrograph evalu-
ation shows, that the Devils Creek runoff is not only composed of surface runoff
but also of spring water (Figure13.9). The mentioned time shift between the
interflow and the event water (Figure13.9) describes the influence of springs
during rainfall events, leading to a difference between hydraulic reaction and ar-
rival at the sampling location of water deriving from the precipitation event. This
dynamic is similar to a piston flow model. These springs have strong influence on
the discharge dynamic of Devils Creek and are assumed to drain the weathered
upper layer of the Permian clastic rocks (Figure13.1). More detailed field surveys
could focus on the abundance and thickness of this weathered layer.
(iii) As the proportion of event water in Zeleni Vir stream is very low (Figures13.7
and 13.8) and its hydrologic response on the event very direct (Figures13.6 and
13.8), it is assumed that the dynamic is only caused by surface runoff flowing
into the stream in between the spring and the sampling location (Figure13.1).
Consequently no precipitation event water flowing through the aquifer was de-
tected within the 48 hours of monitoring, unusual for a karst-dominated system.
This inert reaction (>48 h) leads to the conclusion that the springs recharging the
Zeleni Vir stream (Zeleni Virs discharge did not contribute to Zeleni Vir stream
during the monitoring because it was captured in the pressure pipe line) are
discharging from a fissured, but not karstified aquifer (Type 5-rock: Figure13.5,
Table13.1). The results of hydrochemical analysis indicate a carbonate aquifer,
most likely dolomitic. 18O values for the sampled water were used to estimate
the height of the catchment. As the altitude of the Devils Creek orographic catch-
ment can be assigned to confine the Permian formation and 18O depletion varies
between 0.15 and 0.5 per 100 m rise (Clark & Fritz, 1997), the catchment
location for Zeleni Vir stream was estimated using 18O data and found to be at
the altitude were the contact of Triassic formations (Karst floor 2) and Permian
rocks occurs (Figure13.1). Further investigations would be desirable to gain more
accurate information about location and dimensions of this aquifer.
The investigations show again, like other studies conducted in the Dinaric karst
(e.g. Herak, 1980; Biondic et al., 1997; Kresic & Stevanovic, 2010), that structural geo-
logical settings are affecting the karst hydrology of western Croatia on diverse scales.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We thank Albrecht Leis (Joanneum Research, Graz) and Christian Mllegger

(University of Vienna) for isotope analytics and advices. Jurica Stivicic (HE Zeleni Vir)
provided the essential local support for the long-term sampling campaign at Zeleni
Vir spring. Special thanks to Ronald W. Harvey (U.S. Geological Survey, Boulder,
Colorado) for his constructive and detailed suggestions.
REFERENCES
Benischke R., T. Harum (1984) Computergesteuerte Abflussmessungen in offenen Gerinnen

nach der Tracerverdnnungsmethode (Integrationsverfahren). Steirische Beitrge zur
Hydrogeologie 36, 127137.
Berden G., Peeters R., Meijer G. (2001) Cavity ring-down spectroscopy: Experimental schemes
and applications [Review] International Reviews in Physical Chemistry 19(4), 565607.
Biondic B., Dukaric F., Kuhta M., Biondic R. (1997) Hydrogeological Exploration of the
Rjecina River Spring in the Dinaric Karst. Geologia Croatica 50(2), 279288.
Biondic B., Biondic R., Kapelj S. (2006) Karst groundwater protection in the Kupa River catch-
ment area and sustainable development. EnvironmentalGeology 49, 828839.
Brand W.A., Geilmann H., Crosson E.R., Rella C.W. (2009) Cavity ring-down spectroscopy
versus high-temperature conversion isotope ratio mass spectrometry; a case study on 2H
and 18O of pure water samples and alcohol/water mixtures. Rapid Communications in
Mass Spectroscopy 23(12), 18791884.
Clark I. D., Fritz P. (1997) Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology. CRCPress/Lewis
Publishers.
Gupta P., Noone D., Galewsky J., Sweeney C., Vaughn B.H. (2009) Demonstration of high-
precision continuous measurements of water vapor isotopologues in laboratory and remote
field deployments using wavelength-scanned cavity ring-down spectroscopy (WS-CRDS)
technology. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 23(16), 25342542.
Herak M. (1980) Sustav navlaka izmed-u Vrbovskog i Delnica u Gorskom Kotaru (Hrvatska)
(The nappe system between Vrbovsko and Delnice in Gorski Kotar (Croatia). Acta Geologica
(Prirodoslovna Istraivanja) 10(2), 3551.
Hubbard E.F., Kilpartick F.A., Martens L.A., Wilson J.F.Jr. (1982) Measurement of time of
travel and dispersion in streams by dye tracing. Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations
of the US Geological Survey, Book 3: Applications of hydraulics, pp 44.
HGI Geological Survey of Croatia (2011) Hydrogeological Map of Croatia, 1:300 000,
Zagreb 2011.
Kresic N., Z Stevanovic (2010) Groundwater Hydrology of Springs Engineering, Theory,
Management, and Sustainability. Elsevier, ISBN: 978-1-85617-502-9
McCuire K.J., McDonnell J.J. (2006) A review and evaluation of catchment transit time mod-
eling. Journal of Hydrology 330, 543563.
Pavuza R. & Traindl H. (1983) ber Dolomitkarst in sterreich. Die Hhle 34(1), 1525, 7
Abb., Wien.
Savic D., Dozed S. (1985) Osnovna Geoloka Karta SFRJ Delnice 1:100 000, Geoloski Zavod,
OOUR Geologiju i Paleontologiju, Zagreb, Geoloski Zavod Ljubljana.
Stadler H., Skritek P., Sommer R., Mach R. L., Zerobin W., A.H. Farnleitner (2008)
Microbiological monitoring and automated event sampling at Karst springs using LEO-
satellites, Water Science Technology 58(4), 899909.
Strobl T., Zunic F. (2006) Wasserbau, Aktuelle Grundlagen Neue Entwicklungen, Springer-
Verlag, pp 9295.
Vreca P., Bronic I.K., Horvaticic N., Bareic J. (2006) Isotopic characteristics of precipitation in
Slovenia and Croatia: Comparison of continental and marine stations. Journal of Hydrology
330, 457469.
Chapter 14
Scale-dependent evaluation
of an unconfined carbonate
system Practical application,
consequences and significance
dm Tth & Judit MdlSzo nyi
Department of Physical and Applied Geology, Etvs Lornd University,
Budapest, Hungary
ABSTRACT
Understanding of karst systems at basin scale has only been highlighted in a few theoreti-
cal studies. This paper intends to demonstrate the applicability of the gravity-driven regional
groundwater flow (GDRGF) concept in karst systems. For this purpose, the hydrogeological
conditions of a golf course, situated in the Balaton Highland, Hungary, were examined at
different scales. The goal was to define the appropriate scale and to reveal the effects of dif-
ferent structures; and to give prognoses for the possible impact of a planned drinking water
well on the golf course. Field-scale study has shown that the discharge at the golf course is
tectonically-controlled and it is fresh karst water. Cluster analysis of spring data resulted in
heterogeneity- and structure-related groups at aquifer scale. The real underground flow path of
spring groups could be interpreted only in GDRGF context at basin scale. The appropriate scale
to solve the conflicts could be derived.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Karst-related studies nowadays have to react to the future climate prognoses and
deal with their consequences on water utilisation possibilities in these changing cir-
cumstances. The review of the most important approaches of karst modelling for
water resource predictions by Hartmann etal. (2014) has revealed the difficulties of
representing spatial heterogeneities in karst and the uncertainties due to restricted
information on observed discharges in the system. These can cause uncertainties also
in the evaluation of the effect of future climate changes on karst systems. The main
conclusions of the review were that we need better methods to apply karst models
at large scales and we could make progress in the large-scale application of karst
models (Hartmann etal., 2014 p.18). These conclusions clearly show the demand for
understanding the processes on larger spatial scale in carbonates.
Karst systems are mostly integral parts of sedimentary basins. Therefore, the
applicability of the gravity-driven regional groundwater flow (GDRGF) concept to
the unconfined and adjoining confined carbonate systems on basin scale (large scale)
can give a new insight into their processes as it was proposed by Mdl-Szo nyi and
Tth (2015) (Figure14.1). The application of this approach has proved that the effect
of heterogeneity and anisotropy on the flow pattern could be derived from hydraulic
responses of the system on this scale. In addition, this study demonstrated that the eval-
uation of natural springs, as discharge phenomena (Tth, 1971), reveals the nature,
hierarchy, chemical and temperature distribution of topography-driven regional

groundwater flow in carbonate systems at basin scale. The connection between large,
basin-scale carbonate and shallow, aquifer-scale karst (Goldscheider & Drew, 2007)
conceptual models were also proposed by the implementation of aquifer-scale model
into the basin scale one as a local flow system (Figure14.1).
The objective of this study was to demonstrate the usefulness of the GDRGF
concept with the determination of the appropriate scales in solving karst-related prob-
lems, such as conflicts of interest regarding water utilisation. The study also demon-
strates how the concept can be involved in practical solutions with the implementation
of subsequent scale studies.
14.2 BASIC CONCEPT AND THEORETICAL

CONSIDERATIONS
Thick carbonate systems can be characterised by hydraulically connected unconfined

and confined subregions, where water table elevation differences induce GDRGF.
unconfined confined
recharge throughflow discharge throughflow recharge
freshwater
wetland Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3, SO42, Na+, Cl, 222Rn, 226Ra
river
12 km
some kms
several tens of kms

Legend
carbonate water table positive heat anomaly cold spring
siliciclastic high magnitude flow negative heat anomaly lukewarm spring

confining bed
low magnitude flow epigenic cave thermal spring
conductive fault
higher order flow hypogenic cave heat accumulation
SO42 source
interface between potential for mineral and
freshwater and basinal hypogenic karstification biological precipitate
phreatophyte vegetation fluids
Figure14.1 Conceptual Tth-type GDRGF pattern of thick carbonate systems and its consequences
on flow-related manifestations; the shallow karst aquifer (modified after Goldscheider and
Drew 2007) is embedded into the regional flow pattern as a local system (Figure 14.10a
of Mdl-Szonyi and Tth, 2015).
Scale-dependent evaluation of an unconfined carbonate system 201
It has been revealed by theoretical considerations that hydraulic continuity is more

effective in such systems than in siliciclastic sedimentary basins due to the more effi-
cient hydraulic diffusivity (Mdl-Szo nyi & Tth, 2015). The scale dependence of
carbonates was discussed by Kirly (1975) with the distinction between laboratory,
borehole and basin scale. This concept has been reformed by Hartmann etal. (2014)
with the modification of the basin scale to catchment/aquifer scale and with the imple-
mentation of the temporal dimension of karstification into the concept. The difference
in permeability increases from borehole to aquifer scale, depends on the evolutionary
stage of karstification. However, the substitution of basin scale by aquifer scale is
scientifically not acceptable, but borehole scale in Kirly (1975) can correspond to
aquifer scale. At the basin scale, the field of interest is the karstified carbonate basin
which is represented by a continuous porous environment with implemented fracture
and fault zones (e.g. Wellman & Poetier, 2006).
It means that the previous concern regarding the representation of karstifica-
tion can be resolved, because it is not necessary at basin scale. On this scale the
hydraulic reactions of the system can be used to better understand the hetero-
geneity and anisotropy of the systems, including either hydraulic continuity or
compartmentalisation.
Additionally, springs and other groundwater flow-related discharge features, like
seepages, wetlands, epigenic and hypogenic caves, mineral and biological precipitates
can be used to characterise subsurface flow conditions (Tth, 2009), based on the
concept of groundwater as a geologic agent (Tth, 1999). Parameters and areal dis-
tribution of these features can inform us about their parent flow systems in thick
carbonates.
14.3 PRACTICAL APPLICATION FOR A CASE STUDY
The local study area, a golf course, is situated in the unconfined part of the
Transdanubian Range Unit, a few kilometres from Lake Balaton, Hungary
(Figures14.2ab). The conflicts of interest in the area occur because a karst drinking
water well is planned near (~1500 m) the golf course (ENVICOM2000, 2012). The
question is how will the natural discharge on the golf course be influenced by the
karst drinking water production well. The goal of this study is not to solve this local
problem. This chapter intends only to demonstrate the importance of the understand-
ing the appropriate scale in karst studies and to illustrate how the GDRGF concept
can help to determine it.
14.4 GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY OF THE

STUDY AREA
The Transdanubian Range (TR) of Hungary, extending for 250 km in a north east
south west direction, is bounded by strike-slip and normal faults and consists of geo-
logically complex hills and mountains (Haas 2001, 2012). The Transdanubian Range
Unit (Figure14.2a) is built up mainly of Triassic and Early Jurassic confined and
unconfined carbonates, but beside carbonates Paleozoic metamorphic and Permian
Cretaceous sedimentary rocks can be found also in the region (Haas, 2001). The
A)
basin-scale study area
aquifer-scale study area
field-scale study area
track of simulated section

(Figure 14.9)
unconfined carbonates
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
state border Permian

0 10 20 30 km geologic structure Variscan
B)
Holocene siliciclastic sediments
Triassic carbonate aquifer
Triassic carbonate aquitard

strike-slip fault
transverse fault
golf course
elevation (m asl)
Lake Balaton
104 m asl planned well
0 500 m wetland
Figure14.2 A) The Transdanubian Range Unit of Hungary, boundaries and distribution of Paleozoic
and Mesozoic formations and major structural elements (modified after Haas (2001) a fter
Flp etal. (1987)) in addition the delineation of unconfined and confined carbonates with
the different study scales. B) Topography, hydrostratigraphy and the main structural ele-
ments of the field-scale study area. Location of the golf course and position of the planned
water abstraction well are also indicated. Structures are adapted from Dudko (1991).
structural pattern is characterised by a large north east south west trending synform
accompanied by antiforms (Fodor, 2010; Haas, 2012).
The Transdanubian Range is the biggest karstified carbonate aquifer system in
Hungary (Csepregi, 2007). Natural discharge takes place via cold, lukewarm and
thermal springs as well as creeks and wetlands. Groundwater in the area is used
mainly for public water supply, healing and heating purposes, and also as mineral
water. The region is rich in brown coal and bauxite resources which can be found
below the water table, therefore, for economic production, mine dewatering (between
the 1950s to 1990s) was required which has caused significant water level decrease
(Alfldi & Kapolyi, 2007).
The region of the golf course is located between 115135 m elevation. Originally,
it had gradually sloping relief but nowadays it is an artificially-formed hummocky
small plateau with several tiny artificial lakes all but one of which are lined (Figures
14.2b and 14.3). The climate is continental with some Mediterranean influence (aver-
age annual precipitation is ~500700 mm). The area of the golf course is characterised
by natural diffuse discharge. East and south of the golf course small natural creeks
can be found as discharge features. Historical records, memoirs and archaeological
artefacts indicate that this site has been inhabited permanently from the 3rd century
suggesting the area has had a constant and stable water supply for human beings
(ruins of Roman Ages can be found here around a spring [Figure14.3]) (http://www.
orvenyes.hu).
Geologically the area is built up by unconfined Triassic carbonates and they are
partially covered by Quaternary siliciclastic sediments (Figure14.2b). At this site
the Triassic carbonates can be distinguished according to their hydraulic behaviour.
Undifferentiated dolomites and limestones are the main aquifer for karstwater in
the region with hydraulic conductivity (K) of 10-510-4 m/s. However, the cherty and
tuffaceous carbonate formation has a lower K (~10-710-6 m/s), therefore, it functions
as aquitard (Tth etal., 2014). The covering siliciclastic sediments have limited exten-
sion and they might have similar hydraulic properties to the Triassic aquifer depend-
ing on grain size distribution and degree of compaction. However, the region is highly
influenced by tectonic events through geological evolution (Figure14.2b).
N golf course
artificial lake with lining
artificial lake without lining
spring
spring
spring
spring
ruins of Roman Ages
wetland
RMT site
VLFEM profile
Lake
0 100 200 m
Balaton detected fault
Figure14.3 Discharge-related observations and location of electromagnetic measurements on the

field-scale study area. (Different symbols of springs are introduced only for further
visualisation purposes).
14.5 FIELD-SCALE STUDY
The goal of the field-scale study at the golf course was to characterise the natural
discharge features. Water samples for chemical analysis were taken from the springs,
geophysical measurements were carried out, as well as field observations. These data
were complemented by archive data. The hydrostratigraphic and tectonic influence on
discharge and the chemical character of springs were determined.
There are four springs that discharge in the vicinity of and within the golf course
(Figure14.3). Beside discrete natural discharge points, diffuse discharge also occurs
forming a chain of waterlogged areas usually in local depressions of pot-holed terrain
and around artificial lined lakes. These groundwater conditions together with the
archive data prove the continuous existence and stability of water discharge in the
area, a setting that is favourable for maintaining the fresh grass vegetation of the golf
course.
Water samples of springs (indicated by circle, triangle, pentagon and asterisk) and
lake without lining (indicated by grey dashed area) (Figure14.3) were collected to
assess the chemical character of the discharges. The low TDS values (760835 mg/l)
of all the water samples indicate the existence of fresh karst water characterised by
calciummagnesium and bicarbonate facies (Table14.1, Figure14.4). The highest
TDS occurs in the spring (displayed by an asterisk) closest to the Lake Balaton.
These parameters represent relatively a shallow flow path and the magnesium
concentration reflects interaction with dolomite. According to the archive dataset
(Hungarian Spring Cadastre) the spring volume discharge rates in this area vary
across a wide range with 0.160.33 l/s median values of discharge rate.
Electromagnetic geophysical measurements were carried out to determine and
specify the hydrostratigraphic structure and see whether it has a modifying effect on
the discharge pattern. Electromagnetic techniques are efficient tools for investigating
shallow (~100 m) geological formations, and are commonly applied in hydrogeolog-
ical research (e.g. Turberg etal., 1994; Nobes, 1996; Meju etal., 1999; Vereecken
etal., 2005) because geological sequences (aquitards and aquifers) and structures (e.g.
faults, fractures) can be investigated quickly, extensively and effectively (Tezkan etal.,
2000; Gurk etal., 2001; Bosch & Mller, 2001). Radio-magnetotellurics (RMT) was
applied to provide information about hydrostratigraphy and Very Low Frequency
Electromagnetics (VLFEM) to detect tectonic elements and fractures, respectively
(Figure14.3).
Table14.1 Measured field parameters of springs and surface waters.
T[C] pH EC (25C) [S/cm] TDS [mg/l] Discharge [l/s]
11.8 7.02 942 830 ~1.6102

13.7 7.44 855 772 ~8.3103
11.2 7.23 1027 835 ~3.3101
12.3 7.09 903 811 ~5102
15.3 7.82 820 758 n/a
80
80
Ca
60 (Cl)
lciu
id e
m
(C
lor
60
a)
40 4 + Ch
+ Ma
)
gne
SO
40
siu
e(
m
fat
(M
Sul
)g
20
20
Mg SO4
20
O 20
)
20 3
HC
20
80
80
40
40 m (N
So
e(
diu
nat
rbo
g)
(M
Sul
ica
60
40
40
60
a)
fat
60 3 ) + B
m
O 0
60 tassi
+P
6
siu
e(
o
gne
SO 4
(C
Ma
)
um
40
40
60
e
nat
rbo 0
80
8
(K)
Ca
80
20
20
80
Ca 80 60 40 20 Na+K HCO3+CO3 20 40 60 80 Cl
Calcium (Ca) Chloride (Cl)
% meq/l
CATIONS ANIONS
Figure14.4 Piper diagram of water samples of the golf course (for location of data points see Figure 14.3).
According to the electrostratigraphic section (Figure14.5) displaying RMT resis-

tivity values in m, carbonates with higher electrical resistivities (>300 m) can be
identified under a thin (~23 m) siliciclastic covering unit characterised by ~30 m
resistivity. There is a sharp resistivity contrast at ~100 m along the section. This anom-
aly can be interpreted as lithological change (carbonate and siliciclastic sediments)
which might be attributed to a fault separating covered and uncovered carbonate
parts. The existence of this tectonic structure could be confirmed by VLFEM mea-
surements (Figure14.3). The results indicate a significantly structurally broken area
which can be explained by the transverse fault system of the region (Figure14.2b).
This is an artificially influenced field and landscaping could have an influence on
near-surface geological build-up as well.
Based on historical records and archive spring data the groundwater discharge
of the golf course area appears to be stable and constant. Some springs were
observed in the field and also wetlands with diffuse discharge can be found on
the golf course (Figure14.6). Hydrochemical facies indicate fresh karst water
with similar low TDS values and similar chemical make up. Sharp lithological
SW NE
130
33 30
139
366 13 17
120 64
33
e
347
elevation (m asl)
chang
386 33
110
79
gical
39
litholo
100 28
26
65 59
sharp
65
90 95
822 65
80
0 150 200
distance along section (m)
siliciclastic sediments carbonates
Figure14.5 Electrostratigraphic section along RMT measurements indicating electrical resistivities in

m for each unit. See Figure 14.3 for the location of measured RMT data.
golf course
strike-slip fault
N
transverse fault
Lake Balaton
detected fault
supposed tectonic line
artificial lake without lining
spring
spring
spring
spring
ruins of Roman Ages
0 100 200 m wetland
planned well
Figure14.6 Conclusions of the field-scale study indicating tectonically-controlled discharge features

on the golf course. Structures are adapted from Dudko (1991).
changes detected by electromagnetic geophysical measurements show north

south and north west south east oriented fault systems which contribute to dif-
fuse and point source discharges at the golf course, i.e. the discharge phenomena
are tectonically-controlled.
The field-scale study showed the hydrogeological conditions around the golf
course, however it did not inform in the determination of the source of the discharg-
ing groundwater which might be influenced by the planned water production. At this
scale, the origin and supply of the flow systems for the wetlands and springs at the
golf course cannot be shown, however, these questions can be answered by expanding
the study area and lowering the scale.
14.6 AQUIFER-SCALE STUDY
In the next phase, the study area was expanded to a larger, aquifer-scale area (10skm
10skm) of the Balaton Highland (Figure14.2a). The delineation of the area was
based on topographic considerations and the structural pattern, because the north
west thrust fault is supposed to separate the Balaton Highland from the more elevated
part of the Transdanubian Range (Csepregi, 2007). To understand the flow systems to
the discharges at the golf course, the natural springs of the area were used to provide
information about their parent flow systems. For this reason, archive data of springs
(based on Hungarian Spring Cadastre) were examined and analysed by a descriptive
statistical method to better understand the hydrogeological systems.
Cluster analysis (e.g. Kovcs etal., 2012) was used to determine the possible groups
of springs. The archive spring database of the Transdanubian Range was used for the
basic data regarding springs, such as elevation, volume discharge, temperature and the
most important water chemistry. The chemical parameters reflect different orders of
flow systems that can be represented in the spring groups (Mdl-Szo nyi & Tth, 2015).
The natural spring data were influenced by artificial mine dewatering (Alfldi &
Kapolyi, 2007) therefore, only the data before 1960 were used to examine the natural
flow conditions. The first parameter was the elevation of the spring orifice, the second
one was the water temperature because there are cold and also lukewarm springs. The
third parameter was the chloride content because it is a conservative natural tracer
in water. Finally, the volume discharge of the springs was the fourth parameter, since
springs fed by local flow systems display higher variability in discharge while higher
order of flow systems are more stable (Bodor etal., 2014; Mdl-Szo nyi & Tth, 2015).
The results of the cluster analysis show that the groups are more or less separated
by elevation of spring orifice and water temperature (Figure14.7). However, there are
no significant changes in chloride concentration, discharge rates vary widely, there-
fore these two parameters cannot be applied for distinguishing spring groups.
The group of springs delineated by a triangle in Figure14.7 are characterised by
the lowest discharge elevation (135 m asl) and the highest temperature (12.5C). The
springs, indicated by a circle, discharge at higher elevation (~200 m asl) but are char-
acterised by a consistent temperature of 11C. The areal distribution of the other two
groups does not show any definite pattern which can be related to groundwater flow
systems. The springs on the field scale were very similar, with almost the same chem-
ical composition, here they are part of different groups. Nevertheless, the position of
springs are in good correlation with tectonic elements of the Balaton Highland area,
i.e. on the aquifer scale the springs are separated into different groups supposedly due
to the effect of geological heterogeneities and structures.
The origin of springs in this larger study area, the aquifer scale, have not been
determined. Clustering the springs of the Balaton Highland region resulted in a geo-
logical heterogeneity-related grouping without any information about the parent
groundwater flow systems. For this reason, the study area was further expanded to
the BakonyBalaton Highland region.
A)
ton
ala
eB
Lak
B) 400 20
Temperature (C)
Elevation (m asl)
300
10
200
100 0
Discharge (l/min)
80 800
Cl (mg/l)
40 400
0 0
Figure14.7 A) Areal distribution of spring groups on aquifer scale for the Balaton Highland (sur-
rounded by dotted line). Dashed circle indicates the vicinity of field-scale study area.
Tectonic elements of the Balaton Highland are adapted from Dudko (1991), transverse
faults are indicated by grey colour. B) The box-and-whisker plots of the parameters.
14.7 BASIN-SCALE STUDY
The same statistical data analysis was done for the bigger study area (some 50 km
some 50 km) whih included the Bakony Mountains and Balaton Highland. In this case
the parameters were more indicative of the hydrogeological settings (Figure14.8).
According to the elevation of the spring and the water temperature the springs form
four distinctive groups: springs with relatively high water temperature can be found at
low elevations around the BakonyBalaton Highland area, while the coldest springs
are situated at the elevated parts of the Bakony Mountains. The discharge rate of the
springs still varies in a large range suggesting that there are springs with stable and
high amounts of discharge and others with fluctuating discharge rates which may
even dry up altogether. Variation of the chloride ion concentration is not significant
because this region is unconfined and contribution from siliciclastic confining strata
is small (Mdl-Szo nyi & Tth, 2015).
These groups can be interpreted in the GDRGF context. The group indicated
by triangles (Figure14.8) represents the springs of the highest Bakony, above the
Cretaceous marl in perched carbonate aquifers. Groups represented by circles and
squares discharge at lower elevation (~150300 m asl) with a slightly elevated tem-
perature (~1013C). They relate to two different local flow systems. The group pre-
sented as asterisks has the highest temperature and it is characterised by the lowest
elevation with a significant discharge rate (~8.33l6.66 l/s). These springs can be
identified as fed by an intermediate flow system. In this basin-scale study the areal
pattern of springs are more consistent with the topography-driven groundwater flow
conditions. By lowering the scale, i.e. expanding study area, the areal pattern of the
springs does not alter as demonstrated by Mdl-Szo nyi & Tth (2015) for the whole
Transnubian Range.
The relationship between spring groups of the field-scale study area and the simu-
lated flow pattern were compared based with the scenario simulations of Mdl-Szo nyi
& Tth (2015, Figure 14.2a). The springs of the field-scale study indicate the same,
supposedly local flow-related group (squares on Figure14.7). Consequently, this scale
is necessary to explain the source and flowpath of groundwater towards the golf
course area, since GDRGF is the most important agent within this framework.
In the simulated section the northern boundary of the source area of the golf
course a low permeability thrust fault is present (Figure14.7). However, the simulated
flow pattern displays that there is throughflow across this fault in spite of its low per-
meability, because the main hydraulic gradient is perpendicular to the fault. There is
a deeper throughflow component as well, which can contribute with a deeper water
component to the springs (the asterix group in Figures 14.3 and 14.4.).
14.8 DISCUSSION
The direct recharge area of the golf course can be found down-dip of the thrust fault
between the Balaton Highland and the Bakony Mountains (~12 km in Figure14.9).
This direct recharge produces a large amount of water flowing towards the golf course.
However, there is some throughflow across the thrust fault, from higher topographic
regions (this additional recharge is at ~8 km) and a deep water flow contribution as
A)
ton
ala
eB
Lak
B) 500
20
Elevation (m asl)
Temperature (C)
400
300
10
200
100 0
8000
Discharge (l/min)
80
Cl (mg/l)
4000
40
0
0
Figure14.8 A) Areal distribution of spring groups on basin scale for the whole Bakony Mountains and
Balaton Highland. Dashed circle indicates the vicinity of field-scale study area and dotted
line surrounds the aquifer-scale study area. B) The box-and-whisker plots of the parameters.
planned well direct recharge area of the golf course

260
Elevation of
water table
golf course additional recharge area of the golf course

(m asl)
180 required study area
500
Elevation
(m asl)
0
500
1000
0 5 10 15 20
Distance (km)
260 250 240 230 220 210 200 190 180

Head (m)
Figure14.9
Flow distribution, heads (m), streamlines and Darcys velocity vectors (magnitude-
controlled) based on flow simulations along a section (see location on Figure 14.2a) of
Mdl-Szonyi & Tth (2015; Figure 14.7c) and with the indication of the supposed recharge
and discharge area of golf course and the projected location of the planned well.
well (Figure14.9). The velocity vectors are displayed in magnitude, therefore, they
do not represent the drop in discharge across the fault. The clustering of springs on
the basin scale represents local flow systems (Figure14.8) with CaMg and HCO3
water types. Only one spring displays a higher TDS and lower magnesium and higher
sulphate and chloride concentrations, indicating some additional deeper water contri-
bution (Table14.1, Figure14.4). The south east boundary of the discharge region of
the golf course is the strike-slip fault (Figures 14.2b and 14.6). The discharge of the
spring with elevated TDS (indicated by asterix) can be connected to this. There are
two transverse faults which influence the delineation of the study area. The north east
and south west boundary of the study area is a stream and the western transverse fault
respectively (Figure14.2b). Due to limited throughflow from the Bakony Mountains
across the thrust faults and the efficient hydraulic continuity in the carbonates, the
effect of the planned production well on the discharge at the golf course cannot be
overlooked. The strike-slip fault in the south east and the thrust fault in the north
west, as hydraulic boundaries, may contribute to this effect based on the supposed
superposition of drawdown.
3D transient numerical simulation of the potential hydraulic effects of the new
well require the field-scale study to be extended as far as the western transverse fault
(Figure14.2b) to understand the hydrostratigraphy and tectonics of the area between
the well and the golf course.
14.9 CONCLUSION
The objective of this study was to demonstrate the usefulness of the GDRGF con-
cept in solving karst-related problems in an unconfined carbonate basin. Theoretical
research suggested that karst systems, as integral parts of sedimentary basins are
characterised by gravity-driven flow of adjoining confined and unconfined carbonate
systems. This study demonstrated the importance of springs and connected natural
discharge features to reveal the nature, hierarchy, chemistry and temperature distri-
bution of topography-driven regional groundwater flow. Hydraulic connection also
occurs between large, basin-scale carbonate and shallow aquifer-scale karst features.
On regional scale, hydraulic continuity or compartmentalisation of karst regions by
structures or faults are more significant than the effects of local heterogeneities. In
addition to these theoretical findings the applicability of GDRGF approach to solve
practical questions in carbonate regions need to be assessed. One of the most import-
ant practical questions is the delineation of the appropriate study areas in such regions
and to learn more about the effects of faults and hydraulic connectivity between dif-
ferent parts of the carbonate basin.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors appreciate the help of collaborating colleagues (Imre Mller, Szilvia
Simon, Ferenc Zsemle, Tmea Havril) and students during field-scale study. Technical
support of Jzsef Kovcs, Gergely Hornyk, Petra Bodor and Soma Szathmri is also
acknowledged. The access to the field-scale problem was provided by Tibor Sarls and
Jzsef Vers. Valuable comments of anonymous reviewers are appreciated. Language
editing by Nicholas Robins is highly acknowledged.
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Hartmann A., Goldscheider N., Wagener T., Lange J., Weiler M. (2014) Karst water resources
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Chapter 15
Characterization of karst system

using modelling of rainfall-
discharge relationship: Pireghar
and Dimeh springs, Zagros
Region, Iran
Zargham Mohammadi & Sepideh Mali
Department of Earth Sciences, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
ABSTRACT
Hydrogeological models are an approximation of real systems. The structure of these models,
includes several equations which are known as the system transfer functions that define the
relationship between inputs and outputs. The transfer functions and the impulse response func-
tions (i.e., Kernel function) of the karst springs, Pireghar and Dimeh, are identified by means
of the ARX model. Daily rainfall data of the Chelgard and Farsan rain gauge stations and
daily spring discharge of the Dimeh and Pireghar Springs during the period of 19992011 are
selected as input and output, respectively in the modelling processes. The results show different
contribution of the flow components, slow flow and quick flow, in the springs. The slow flow
component in the Dimeh and Pireghar springs is 90% and 64% of the total spring discharge,
respectively. Moreover, in order to evaluate spring discharge variations in response to a hypo-
thetical drought conditions (assuming a decreasing trend in precipitation during the next twelve
years), the spring discharge is predicted based on the calibrated model. The results reveal that,
the Pireghar Spring will be more affected by drought events compared to the Dimeh Spring.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Karst aquifers contain significant water reserves in many parts of the world, but
development and management of these resources is difficult because of the complex-
ity of the aquifers. Karst aquifers are mainly characterised by an irregular network of
pores, fractures, fissures and solution conduits in various sizes and shapes. Such struc-
tures with inherent heterogeneous geometry cause complex hydraulic conditions and
spatial and/or temporal variability of hydraulic parameters in these aquifers. After a
rainfall event, water primarily recharges through large conduit, fissures and fractures
and cause a large amount of water moves rapidly to the outlet of karst spring. But in
smaller fractures and fissures, slow and predominantly laminar recharge occurs due to
gradual drainage from them. These two processes form a quick flow and a slow flow
component of a karst spring hydrograph (Denic-Jukic & Jukic, 2003).
Assuming a karst aquifer as linear, time-invariant and casual system, discharge of
the karst spring at a time t may be represented by the superposition of three compo-
nents as shown in Figure 15.1 (Denic-Jukic &Jukic2003):
y(t) = yD(t) + yS(t) + yQ(t) (15.1)

Where yD(t), yS(t) and yQ(t) are named as a component of antecedent flow, slow
flow and quick flow, respectively (Figure15.1).
yD(t) is a component of the spring discharge resulting from antecedent rainfalls.
It can be defined by using the superposition law and the property of independence
of discharge events. It practically means that the component of discharge resulting
from antecedent rainfall is equal to the spring discharge resulting of a period without
rainfall. In this regard, the antecedent recession curve has the same form as the master
recession curve. Consequently, the function yD(t) has the exponential form with the
recession coefficient :
yD(t) = y0e-t/(15.2)
where y0 is the karst spring discharge at the beginning of the period analysed.
yS(t) belongs to the water storage in the pore space and micro fissures which
defined as the base flow. Generally groundwater flow in this part of the karst media
known as the diffuse flow regime.
yQ(t) relates to quick recharge through sinkholes, conduit and large fissures and
movement of groundwater in the karst system under the dominant turbulent flow
regime.
The discharge component of yD(t) is the result of an initial storage in the karst
system, while yS(t) and yQ(t) are the result of current rainfall (e.g., x(t-), [0,t]).
The relationship between the rainfall and the resulting karst spring discharge can be
represented by the linear convolution integral between the rainfall and a transfer func-
tion, so Eq. 15.3 may be written as (Denic-Jukic & Jukic, 2003):
t t
y(t) = y D (t) + hS ( )x(t - )d + hQ ( )x(t - )d (15.3)
0 0
where hS() and hQ() are the slow flow and quick flow transfer function, respectively.
One of well-known methods for characterising karst aquifers is modelling of
the spring hydrograph based on the use of kernel functions (i.e., impulse response
function). When the kernel function of a karst system is known, the output (i.e.,
spring discharge) can be determined for any specified input (i.e. rainfall events). If
the internal structure of the system is known, the response function can sometimes
Rainfall Quick flow

function
Slow flow + Spring discharge

function
Antecedent
Antecedent rainfalls flow function
Figure15.1 The superposition of three components to produce the spring discharge water.
Characterization of karst system using modelling of rainfall-discharge relationship 217
be determined by analytical or numerical methods. However, the system cannot be

described mathematically with a sufficient degree of accuracy, and in this case, the
kernel function must be determined empirically from an observed set of output and
input data (Neuman & de Marsily, 1976).
In order to simulate the karst spring hydrograph, three types of mathematical
models can be applied: conceptual models, theoretical or physical models and empir-
ical or black-box models. Very simplified physical interpretation of processes that
control and transform rainfall events into spring discharge are the basis for the con-
ceptual models. Generally, a series of linear or nonlinear reservoirs are assumed for
conceptualisation of the natural processes in the real karst systems (Denic-Jukic&
Jukic, 2003; Barrett & Charbeneau, 1997; Halihan & Wicks, 1998). However, the
theoretical models are based on the reliable hydraulic laws which valid in different
groundwater flow regimes, turbulent and laminar flow type, in the karst media
(Denic-Jukic & Jukic, 2003; Teutch & Sauter, 1997; Eisenlohr etal., 1997). The
theoretical models need extensive hydrological, geological and hydrogeological
investigations to provide detailed information about inputs and outputs of the karst
system. Since, our knowledge about the karst system is limited, often physical mod-
els are non-applicable; so a black or gray box method is used to model the karst
system. Information about internal structure of the karst aquifers is not necessary
in applying the black box models. The black box mode functions based on the rela-
tionship between input and output of the system. One of the most important black
box model is the rainfall-runoff model based on the convolution integral between
rainfall rates and system transfer functions. This model can be applied using a linear
or nonlinear form of the convolution integral (Denic-Jukic & Jukic, 2003; Labat
etal., 1999), but the linear form is more widely used (Denic-Jukic & Jukic, 2003).
The solution of the linear form of the convolution integral is the transfer func-
tion that represents the unit response function of the karst aquifer (Denic-Jukic &
Jukic, 2003). To apply the linear convolution integral in a karst system, two
hypotheses are considered (Denic-Jukic & Jukic, 2003): (i) the system must be con-
sidered as time-invariant (i.e., the system transfer function is not modified with
time), andthe linearity of the system and consequently the property of proportion-
ality and thesuperposition law are valid (i.e. the system input and output have the
same scale ratio).
The ARX (Auto Regressive model with External input) model, which is the
hybrid models (i.e., gray box model) with fixed internal structure is a well-known
model for determination of the kernel function. In the ARX model, output values
at any time are dependent on simultaneous input value and prior input and output
records.
In this research, the ARX model has been used to identify the kernel functions of
two karst springs, Dimeh and Pireghar, at the Zagros Region, Iran. The main objec-
tives of this research are (1) characterisation of the karst system in the catchment
area of the Pireghar and Dimeh springs base on the relationship between rainfall and
spring discharge signals, and (2) evaluation of variation of spring discharge under a
hypothetical drought crisis in the Pireghar and Dimeh Springs. Daily rainfall of the
Chelgard and Farsan rain gauge stations and daily springs discharges of the Pireghar
and Dimeh Springs over a period of 19992011 were used as inputs and outputs,
respectively.
15.2 GEOLOGICAL AND HYDROGEOLOGICAL SETTING
The study area is located in the Zagros Mountains Range, which comprises a series
of parallel north west-south east trending anticlines and synclines formed by com-
pressional tectonics during the Miocene age. The stratigraphic and structural setting
of the Zagros Mountain range is described in detail by Stocklin & Setudehnia (1977)
and Alavi (2004). The Alpine Orogeny led to many thrust faults in the area. The
major geological formations in the study area (Figure15.2), in increasing order of
age, include Pabdeh-Gurpi Formation (Palaeocene/Oligocene), Asmari-Jahrom and
Shahbazan Formation (Oligocene to early Miocene), Razak Formation (Miocene),
Gachsaran Formation (Miocene-Eocene), Mishan Formation (Middle to Late
Miocene), Aghajari Formation (late Miocene to Pliocene), Bakhtiari Formation (late
Pliocene-Pleistocene) and the recent alluvium. The Asmari Formation has the poten-
tial to form a karstic aquifer system. The Asmari-Jahrom and Shahbazan Formations
includes limestone layers, thin layers of clay and gray limestone along with the fossils
orbitolina and shale, marl and sandstone of Cretaceous age. The Upper Cretaceous
and Tertiary geological formations comprise limestone layers which are suitable for
the karst development.
The Asmari-Jahrom and Shahbazan formations outcrops mainly around Dime
and Pireghar springs and the Saldoran and Zarab Mountains in this area are probably
part of the catchment area of the springs (Figure15.2). Large dissolution cavities have
been observed in the massive limestone rocks of the Asmari-Jahrom and Shahbazan
formations in the area, which could be considered as indications for development of
karst. Different karstic phenomena such as springs, caves (e.g. Pireghar and Sarab
LEGEND GEOLOGICAL MAP

Q Recent alluviums
P1 Gonglomerate & sandstone
EO White limestone, marly
& dolomitic limestone
OM1 Gonglomerate, marls & shale
OM3 Gray marls
E Reddish conglomerate 3230
K Orbitolina limestone Dimeh spring
K8 Shale & marls
K7 Marly limestone
K3 Thin gray argillaceous limestone Chelgard rain
K2 Reef limestone with corals gauge station
K1 Reddish sandstone & shale
JK Bituminous black shale
J1 White argillaceous dolomitic limestone
TR Whittish thinly bedded dolomite
P Fusulina limestone
3 Marls, sahle & sandstone
River
Fault Farsan rain
gauge station
Rain gauge station
3215
Spring
N
Theran
Pireghar spring
Shahrekord
Study area
Pe
rsi
an 0 5 15 km
Gu
lf
5015 5030
Figure15.2 Regional geological map.

caves), karren, dissolution cavities, poljes, dolines, and dry valleys are observed
locally. Several joint sets were extensively developed due to the Zagros Thrust Fault
Zone, which provides favourable condition for surface recharge in the carbonate
rocks consequent to the development of the karstic features.
The Dimeh and Pireghar springs are located in Zagros Region, Iran. A catchment
area of 140 and 90 km2 were determined for the Dimeh and Pireghar, respectively (Mali,
2014). Mean annual rainfall in the catchment area of the Dome and Pireghar springs
is 542.5 and 1329.1 mm based on data from Farsan and Chelgerd rain gauge stations
during the period of 19992011, respectively. Spring discharge in the Dimeh and Pireghar
springs range from 1.5 to 4.3 and from 0.6 to 5.3 m3/s, respectively. The ratio of max-
imum to minimum spring discharge were computed 2.9 and 9.58 for the Dimeh and
Pireghar springs. Mali & Mohammadi (2013) have shown that the recession coefficient
value () of the Dimeh and Pireghar Springs ranges from 10-3 to 10-4 and 10-2 to 10-3.
15.3 METHOD
The ARX model is one of the most popular models for modelling time-invariant linear
systems. This model is one of the hybrid models (i.e., Gray box model) which charac-
terise by specifying structure. Parameters of the ARX model are determined via cali-
bration and verification process. According to the ARX model, any spring discharge
record, y(k), at time k is dependent on values of simultaneous rainfall, x(k), and prior
rainfall and spring discharge records as follows:
y(k) = f [y(k-1), y(k-2), y(k-m), x(k), x(k-1), x(k-n)](15.4)
Since f is a linear function, Eq. 15.4 could be rewritten as:
y(k) = a1y(k-1) + a2y(k-2) + + amy(k-m) + b0x(k) + b1x(k-1) + + bnx(k-n) + e(k) (15.5)
Where e (i.e., Error) belongs to probable noise in the measurements. By using of

the Z-transform, Eq. 15.5 converts to:
Y(z) = (a1z-1 + a2z-2 + + amz-m) y(n) + (b0 + b1z-1 + + bnz-n)x(n) + E(z)(15.6)
Rearrangement of Eq. 15.6 gives:
B(z -1 ) 1
Y(z) = -1
X(z) Z - b + E(z) (15.7)
A(z ) A(z -1 )
where
B(z-1) = b0 + b1z-1 + + bnz-n(15.8)
A(z-1) = a1z-1 + a2z-2 + + amz-m(15.9)
The polynomial B(z-1) is the impact on the spring discharge from antecedent
rainfall events and spring discharges. When coefficient n is large, it indicates that
the spring discharge is dependent on the antecedent discharges. Polynomial A(z-1)

is the effectiveness of the current and prior rainfalls to impact the spring discharge.
With a large coefficient m, prior rainfall impacts the spring discharge. E(z) and
Z-b are the noise in the measurements and lag time between rainfall and discharge,
respectively.
The modelling process follows two steps: first, determination of the parameters
of the model including coefficients of n, m and b, and second, identification of the
system order. The coefficients of the polynomials B(Z-1) and A(Z-1) are determined
using the least-square algorithm.
If the response of a system to inputs is shown by ht, the relationship between
inputs and spring outputs in the time domain would be (Oppenheim & Willsky, 1997):

yt = ht xt = hx
k =-
k t -k
(15.10)
ht is known as the transfer function or impulse response (kernel function). The

kernel function describes a logical relationship between rainfall and spring discharge
in a karst system.
Two ARX models have been written in MATLAB for the Pireghar and Dimeh
springs. The models were calibrated and verified based on rainfall and the spring
discharge during 19992002 and 20022011, respectively. In the calibration process
model parameters (e.g., coefficients of n, m and b) have been obtained according to
the least-squares algorithm. The transfer functions of the quick flow, slow flow and
antecedent flow are identified for the karst aquifer of Pireghar and Dimeh springs
according to coefficients of n, m, b and polynomials B(Z-1) and A(Z-1). The kernel
function of the Pireghar and Dimeh springs are obtained by superposition of three
components of flow. The kernel functions have been used to predict the spring dis-
charge under a hypothetical drought crises.
15.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Correlation coefficients between the observed and calculated spring discharge of

the Dimeh and Pireghar springs are 0.93 and 0.96, respectively (Figure15.3) which
reflects an acceptable result. The difference between the observed and simulated val-
ues of the spring discharge in the Pireghar Spring is higher compared to the Dimeh
Spring (Figure15.3). Since the ARX model is a linear model, it seems that relation
5 6
R = 0.93 5
Calculated
4 R = 0.96
Calculated
RMSE = 0.007 4
3 RMSE = 0.04
3
2 2
1 1
(a) (b)
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Observed Observed
Figure15.3 Observed and calculated discharge for (a) Dimeh Spring and (b) Pireghar Spring.
between the rainfall and the spring discharge in the Pireghar Spring is probably non-
linear and the ARX model could not exactly simulate the transfer function of the karst
system of the Pireghar Spring.
Figure15.4 shows temporal variations of the observed discharges of the Dimeh
Spring and the three components of spring discharge, including antecedent, slow
and quick flow, calculated by the selected ARX model in the verification step. The
antecedent recession curve decreases with an exponential trend (yD(t)=y0e-0.001t). It
means that with a lack of recharge from rainfall, the spring will dry out during the
next 30003500 days. The slow flow contributes to 90% of the total spring discharge
and the contribution from the quick flow in the total spring discharge is low.
The recession trend of the antecedent flow in the Pireghar Spring shows the
spring will dry out during the next 250300 days, with no recharge from rainfall
(Figure15.5). The contribution of the slow flow is about 63% of total spring dis-
charge in the Pireghar Spring (Figure15.5). Contribution of the quick flow in the
total spring discharge in the Pireghar Spring is greater than that in the Dimeh Spring.
6
observed discharge quick flow component
5 slow flow component antecedent component
Discharge (m3/s)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (year)
Figure15.4 Temporal variations of observed discharges of Dimeh Spring and flow components as
antecedent, slow and quick flow.
12
observed discharge quick flow component
slow flow component antecedent component
10
Discharge (m3/s)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (year)
Figure15.5 Temporal variations of observed discharges of Pireghar Spring and flow components as
antecedent, slow and quick flow.
The response of the springs to rainfall events is quite different. The impulse
response function (i.e. Kernel function) in the Pireghar Spring is abrupt with a sharp
peak and shows less retention time in comparison to the Dimeh Spring (Figure15.6).
According to the shape of kernel functions, it seems that groundwater flow in Pireghar
Spring and the Dimeh Spring is mainly controlled by the conduit and diffuse flow
regimes, respectively (Figure15.6). The rising and falling limb of the Kernel function
in the Pireghar and Dime springs have different slopes due to different hydrogeolog-
ical characteristics such as degree of karst development and/or size and shape of the
catchment area of the springs.
Variation of the springs discharge in response to a hypothetical drought condi-
tions (e.g., assuming a decreasing trend for rainfall during the next twelve years) is
evaluated using predicted values by the calibrated models for the Pireghar and Dime
springs (Figures 15.7 and 15.8). Discharge of the Dimeh and Pireghar springs has
decreased to one third and one fifth of the mean annual discharge after about 8 years,
respectively. Comparison of the spring discharge under assumed drought conditions
with the current spring discharge reveals that discharge of the Pireghar and Dimeh
springs decreases bb 59% and 36%, respectively. It seems that drought crisis is more
0.012
Pireghar spring Kernel
0.01
Dimeh spring Kernel
0.008
h(t)
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time (day)
Figure15.6 Impulse response function (Kernel function) in Pireghar and Dimeh springs.
6 0
50
5 Observed discharge 100
Discharge (m3/s)
Simulated discharge
4 150
Predicted discharge
200
Rainfall (mm)
Rainfall
3 Assumed rainfall
250
300
2
350
1 400
450
0 500
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Verification period Prediction period
Time (year)
Figure15.7 Calculated discharge of Dimeh Spring in response to real and assumed rainfall events.
0
14
12 50
Observed discharge
Discharge (m3/s)
Rainfall (mm)
10 Simulated discharge 100
8 Predicted discharge
150
Rainfall
6 Assumed rainfall
200
4
2 250
0 300
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Verification period Prediction period
Time (year)
Figure15.8 Calculated discharges of Pireghar Spring in response to real and the assumed rainfall
events.
obvious in the Pireghar Spring with the dominant conduit flow regime than the Dime
Spring with its diffuse flow regime. A karst spring with a conduit flow system is more
vulnerable to drought.
15.5 CONCLUSIONS
The contribution of the slow flow in the discharge of the Pireghar and Dimeh springs
is about 64% and 90% of the total spring discharge, respectively. The impulse
response function in Pireghar Spring is abrupt with a sharp peak and includes a smaller
retention time in comparison to the Dimeh Spring. It seems that the karst is probably
developed to a lesser degree in the catchment area of the Dimeh Spring compared to
that of the Pireghar Spring. Prediction of spring discharge reveal that the Pireghar
Spring will be more vulnerable to drought crises than Dimeh Spring. In conclusion,
the diffuse flow system in the catchment area of the Dimeh spring helps with storage
and gradual releasing of stored groundwater during drought periods.
Comparison of the developed kernel functions for the springs confirms the con-
duit and diffuse flow regime in the catchment area of the Pireghar and Dime Springs,
respectively. Lag time between rainfall events as input to the model and spring dis-
charge as model output in the Pireghar Spring is lower than the Dimeh Spring. Even
though the ARX model that was applied is a linear model, according to the results, it
seems that the relationship between rainfall and spring discharge in both springs are
not completely linear. In order to obtain a more exact simulation and prediction, a
nonlinear model such as NARX is suggested.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported financially by the Research Council of Shiraz University.
The authors would like to thank the Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Regional Water
Authority for providing data.
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Singh V.P. (1988) Rainfall-runoff Modelling, Hydrologic Systems, vol. 1. Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
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Media, La Chaux de Fonds, Switzerland.
Part 3
The water flow in karst:

From vadose to discharge
zone
Chapter 16
Recharge processes of karst

massifs in southern Italy
Francesco Fiorillo & Mauro Pagnozzi
Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie, University of Sannio,
Benevento,Italy
ABSTRACT
The recharge processes have been evaluated for several main karst massifs of southern Italy,
including the Terminio, Cervialto and Matese massifs, characterised by wide endorheic areas.
The annual mean recharge has been estimated with GIS-basedtools, from regression of annual
mean values of different ground-elevated rain gauges and thermometers. The recharge has been
separated from endorheic areas and the other areas of spring catchment, and the ratio between
the output spring and input rainfall has been estimated (the recharge coefficient). Endorheic
areas are exploited for hydro-electrical purpose, especially in the Matese massif, and several
hydraulic works have modified the natural recharge processes and the regime of karst springs.
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Along the Apennine chain, many karst massifs outcrop, which are generally hydrauli-
cally isolated by thick flysch sequences or other non-karstic rocks along their bound-
aries. These massifs constitute the main water resources of central and southern Italy,
and feed several powerful karst springs.
Locally, due to the Mediterranean climate, the recharge generally occurs during
autumn and winter; as a consequence, karst aquifers discharge water throughout
the hydrological year, primarily in response to this climatic regime, but also to the
geological-geomorphological setting and karst conditions (Fiorillo, 2009).
The recharge processes of Terminio, Cervialto and Matese massifs, (Southern
Italy), are characterised by wide endorheic areas. Endorheic areas are closed depres-
sions, generally characterised by a seasonal or permanent sinking lake located at the
bottom; in these areas the runoff is completely adsorbed (White, 2002). The endor-
heic areas constitute important recharge zones of aquifers, generally hydraulically
connected to one or more springs; practically, all the rainfall falling on these areas
(net of evapotranspiration) infiltrates into the aquifer. Outside endorheic areas, part
of the rainfall can leave the spring catchment by runoff processes, especially during
intense storms, and are here referred to as open areas. The open areas constitute the
difference in area between the spring catchments and the endorheic areas.
Even if karst rocks allow a high rate of infiltration, runoff occurs especially along
steep slopes and during high rainfall intensity events. Volumes are difficult to esti-
mate, because they vary mainly as a function of several parameters such as the soil
moisture conditions and the intensity and distribution of the rainfall; besides, snow
accumulation and consequent snowmelt can have an important role in the runoff
processes. However, as a karst aquifer is able to concentrate towards a single outlet

(karst spring) the rainfall infiltration, the total output from these aquifers, can be
measured, allowing the recharge processes to be assessed.
The most common hydrologic parameter used to estimate recharge is the ratio
between the volume of spring discharge and the rainfall volume which falls in the
spring catchment (Drogue, 1971; Bonacci & Magdalenic, 1993; Bonacci, 2001),
computed generally at an annual interval. This rough estimation can be improved,
considering the evapotranspiration processes and distinguishing the endorheic areas
and open areas, characterised by different recharge conditions (Fiorillo & Pagnozzi,
2013).
Most of the recharge occurs during autumn and winter in Mediterranean climate
areas, due to the increase in the precipitation and decrease in temperature. Fiorillo
etal. (2015) have estimated the amount of recharge on karst massifs, based on a daily
time step model, calibrated against a long-term annual interval model. The amount of
evapotranspiration, recharge, and runoff were estimated for Terminio and Cervialto
massifs, and a similar approach has been used for the Matese massif (Fiorillo &
Pagnozzi, 2015). However, due to hydroelectric exploitation of the main endorheic
areas of the Matese massif since the beginning of last century, recharge estimation
needs more specific assessment.
16.2 MAIN GEOLOGICAL AND HYDROGEOLOGICAL

FEATURES
These massifs are primarily characterised by steep slopes and high elevations up to
2050 m a.s.l. for Matese massif and 1809 m a.s.l. for Picentini mountains (Figure16.1).
Flat zones are limited to the bottom of endorheic areas which induce higher and more
concentrated water infiltration.
These karst massifs are made-up of a series of limestone and limestone-dolo-
mite (Late Triassic-Miocene), which are between 2500 and 3000 m thick. Along the
northern and eastern sectors, these massifs are tectonically overlapped on the terrige-
nous and impermeable deposits, constituting argillaceous complexes (Paleocene) and
flysch sequences (Miocene). Along the southern and western sectors, these massifs
are limited by normal faults and are covered by recent quaternary deposits. More
detailed geological desriptions of the outcropping areas can be found in Parotto &
Praturlon (2004) and related literature, and recent Geological Map of Italy, 1:50 000
scale (ISPRA, 2015).
Pyroclastic deposits of Somma-Vesuvius activity cover the Picentini mountains,
with thickness up to several meters along the gentle slopes of the Terminio zone, and
of few tens of meters along the steep slopes and the entire area of Mount Cervialto.
These deposits, almost absent on the Matese massif, play an important role in the
infiltration of water into the karst substratum.
16.2.1 Main karst springs

The karst massifs feed many karst springs with discharges up to thousands liters/
second, and constitute the main water resource for Southern Italy.
Recharge processes of karst massifs in southern Italy 229
A)
B)
Figure16.1 A) Study region in southern Italy B) Map of the Western Campania region. Rectangular
shaded area is detailed in figures16.2 and 16.3. Triangles are thermometer/rain gauges used.
The Serino group is located in the valley of the Sabato River, along the north west-
ern boundary of the Picentini massif and it is formed by the Acquaro-Pelosi springs
(377380 m a.s.l.) and the Urciuoli spring (330 m a.s.l.). These springs are fed by
Terminio massif (Civita, 1969, Fiorillo etal., 2007) with an overall mean annual
discharge of 2.25 m3/s. Local monitored piezometers have an upwelling flux in the
alluvial deposits and flysch sequences, which comes from the below karst substratum
of the Sabato valley, and supplies the springs. Roman aqueducts (first century AD.)
were supplied by these springs and the Urciuoli spring was re-tapped between 1885
and 1888 by the Serino aqueduct, which is a gravity channel followed by a system of
pressured conduits that is used to supply water to the Naples area. Additionally, the
Aquaro and Pelosi springs were also re-tapped in 1934 by the Serino aqueduct.
The Cassano group is located in the Calore river basin along the northern bound-
ary of the Picentini Mountains, and is formed by the Bagno della Regina, Peschiera,
Pollentina and Prete springs (473476 m a.s.l.). These springs are primarily fed by the
Terminio massif (Civita, 1969), with an overall mean annual discharge of 2.65m3/s.
In 1965 these springs were tapped to supply the Puglia region with water, and a grav-
ity tunnel was joined to the Pugliese aqueduct.
The Caposele group is formed by the Sanit spring (417 ma.s.l.), which is located
at the head of the Sele river basin along the north eastern boundary of the Picentini
Mountains (Figure16.2). This spring, which is primarily fed by the Cervialto moun-
tain (Celico & Civita, 1976), has a mean annual discharge of 3.96 m3/s. The spring
was tapped in 1920 by the Pugliese aqueduct, which passes through the Sele-Ofanto
divide via a tunnel and supplies the Puglia region with water.
The powerful springs of Matese massif are located along the southern and north-
ern side of the massif (Figure16.3). The Torano spring (201 m a.s.l.), located along
the eastern cliff of a karst canyon, is fed by the karst system of the central sector
of Matese massif (Civita, 1969). It has a mean annual discharge of 2.04 m3/s. The
Maretto spring (180 m a.s.l.) is located at the foot of limestone-dolomite slope, where
there is a contact with less permeable debris, which covers the limestone rocks, and
has a mean annual discharge of 0.99 m3/s. The Torano and Maretto springs were
tapped during the 1960s by the Campano aqueduct, that supplies the Naples area.
The Grassano-Telese springs, are located along the southern side of the Mount
Pugliano relief, near Telese village; this relief is separated from the Matese massif
(Figure16.3), but the springs have to be connected hydraulically with the wide area
of the Matese karst system (Fiorillo & Pagnozzi, 2015). Some of them are highly min-
eralised, and the total annual mean spring discharge is 4.3 m3/s.
1) 3) 5) 7) 9)
2) 4) 6) 8) 10)
0 1 2 3 4 5
Kilometers
Figure16.2 Hydrogeological sketch of north-eastern sector of Picentini Mountains (Fiorillo etal. 2015).
1) Slope breccias and debris, pyroclastic, alluvial and lacustrine deposits (Quaternary);
2) argillaceous complex and flysch sequences (PaleogeneMiocene); 3) calcareous-
dolomite series (JurassicMiocene); 4) main karst spring; 5) village; 6) mountain peak;
7) elevation (m a.s.l.); 8) Cervialto and Terminio groundwater catchment; 9) endorheic
area; 10) Caposele river gauge.
Along the Northern side of the Matese massif, near the village of Boiano
(Figure16.3) there are three main groups of springs (Civita, 1969): the Maiella group,
west of Boiano, the Pietrecadute group located in the village, and Rio-freddo group,
east of Boiano. These springs are fed by the karst system of the north-central sector
of Matese massif and are located along debris deposits that cover the tectonic con-
tact between limestone and flysch sequences. Altogether these springs have an annual
discharge of about 2.80 m3/s. Most were tapped by the Biferno Aqueduct during
the 1960s and supply the Molise region. A branch of this aqueduct is joined with
Campano Aqueduct by a tunnel in the eastern side of Matese massif.
Other springs are located inside endorheic areas or in the high elevated zones, and
their discharge from the massif is lower than from the basal springs.
1) 6)
2)
7)
3) 8)
4) 9)
0 1 2 4 6 8 10
5) 10) Kilometers
Figure16.3 Hydrogeological sketch of Matese massif (modified from Fiorillo and Pagnozzi, 2015).
1) Slope breccias and debris, pyroclastic, alluvial and lacustrine deposits (Quaternary);
2) argillaceous complex and flysch sequences (PaleogeneMiocene); 3) calcareous-
dolomite series (JurassicMiocene); 4) main karst springs, 1 Grassano-Telese, 2 Boiano,
3 Torano, 4 Ielo, 5 Maretto, 6 San Lazzaro, 7 Torcio, 8 Dei Natali, 9 Capo Le
Mandre, 10 Matese lakes springs, 11 Letino lake springs, 12 Capo dacqua; 5) village;
6)mountain peak; 7) elevation (m a.s.l.); 8) endorheic area; 9) Torano river gauge; 10)
sinkhole: a-Brecce, b-Scennerato.
The long-term spring discharge measurements and the relation to climate vari-
able have been analysed by Fiorillo & Guadagno (2012), and the hydraulic aquifer
behaviour during droughts has been described by Fiorillo (2009) and Fiorillo etal.
(2012).
16.2.2 Endorheic areas

These massifs are characterised by wide endorheic areas, which have an important
role in the recharge processes. The origin of these endorheic zones is connected to tec-
tonic activity during upper Pliocene-Pleistocene, which has caused a general uplift by
normal faults, and the formation of grabens. Most of the grabbens are now typically
poljes.
The Terminio massif is characterised by several endorheic areas (Figure16.2),
where the largest is the Piana del Dragone (55.1 km2), the biggest polje of the Picentini
mountains. Several sinkholes drain this endorheic area, and hydraulic works were car-
ried out to limit flooding during the wet winter period, connecting a drainage system
to the Bocca del Dragone sinkhole. Tracer tests testified the connection between this
sinkhole and Cassano springs (Celico etal., 1982), indicating that this area belongs to
the recharge area of these springs.
The Cervialto massif is also characterised by several endorheic areas (Figure16.2),
where the largest is the polje of Piano Laceno (20.5 km2). Here a small sinking lake
exists, which increases in volume during the winter and spring period. As the Caposele
spring can be considered the only large spring draining the Cervialto Massif (other
springs has a considerable lower discharge), the Piano Laceno endorheic area is part
of the recharge area of this spring. Due to a local cave system (Grotta del Caliendo) in
the West side of the Piano Laceno polje, only a limited volume of water escapes from
this endorheic area and is drained to the Calore valley.
The main endorheic area of the Matese massif is Lago Matese (Figure16.3),
which is the most important karst feature and constitute a wide polje. It occupies an
area of 45 km2 between 1000 and 2050 m a.s. l, and it is an important recharge area
of the massif. A permanent lake exists, drained by several sinkholes covered by lacus-
trine sediments, and by two other sinkholes (Brecce and Scennerato) located along the
southern side of the lake. Since the 1920s the lake has been exploited for hydroelec-
tricity, by two distinct falls (479 and 353 m); before the hydraulic works of 1920s, the
Brecce and Scennerato sinkholes drained the lake, and the range of the lake level was
between 10071009 m a.s.l. The hydraulic works of the 1920s have isolated these
sinkholes by earth dams, and the maximum water level of the lake reaches 1012 m
a.s.l.; the maximum volume stored in the lake currently is 15 Mm3. The hydropower
system consists of two plants powered by two distinct falls. The amount of water dis-
charged from the Lago Matese for hydropower purpose varies during the year, with a
long period of no discharge during the summer and autumn.
On the Matese massif, two other main lakes are present: Lago Letino and Lago
Gallo (Figure16.3), which are both dammed as reservoirs. Before dam construction,
the Sava river and Lete river drained the current Gallo and Letino lake catchments,
respectively. Both rivers disappeared in swallow holes and emerged downstream of
the current dams. Letino and Gallo lakes are joined by a tunnel, and feed a hydro-
power plant. Then, the water of Gallo lake feeds a second hydropower plant located
in the Volturno plain (Capriati plant hydropower), with a fall of 654 m. Lago Gallo
is also used as pump/storage reservoir.
16.2.3 Spring catchments

The definition of catchment boundaries of each of the karst springs is difficult in a
karst environment, and induce erroneous estimation of recharge volumes. A useful
approach is to associate the entire massif with one lumped system, and to consider
the overall output from the spring outlets, without focussing the analysis on a single
spring and its capture zone. This is the case of the Matese massif, where a complex
karst system of 551.5 km2 feeds numerous basal karst springs; 22% of this area is
occupied by the endorheic areas.
In the case of the Cervialto massif, the definition of the spring catchment appears
to be simpler, as it is drained only by the Caposele spring, and is bounded by impervi-
ous terrains; only along the southern part, can the spring catchment not be accurately
defined. For the karstified limestone outcrops and the morphological features of the
calcareous area with an elevation higher than that of the spring, the estimated recharge
area is 110 km2 and the endorheic areas occupy 25% of the spring catchment.
For the Terminio catchment several basal karst springs exist along its boundary,
and the specific delimitation of each spring catchment is not easy; in this case, an over-
all estimation of the recharge and discharge outlet is considered. The endorheic areas
occupy 39% of the spring catchment, which has area of 163 km2.
16.3 GROUNDWATER RECHARGE MODEL
Fiorillo etal. (2015) proposed an model to estimate the groundwater recharge at the
long-term scale, especially for large areas with strong morphological irregularities,
and not completely covered by hydrological monitoring. Based on long-term annual
mean data, the afflux (that is the total amount of meteoric precipitation), runoff, and
recharge are computed in GIS environment at yearly intervals, to estimate the recharge
and the runoff coefficient, for both the open areas and the endorheic areas. After esti-
mating the annual mean recharge, daily recharge has been estimated. Starting from
the beginning of the hydrological year, when field capacity has been reached, the daily
rainfall is split in (daily) recharge and (daily) runoff.
The annual model provides the long term estimation of the recharge. It is based
on GIS analyses, where the afflux, evapotranspiration and effective rainfall on the
catchment are estimated. The spatial distribution of the rainfall allows estimation of
the total amount of the afflux, F, in a specific area, A, by:
n
P
( F )A = 1
n
A (16.1)
where n is the number of cells in the area A, and P is the annual mean rainfall assigned
to each cell in as a function of its ground elevation, and deducted from the regression
of available rain gauges, located at different elevations.
If the actual evapotranspiration, AET, is subtracted from the rainfall, the effective
afflux, Feff, in a specific area, A, is:
n
P eff
(F )
eff A = 1
n
A (16.2)
In endorheic areas, AE, as the runoff cannot leave the catchment, the recharge
amount, R, can be considered equal to the effective afflux, Feff:
(R)A E
( )
= Feff
AE
(16.3)
If the water abstraction occurs inside the endorheic areas, the (net) recharge can
be considered to be reduced:
(R)A E
(
= Feff - QP ) AE
(16.4)
where QP is the annual water amount abstracted from the endorheic areas. The value
of QP has to be known in the case of abstraction from wells for human and agricultural
activity; the amount of water subtracted for hydroelectrical purpose was estimated.
In the open areas the recharge amount, (R)Ao, can be estimated assuming that all
the groundwater flow feeds the spring discharges, Qs, and no-flow boundaries occur
towards the argillaceous, terrigenous and flysch sequences (impervious terrains). With
this assumption, the total discharge, Qs, from springs is:
Qs = (R)AE + (R)AO (16.5)
Therefore, the recharge in the open areas is:
(R)Ao = Qs - (Feff - QP ) AE
(16.6)
and the total recharge on the catchment area, Ac, is:
(R)Ac = (R)Ao + (R)AE = QS - QP (16.7)
Recharge can be expressed in term of a fraction of the effective afflux, providing

the effective recharge coefficient, CR; if water pumping does not occur, QP=0, the
following equations can be deducted:
(R)A (R)Ac
(CR )AE = 1; (CR )AO = ; (CR )Ac = (16.8)
O
(Feff )AO (Feff )Ac

In general, these coefficients express the infiltration capacity of karst slopes and
depend on the slope angle distribution, vegetation, soil type, and on the degree of
karstification.
To estimate the fraction in the spring discharge provided by each endorheic area,
the index, CS, was computed:
(F - QP )
(CS )A
eff AE
= (16.9)
E
QS
and, as a consequence, the effective contribution to spring discharge open areas:
(CS )AO
= 1 - (CS )A (16.10)
E
The daily model is based on the balance of the water content of the soil the mantle
provided by (Fiorillo & Wilson, 2004), transforming the daily rainfall to water con-
tent, up to field capacity, and then to recharge and runoff.
In particular, the daily rainfall, Pi, is divided into several parts:
Pi = AET + Q + R + RO (16.11)
where AET is the actual evapotranspiration, Q constitutes the increase of water

content of the soil, R is the recharge, and RO is the runoff.
During dry periods (Pi=0), both R and RO are nil and Equation 11 reduces to:
- Q = AET (16.12)
This describes the soil moisture decrease as consequence of evapotranspiration

processes at a daily scale, up to a minimum value of the soil moisture, Qmin. The AET
depends on the soil moisture, Q:
AET=PET for Q>Qmin; AET=0 for Q=Qmin(16.13)
where PET is computed adapting the Thornthwaite model (Thornthwaite, 1948) at

daily scale (Fiorillo & Wilson, 2004).
During wet periods, the soil moisture can increase up to a maximum value, Qmax,
above which the water cannot be retained as retention water and has to percolate
throughout the soils as runoff. The value Qmax can be approximated to the field capac-
ity of the soil. Thus, when field capacity has been reached, recharge, R, and the runoff,
RO, can occur. These two amounts, constitute the excess rainfall, Pexc:
Pexc = R + RO (16.14)
which are the part of the rainfall which is free in the system (not transpired and not
retained as soil moisture). In this model the amount + R constitutes the infiltration.
In the endorheic areas, AE, as the runoff, RO, cannot leave the catchment, all the
excess rainfall, Pexc, can be considered as recharge:
(Pexc )AE = (R)A (16.15)

E
In the open areas, AO, the model assumes that runoff occurs if rainfall excess, Pexc,
exceeds a specific threshold value, Tr, at a daily scale:
for PexcTr, (Pexc )AO = (R)AO (16.16)
for Pexc > Tr , (Pexc )AO = (R)AO + (RO)AO, and (R)AO = Tr (16.17)
The threshold value, Tr, corresponds to the infiltration capacity at a daily scale
when the soil has reached field capacity. Tr is deducted in the simulation, for a specific
hydrological year, the ratio between the annual recharge amount in open areas, S(R)Ao,
and annual excess rainfall, SPexc (both computed summing daily values), is equal to
(CR)Ao computed at long-term annual scale (Equation 8). In particular, the threshold
can be estimated by considering several hydrological years characterised by annual
rainfall near the mean.
Some variables need to be fixed on the basis of in situ and laboratory tests, to
allow simulation of the evapotranspiration and recharge processes on daily scale to
be undertaken. The soil moisture capacity is needed, which depends on the thickness
of the soil involved in the evapotranspiration processes and on the range of the soil
moisture during the hydrological year (Qmax - Qmin).
In conclusion, the equations regarding annual and daily scale recharge, described
in Fiorillo etal. (2015), are computed analysing the morphological features of the
catchment area, which were divided in two main areas: the endorheic and open areas.
16.3.1 Data processing

The recharge processes have been estimated using hydrological data monitored for
the period 19701999, except in the high-elevation station rain gauges (Figure16.1).
The annual rainfall and the annual mean temperature depend strongly on the
ground elevation; the regressions were found by Fiorillo (2011) for the Cervialto
and Terminio massifs, and by Fiorillo & Pagnozzi (2015) for the Matese massif
(Figures16.4 and 16.5). These regressions, were used to estimate the actual evapo-
transpiration in a GIS environment (Turc, 1954).
Given Equations 16.4, 16.6 and 16.7, the recharge amount, has been estimated
for each massif; the runoff, RO, which occurs only in the open areas, has been esti-
mated by:
(RO)A O
= (RO)Ac = (Feff )AO - (R)Ao (16.18)
Tables16.1 and 16.2 show the results for the long term annual scale obtained for
each massif. The effective recharge coefficient computed for the open areas, (CR)Ao,
appears to have comparable values for the Cervialto (0.66) and Terminio (0.67) massifs.
The values of (CR)Ao = 0.66 has been used to estimate the recharge of the Matese massif,
where the total outflow from the massif is partially known (Fiorillo & Pagnozzi, 2015).
For the entire spring catchment, the effective recharge coefficient, (CR)Ac, is a func-
tion of the endorheic areas, and it is maximum for the Terminio massif, where the
Piana del Dragone has an important role in increase the recharge.
(mm/year)
N 800900 1.5001.600
9001.000 1.6001.700
W E
1.0001.100 1.7001.800
S 1.1001.200 1.8001.900
1.2001.300 1.9002.000
1.3001.400 2.0002.100
1.4001.500 2.1002.200
0 2 4 8 Kilometers
Figure16.4 Effective rainfall distribution for Terminio and Cervialto catchments (Fiorillo et al., 2015).
Endorheic areas are distinguished by yellow line, and relative items are described in
Table16.1.
N (mm/year)
400500
W E
500600
S 600700
700800
800900
9001.000
1.0001.100
1.1001.200
1.2001.300
1.3001.400
1.4001.500
1.5001.600
1.6001.700
1.7001.800
1.8001.900
1.9002.000
0 5 10 20 2.0002.100
Kilometers
2.1002.200
2.2002.300
Figure16.5 Effective rainfall distribution for the Matese massif (Fiorillo and Pagnozzi, 2015). Endorheic
areas are distinguished by yellow line, and relative items are described in Table16.2. The
red line splits the upwind (southern) and downwind (northern) zones.
Table16.1 Main hydrological parameters of Cervialto and Terminio catchments (modified from Fiorillo etal., 2015). F, afflux, Feff, effective afflux; RO,
runoff; QP, groundwater abstracted; CR, effective recharge coefficient; CR, total recharge coefficient; Cs, effective contribute to spring discharge.
Minimum
elevation F Feff R Qp RO
Item Area m (a.s.l.) km2 m3106 m3106 m3106 m3106 m3106 CR CR CS
1 Piano Laceno 1047 20.5 43.8 32.9 32.9 0.0 0.0 1 0.75 0.256
2 Piano Acernese 1168 3.3 7.4 5.8 5.8 0.0 0.0 1 0.78 0.045
3 Piano dei Vaccari 1164 1.4 3.0 2.3 2.3 0.0 0.0 1 0.77 0.018
CERVIALTO
4 Valle Rotonda 1156 1.1 2.3 1.8 1.8 0.0 0.0 1 0.78 0.014
5 Raia dellAcera 1246 0.7 1.5 1.2 1.2 0.0 0.0 1 0.80 0.009
Closed areas. AE 27.0 58.0 44 44.0 0.0 0.0 1 0.76 0.343
Open areas. AO 83 172.4 128.3 84.5 0.0 43.8 0.66 0.49 0.657
Springs catch.. AC 110 230.4 172.3 128.5 0.0 43.8 0.75 0.56 1.00
1 Piana del Dragone 668 55.1 103.9 71.6 65.3 6.3 0.0 0.91 0.63 0.383
2 AcquadellePietre 1061 4.3 8.9 6.7 6.7 0.0 0.0 1 0.75 0.039
3 Campolaspierto 1279 2.3 5.1 4 4.0 0.0 0.0 1 0.78 0.023
4 PianidIschia 1210 2.1 4.6 3.5 3.5 0.0 0.0 1 0.76 0.021
TERMINIO
5 Piano di Verteglia 1177 2.1 4.4 3.4 3.4 0.0 0.0 1 0.77 0.020
6 Piana di Cetola 752 1.4 2.6 1.8 1.8 0.0 0.0 1 0.69 0.011
7 PianaSantAgata 1047 1.3 2.6 2.1 2.1 0.0 0.0 1 0.81 0.012
Closed areas. AE 68.6 132.1 93.1 86.8 6.3 0.0 0.93 0.66 0.509
Open areas. AO 94.3 180.2 125.0 83.7 0.0 41.4 0.67 0.46 0.491
Springs catch. AC 162.9 312.3 218.1 176.8 6.3 41.4 0.81 0.57 1.00
Table16.2 Main hydrological parameters of Matese massif. F, afflux, Feff, effective afflux; R, recharge; QP, pumped water; RO, runoff; CR, effective recharge
coefficient; CR, total recharge coefficient; Cs, effective contribute to spring discharge.
Minimum
elevation F Feff R Qp RO
Item Area m (a.s.l.) km2 m3106 m3106 m3106 m3106 m3106 CR CR CS
1 Matese lake 1007 45.6 91.2 69.0 0 23.7 0 0.66 0.50 0.104
2 Letino lake 870 22.4 33.8 22.8 0 7.9 0 0.66 0.45 0.034
3 Gallo lake 822 14.2 20.3 13.0 0 4.4 0 0.66 0.42 0.020
4 Campitello Matese 1417 9.6 21.9 17.9 0 6.2 0 1 0.82 0.027
5 Stampata 1316 9.5 15.3 11.0 0 0 0 1 0.72 0.025
6 Campo Rotondo 1150 3.7 7.5 5.7 0 0 0 1 0.76 0.013
7 Cannamate 976 3.4 5.0 3.2 0 0 0 1 0.65 0.007
8 Campo Figliolo 1100 3.1 4.8 3.3 0 0 0 1 0.69 0.008
9 Campo Braca 1135 2.9 5.8 4.3 0 0 0 1 0.75 0.010
10 V. Campitello 1301 2.9 4.7 3.5 0 0 0 1 0.73 0.008
11 Vallecupa 1171 1.9 3.9 3.0 0 0 0 1 0.77 0.007
12 Pianellone 1290 1.6 3.5 2.7 0 0 0 1 0.79 0.006
13 Torricella 851 1.5 2.1 1.3 0 0 0 1 0.63 0.003
14 Tagliaferro 1096 0.6 1.2 0.9 0 0 0 1 0.74 0.002
15 Selva Piana 1286 0.9 1.1 0.8 0 0 0 1 0.78 0.002
Closedareas. AE 123.8 221.8 162.5 0 42.2 0 0.78 0.57 0.276
Open areas. AO 427.7 701.2 476.4 162.0 0 162.0 0.66 0.45 0.724
Springs catch. AC 551.5 923.0 638.9 162.0 42.2 162.0 0.69 0.48 1.000
The recharge coefficient, CR, assumes values always <1, as it is based on the total
amount of rainfall; considering the entire spring catchment, this value is 0.56 and
0.57 for Cervialto and Terminio, respectively, and provides a direct estimation of the
annual mean fraction of the rainfall which contributes to recharge. This value is 0.52
for the Matese massif (Table16.2).
The application of a daily scale model requires knowledge of some of the hydro-
logic parameters of the soil cover, which control the evapotranspiration processes and
retain an amount of water before recharge can occur. In particular, the soil undergoing
evapotranspiration depends also on the depth of plant roots and soil thickness. For
the Cervialto massif, the soil thickness undergoing evapotranspiration processes is
assumed H=50 cm, and the soil storage capacity is taken as m=120 mm (Fiorillo etal.,
2015). However, because the soil mantle thickness cannot be considered constant,
these values are an approximation.
The transformation of daily rainfall to daily recharge has been carried out in
Equation16.11, using a rain gauge characterised by annual mean rainfall similar to
the mean of the rainfall height on the karst massif.
Figure16.6 shows a graphic example of the simulation for the year 20112012,
where the total cumulative rainfall reaches a value of 1769 mm (Figure16.6A). In
Figure16.6B the daily rainfall is split according to Equation 11 for the daily scale
recharge model and during the initial period (SeptemberOctober), the daily rain-
fall is transformed into soil moisture increase, net of evapotranspiration. When field
capacity has been reached (Qmax=51%; Figure16.6b), daily rainfall is able to provide
100 2500
A) Pi=1768,6 mm
cumulative rainfall (mm)

80 2000
daily rainfall (mm)
60 1500
40 1000
20 500
0 0
0 51
B)
vol. water content (%)
20 47
Pexc (mm)
43
40
39
60 runoff in open areas (or additional recharge in endorheic areas)
ET=545.0 mm 35
recharge
80 Pexc=1223.5 mm
threshold (22,3 mm) 31
volumetric water content
(R)Ao=877.2 mm
100 27
80 1.2
C) snowmelt
daily run off (mm)
hydrometer level (m)
60 RO=346.3 mm 1
40 0.8
20 0.6
0 0.4
1-Sep-
1-Oct-
1-Nov-
1-Dec-
1-Jan-
1-Feb-
1-Mar-
1-Apr-
1-May-
1-Jun-
1-Jul-
1-Aug-
2012
2012
2012
2012
2011
2012
2012
2011
2012
2012
2011
2011
Figure16.6 Hydrological characteristics of the 201112 hydrological year, Laceno rain gauge (1170m
a.s.l.) (modified from Fiorillo etal., 2015). A) daily and cumulative rainfall; B) volumetric
water content, Q, computed from daily hydrological balance (Qmin=27% and Qmax=51%)
and daily recharge (histogram); C) daily runoff (rainfall excess that exceeds 22,3 mm/day)
and river discharge measured in Caposele village.
the daily rainfall excess amount, Pexc as well and the amount of recharge and runoff
an be estimated from Equations 16.15, 16.16 and 16.17. The threshold of 22.3 mm
(Figure16.6B) has been deducted from the ratio of total recharge amount in open
areas, S(R)Ao, and total excess rainfall, SPexc, equal to the effective recharge coef-
ficient, (CR)Ao=0,66 (Table16.1), for the hydrological year 197374 characterised
by the long term average annual rainfall. In open areas, rainfall excess that exceed
22.3mm is transformed into runoff.
16.4 DISCUSSION AND FINAL REMARKS
Several critical aspects in evaluating the afflux in the mountain areas and the estima-
tion of the evapotranspiration were discussed by Fiorillo etal. (2015).
For the Matese massif, the runoff in the open areas is estimated at 34% of the
effective afflux, Feff (or 26% of the total afflux); this percentage is obtained using
results for the Cervialto massif. The percentage (in term of total afflux) used is lower
than values (3035%) found by Selmo (1930) who carried out the hydrological bal-
ance of Matese lake for hydro-electrical purpose during the 1920s, and higher (7.4%)
than Civita (1973) who assigned empirically the fraction of precipitation which infil-
trates into the aquifer.
The daily scale model has allowed the threshold for the daily recharge to be
assigned. This model considers a single point to estimate the recharge/runoff (1D
model), located approximately in the median zone of the Cervialto catchment. Thus,
the daily scale model provides an overestimation and underestimation of the recharge
in the lower and higher elevation zones, respectively. However, as it is calibrated
on the long-term annual scale recharge, it is a useful estimation of the mean daily
recharge in the catchment.
The total amount of recharge is a function of the rainfall distribution throughout
the hydrological year, and varies during wet or dry years. During wet years, the runoff
coefficient tends to increase and the recharge coefficient tends to decrease; opposite
hydrological behaviour occurs during dry years. The simulation shown in Figure16.6
has been replicated for several hydrological years, including dry and wet years, and
for different thresholds of daily recharge. Figures 16.7A and 16.7B show the depen-
dence of the recharge coefficient, (CR)Ao, from the maximum daily recharge (thresh-
old), in different hydrological condition: dry, normal and wet years. During wet years
the amount of runoff is higher than the mean, and (CR)Ao reaches minimum values; as
a consequence, the contribution from endorheic areas in recharging aquifers increases
during the wet years.
The daily estimation of recharge for the massifs has to be connected to the mean
of the entire catchment. Because of the wide range in ground elevation and the afflux
on the massif, the recharge estimation of a specific sector of the massif needs to be
calibrated as a function of the ground elevation and its exposure. However, similar
results found by the application of the daily scale recharge model for Matese and
Cervialto massifs allows this methodology to be transposed to other karst areas of
the Apennine, characterised by similar climate and morphology. The model could
also be used for other karst area world-wide, but needs a different hydrological
setting to consider the local climate and geomorphologic context, soil cover and
boundary flux.
1
0.75 0,77
0,66
(CR) Ao
0,55
0.5 dry year (197475)
normal year (197374)
wet year (201213)

0.25
22,3
a)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
maximum daily recharge, mm
0,81
0.75
0,66
0,58
(CR) Ao
0.5 dry year (197475)
normal year (197071)
wet year (196263)

24,3
0.25
b)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
maximum daily recharge, mm
Figure16.7 Recharge coefficient for open areas, (CR)Ao, function of threshold of daily recharge, for
different hydrological years; a) Cervialto (modified from Fiorillo etal., 2015); b) Matese
(modified from Fiorillo and Pagnozzi, 2015).
REFERENCES
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(Croatia). Ground Water 31(5), 767773.
Bonacci O. (2001) Monthly and annual effective infiltration coefficient in Dinaric karst: exam-
ple of the Gradole karst spring catchment. Hydrological Sciences Journal 46(2), 287300.
Celico P, Civita M. (1976) Sulla tettonica del massiccio del Cervialto (Campania) e le implica-
zioni idrogeologiche ad essa connesse. Bollettino Societ Naturalisti di Napoli 85, 555580.
Celico P, Magnano F, Monaco L. (1982) Prove di colorazione del massiccio carbonatico del
monte Terminio-monte Tuoro. Notiziario Club Alpino Italiano, Napoli 46(1), 7379.
Civita M. (1969) Idrogeologia del massiccio del Terminio-Tuoro (Campania). Memorie e Note
dellIstituto di Geologia Applicata dellUniversit di Napoli 11, 5102.
Civita M. (1973) Linfiltrazione potenziale media annua nel massiccio carbonatico del
Matese (Italia meridionale). Atti 2 International Conference Acque Sotterranee, Palermo,
129142 pp.
Drogue, C. (1971) Coefficient dinfiltration ou infiltration eficace, sur le roches calcaires
Actes du Colloque dHydrologie en Pays Calcaire, Besancon, 15, 121130.
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(southern Italy). Engineering Geology 75(34), 263289.
Fiorillo F., Esposito L., Guadagno F.M. (2007) Analyses and forecast of the water resource in an
ultra-centenarian spring discharge series from Serino (Southern Italy). Journal of Hydrology
36, 125138.
Fiorillo F. (2009) Spring hydrographs as indicators of droughts in a karst environment. Journal
of Hydrology 373, 290301.
Fiorillo F. (2011) The Role of the Evapotranspiration in the Aquifer Recharge Processes of
Mediterranean Areas In Evapotranspiration From Measurements to Agricultural and
Environmental Applications, InTech, October 2011, Rijeka (Croatia), 373388 pp.
Fiorillo F., Guadagno F.M. (2012) Long karst spring discharge time series and droughts occur-
rence in Southern Italy. Environmental Earth Sciences 65(8), 22732283.
Fiorillo F., Revellino P., Ventafridda G. (2012) Karst aquifer drainage during dry periods.
Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 74(2), 148156.
Fiorillo F, Pagnozzi M. (2013) The role of endorheic areas on recharge processes of karst mas-
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Budapest, Abstract volume, p. 65. ISBN 978-963-284-369-8
Fiorillo F., Pagnozzi M., Ventafridda G. (2015) A model to simulate recharge processes of karst
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Fiorillo F., Pagnozzi M (2015) Recharge processes of Matese karst massif (southern Italy).
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Chapter 17
Water balance analysis of

a vadose stream to discern
hillslope hydrology in bare karst
area (South West China)
Guanghui Jiang 1,2, Fang Guo 1,2, Kwong Fai Andrew Lo 3,
Xiaojiao Guo 1, Xiaoping Gong 1 & Changjie Chen 1
1
Key Laboratory of Karst Dynamics, Institute of Karst Geology,
Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Guilin, P.R. China
2
The International Research Centre on Karst under the Auspices of
UNESCO, Guilin, P.R. China
3
College of Science, Chinese Culture University, Taipei, Taiwan
ABSTRACT
Epikarst in South West China is important to the hydrological regime and consequent environ-
mental problems in the area. A slope with bare epikarst in the Fengcong area near Guilin has
been studied to understand the hydrological function of the surface layer. A physical model is
set up based on data from multiple methods of field observation, tracer tests and monitoring.
The water budget is used for comparing different hydrological links such as canopy intercep-
tion, soil moisture deficit, runoff generation and leakage/infiltration in the slope. Although in
the top layer of the slope, epikarst zone and soil infiltration dominates, but surface runoff still
happens during extreme storms and changes into mostly vadose flow within a very short dis-
tance. Results from this study show that the drainage area of a vadose stream varies depending
on climate. In the monsoon period it is about 491m2, which is larger than that in typhoon
period. However the average rainfall interception depth, which is the threshold for flow gener-
ation in both periods, is about 16mm. The threshold derives mainly from the canopy intercep-
tion, soil moisture deficit, and epikarst storage.
17.1 INTRODUCTION
Groundwater is plentiful in the karst areas in South West China. By contrast, there is
a shortage of surface waters. The karst environment is usually dry and suffers from
drought every year (Yuan, 1991; Guo etal., 2013). Residents in the karst mountain
areas sometimes have to pump groundwater from deep wells or karst windows to
combat water shortage. However, the cost is usually high because of the great thick-
ness (1001000 m) of the vadose zone. It is usually difficult to find groundwater
within the complex karst hydrogeological setting. In practice, the drilling failure ratio
reaches 1 out of 3 wells.
Due to the lack of rivers and the high cost of groundwater extraction, small water
tanks have been traditionally used to harvest rainwater and runoff from hill slopes.
Since 1999, in keeping with the Chinese Western Development Policy, thousands of
new water tanks were built in the Fengcong areas. Although these small tanks are
popular, they are vulnerable to water quality degradation and dry out in extreme
droughts. To improve the supply, tanks could be replenished more frequently with
new water from the hill slopes.
Hill slopes in the karst are often selected as rainwater collection areas and supply
water for the tanks. To optimise management and to guarantee the quantity and qual-
ity of water in the tanks, the hydrological processes on the slopes need to be studied.
Hill slopes in the Fengcong areas are usually convex, steep, with little soil and low
vegetation. Epikarst plays a key role in runoff generation and infiltration. The epi-
karst not only increases the water storage capacity in the surface layer (Williams,
1983), but also provides paths for rapid recharge. The morphology of the epikarst
zone exerts a significant impact on the hydrological process of each slope. This study
provides a closer insight into the epikarst and vadose zone by monitoring vadose
streams in a cave, and analyses the water balance by selecting a distinctive slope with
a developed cave. The results enhance understanding of the environmental problems
in karst areas.
17.2 THE STUDY AREA
Yaji Karst Experimental Site is about 8 km away from Guilin City, Guangxi Zhuang
Autonomous Region in South West China. It is an experimental research site for karst
study that started in 1986 (Yuan et al., 1990). The site is located in the border region
of Fenglin and Fengcong, both of which are typical landforms in Guilin and famous
throughout the world (Sweeting, 1995).
The climate in Guilin is characterised as subtropical Asia Monsoon. It is hot and
wet in summer, cool and moist in winter, with an annual temperature of 19.2C and
an annual rainfall of 1935 m. The precipitation in Guilin outs in two distinct periods.
One rainy season occurs between winter and spring, when the sun moves towards the
north and the moist winds from the ocean are strongest. It meets over Guilin with
the cool and dry wind from the north continent, and being well-matched in strength,
leads to a long rain period. Another rainfall period occurs during the summer and
autumn. It is often dry with several short rainstorms caused by typhoon.
A cave named Xiaoyan is developed in the vadose zone at the Yaji Experimental
Site. It is located in the Fengcong areas with the only entrance in the middle of a
west-facing slope. The Xiaoyan cave extends from west to east, with a total length
of 100 m and a variable width of one to 20 m. It occurs in massive limestone of
Devonian age and is controlled by fractures. The shape of the cave is wide in the
middle, but narrow in the tail (Figure17.1).
There is vadose water drainage from the ceiling at three places in the cave, located
at the entrance and in the middle of the cave. The first one XY1, located at the
entrance, is 4 m above the floor. The second one XY3, is 2 m high and flows along a
stalagmite from the top to the floor. The third one XY5, slumps in a hole at the ceiling
20m high, and then flows quickly in a film, forming a 10 m long flowstone. At the
end of the flowstone the stream becomes free falling. The thickness of the ceiling rock
is 40m.
The slope where the cave developed is 175m a.s.l., being 152 m a.s.l. at the foot
and 327 m a.s.l. at the topographic divides. The cave entrance altitude is 197ma.s.l.,
Water balance analysis of a vadose stream to discern hillslope hydrology 247
E
Cave
295
Cliff
285
275
265
255
245
235
235
245
225 185
215 205 195 0 20 m
Figure17.1 The slope with cave (shaded area) and survey points 1 soil moisture monitoring; 2 lysim-
eter; 3 surface flow I; 4 surface flow II; 5 surface flow III; 6 tracer injection I; 7 tracer
injection II; 8 tracer injection III; 9 cave stream XY5; 10 cave stream XY3; 11 cave stream
XY1; 12 cave entrance.
while the groundwater level is 150ma.s.l.. The vegetation on the rocky slope is shrub
dominated by Loropetalum chinense and Bauhinia championii (Benth.) Benth. Its
root grow in fractures and small holes. Soil fill in the open fractures is clayey. On the
slope, there are many cliffs and small ledges between the cliffs. The cliffs are shaped
by weathering and are controlled by vertical fractures. The cliffs range from 1 to 5m
high, with some conduits and flowstone developed, indicating that they play a part in
the flow discharge in the epikarst zone.
17.3 METHODS AND METHODOLOGY
The terrain of the slope and the cave were mapped in order to show the surface karst
features and the projection of the cave on the slope. A 3 m long trench was dug in
a small platform in front of a cliff to take samples for assessing the soil physical
properties in the profile, including soil depth, structure, color and density. A mini-
permeameter was used to test the permeability of the soil. These tests were repeated
at three randomly selected points. There was no perennial flow at the surface. Short-
duration runoff in the slope was determined by field observation during storm events.
Hydrological monitoring of the surface flow was carried out several times.
Soil water content monitoring sensors (Frequency Domain Reflectometry (FDR))

H21 were installed when the trench was re-covered. Four sensors of the H21 type
were buried in the soil at depths of 10, 50, 90 and 140cm. The soil moisture at 10cm
represented the top layer mainly affected by climate and vegetation. The layer at
50cm depth has a soil colour change from brown to red, indicating the root transition
zone. The interface of soil and rock was located at 140cm depth.
The water content in the soil profile was also measured by soil sampling. Samples
were obtained by a manual spiral drill every 10cm. Usually eight samples were taken
in each profile. Then they were collected in a bag and sealed in the field before they
were transported to the laboratory. The samples were weighted and dried to obtain
water content. A total of eleven profile samplings were collected before and after rain-
fall events between April and August 2012. Sample locations were selected randomly
on the slope.
Hydrological monitoring was conducted in the surface of the slope and in the
cave. For the surface flow, it was monitored in three different locations several times
over during May and June, 2012. The discharge was measured by a rectangular
trough with a right angle weir at one end, and a bucket with a measuring cylinder. The
manual monitoring interval was one hour, while automatic measurement by pressure
sensor was at a five minutes interval.
Vadose flow and drip water in the cave were monitored by manual or automatic
methods. Manual monitoring was done several times at an interval of several hours
or days, and lasting one to three days. A bucket together with measuring cylinder was
used for vadose water discharge measurement. However, at the XY5 vadose stream,
the biggest one in the cave, specially designed equipment was used. A rectangular
platform made of a steel plate with an area of 60m2 was installed under the stalag-
mite for water collection. All scattered drip water and flow water from the flowstone
was concentrated on the platform. The flow was piped into a special cylinder bucket
with a hole for discharge, where a sensor was installed to record the water level at
hourly intervals. The experimental relation between the level and the discharge into
the bucket could be calculated. However, when flooding occurred, the discharge was
too large to measure by the bucket and a right angle weir was used. The discharge
through the weir was calculated by an experimental equation provided by the Chinese
National Standard (MWR, 1993).
Tracer tests were designed to determine the flowpath on the surface of the slope
and the vadose zone, and to look for the corresponding drainage area of vadose
stream. Three tracer tests were carried out on the slope. For the first test, the injection
points were in a surface flow channel in the upper slope, which had water in flood,
and along this path tracer was seaping into the vadose zone through fractures. A total
of 200gm of uranine was injected in a small dug pit in the path in May 2012. All
surface flow on the slope and water in the cave was sampled once a day. The flow
duration and sampling work lasted for about 7days. The second test was carried out
in November 2013, 18months after the first one. Again, 200gm of uranine was put
into a pit, which was 10m away from the first location. The tracer was detected by a
field flourometer installed at XY5, at the same time samples were collected in the sur-
face flow and vadose streams for measurement by fluorescence spectrophotometer in
the laboratory. In the third tracer test, 200gm of uranine was injected into a fracture
in October 2013. Then 1 litre of water was used to wash it. The only detection point
was in the XY1 vadose stream under the injection point. One sample was taken after
each subsequent rainfall event.
Rainfall was measured at a raingauge station in the Yaji Experimental Site.
Precision of the measurements was about 0.2mm. Intercepted rainwater from the
canopy was obtained by the rain gauges. Three rain gauges were installed under the
canopy. The rainfall amount was compared with the gauge station in Yaji. The differ-
ence was the amount of rainwater intercepted by the canopy.
A simple micro-lysimeter was used to measure evaporation in the soil. The
lysimeter was made of PVC cylinders that had a diameter of 10cm and lengths of
5, 15, and 50cm. A slightly disturbed soil pillar was put in the cylinders, and the
nylon net was fixed at one of the ends. After weighing at 8a.m., the cylinder was
put back in the pit where the soil pillar was taken. The cylinders were weighed
again at 7p.m. in the same day. The weight difference represents evaporation in
the day and night. The test was performed continuously for seven days during July
and August, 2012.
17.4 STUDY RESULTS
17.4.1 Terrain on the slope and its flowpath

The slope surface is irregular, full of rocks, and the terrain is slightly convex in the
upper part but concave in the lower part. The gradient gradually increases from foot
to peak. The parallel cliffs in a south-north orientation are the main feature of the
landscape, while there is a small platform in front of the cliffs. The formation of the
cliffs and platforms is controlled by fractures also in along south-north direction,
which is related to a fault in the same direction crossing in front of the cave. The cave,
developed below the slope surface, has an area of 1133m2. The thickness of the rock
in the cave ranges from several meters at the entrance to more than 100m at the end
of the cave.
In the upper slope, the biggest cliff stands about 5 m high, and this is the source of
runoff or flow generation on the slope. There is an intermittent stream from the cliff
during rainstorms, forming many flowstones on the cliff. The stream goes down the
slope but spreads into several segments. However, tracking these tributaries is difficult
for the slope is covered with thorns. However, the flowpath can be delineated with
tracers. The tributaries split into three parts. One of them sinks down and becomes
vadose streams. Another continues to runoff in the surface. And the other part of
water enters into the epikarst zone.
The first tracer test was done on May 29, 2012. The tracer was injected in the
flow channel close to its source in the cliff. Seven days after rainfall, the green color
of dissolved uranine was found in all of the surface streams in the down slope, vadose
streams and drip water in the cave. It indicates that the convex shape of the slope
surface enhances the diffusion of the runoff.
The tracer concentration in XY5 was still higher than the background value when
the second tracer test was conducted in January 2014, indicating that the tracer was
stored in the epikarst zone. The tracer releases slowly because of buffering from a
large number of fissures and the soil fill in the fractures in the epikarst zone.
In the second tracer test, the injection point was close to the first one. However, in
this test the tracer was only detected in XY5. Several samples taken from the surface
flow and drip water in the cave contained no tracer. The breakthrough curve of the
tracer in XY5 only lasted for four months. It recovered after being washed by several
storms in the rainy season, suggesting that the tracer cannot enter the epikarst at this
time. But, there is a negative peak in the concentration due to the dilution of baseflow
in the epikarst by surface flow leakage. It may be concluded that the tracer injected
in the first test was still stored in the vadose zone. However, it is still unclear how the
tracer enters into the epikarst in the first tracer test and where the open joint and shaft
is connected with the cave in the slope surface. The topography in the slope is not the
only factor which controls the flow. The subsurface space formed by karst processes
can also strongly affect the flow regime.
17.4.2 Hydrology of the vadose streams

The discharge of XY5 is permanent but highly variable. The highest discharge mea-
sured reached 500ml/s, while the smallest one was about 0.4ml/s, i.e. a difference
of about 1,000times. The large change in the vadose stream is similar to the karst
springs nearby and is also common for karst areas in South West China. The vadose
water in its high discharge state has a short residence time, usually only one to two
days. Then the vadose stream maintains a small discharge with small changes in flow.
The great discharge difference implies that there is a new supplemental source to the
vadose flow when flooded. In other times, it is fed by seepage water only.
In the second tracer test, the change of tracer concentration in XY5 can only be
found in the high discharge stage of the vadose stream. It proves that the tracer is
transported to vadose flow by surface runoff, as it is injected at the surface flow path.
It may be concluded that the added discharge to XY5 in flood conditions originates
from leakage of surface runoff. The recharge area of XY1 is in the upper part of its
discharge point, which is proved by the third tracer test. The source area of XY3
probably lies on top of it, but this needs to be confirmed.
The XY1 has a very limited drainage area, and the thickness of its corresponding
vadose zone is only about 10m, where the widely open fractures cutting limestone in
the upper epikarst are about 2m in depth. The next layer below the open fractures is
thin patchy soil and massive rock. In the third tracer test, uranine was injected in the
open fracture, and then washed by one litre of distilled water. The tracer flows along
the wall of the fracture and infiltrates into the soil. Ten days after injection, the tracer
was found in XY1 with a high concentration following a rainfall event. The tracer can
always be detected thereafter once the vadose stream appears. The third tracer test
shows that the vadose stream of XY1 is recharged from the upper epikarst zone and
has a short transport distance and residence time for water and solute, and it is only
buffered by the soil. The intermittent XY1 has the most sensitive response to rainfall
among all the vadose streams. Its discharge varies from 0130ml/s. However the
duration only lasts several days.
The drainage area of XY3 is not very clear. It is close to a short-lived waterfall at
the cave entrance and thus may be originated from surface flow. However, sometimes
when the vadose stream XY3 appears, the waterfall does not occur. The stream forms
a stalagmite. It has a medium delayed time, and disappears for several months during
the year. The discharge of the stream has only been measured roughly because it is
spread into many segments by the stalagmite. The measured flow discharge ranges
from 01 ml/s.
The three vadose streams provide an opportunity to understand the behaviour of
vadose flow under the slope. Although they are all related with surface flow and epi-
karst, the hydraulic relationships and flow regime have a slight difference. Probably,
in the perched vadose zone system, the XY3 is in the downstream of XY5, while the
XY1 is isolated. It may imply that flow generated on the slope is concentrated at
different levels and moves along independent pathways. The vertical vadose flow is
transformed from lateral flow and surface flow and breaks the integrity of flow on
the slope.
17.4.3 Hydrology in the hill slope of the surface

The surface of the hill slope is rocky and partially covered with soil and vegetation.
The soil and rock groups are spatially complicatedly, but generally the soil is thin.
Rainwater falling on the slope surface is reduced by the thin canopy and soil intercep-
tion. The rock surface retention is small as well, such that it can be ignored. Rainwater
interception by shrub canopy averaged 5 mm throughout the measurements by three
rain gauges placed under the canopy. Rainwater retained by soil changes in time and
space depend on soil depth and moisture deficit. The uneven distribution of the soil
and bare rock on the slope make analysis difficult.
Eleven soil profiles were randomly selected to obtain soil profile moisture and
depth time series in the slope. The soil profiles in the platform in front of the cliffs
have a depth and width of one to several meters. The soil block is partly surrounded
by rock, so it can obtain recharge from the surface and rocky boundary and discharge
from the free edge. As a result the soil is easily saturated and dried, and there is often
perched water at the soil bottom. The water content in the soil varies from 9 to 22%.
The soil with a thickness of 1,000 mm may have the largest moisture deficit of 169
mm, considering the moisture changing from 9% to 22%, and the density of soil of
1.3g/cm3. But for the cliff-platform model in the presence of rock and soil, the runoff
yield under excess infiltration (Hortonian flow, Ford & Williams, 2007) in the rock
surface may recharge the nearby soil in the platform. This may lead to soil saturation
at the bottom of soil. This is confirmed by soil content monitoring by FDR. The pro-
cess is important for slope hydrology, because it accelerates water saturation in the
soil and leads to interflow generation. It can also buffer surface flow.
The interception capacity of the slope surface is estimated by the response of
XY5 to rainfall. When there is new water supplied, its physical and chemical index of
discharge may change. The threshold value for recharge can be calculated by regres-
sion statistics of a large number of rainfall events (Jiang et al., 2008). The maximum
threshold record is 120.6 mm rainfall within 30 hours, which happened in November
2012 with seven sunny days and three dry months occurring in the autumn before the
rainfall event. The soil evaporation rate can be 5 mm/day in high moisture conditions
and 1 mm/day in low moisture conditions. It dries quickly in sunny days, resulting in
high soil moisture deficit.
17.5 DISCUSSION
17.5.1 Physical model for hydrological process

inthe slope
The hydrological processes in the slope and the related karst features are examined
in detail. In order to understand water cycle model, a hypothesis is proposed. In one
case, flow in the slope prefers to vertical movement as all rainfall may infiltrate or leak
into the vadose zone. In another case, all rainfall will transform into lateral flow in
the epikarst once interception is satisfied. The hydrological regime of a karst hillslope
may lie somewhere between the two end numbers. The relative importance between
infiltration/leakage and lateral flow is controlled by geological conditions, rainfall
and the initial water condition.
On the slope the infiltration and leakage will occur along fissures, fractures, joints
and shafts in the rock. However, there is little evidence to judge where the infiltration/
leakage happens. Sometimes the lateral flow also occurs in the epikarst zone. Under
this condition, water balance analysis in the slope offers an opportunity to understand
the hydrological function of the karst land surface.
In the slope, the top layer includes three parts, i.e. surface, epikarst and vadose
zone (Figure17.2). The surface is composed of bare rock, soil and vegetation. Rain
falls on the different interfaces. After canopy interception in path 2, rainwater arrives
at rock and soil in path 1 and 3. Because the karstified rock has high permeability
and low storage capacity, most of the rainwater goes to Hortonian runoff. Therefore,
some of the runoff flows into the surrounding soil in path 4 and another enters the
epikarst by preferential paths, such as shafts, joints and expanded fractures in path 5.
Soil water will penetrate into the epikarst by fissures in path 6. Vegetation grows in the
slope ridge
Atmosphere
1 2 3
cliff Rock Vegetation Soil
travertine Surface
4
discharge
(only in storm)
soil
tracer injection 1,2
sinkhole 5 6
surface flow Conduit 7 Fissure

(only in storm)
seepage
shaft Epikarst
tracer 8 9
injection 3
XY3 vadose stream
XY5
XY1 Vadose zone
Cave
Figure17.2 Schematic diagrams of the water cycle in the bare karst slope: left: slope profile; right:
diagram of flow.
soil and epikarst, where the roots absorb water. Epikarst water enters into the vadose
zone by flows and seepage in the paths 8 and 9, while some of them water returns to
the surface through epikarst springs, and some returns to the atmosphere by evapo-
ration from the epikarst. When the flow lines from paths 1, 5 and 8 in the karst slope
are overwhelmed, drought or flood will occur. The relative weakness of flow paths 3,
6 and 9 makes vegetation grow slowly and the ecosystem becomes fragile.
17.5.2 The water balance model

Rainfall in the slope transforms into soil water, epikarst water, surface runoff, seepage
and shaft flow or vadose flow. Usually the balance of the components is difficult to
measure and calculate. However, it is important to understand the flow transform in
the slope, because it informs water resources management, and helps with droughts
and floods. The water balance analysis becomes much easier in the slope where a cave
is developed, as it is convenient to monitor seepage and vadose flow directly in the
cave. But there are still a lot of challenges, such as the boundary and drainage area
determination of a small vadose stream.
In path 1 (Figure17.2), the Hortonian flow in bare rock can be expressed as:
R=L(P-E),
considering the rock surface to be impermeable.

In this equation, R means Hortonian flow, and L represents the proportion of
bare rock in slope surface. P is rainfall, and E is evaporation which also includes
moisture absorption by rock and vegetation canopy.
R changes further into two components (Figure17.3). One is Q, which means
quick flow through shaft or conduit to the epikarst by path 5. Another is S, referring
to flows into soil or fissures by path 4. So the equation is written as:
R = Q+S
The amount of Q entering the epikarst will be reduced by infiltration in voids such
as the conduit wall and by algae and litter. The porosity of the rock surface enhanced
wherever lichens are present (Cao et al., 1998). Q should needs to be corrected as,
Q=Q0-hq
plane section runoff
soil
runoff rock
soil
rock fracture interflow fracture
Figure17.3 Model of flow paths in the slope land surface, the plane and in section.
Where Q0, h, and q are the initial value of Q, the distance, and water absorption
by conduit per unit length, respectively.
Interflow in the slope IF by path 6 can be expressed as:
IF=S-D
In the equation D is the soil water deficit. It can be calculated by the equation:
D=qf-q1
where qf is soil field capacity, and q1 is initial water content in soil.

Rainfall falling on the soil surface will infiltrate completely because of the high
permeability of the soil. There is no Hortonian flow in the soil, but the rainfall
recharge will enhance soil water content. The relation is expressed as:
(P-E)(1-L)=q1-q0
q0 means the water content before rainfall.

Finally the water balance in slope can be expressed by the following equation:
P-E=Q0+IF+qf-q0+h q
The threshold value for runoff on the slope will satisfy the water deficiency in the
soil and epikarst, so it can be defined as:
T=qf-q0+h q
Where T is the threshold value for runoff generation.

Here, the fissure storage is ignored because of the slow change in storm periods.
The quick flow in the conduits and the interflow usually mix and transfer between
each other. They can, therefore, be combined, and represented by M:
M=Q+IF
Then the balance equation can be expressed as:
P-E=M+T
The equation can also be changed into:
M=P-E-T
For a vadose stream with a drainage area of A, the water balance equation
changes into:
M=A(P-E-T)
where M is in volume units. It can be obtained by measuring the discharge of a vadose

stream.
17.5.3 Determination of the drainage area for a

vadose stream
The vadose stream XY5 is taken as an example for the water balance analysis. The
discharge of the vadose stream and the corresponding rainfall are plotted in a graph.
The result shows a good linear relationship between them, so they satisfy the water
balance equation. The fitted linear equation can be used to calculate the drainage area
A and the value of E+T. A is equal to the gradient of the fitted straight line, the E+T
is the ordinate at the origin. Two fitted lines are obtained from the graph. They have
the same origin ordinate and but different gradients, indicating that the drainage area
of the vadose stream is changeable, while the E+T keeps stable. Further analysis indi-
cates that the area A in the rainy seasons is about 491 m2, while it is 200 m2 in the dry
seasons (Figure17.4). This is probably because there is no runoff generation in some
of the dry soil covered areas for a long time.
17.5.4 Water balance evaluation in vadose stream

The equation in Figure17.4 shows the water balance of a vadose stream during a
flood event, when the runoff generation in the slope surface feeds into the vadose
stream. This lead to an abrupt increase in the discharge of the vadose stream. The
corresponding recharge area for the added runoff and the threshold value of runoff
generation are determined by regression statistics. However, in many rainfall events,
the runoff will not generate, as a result the discharge in the vadose stream does not
change. Under this condition, the threshold value for runoff generation is usually
45
40
Monsoon period
35 Typhoon period
30 In monsoon period, Q = 491(P-0.016)

Discharge (m3)
In Typhoon period, Q = 200(P-0.015)

25
20
15
10
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Rainfall (m)
Figure17.4 Relationship of rainfall and vadose stream XY5 discharge.The fitted results can be used to
determine drainage area and runoff decay.
bigger than that during storms. The statistics also shows that the discharge of XY5
does not change until rainfall reaches 50 mm in average.
The vegetation will take up water from the soil and the epikarst. A test of evapo-
transpiration was carried out in the karst environment in Guilin. The result shows
that a tree will take up 600 mm water in a normal year (Huang et al., 2013). The
vegetation in the slope usually suffers from drought, and it is not because of rain-
fall shortage but because of insufficient storage in the slope. Runoff feeding into the
vadose stream has in a large proportion compared to the total discharge (about 70%
of flow) in the vadose stream in one year. This provides a good reason why the karst
environment is so easy to dry out and to flood.
Among the components of the water balance for a vadose stream, the initial water
content and soil mass are related to the threshold values. In bare karst the soil stored
in fractures has a critical role for preferential recharge. After soil erosion occurs the
flow may generate more easily and quickly and in large amounts.
17.6 CONCLUSIONS
A hillslope with a cave developed below provides a good opportunity to examine the
flow pathways in the vadose zone. Both surface and subsurface flow can be observed
and monitored, which provide a basis for water budget analysis especially in a narrow
layer close to the slope surface. The hydrological process, such as canopy interception,
soil evaporation and soil moisture can be monitored and evaluated by various meth-
ods. Through establishing a water balance equation, a linear relationship between
rainfall and discharge of a vadose stream can be determined. Two important parame-
ters, the drainage area and the threshold value for flow generation are obtained from
the correlation analysis. The results show that a vadose stream contains preferential
recharge which is related to the drainage area of the slope surface.
The hydrological functions of a typical karst rocky slope comprise a large pro-
portion of quick flow, a large ratio of subsurface flow and a small ratio of surface
runoff. The soil water and seepage in the rock is not large and changes quickly. The
hydrological characters of the hill slope make the karst surface environment dry and
fragile. Water resources in the slope are not small but they are difficult to use due to
rapid drainage to the vadose zone.
The high proportion of vadose flow in the hydrological balance of the slope is
consistent with the geomorphologic character of mountain areas. The water balance
model for the slope in the bare karst areas provides a significant understanding of the
environmental problems in karst areas.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial support was provided by the Chinese National Natural Science Foundation
(41102161, 41172231, and 41472239), Key Project of Guangxi Natural Science
Foundation (2013GXNSFDA019024) and the Chinese Geological Survey project
(1212010916063). We would like to thank the reviewers who read the first draft of
this paper for their constructive comments.
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Huang Y.Q., Li X.K., Zhang, Z.F. (2013) Seasonal changes in Cyclobalanopsis glauca transpi-
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measurement in open channel.
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Williams P.W. (1983) The role of the subcutaneous zone in karst hydrology. Journal of
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Yuan D.X. (Editors) (1991) Karst in China. Geological Publishing House: Beijing.
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Chapter 18
Hydraulic behaviour of a
subthermal karst spring
Blederija spring, Eastern Serbia
Vladimir ivanovic , Veselin Dragiic , Igor Jemcov &
Neboja Atanackovic
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mining and Geology,
Department of Hydrogeology, Belgrade, Serbia
ABSTRACT
Karst aquifers are characterised as a highly heterogeneous media which affects the behaviour
of the groundwater outflow regime. The Blederija subthermal karst spring is located on the
south-eastern part of the Miroc mountains. Complex quantitative analysis has been carried
out in order to obtain new insights into the hydraulic mechanism of the discharge regime.
This is characterised by frequent mixing of a normal and higher temperature waters. Binary
karst hydrogeological system and the location of ponor zones causes a specific variation of the
catchment area, which is reflected in the discharge regime properties of the karst aquifer. Two
different approaches of types of hydrograph separation were applied in order to identify the
interconnected flow system e.g. base flow and fast (direct) flow components. The first one was
based on the discharge rate and second on the water temperature. Both analyses gave very sim-
ilar results, and indicate a complex hydraulic mechanism, caused by a pressure pulse through
the karst hydrogeological system.
18.1 INTRODUCTION
Karst spring hydrographs are often used for characterisation of a karst aquifer.
Discharge analysis and correlation with the changes of climate parameters can be
used to understand the functioning of the karst system (Jemcov & Petric, 2010).
This is particularly important for gravitational springs where discharge variates sig-
nificantly and the influence of climate is pronounced. Deep siphonal springs have
a smaller discharge range and lower temperature variations. But, there are some
karst subthermal springs with significant changes in capacity and temperature which
result from mixing with colder karst groundwaters. In such circumstances, time
series regime analysis can help to understand the discharge mechanism as well as the
recharge conditions. This methodology has been applied at the Blederija subthermal
karst aquifer.
Blederija is a karst spring which drains the Miroc karst massif in eastern Serbia.
The karst aquifer is formed in fractured and highly-karstified massive Upper Jurassic
limestones (Stevanovic et al., 1996). A significant portion of the spring catchment
area is made up of low permeable Cretaceous clastic rocks, enabling the formation
of a network of surface streams, which sink as they pass through the karstic area
(Figure18.1). At times of high-water flows, most of the surface streams sink via the
ponor Cvetanovac. At the discharge zone, a cold spring and a subthermal spring (called
0 0.5 1 2
Spring Geology units Km
Springs catchment al Sand
Ponor Ng Sand, Clay
Groundwater flow direction K22,3 Siltstone, limestone
Temporal surface flow K15 Sandstone
Aquifer types K13,4 Limestone
Karst aquifers K11,2 Siltstone, Limestone
Fissured aquifers K11+2 Sandstone, Claystone
Intergrannular aquifers J3 Limestones
Low permeable rocks J2 Sandy limestones
Gp, Gneiss
Figure18.1 Hydrogeology map of the Blederija Spring catchment area.
mixed spring in this paper due to the results of regime monitoring) are located 10 m
apart. The average discharge of the Blederija springs is 280 l/s (Prohaska et al., 2001).
18.2 ANALYSED DATA
Monitoring was carried out for three years in order to understand the recharge and
discharge mechanism of Blederija spring (Figure18.2). Temperature was measured
at three locations (Blederija mixed spring, Blederija cold spring and Blederija stream
10m below the confluence of the mixed and cold spring), surface water level and
flow of the Blederija stream were measured, weather measurements: precipitation,
air temperature and wind-speed were also recorded. The measurements period was
March 2011 to April 2014.
The water temperature was measured every 5 days with digital and mercury ther-
mometers. In order to assess the capacity of Blederija stream, a water level gauge was
installed and read daily. Flow measurements were also conducted several times in
order to obtain a useable rating curve. Flow measurements represent a total flow of
both the cold and mixed springs, and only occasional measurements of subthermal
springs were performed during low-flow period.
In the vicinity of the spring, a meteorological station recording precipitation,
air temperature and wind speed and direction measurement was also installed.
Precipitation data were also collected from the Miroc rainfall station located near the
Hydraulic behaviour of a subthermal karst spring Blederija spring, Eastern Serbia 261
N
Tcold
Qcold* Tmix
Qmix*
Tsum
Legend:
Qsum Mixed spring
Cold spring
T Temp. measurement
Qsum Flow measurement
Qmix*, Qcold* Calculated flow
Figure18.2 Sketch map of measuring points.
upper parts of the springs catchment. Data were also collected from the Negotin and
Crni Vrh meteorological stations where long-term digital climate event monitoring is
undertaken.
Beside the regime monitoring, field explorations were carried out, including tracer
test. Temperature and flow data were used for hydrograph separation. Time series
analysis was used to understand hydraulic behaviour of the Blederija karst system.
Together the data fed into the conceptual model of the aquifer.
18.3 APPLIED METHODS AND RESULTS
The hydrograph separation method was applied in order to identify the base flow
and the fast flow components. There are numerous methods available to separate
baseflow from measured stream /spring flow hydrographs, but they are all based on
two concepts (Kyoung et al., 2010). One is based on a simple automated smoothing
and separation rule (Sloto & Crouse, 1996), and the second on a digital filtering
method that provides consistent results (Nathan & McMahon, 1990). A recursive
digital filter was used Eckhardt filter separates baseflow and fast flow components
(Eckhardt, 2005):
(1 - BFImax ) + bt -1 (1 - a)BFImax Qt
bt = (18.1)
1 - BFImax
Where bt is the filtered baseflow at the t step; bt-1 is the filtered base flow index at
the t-1 step; BFImax is the maximum value of long-term ratio of baseflow to total flow;
is the filter parameter; and Qt is the total flow at t step.
All data were processed using the BFI+3 module of HydroOffice 2015 (Gregor,
2010). To avoid uncertainties of estimation of the main parameter for the BFImax reces-
sion curve analysis, occasional flow measurements of the subthermal karstic spring
were used. Based on the 5 day data level, BFImax 0.45 (for the subthermal spring) and
parameter of 0.8 were estimated (Figure18.3).
In the next step, a different method of hydrograph separation was performed.
This method is based on the water temperature, because direct measuring of the
spring discharge was not possible due to the narrowness of the spring discharge area.
Spring discharges were calculated according to heat and mass continuum equations
(Kobayashi, 1985):
Qsum = Qcold + Qmix (or msum=mcold + mmix)(18.2)
msum c Tsum=mcold c Tcold + mmix c Tmix(18.3)
where Qsum is the Blederija stream flow, Qcold is the Blederija cold spring discharge,
Qmix is the Blederija mixed spring discharge, m is water mass, c is specific heat and Tis
water temperature.
Combining the upper two equations, hydrograph separation was obtained
(Figure18.4) based on the following relation:
Qmix=Qsum(Tsum-Tcold)/(Tmix-Tcold)(18.4)
Comparative analysis of two different methods of hydrograph separation

showed similar behaviour (Table18.1) and a high correlation coefficient (0.98) of
3000
2500
2000
Capacity (I/S)
Qsum
1500 Qbase
1000
500
0
22.03.2011
05.06.2011
19.08.2011
02.11.2011
16.01.2012
31.03.2012
14.06.2012
28.08.2012
11.11.2012
25.01.2013
26.03.2013
09.06.2013
23.08.2013
06.11.2013
20.01.2014
05.04.2014
Figure18.3 Hydrograph separation, base-flow and fast flow components.

3000 20
18
2500
16
14
2000
Temperature (C)
12
Capacity (I/S)
1500 10
Qsum
8
Qmix
1000
Tmix 6
Tcold
4
500 Tsum
2
0 0
03.2011
05.2011
07.2011
09.2011
11.2011
01.2012
03.2012
05.2012
07.2012
09.2012
11.2012
01.2013
03.2013
05.2013
07.2013
09.2013
11.2013
01.2014
03.2014
Figure18.4 Hydrograph separation based on thermal equilibrium.
Table18.1 Descriptive statistics of summary discharge rate of Blederija spring and separated flow
components (l/s).
Mean Minimum Maximum Variance Std. Dev.
Qsum 203.0 17.00 2661 88700 297.8

Qbase 91.3 7.65 1089 16540 128.6
Qmix 100.1 5.91 1544 30217 173.8
hydrograph components Qbase and Qmix. This confirms the applicability of the method
based on water temperature. Some discrepancy of the data between separated com-
ponents, Qbase, and Qmix, reflects the different methods applied and their parameter
calibration.
The temperature measurements have shown some unexpected results. The tem-
perature of the Blederija mixed spring in dry periods reached as high as 18.5C. In
the periods of snow melting, the mixed spring capacity significantly increases and
temperature decreases by almost 10oC. In previous studies (Dragisic et al., 1992;
Stevanovic et al., 1996), this phenomenon was explained by simple mixture with the
groundwater from Blederija cold spring. However, in the highest water flow periods,
the temperature of the mixed spring falls below the temperature of Blederija cold
spring (Tmix=8.1C, Tcold=9.7C). This suggests that the main cause of the lowering
of the water temperature of the Blederija mixed spring might not be the mixture
with the water from the cold spring. The temperature decrease could be due to mix-
ture with groundwater coming from the eastern part of the catchment, where large
portion of surface water recharges the karst aquifer via the Cvetanovac ponor. Dye
test conducted in December 2013 has confirmed this. The tracer (2 kg of uranine)
was injected in the ponor Cvetanovac with a river flow rate of 4 l/s (Figure18.5).
The tracer was detected 2.5 days later, but only at the Blederija mixed spring, and
not at the cold spring. During that time, the karst groundwater carrying the tracer
travelled 3060 m along a hydraulic gradient of 0.044 with an average flow velocity
of 1.4 cm/s.
In order to properly analyse the recharge-discharge relationship, the input com-
ponent of the karst system (precipitation) was converted to effective precipitation.
In order to separate the various processes in the air, vegetation and the soil from the
processes within the karst aquifer system, the interception on vegetation cover, and of
snow and snowmelt were assessed to define the effective precipitation, or the quantity
of precipitation that reached the ground (Jemcov & Petric, 2009).
One of the methods to study karst aquifer behaviour is time series analysis of the
recharge and discharge data as functions of the karst hydrogeological system (Jemcov
& Petric, 2010). The analysis has been carried out as complementary method to the
other field methods of karst groundwater exploration such as the dye test.
The univariate analysis characterises the individual structure of time. The auto-
correlograms of all of three functions (Figure18.6.) exceeds the confidence limits for
approximately 1315 time lag (~6575 days), which implies that the system is well
structured, and storage is significant.
The slope of autocorrelogram Qcold initially drops quickly for less than 15 days,
and afterwards remains on the same trend. This bimodal behaviour indicates the
Figure18.5 Dye test verified connection of the Cvetanovac ponor and Blederija mixed spring.
duality of the outflow regime. The same occurs in autocorrelograms Qsum and Qmix
(but less pronounced), and indicates a zone of mixing of water with normal and
subthermal components.
The bivariate analysis considers the transformation of the input to the output
signal. The cross-correlation function (CCF) of the Blederija source for all consid-
ered components (Figure18.7.) shows non-symmetrical behaviour and a high level
of influence of effective precipitation on outflow components, particularly within the
initial time lag (5 day). This suggests that all of the analysed components recharge
from the binary karst system. A function for all three outflow components becomes
insignificant after 55 days, and thereafter it exceeds the level of significance because
0.7
0.6 Qsum
Qhot
0.5
Qcold
0.4
Is
0.3
r(k)
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 5 10 15 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.1
0.2
k=5 day
Figure18.6 Autocorrelation function of discharge components of the Blederija source. Legend: Qsum
Blederija stream flow, Qcold Blederija cold spring Qmix Blederija mixed spring.
0.5
QsumPgi (swe)
0.4
QhotPgi (swe)
0.3 QcoldPgi (swe)

Ls
0.2
k=5 day
0.0
45 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.1
0.2
Figure18.7 Cross-correlation function of effective precipitation and flow components of the Blederija
karst source. Legend: Pgi (swe) effective precipitation transformed from the measured
values corrected for wind influence and interception by vegetation, and finally melted snow.
of the influence of the Qmix components, and the hydraulic behaviour of the out-
flow components. Constant variation of cross-correlation functions implies non-
homogenous karst hydrogeological system, with different responses in various parts
of the systems with frequent interchanges of normal and subthermal waters. A strong
influence of the effective precipitation on the Qmix component, similar to the Qcold
component, indicates a process of continuous interference of normal and subthermal
waters. Moreover, a common attenuation effect for the Qmix component is not quite
so obvious, and suggests possibilities of different development of the various levels of
the karst channel system (upper and lower).
Ponor
Cvetanovac Cold
spring
T=11.8C
Mixed
spring
T=18.5C
Ponor
Cvetanovac
snow melting T=4.1C Cold
spring
T=9.7C
Mixed
spring
T=8.1C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure18.8 Conceptual model of Blederija spring discharge during the low (up) and high (down)
water regime. (1) low permeable rocks, (2) karstified limestone (vadose zone), (3) karsti-
fied limestone (saturated zone with cold water), (4) karstified limestone (saturated zone
with thermal water), (5) groundwater level, (6) cold groundwater flow direction, (7) ther-
mal groundwater flow direction, (8) cold spring, (9) mixed spring.
18.4 CONCEPTUAL MODEL AND CONCLUSION
Applied analysis and field exploration were complementary, and both were needed to
obtain the conceptual model. There is no doubt that water from the higher parts of
groundwater system has an effect on the decrease in temperature of the lower subther-
mal groundwater system. There are two independent upper groundwater karst systems,
coming from the north and the east, and only the water from the east system effects the
lowering of the water temperature of the subthermal spring. Therefore, the application
of the field techniques such as dye test along with other methods, e.g. isotope analy-
sis, are still essential to the exploration of the karst hydrogeological system. The com-
plex hydraulic relation between the cold and the subthermal groundwater in different
groundwater stages is presented schematically in the conceptual model (Figure18.8).
During the low water flow regime, the Cvetanovac River dries up and diffuse
infiltration occurs. During low water period, groundwater flows slowly, especially in
the deeper parts of the karst system. As a result of small spring capacities the water
temperatures become higher. The temperature of the mixed spring goes up to 18.5C.
In the periods of snow melt, punctual infiltration becomes pronounced, and intensive
recharge with very cold water (T=4.1C) occurs resulting in significant increase of
both spring flows, but also a significant decrease in water temperatures. Dye test
proves this phenomenon of temperature inversion for Blederija springs.
Time series analysis confirmed these results, especially the bimodal behaviour,
with strong diffuse infiltration in the binary karst hydrogeological system. This indi-
cates different responses in various parts of the systems with frequent interchanges of
normal with subthermal waters.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological
Development (as a part of the Projects No. 43004 and No. 176022).
REFERENCES
Dragiic V., Stevanovic Z., Filipovic B. (1992) The occurrences of deep siphonal circulation
of karst aquifer of Miroc mountain (NE Serbia). Theoretical and Applied Karstology 5,
115120.
Eckhardt K. (2005) How to construct recursive digital filters for baseflow separation.
Hydrological Processes 19, 507515.
Gregor M. (2010) BFI+ 3.0 modul. HydroOffice 2015. URL: http://hydrooffice.org; last visited
10/10/2015.
Jemcov I., Petric M. (2009) Measured precipitation vs. effective infiltration and their influence
on the assessment of karst systems based on results of the time series analysis. Journal of
Hydrology 379(34), 304314.
Jemcov I., Petric M. (2010) Time Series Analysis, Modelling and Assessment of Optimal
Exploitation of the Nemanja Karst Springs, Serbia. Acta Carsologica 39(2), 187200.
Kobayashi D. (1985) Separation of the snowmelt hydrograph by stream temperatures. Journal
of Hydrology 76, 155162.
Kyoung J.L., Youn S.P., Jonggun K., Yong-Chul S., Nam W.K., Seong J.K., Ji-Hong J., Bernard
A. E. (2010) Development of genetic algorithm-based optimization module in WHAT system
for hydrograph analysis and model application. Computers & Geosciences 36(7), 936944.
Nathan R.J., McMahon, T.A. (1990) Evaluation of automated techniques for baseflow and
recession analysis. Water Resources Research 26(7), 14651473.
Prohaska S., Ristic V., Dragiic V. (2001) Groundwater budget and dynamical reserves estima-
tion of the Miroc karst massif (in Serbian) Proracun bilansa i dinamickih rezervi podzemnih
voda karstnog masiva Miroc. Vodoprivreda 33(189194), 3540.
Sloto R.A., Crouse M.Y. (1996) HYSEP: a computer program for stream flow hydrograph
separation and analysis. U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigation Report
96-4040, Reston, VA, 46 pp.
Stevanovic Z., Dragiic V., Dokmanovic P., Mandic M. (1996) Hydrogeology of Miroc Karst
Massif, Eastern Serbia, Yugoslavia. Theoretical and Applied Karstology 9, 8995.
Chapter 19
Delineation of the Plitvice Lakes

karst catchment area, Croatia
Hrvoje Meaki, Boidar Biondic & Ranko Biondic
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Geotechnical Engineering Varadin,
Croatia
ABSTRACT
The observed Plitvice Lakes Catchment area is located in the central part of the Dinaric karst,
in Croatia. It is the largest catchment area within the Plitvice Lakes National Park. Due to its
specific hydrogeological conditions, it can be divided into several subcatchmens. These were
determined through the synthesis of research results that includes hydrogeological character-
istics of the catchment area, hydrochemical and isotopic analysis of water from springs, and
hydrological analysis of the surface water system. The result is a division of the Plitvice Lakes
catchment into three main subcatchment areas: Matica, Plitvica and Jezera (Lakes).
19.1 INTRODUCTION
The Plitvice Lakes catchment area is approximately 152 km2. It is a part of the Korana
groundwater body (Biondic et al., 2013), which belongs to the Black Sea catchment
area, and is located in the central part of the Dinaric karst in Croatia. The Plitvice
Lakes catchment is the largest catchment within the Plitvice Lakes National Park
whose total surface area is 296.85 km. The wider Plitvice Lakes catchment area has
been designated a national park since 1949 due to its outstanding natural beauty. For
the same reason the Plitvice Lakes National Park has been included on the UNESCO
List of World Heritage Sites since 1979. This was the first area in Europe to be
included in this list due to the attractive phenomena created by water. It is the largest,
oldest and most visited Croatian national park.
The most prominent surface water occurrences within the Plitvice Lakes catch-
ment are cascading lakes of various sizes. The biodynamic process of predominant
tufa barrier growth created those lakes and nowadays there are 16 lakes, whose sur-
faces and forms are constantly changing over time (Figure19.1). The largest lakes
are Kozjak and Procansko. Beside the well-known lakes system, there are numerous
permanent karst springs in the Plitvice Lakes catchment, of which the most important
are the Crna Rijeka, Bijela Rijeka and Plitvica.
Nowadays the Plitvice Lakes National Park receives more than one million tour-
ists per year; urbanisation is encroaching upon the administrative boundaries of the
Park, causing the human impact to be pronounced in some parts. Therefore, for the
protection of the Plitvice Lakes National Park it is now no longer advisable, nor sus-
tainable, to restrict protection only to the narrow area around the lakes system but to
expand the protection zone out to the entire Plitvice Lakes catchment. It is necessary
1531'30''E 1537'0''E 1542'30''E
SLO HUN
N
4456'0''N
BIH Slovenia
Hungary
BiH Serbia
Italy
ITA
tuk
Sar
N
Bijela
4450'30''N
rijek
anj
Su
a
vic
Ciganovac
t
Ljeskovac
Pli
Mat 37 m
ica Okrugljak
Batinovac
Veliko i Malo Korana
a Galovac 48.5 m
ek
Sastavci
Procansko Lake 24 m (583 m a.s.l.)
rij
Milanovac
(637 m a.s.l.)
na
Gradinsko
Cr
Novakovica Brod
4445'0''N
Gavanovac Kaluderovac
ica
Kozjak Lake
ec
Rj
(535 m a.s.l.)
Boundary of the Border of the

Plitvice Lakes catchment area National park Plitvice Lakes 0 1 2
km gauging station
Figure19.1 Location of the National Park Plitvice Lakes with position of the Plitvice Lakes catchment
area (left). Sketch of the lakes system (right).
to observe Plitvice Lakes as a unique hydrogeological unit, composed of a series of

interconnected small subcatchment areas. This delineation is not simple or unambigu-
ous, but it can be divided into three subcatchments: Matica, Plitvica and Jezera. Never
before have these areas been delineated in such way (Meaki, 2011).
19.2 METHODS AND RESULTS
Determination of the catchment area is the basis for all water balance calculations. It
enables the estimation of groundwater and surface water volumes, as well as the iden-
tification of possible sources, the direction and flow of water, and the transportation
of potential contamination in water.
Delineation of the subcatchment areas was carried out using three basic sets of
data: hydrogeological, hydrometeorological and hydrochemical. Hydrogeological
data represent the basic data that are needed to define the conceptual position of the
catchments and subcatchments. Hydrological and meteorological analyses were used
to quantify the presumed hydrogeological catchments, which were then confirmed by
iteration. Hydrochemical data were used for verification; these are mainly discrete
data that are influenced by conditions of spatial data in the catchment.
19.2.1 Hydrogeological research

The Plitvice Lakes catchment is a part of the Dinaric karst area in which the dynamic of
groundwater is related to the process of karstification of carbonate rocks of Mesozoic
age. Geotectonic and geodynamic evolution of the Dinarides is well-researched
Delineation of the Plitvice Lakes karst catchment area, Croatia 271
(Dimitrijevic, 1982; Herak, 1986, 1991; Pamic et al., 1998; Korbar, 2009) and it
can be noted that the evolution of the Dinarides has had a significant impact on
these processes. Hydrogeological characteristics and water permeability assessments
of layers (Figure19.2) were determined according to existing structural data and the
lithological composition of rocks.
The geological map for the area (Polak et al., 1967; Velic et al., 1970), the
Geological Map of Plitvicka jezera (Polak, 1969) and other relevant and available
data relating to the geology of investigated area were used (Bahun, 1978; Biondic &
Goatti, 1976; Biondic, 1982; Herak, 1962; etc.).
Data collected in the field, the position of sources and sinks, karst geomorpholog-
ical features as well as the results of tracing tests from the wider area were taken into
consideration during the hydrogeological analyses of the Plitvice Lakes catchment.
Research of the direction of groundwater flow in the Plitvice lakes has been carried
out on several occasions, either through systematic scientific research or as part of
other research. By the end of 2012 in the Plitvice Lakes catchment, 17 tracer tests for
groundwater flow were carried out (Biondic et al., 2008; Meaki, 2011).
19.2.2 Water balance determination

Spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall, particularly effective rainfall, runoff and
evapotranspiration are the next basic elements that are needed to calculate the water
balance of the presumed catchment area.
1530'0''E 1535'0''E 1540'0''E
SARTUK SPRING
LEGEND
permanent spring
4455'0''N
BIG WATERFALL
permanent watercourse
PLITVICA SPRING
temporary river
lake
water divide
main water divide
LIMAN DRAGA
SPRING border of the National Park
RJECICA
geol. boundary
VUKMIROVIC A
geol. boundary inferred
4450'0''N
SPRING
fault
fault inferred
reverse fault
BIJELA RIJEKA CRNA RIJEKA
SPRING SPRING "Kozjak" fault
low permeable clastics deposits
low permeable carbonates
LJESKOVAC
SPRING
medium permeable carbonates
high permeable carbonates
4445'0''N
0 2 4 6
km groundwater direction
Figure19.2 Hydrogeological sketch of the Plitvice Lakes catchment.

The spatial distribution of rainfall was obtained from the available rainfall data
recorded in the reference period from 1961 to 1990 (DHMZ, 2009). Point data were
interpolated using the Spatial Analyst Tools module within the ArcGIS software pack-
age. The mean annual precipitation in the Plitvice Lakes catchment varies from 1224
to 1475 mm (see P in Table19.1), or approximately 1350 mm for the whole Plitvice
Lakes catchment. Isohyets highlight a north west to south east zone coinciding with
the dominant mountains in this area (Meaki, 2011).
Effective precipitation is a part of the total precipitation that can reach the satu-
rated zone and recharge the aquifer. Ultimately, this is the volume of spring discharge.
Usually it can be obtained through the application of various empirical formulae.
In the Plitvice Lakes catchment the empirical formula of ugaj (1995) was applied,
which is especially suitable for the Dinaric karst catchments in Croatia. Values varied
from approximately 790 mm in the southern part of the Plitvice Lakes catchment to
approximately 880 mm in the middle and northern part of the Plitvice Lakes catch-
ment (see Pe in Table19.1 and Figure19.2). The possible deviation of obtained result
is 18%.
The runoff coefficient (sometimes called effective infiltration coefficient) was
determined also from the precipitation data. This coefficient is defined as the ratio of
effective precipitation to total precipitation and it includes all processes that can occur
in some catchments during transformation of the total precipitation into effective
precipitation. Therefore, it is used very often in scientific and theoretical hydrological
analysis (Bonacci & Jelin, 1988; ugaj, 1995; Bonacci, 1999, 2001). The calculated
runoff coefficient for the whole Plitvice Lakes catchment is approximately 0.65 (see
c in Table19.1).
The analysis of the spatial distribution of air temperature includes the correlation
between altitude and normal annual air temperature at certain measuring stations in
the wider area for the reference period from 1961 to 1990. This is a linear regres-
sion equation, which represents the vertical temperature gradient, i.e. a drop in air
temperature of 0.5C per 100 m of altitude (Meaki, 2011). This is in line with a
similar approach that was made in previous research related to this part of Croatia
(Zaninovic et al., 2004).
In order to calculate evapotranspiration the empirical formula of Turc (1954)
and Coutagne (1954) were used. When using the Coutagne method it is essential
that the correct equation is chosen, in accordance with Coutagne parameter . In the
Plitvice Lakes catchment the Coutagne equation: precipitation 0.5/, was selected.
The resultant average values of evapotranspiration, based on both empirical formu-
lae, are in the range of 450 to 500 mm (see Et in Table19.1). These methods have
been used for a very long time for estimation of evapotranspiration in various areas,
including karst. As these are empirical formulae, they should be applied with caution
when used in a certain area. In the Plitvice Lakes catchment area several methods were
tested, and ultimately this two were selected as the most appropriate.
The average annual evaporation from the lake surfaces has also been calculated.
The calculation is based on an empirical relationship (Meyer, 1915) using measure-
ments from the climatological station located near Kozjak Lake. The value obtained
is 422 mm 19 mm (Meaki, 2011).
For the hydrologic analysis available data on discharges measured at water gaug-
ing stations within the Plitvice Lakes catchment (DHMZ, 2009) were used (see Qav.8108
Table19.1 Calculated hydrometeorological values for the Plitvice Lakes catchment (PLC) compared to measured flow rates (period from 1981 to2008).
% of P Pe Et 2
Qav.81-08
1
Description PLC Area (km )
2
(mm) (mm) (mm) c (Pe/P) Qcalc (m /s)
3
(m3/s) 3
g.s.
Bijela River with Ljeskovac 13 20 1224 774 449 0.63 0.50 0.448 2
Crna River 41 62 1245 791 454 0.64 1.55 1.36 1
Matica (direct) 1 2 1273 798 475 0.63 0.042 no data
Subcatchment 55 84 1247 788 459 0.63 2.09 2.09 3
MATICA
Upper lakes (direct catchment) 10 10 1376 893 483 0.65 0.276 no data
Suanj 3 5 1257 797 460 0.63 0.125 0.055 4
Rjecica River 8 12 1455 969 486 0.67 0.383 0.426 5
Matica inflow +2.09 2.09 3
evaporation from the lakes -0.025 no data
water intake from the Kozjak Lake -0.100 no data
Subcatchment 18 28 1363 886 477 0.65 2.75 2.65 6
JEZERA
Sartuk 7 10 1475 998 477 0.68 0.325 0.094 8
Plitvica spring 18 28 1374 919 455 0.67 0.807 no data
Plitvica River (direct catchment) 2 3 1452 959 493 0.66 0.077 no data
Subcatchment 27 41 1434 959 475 0.67 1.21 0.655 7
PLITVICA
PLC TOTAL 100 152 1348 878 470 0.65
1
For location of specific subcatchments, see Figure19.7.
2
Calculation is based on flow measurements at gauging stations.
3
For location of specific gauging station (g.s.), see Figure19.4.
in Table19.1). It should be noted that most of the gauging stations only started oper-
ating in the early 1980s, at a time when the majority of streams in the Croatian karst
region had sustained long dry period (ugaj, 1995). Therefore, to obtain a sufficiently
long time series of annual flow, analyses of homogeneity of time series were carried
out using Wilcoxson (1945) nonparametric test. The length of the hydrological series
is validated according to the error size of the variation coefficient, using the equation
by UNESCO (1982) and Kritsky-Menkel (1961).
Time series of the flow as well as identification of possible changes in the hydro-
logical regime were analysed using the Rescaled Adjusted Partial Sums (RAPS) method
(Garbrecht & Fernandez, 1994). Biondic (1999) and Bonacci & Andric (2008) car-
ried out similar analysis of hydrological changes in other karstified terrains using the
RAPS method.
The cyclicality of the hydrological regime in the Plitvice Lakes catchment
was analysed using RAPS (Figure19.3). In 50 years of hydrological observations
of the Plitvice Lakes catchment area, exchange of three wet and three dry peri-
ods were detected, i.e. every 16 years there is an extreme wet and dry period.
However, for now it cannot yet be seen a continuous trend of decline or increase
in the amount of water in the Plitvice Lakes catchment. It also should be noted
that the individual annual extremes seen in Figure19.3 do not need to fit into the
perceived frequency of the hydrological regime and that the calculation are based
on hydrological observation related to gauging station marked with number 9
(see Figure19.4).
The final analysis of the water balance shows that the Matica flow represents a
major contribution of water to lakes system, approximately 2.09 m3/s of water, more
than all the other inflows put together. From this amount of water, about 74% is from
Crna River and about 24% of water is from Bijela River (Figure19.4).
40
30
RAPS(Pl.Lakes) = 10sin( Tmy/96 /2) + 11
20
RAPS
10
10
20
1/1959
1/1962
1/1965
1/1968
1/1971
1/1974
1/1977
1/1980
1/1983
1/1986
1/1989
1/1992
1/1995
1/1998
1/2001
1/2004
1/2007
RAPS at PLC outflow sinus periodicity
Remarks: value of the number; Tmy month and year for which the RAPS is
determined (in this case the initial time is January 1959)
Figure19.3 The RAPS analysis of mean monthly flow in the Plitvice Lakes catchment outflow, with
marked periodicity.
uk
art
8S
Bije Q Plitvica spring (calc)
la ri
jeka 0.81 m3/s
j
Q Bijela River (calc) 4 Su an
Q Sartuk (calc)
0.50 m3/s
0.325 m3/s
ica
tv
Ljeskova 2 Plitvica Bridge
Pli
c Q
1 Mat (average '81'08)
ica 3 0.66 m3/s
a
6 7
k
2%
ije
Korana
r
Q Matica (calc)
na
24% 2.09 m3/s 5

Cr
Q Crna River (calc)

Q Kozjak Bridge (calc) Q Korana River (calc)
1.54 m3/s 9
74% ica 2.75 m3/s 3.41 m3/s
ec
Bijela River
Rj
Crna River
Upper lakes
Matica (direct catchment) (direct catchment)
Rjecica
9%
12% 4% Suanj
total 81%
evaporation
Matica 11%
68% 3% water capture
inflow
3% unknown
Kozjak Bridge
N
Plitvica Bridge
m 1 m3/s gauging station with corresponding number
0 1000
Figure19.4 Visual comparison of the calculated flow in the Plitvice Lakes catchment in the period
from 1981 to 2008.
Details and more results from testing the homogeneity of time series of annual
flow at water gauging stations in the basin lakes, the length of individual datasets, as
well as calculations of the error coefficient variation can be found in Meaki (2011).
19.2.3 Hydrochemical analyses

Measurement of basic physico-chemical parameters (water temperature, pH, electro-
lytic conductivity, and dissolved oxygen concentration), water sampling and labora-
tory analysis of chemical composition in the Plitvice Lakes catchment were carried out
within the international research project during two hydrological years 20052007
(Biondic et al., 2008). All observed points are shown in Figure19.7, and some of the
results in Table19.2.
Alkalinity values are shown as concentration of HCO3- ions, because the concen-
tration of all other ions that constitute the total water alkalinity in the Plitvice Lakes
are negligible due to the acidity of the water (pH) (Stumm & Morgan, 1981; Appelo
& Postma, 1994). The higher concentration of HCO3- at springs and streams is a
consequence of the lack of precipitation of calcite. In downstream parts of rivers and
lakes, HCO3- concentration gradually decrease due to the deposition of tufa sediments
along the lake system.
The chemistry of groundwater is frequently dependent on the source rocks
through which the fluid flows. The simple comparison of the HCO3- concentration
and the Ca2+/Mg2+ ratio in source waters shows that the area is built of predominantly
carbonate sediments. However, due to some differences in the hydrochemistry, differ-
ent catchment areas could be identified (Figure19.5).
Table19.2 The average concentrations of major ions at certain observation points (period from 2005
to 2007).
Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ HCO3- SO42- Cl- NO3-

TDS
1
Description & mark shown as % of total dissolved solids meq/l
Bijela Rijeka spring (BR-I) 28 22 0.4 0.1 48 0.4 0.8 0.6 10.55
Crna Rijeka spring (CR-I) 36 14 0.4 0.1 48 0.5 0.7 0.5 9.08
Matica River (M-R) 33 17 0.3 0.1 48 0.3 0.6 0.4 9.46
Rjecica River (R-R) 26 24 0.2 0.1 49 0.2 0.4 0.3 11.16
Plitvica spring (PL-I) 32 18 0.2 0.1 48 0.6 0.4 0.8 9.78
Sartuk spring (SAR-I) 27 24 0.2 0.1 48 0.1 0.4 0.6 10.26
Ljeskovac spring (LES-I) 33 18 0.2 0.1 47 0.2 0.5 0.7 10.31
Rjecica (RJ-I) 27 24 0.1 0.1 49 0.0 0.4 0.0 11.22
PLC average based on all 29 21 0.3 0.1 49 0.4 0.5 0.4 9.73
data (Biondic et al., 2008)
For location of specific water sampling points, see Figure19.7.
1
6.0
Bijela rijeka spring
Crna rijeka spring
5.6
Plitvica spring
Rjec ica river
HCO3 (meq/l)
5.2
4.8
4.4
4.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Ca /Mg
2+ 2+
Figure19.5 Comparison of the HCO3- concentration and the ratio of Ca2+ and Mg2+ in source waters
(period from 2005 to 2007).
Sampling and analysis of stable isotopes of water was carried out, which aimed
to complete the picture of the natural water system; the identification/verification
of the mean recharge altitude of springs, the determination of the mean residence
time of groundwater as well as understanding the processes of ionic changes in
water and evaporation. The Local Meteoric Water Line (LMWL) was also obtained
(Figure19.6). The content of stable isotopes 18O and D in precipitation was deter-
mined from a composite sample of rainwater for the period 20032007.
66
Bijela rijeka spring
Crna rijeka spring
68 Matica River
main spring
LMWL Plitvice
zones Rjec ica River
D = 7.86 18O + 12.5
D ()
70 Plitvice spring
Plitvica River
main discharge from the PLC Korana River

72
other smaller
watercourses springs
74
10.8 10.7 10.6 10.5 10.4 10.3 10.2 10.1 10.0 9.9
18O ()
Figure19.6 Analysis of 18O/D values for all major and some minor sources and streams in the
Plitvice Lakes catchment area (period from 2005 to 2007).
More details about results regarding hydrochemical analysis can be found in

Biondic et al. (2008) and Meaki (2011).
19.3 DISCUSSION & CONCLUSIONS
The Plitvice Lakes catchment is a unique hydrogeological catchment because all

waters are directed toward the lakes system, or the source area of the Korana River.
However, due to its specific hydrogeological conditions it can be divided into three
main subcatchment areas: Matica, Plitvica and Jezera (Lakes).
Determination of smaller subcatchments was carried out through the synthesis
of research results that include the hydrogeological characteristics of the area, hydro-
chemical and isotopic analysis of groundwater, and hydrological analysis of the sur-
face water system. It should be noted that the final subcatchment surface area and its
divides needs further confirmation through new and more detailed hydrogeological
investigations.
19.3.1 Matica subcatchment area

The Matica subcatchment includes all sources and watercourses that gravitate to
the Matica River, which then inflow into Lake Procansko. The most important are
the Crna River, Bijela River and Ljeskovac and accordingly the subcatchment can be
divided into three hydrogeological parts, (Figure19.7). A natural barrier for discharge
from this karst catchment is the low permeable dolomite of Triassic age. The total out-
flow from the subcatchment is measured on the Matica River at the gauging station
1535'0"E 1540'0"E
SARI
River
N an
a
N
r
Ko
KR
LABEL DESCRIPTION
2.2 BRI Bijela Rijeka Spring
4455'0"N
CRI Crna Rijeka Spring

GALJ Lake Galovac
GRAJ Lake Gradinsko
SARR KR Korane River
KALJ Lake Kaluderovac
2.1 PLI KALJ
KOZJ point on Lake Kozjak
LESI Ljeskovac Spring
3.1 SUBCATCHMENTS: MILJ LIMI Liman Draga Spring
KOZJ MR Matice River
1 MATICA MILJ Lake Milanovac
3.3 1.1 Crna rijeka PLI Plitvica Spring
1.2 Bijela rijeka PROJ point on Lake Procanko
3.2 1.3 Ljeskovac GRAJ RR Rjecica River
GALJ RJI Rjecica River
SARI Sartuk Spring
4450'0"N
2 PLITVICA RR
SARR Sartuk River
1.2 2.1 Plitvica spring
PROJ VUKI Vukmirovica Spring
2.2 Sartuk
1.3 2.3 Plitvica rijeka
3 JEZERA
3.1 Jezera (direct) LIMI
3.2 Rjecica MR RJI
1.1
3.3 Suanj
VUKI
LESI
BRI
4445'0"N
0 2 4 0 1 2 CRI
km km
Figure19.7 Main subcatchments in the Plitvice Lakes catchment (left). Name and position of major
water sampling points used for hydrochemical and isotopic analysis (right).
Matica (marked with number 3 at Figure19.4). Its hydrochemistry is a mixture from

the main watercourses (Table19.2).
Hydrogeological part of Crna River consists of Liassic and Malmian ages lime-
stones and dolomites that vary in the permeability (Figure19.2). The main discharge
zone is the Crna Rijeka spring (Figure19.8, Table19.1). Emerging from the spring is
an approximately 2.5 km long surface stream of the same name, which connects to
the Bijela River and forms the Matica River. Along its course, the Crna River does not
receive significant surface runoff. Total outflow is measured on the Crna River at the
gauging station of the same name (marked with number 1 at Figure19.4).
Hydrogeological part of Bijela River almost entirely consists of Upper Malmian
age dolomites. It is a difficult catchment to analyse due to the lack of reliable data on
the direction of groundwater flow. The main discharge zone is the Bijela Rijeka spring
(Figure19.8, Table19.1), and the largest part of the catchment extends north west
from this zone, along the divide between the Adriatic and Black Sea catchment areas
(Biondic & Goatti, 1976; Dekovic et al., 1981, 1984; Kuhta, 2010). From the spring
emerges an approximately 4.5 km long surface stream called the Bijela River. Along
its course, it receives numerous small tributaries, e.g. water from the Vukmirovica
spring (Figure19.2), and just before the junction with the Crna River the Ljeskovac
Stream also flows in.
The Ljeskovac Stream belongs to the hydrogeological part Ljeskovac (Figure19.7).
This is the only watercourse located between the Bijela and the Crna River. It begins as
Figure19.8 Crna Rijeka spring (left) and Bijela Rijeka spring (right) (October 2005).
a series of minor karst springs, approximately 2 km before the junction with the Bijela
River. Higher parts of the basin consist of Upper Malm age carbonate sediments,
while the lower parts mainly consist of Doger age limestones. The total outflow from
the Bijela River and Ljeskovac Stream is measured on the Bijela River at the gauging
station of the same name (marked with number 2 at Figure19.4).
19.3.2 Plitvica subcatchment area

The Plitvica subcatchment includes all waters that gravitate to the Plitvice River and
the Big Waterfall (78 m height), the highest waterfall in Croatia. There it merges with
waters that come from the lakes system. This area is called Sastavci, also known as
the beginning of the Korana River (Figure19.10). The total outflow from this sub-
catchment is measured on the Plitvica River at the gauging station Plitvica most
(marked with number 7 at Figure19.4). This subcatchment could be further divided
into hydrogeological parts of Sartuk, Plitvica Spring and Plitvica River (Figure19.7).
The hydrogeological part of Sartuk includes the area drained by the Sartuk
Stream. This is the small watercourse, which is formed after the merging of several
small springs in the area whih consists of poorly permeable dolomite of Triassic
age (Figure19.2). Division is based partly by the topographic setting, and partly by
theparallel contact of less permeable carbonate rocks of Liassic age and highly per-
meable rock of Doger age. In general, there are plenty of major water loss indications
in this part of the Plitvice Lakes catchment (Table19.1).
Hydrogeological part of Plitvica Spring consists of Lower Cretaceous and
Doggerian age limestones, which here represent the main aquifers. Hydrogeological
conditions are affected by the significant longitudinal fault known as Kozjak fault
(Figure19.2), which separates Doggerian and Malmian ages carbonate sediments.
Hydrogeological part Plitvica River includes the surface catchment area of the
watercourse itself (Figure19.9). The separation of this part is due to the specific
problems of water loss along the main river flow. These are most pronounced at the
Big Waterfall, which during summer dry periods almost dries up (Biondic et al., 2010;
Meaki, 2011).
1535'0"E 1536'0"E 1537'0"E
LEGEND
swallow hole
water divide
Hajdukovica mlin
Sastavci geol. boundary
Big Waterfall geol. boundary inferred
fault
fault inferred
4454'0"N
Plitvica tufa sediments

Spring Gabrica livada low permeable clastics deposits
low permeable carbonates
medium permeable carbonates
high permeable carbonates
Hydrogeological part of...

Kozjak 2.1 Plitvica Spring
Lake 2.2 Sartuk
2.3 Plitvica River
3 Subcatchment Jezera
Figure19.9 Hydrogeological sketch of the Plitvice River area.
19.3.3 Jezera subcatchment area

The Jezera subcatchment includes all the surface water inflow into the lakes system.
The water from the Matica River flows in this subcatchment. The most significant
direct inflows are the Rjecica River and the Suanj stream. This subcatchment can,
therefore, be divided into three hydrogeological parts (Figure19.7).
The hydrogeological part of Jezera covers the area of the lakes themselves and their
direct inflow area. It consists of low permeable dolomites of Triassic age, which also
form the base of the Upper Lakes and the largest part of the Kozjak Lake. The east-
ern part of this area is confined by highly permeable limestones of Upper Cretaceous
age. According to tracer test experiments, those areas belong to the Klokot Spring
catchment are located in the neighbouring state of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Biondic
et al., 2008).
Hydrogeological part of Suanj (Figure19.7) mainly consists of lower permeable
dolomite of Malmian age. The surface water drains to the Suanj stream, which is ephem-
eral upstream while downstream it has a permanent flow. This stream receives water
from a permanent source in Limanska Draga shortly before entering Lake Procansko.
The hydrogeological part of Rjecica (Figure19.7) is located in an area consisting
of weakly permeable dolomites of Triassic age. There are no greater karst springs
in this area but there is a well-developed surface network of streams, which drain
towards permanent surface flow called the Rjecica River. This watercourse flows into
the Kozjak Lake at approximately 535 m a.s.l. and the topmost part of the catchment
is located at approximately 840 m a.s.l.
Figure19.10 The Big Waterfall and Sastavci (source area of the Korana River).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A great deal of data was collected with the project Sustainable utilisation of water in
the pilot area Plitvice Lakes. The project was carried out within the Kompetenznetwerk
Wasserressourcen Gmbh, co-financed by the Plitvice Lakes National Park and the
Austrian government. The authors wish to thank all associates from the Joanneum
Research institute (Graz, Austria) and the Research Centre Ivo Pevalek (Plitvice
Lakes National Park, Croatia), who have made significant contributions and enabled
the successful completion of the project.
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Part 4
Engineering, sustainable use

and protection of water in
karst
Chapter 20
Creating environmental impact

indicators in dynamic karst
system Dinaric karst case
example
Zoran Stevanovic
University of Belgrade Faculty of Mining and Geology,
Centre for Karst Hydrogeology of the Department of Hydrogeology,
Belgrade, Serbia
ABSTRACT
Environmental indicators are a tool to measure results of human activities and their impacts
on nature and biodiversity. Water dependent ecosystems are under increasing pressure from
human activities and in karst they are exposed to greater potential hazard because of the high
vulnerability of karst aquifers. The aquifers of the Dinaric karst, one of the largest karst sys-
tems in the world, are abundant in water reserves; however there are several important poten-
tial threats to environmental and water quality values which have been identified through
environmental and socio-economic surveys conducted within the DIKTAS project. Five strate-
gic Environment Quality Targets are envisaged in this project: two (Groundwater sustainably
used; Water and soil quality controlled and improved) have a direct relationship with the
karst aquifer, while the other three (Agricultural, industrial and tourist sectors sustainably
developed; Energy used efficiently and in a sustainable manner; Measures to protected nature
formulated and applied) have an indirect relation to the karstic aquifers. A list comprising
25 different indicators was derived to assess pressures on groundwater quantity and quality
as well as resulting pressures on dependent ecosystems in selected transboundary aquifers.
Estimating indicator values will support sustainable water use and protection of ecosystems in
specific karst environment.
20.1 INTRODUCTION
A concept sustainable development resulted from the work of the World

Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission, 1987), and
soon became one of the most successful approaches to be applied in many years. Since
then, many international events, international and bilateral conventions, and inter-
national and national laws have been adopted taking into consideration the impor-
tance of sustainable development and have further developed the basic principles. For
instance, water, as a source of life for humans, flora and fauna is an essential compo-
nent of the environment. A concerted effort by land managers, industry, catchment
groups, the community, and environmental groups is required in order to protect
water resources for future generations. The concept supports strong economic and
social development, which cannot be improved with measures that destroy the envi-
ronment, and which helped to shape the international communitys attitude towards
economic, social and environmental development.
Managing water quality requires a catchment-based approach to management

planning, with staged actions required to reach long-term goals (Levy, 2002). Effective
natural resource management also requires recognition of the influence catchments
and land uses have on the quality of water resources. The causes of many water qual-
ity problems are broad-scale in origin but to be remedied they often need regional
solutions with action taken at the local level.
20.1.1 Pressures on water quantity and quality,

related responses and the role of indicators
At present, most indicator reports compile sets of physical, biological or chemical
indicators. They generally reflect a systems analysis view of the relations between the
environment and human activities. But many of the relationships between the human
system and the environmental system are not sufficiently understood or are difficult
to capture in a simple framework.
The sustainable development indicators of the United Nations Commission on
Sustainable Development (UNCSD) follow a three-part framework: Driving forcesan
extended version: the Driving forces Pressures State Impact Responses (DPSIR)
framework (Figure 20.1).
According to this systems analysis view, social and economic developments exert
Pressure on the environment and, as a consequence, the State of the environment
changes. This leads to Impacts on human health, ecosystems and materials that may
elicit a societal Response that feeds back on the Driving forces or on the State, or
Impacts directly through adaptation or curative action.
Smeets and Weterings (1999) consider that the DPSIR framework is useful in
describing the relationships between the origins and consequences of environmental
problems, but in order to understand their dynamics it is also useful to focus on the
internal links between DPSIR elements (Stevanovic, 2011). In order to meet this infor-
mation need, environmental indicators should reflect all elements of the causal chain
Drivers Responses
Pressures
Impact
State
Figure 20.1 DPSIR scheme.

Creating environmental impact indicators in dynamic karst system 289
that links human activities to their ultimate environmental impacts and the societal
responses to these impacts.
The indicators in general should be used to measure achieved results of human
activities or to define the gap between desired and executed. For example, we may use
indicators to assess the status of environment and present geo- and bio diversity com-
ponents. An Indicator can also be defined as a parameter used to provide a measure
of the quality of water or condition of an ecosystem.
According to the UNECE report (2007) there are indicators of several types based
on the questions they answer:
Descriptive indicators answer the question: What are the pressures on the envi-
ronment and how is the quality of the environment developing?
Performance indicators answer the follow-up question: and is that relevant
for policy goals? Generally these indicators use the same variables as descriptive
indicators but are connected with target values.
Eco-efficiency indicators answer the question, Have we become more efficient in
our economic processes? Eco-efficiency indicators link driving forces with state
or pressure indicators. Efficiency refers to pressures such as emissions or natural
resources use.
Policy-effectiveness indicators answer the question, What has been the effect of
policy? (in terms of policy effects, for instance, reduced pollution due to strict
application of the principle Polluters pay).
Welfare indicators are connected with the question: and are we on the whole better
off? and ask for a balance between economic, social and environmental progress.
Smeets and Weterings (1999) also state that most countries and international
bodies currently develop performance indicators for monitoring their progress
towards environmental targets. These performance indicators may refer to different
kinds of reference conditions/values, such as:
national policy targets;

international policy targets, accepted by governments;
tentative approximations of sustainability levels.
According to the Swedish Ministry of Sustainable Development (2004) the

Values on which the interim targets are based include the following: Human health,
Biodiversity and the natural environment, the Cultural environment and cultural
heritage, Long-term ecosystem productivity, and Effective management of natu-
ral resources. Regarding the Criteria, they should be: clear and accessible, capable
of being followed up in the short term, form part of an all-inclusive structure, and
capable of serving as a basis for local environmental work and efforts to achieve the
objectives.
Indicators should be used as a tool to compare current status versus desired situ-
ation (proposed or required) (Figure 20.2).
Targets should be set for each key management issue and may include a range of
scales and time frames, as some issues take longer to address than others.
Current Required
status status
Indicators
Figure 20.2 Scheme showing role of the indicators.
Levy (2002) indicates the following possible targets:
Visions or goals for the region: long-term targets that cannot be reached immedi-
ately but are needed to protect the environmental values of the water body. They
may be numerical, descriptive or relative statements (e.g. no net loss);
Resource condition targets: specific, measurable and time-bound targets used to
work towards the overall goal or vision for the water body. They may be medium
term targets (1020 years) required for regional planning (e.g. 30% reduction in
phosphorus loads by 2006); or
Management action targets: targets that are linked closely to management
actions. They are usually measurable and time-bound but with shorter time spans
(15years) than the regional targets (e.g. 70 km of riparian vegetation is to be
fenced within five years).
The quality targets can be explained as numerical levels or descriptive statements

that must be met within a specified timeframe to protect and maintain environmental
values. Water is of course one of the most important environmental values and water
related indicators commonly cover: water availability and use, chemical quality and
level of water protection.
Water quality targets can also be set for physical, chemical and biological compo-
nents of aquatic ecosystems. Once defined, water quality targets become indicators of
management performance and progress towards management goals or attainment of
environmental values.
When it comes to groundwater as one of specific environmental values the recent
study of Foster and Macdonald (2014) indicates water security as a term which
includes three main indicators:
1. Groundwater storage availability: an indicator of buffer capacity to support

water-supply abstraction, which might be constrained by current groundwater
resource status (aquifer water-level and salinisation trends) and connectivity to sur-
face water (since in some aquifers small storage changes can have marked impacts
on river baseflow, springflow and aquatic ecosystems).
2. Groundwater supply productivity: a measure of how easy it is to abstract ground-

water from an aquifer, which relates to its depth and the aquifer transmissivity
and any evidence of reducing productivity (primarily due to falling water levels).
3. Groundwater pollution protection: the effectiveness of pollution control and
aquifer protection measures, and evidence of deteriorating quality trends.
A wide variety of environmental indicators are presently in use. These indicators

reflect trends in the state of the environment, monitor the impact of human activities
(Figure 20.3) and evaluate progress made in realising environmental policy targets. As
such, environmental indicators have become essential to policy-makers.
Indicators are thus powerful tools for making important dimensions of the environ-
ment and of society visible and for enabling their management (Dahl, 2012). In addition,
Main Target:
Environment
safe and clean
to be observed
Nature Human
activities
Quality and Quantity of: Settlements
(Large cities,
Touristic areas,
Water Islands,
(Aquifers, Villages)
Surface water bodies,
New sources...) Transport/Infrastructure
Air/Climate
Impact of: (Highways,
Road network,
(Air temperature, Airports,
Precipitation Railways,
Greenhouse gases...) Vehicles...)
Soil Industry
(Fertile land, (Small and med. enterprises,
Range land...) Manufacturers,
Factories)
Vegetation
(Grass, Agriculture
Forests, (Cropping,
Orchards...) Cattle breeding
Food production)
Fauna
(Endemic species, Energy
Protected species, (Mining,
Threatened species, TE Fossil fuels,
Wildlife, Hydropower,
Livestock, Nuclear,
Fishes...) Renewable energy)
Waste
(Solid waste,
Waste water
Hazardous waste)
Figure 20.3 Scheme of main nature components and human activities to be observed towards the
creation of a safe and clean environment.
environmental indicators are a key tool for environmental reporting and could be used as
a powerful tool to raise public awareness on environmental issues. Appropriately chosen
indicators, based on sufficient time-series data, can show key trends, help describe causes
and effects of environmental conditions, and track and evaluate policy implementation
(UNECE, 2003). Providing information on driving forces, impacts and policy responses
is a common strategy to strengthen public support for policy measures.
20.1.2 Karst as specific media and brief on Dinaric

karst environment and water
Among other groundwater-bearing media the karstic aquifer is specific in many terms,
especially in heterogeneity, discharge variability, vulnerability to pollution and low
attenuation capacity. The classical karst terminology recognises a karstic region as
an area mainly consisting of compact and soluble carbonate or evaporitic rocks in
which appear distinctive surficial and subterranean features, caused by solutional ero-
sion. Karst is a complex and specific environment and accordingly requires a specific
approach in protecting its natural values, features and species.
The Dinaric system (Dinarides) represents the geologically heterogeneous, south
European orogenic belt of the Alpine mountain chain (Alpides) (Figure 20.4). The
Dinaric region is a karst holotype. It is a fact that not only was the term karst born
in the area, but also Jovan Cvijic (1893) did most of his work in the Dinaric karst and
created the foundation of a new scientific discipline karstology (Ford, 2005).
The Dinaric karst is a mountainous region with a prevalence of highly karstified
rocks and large karstic poljes and valleys created in tectonic depressions (Mijatovic,
1983, 1984). Karstified zones have been drilled at depths up to 2000 m (Milanovic, 2000,
2005) The Dinaric region contains all types of karst landforms and features including
uvalas and poljes as the largest karstic forms. Along with its richness in various karstic
features, the Dinaric region is by far the best endowed in Europe in water resources, but
they are unequally distributed throughout the year (Bonacci, 1987; Stevanovic etal.,
2012). In the Dinaric region of ex-Yugoslavia and Albania there are more than 200
springs with a minimum discharge of over 100 l/s (Komatina, 1983; Eftimi, 2010).
Because karst has always been of central interest to hydrogeologists, investiga-
tions have expanded to a larger scale, thanks to numerous projects that have included
the construction of large and medium dams. In the 1970s several such dams were built
with the support of ex-Yugoslavian companies and experts (Croatia, Herzegovina,
Montenegro) and for the first time successful results were achieved in the karst.
Technical applications for control and regulation of karst aquifers through the con-
struction of galleries, batteries of wells, and groundwater reservoirs (storage) repre-
sent an important contribution to international hydrogeological science (Milanovic,
2000). All these activities changed the natural environment and had a significant
impact with both positive and negative implications.
The DIKTAS Project (Protection and Sustainable Use of the Dinaric Karst
Transboundary Aquifer System) was implemented in the period of 20112014 with
GEF funding and support from UNDP and UNESCO IHP. The appearance of several
new sovereign states from what was once Yugoslavia has established complex trans-
boundary inter-linkages that impact on water use and water sharing for domestic
supply, power generation, and agriculture (Kukuric, 2011). This is one of the reasons
14.000000 16.000000 18.000000 20.000000 22.000000
46.000000
46.000000
Hungary
Romania
Serbia
44.000000
44.000000
Ad
ri
at
ic
se
a
Legend
Boundaries
Kosovo*
State Boundary
42.000000
42.000000
Disputed State Boundary
Dinaric Karst
Diktas Boundary
F.Y.R.
Macedonia
Hydrogeological Units
Symbol Hydrogeological Description
Karst aquifers of high permeability. Intensively karstified

KA1 terrains with karstic type of porosity, high transmissivity Italy
and turbulent water regime of groundwater flow.
Greece
40.000000
40.000000
Karst aquifers of moderate permeability, karst-fissure type of
KA2
porosity and medium level of transmissivity.
Kosovo* (as defined by UN Security Council resolution 1244 dated 1999)
14.000000 16.000000 18.000000 20.000000 22.000000

0 37.5 75 150 225 300
km HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAP OF DINARIC KARST
Scale 1 : 5 000 000, optimized for B5 paper format
Figure 20.4 Distribution of main karstic aquifer systems in the Dinaric karst and DIKTAS project study area.
why the DIKTAS project was initiated and included three former Yugoslav countries
(Croatia, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Montenegro) and Albania.
After delineation of several transboundary aquifers (TBA) of major concern, fur-
ther analysis included the characterisation and development of conceptual models.
Groundwater budgeting of TBAs created a base for the assessment of groundwater
reserves and availability, as well as for proposals and measures aiming to ensure sus-
tainable development of TBAs. The analysis indicated that water extraction was still
far below the aquifers replenishment potential, and there is no evidence of significant
over-exploitation in the studied TBAs. For instance, in the case of Cetina and Neretva
TBAs, the average extraction of groundwater is ten times less than the total minimum
discharge of the springs (dynamic reserves). However, shortage of water is locally in
evidence during summer and early autumn months which coincides with increased
demands during the tourist season. That principles of the EU Water Framework
Directive (WFD) regarding ecological flow for downstream consumers has to be fully
respected, further complicates the water and environmental situation.
It is generally assumed that karst water quality is satisfactory even though
Dinaric karst aquifers are highly vulnerable to pollution. However, the catchments
are sparsely populated in the mountainous areas and there is virtually no intensive
farming or industrial activities. However, when pollutants are present (mines, indus-
trial and domestic waste waters, solid waste dumps, fertilisers), deterioration of water
quality in unconfined karstic aquifers is almost assured.
of a new Groundwater Monitoring network which will fully respect karst specific
behaviour and include local water users (waterworks, dams, irrigation, industry). The
Cijevna/Cemi TBA shared between Montenegro and Albania has been identified as
the most problematic in terms of available data on water resources, and installation of
a modern monitoring network for observation of climate elements, and both surface
and groundwater has been proposed.
Therefore, the Dinaric region has a very dynamic water budget, one of most
intensive in all of Europe, but there are numerous challenges for sustainable utilisa-
tion of groundwater. These include high annual variation of natural flows and the
vulnerability of aquifers to pollution. It is thus important to (1) improve the quality
of water by eliminating or mitigating sources of pollution, (2) regulate the minimum
spring discharges, (3) ensure ecological flows, and (4) establish proper water moni-
toring systems. These actions are recommended as a priority during implementation
of the DIKTAS Strategic Action Plan (SAP).
To assist in attaining the vision for the Dinaric karst aquifer system, five overar-
ching Water Resources and Ecosystem Quality Objectives (WR/EQO) were suggested.
These are:
Groundwater Quantity
Water Resource/Ecosystem Objective A: To ensure sufficient groundwater availability
in dry periods, especially for water supply and to support environmental flow.
Groundwater Quality
Water Resource/Ecosystem Objective B: To maintain and improve (where required)
quality of karst groundwater in the Dinaric region.
Protection of Groundwater Dependent Ecosystems (GDE)

Water Resource/Ecosystem Objective C: To ensure protection of GDE, specific fea-
tures and their ecosystem services for the future.
Equitable Use
Water Resource/Ecosystem Objective D: To support equitable use of groundwater
resources.
Capacity Building
Water Resource/Ecosystem Objective E: To raise awareness and capacity building
related to karst water and dependent ecosystem.
20.1.3 Environmental quality targets in Dinaric karst

In the process of proposing Environmental Impact Indicators the role of the stake-
holders is very important. The stakeholders and community should be asked what
they want to protect and should confirm any proposal. They also need to identify the
water resources required now and for the future, and those requiring protection from
the effects of pollution or degrading activities.
Water quality targets in every region are influenced by environmental, social and
economic considerations, which in most cases will be unique to that region. Targets
should also, where possible, consider current conditions, and long-term trends in
water quality (Levy, 2002). In the Dinaric karst region there are several important
facts influencing environmental and water quality values, which have been identified
through environmental and socio-economic survey and described in Transboundary
Diagnostic Analysis. Some of the major facts are:
With the exception of Croatia, which is already an EU member, the other

three project countries have lower income levels in comparison with the EU28
average.
The percentage of the countries agricultural area ranges from 24% to 47% while
the GDP percentage of the agriculture sector in the participating countries varies
from 8% to 18%.
The population growth rate is low or negative. Across the region, there is a trend
of migration from remote, rural areas towards urban areas and industrialised
zones. Small settlements are extremely dispersed, and a number of settlements in
rural areas are already abandoned.
Hydropower plays a central role for energy production in all DIKTAS countries,
and hydro power generation from the Dinaric karst system plays a significant role
in the national economies.
Historic industrial sites are one of the main sources of pollution in the region.
The main method of waste disposal is in unlined landfills and there is still no
system for the safe management of hazardous waste, especially in Albania and
Montenegro.
Waste and wastewater pollution have been identified as major threats to the
protection of the Dinaric karst aquifer and eco-systems. Sewage systems dis-
charge to improvised permeable septic pits, smaller adjacent surface streams or
depressions.
All DIKTAS countries are considered to have abundant groundwater resources at

their disposal. However, during the summer period water shortages may occur,
particularly in tourist areas along the Adriatic coast.
The region is abundant with pristine nature areas, which are often vulnerable
and under threat. Yet none of the countries recognised the vulnerability, complex-
ity, and importance of integrated protection of the karst environment through
national policies. The percentage of protected surface to the total area of the
country varies from 0.512.4%.
Finally, as already highlighted, monitoring systems in all four countries are not
satisfactory.
A main objective of the DIKTAS project is to facilitate the equitable and sustain-
able utilisation of the transboundary water resources of the Dinaric Karst Aquifer
System, and protect the unique groundwater dependent ecosystems that character-
ise the Dinaric Karst region of the Balkan Peninsula, the environmental quality tar-
gets should be focused mainly on natural reserves, but all other environmental issues
which indirectly impact karstic aquifers, or depend on them, must also be taken into
consideration, evaluated and improved.
In total, five strategic Environment Quality Targets (EQT) are suggested. Two
have a direct, and three have an indirect relation to the karstic aquifers or are depen-
dent upon them:
Direct EQT:
1. Groundwater sustainably used.
2. Water and soil quality controlled and improved.
Indirect EQT:
3. Agricultural, industrial and touristic sectors sustainably developed.
4. Energy used efficiently and in sustainable manner.
5. Measures to protect nature formulated and applied.
To improve the environmental situation in the Dinaric karst region and achieve
the targets the following measures and activities are recommended:
Water must be used in a sustainable manner, by reducing consumption and losses
in current water utilities. Some new sources should be opened and some others reg-
ulated to improve their minimum flows and safeguard water dependent eco-systems.
The drinking water quality should be preserved from any kind of pollution, and
sanitary conditions improved in general: the air must be clean enough not to rep-
resent a risk to human health or to animals, plants or cultural assets. Solid waste
should be sustainably managed with greater emphasis on source reduction, recycling
and recovery. Waste water treatment should be widely applied in industry along
with the principle polluter pays. The energy saving and new sources of renewable
energy such as hydropower, solar, wind and sub-geothermal waters should become
dominant. Food production should be based mostly on organic agriculture with min-
imal use of pesticides and herbicides. Animal husbandry as an agricultural com-
ponent is essential to the long-term conservation and development of natural and
cultural assets in the agricultural landscape. The value of pasture land and forests
for biological production must be protected, at the same time as biological diversity
is safeguarded. Biological diversity must be preserved for the benefit of present and
future generations. Special attention should be paid to strict protection of threatened
and endemic species.
However, all these protection measures should not limit further development of
tourism and recreation but they have to be oriented and organised more ecologically
and environmentally.
Establishing a proper system for monitoring water quantity and quality, con-
tinually evaluating the status of environmental impact indicators, improving local
technical capacity and raising awareness of the local population on the importance
of water savings, protection from pollution, sustainable development and tourism,
remain major tasks beyond this phase of the DIKTAS project.
Not all of the EQT are easily and fully achievable because they largely depend on
national GDPs and economic growth, and they should have a long-term effect. For
this reason a phased approach is proposed, which, similar to the concept of the EU
Water Framework Directive, includes an interim stage of 15 years with partial EQTs.
Table 20.1 contains the list of these partial EQTs and related actions and indicators.
It is important to note that more attention has been paid to direct EQTs, because of
the main objective of DIKTAS.
20.1.4 Environmental impact indicators in the Dinaric

karst region
By evaluating policy in South East Europe, Stritih et al. (2007) highlighted the main
concerns which are applicable to Dinaric karst:
How to secure a high level of protection of surface and groundwater, preventing

pollution and promoting sustainable water use?
How to secure funds for investments for water infrastructure and protection from
pollution?
What is appropriate institutional structure and division of responsibilities in
water management?
UNECE (2003) stated that environmental monitoring systems are crucial for envi-
ronmental policy: they are the eyes and ears for policy makers, researchers, and the
public seeking to understand and improve the environment. National environmental
policies, institutions and funding mechanisms provide the context for monitoring sys-
tems. National policies can also specify goals for their development. Moreover, provid-
ing information to support national policies is a key objective of monitoring systems.
Water dependent ecosystems are essential components of the watersheds which
are under increasing pressure from human activities. In karst, dependent ecosystems
are exposed to greater potential hazard if they depend on water from aquifer. Although
the problem of aquifer over-exploitation is often exaggerated (Custodio, 1992; Burke
& Moench, 2000), variable water regime and low water flows during periods of
maximum demands (summer months) can cause stress in many aquatic systems. The
problem is much more sensitive when it comes to the area of transboundary concern
(Chilton, 2002; Puri & Aureli, 2005).
Table 20.1 Proposal of environmental quality targets and indicators.
Strategic EQO and Partial EQ targets to be achieved in next Main environmental impact
targets 15 years (up to 2030) Related actions indicators
Groundwater Created expert teams and completed WR WR surveying and assessing Renewable freshwater resources
sustainably used survey in designated areas in Dinaric karst and Promoting water savings, gradually increasing Renewable freshwater resources
TBA water taxes in recession (drought) periods
Reduced water spending by some 10% and Introducing into water practice aquifer engi- Domicile (and External)
specific consumption rate fell from ca 300 l/cap/ neering regulation to improve minimum flows freshwater resources
day to 270 l/cap/day (managing aquifer recharge) Renewable GW resources
Designed and implemented 6 pilot projects for Increasing efficiency and reducing losses in (Dynamic reserves)
aquifer engineering regulation and improved centralised waterworks; Renewable GW resources
minimum flows
Controlling fresh GW extraction especially (Dynamic reserves) in critical
Repaired and replaced pipelines in problematic along coastal strips and on islands; drought periods
waterworks and reduced losses in the region by
Increasing number of connections to water- Water exploitation index
5% on average
works and improving rural water supply. Groundwater exploitation index
Designed and implemented 4 pilot projects for
water recycling and reuse Water demands (availability)
Established proper GW monitoring network by Drinking water demands
systematic control of water extraction rate and Water available per capita
water quality by operators along with created Groundwater depletion
and equipped new GW monitoring sites
Water losses
Regional Consultation and Information
Exchange Body (CIE) created and put into
practice consultation / intern. reporting body
and mechanisms for equitable and sustainable
water use
Water and Major pollutants eliminated or emission of Controlling and inspecting systematically all Drinking water quality
soil quality pollution drastically reduced by putting into registered major pollution emitters Industry waste water index
controlled and practice the principle polluter pays Building new waste water treatment plants Household waste water index
improved Waste water treatment plants constructed in 30 Constructing environmentally safe and con- Specific pollutants index
cities and treatment of communal waste water trolled regional and local landfills Landfill status
increased by 30% in comparison with actual Cleaning and remediating illegal and improp- Water reuse
status erly built landfills and dump sites Salt water intrusion
Removing solid waste to the newly built and
Constructed 15 new regional landfills and 50
secure landfills
smaller landfills at municipality level. All landfills
Removing and preventing further depositing
are sanitary equipped and operated in a way
of all highly toxic substances at communal
that prevents adverse environmental impacts
landfills
Eliminated and cleaned sites of more than 300 Widely introducing household waste sep-
illegal small landfills and solid waste dump sites aration and recycling; Sending electronics,
with special attention to sanitation of karst electrical equipment and batteries for
depressions and features (small poljes, uvalas, recycling
dolines, potholes) Constructing new sewage systems in number
Increased number of connections to municipal of settlements of various size
sewage system by 40% Introducing and promoting advantages of
Reduced number of used septic tanks in water reuse and recycle
semi-urban and rural areas by 30% by con- Imposing system for regular water sanitary
structing new sewage systems control (constituents in accordance with
WFD, plus specific components putting water
Established functional system for water sanitary
at risk locally) and sharing information of all
control in all waterworks for centralised pota-
water utilities (National institutions, EIOnet
ble water supply which supplying more than
Water, DIKTAS area)
1000 users
Reduced by 30% fresh GW pumping in coastal
areas and islands during summer months to
prevent salt intrusions
(Continued)
Created and put into practice new harmonised
legislation for sources sanitary protection and
zoning by emphasising specificity of karst
Established sanitary protection zones and
applied sanitary protection measures over all
sources for centralised potable water supply for
settlements over 1000 inhabitants
Constructing additional treatment segments for
potable water in ca 20 water utilities (filtration,
coagulation, removal of chemical contamination,
and if and where necessary, ozonisation versus
viruses, faecal coliforms)
Agricultural, Reduced by 50% use of pesticides, fertilisers and Producing organic food and limiting use of Fertiliser index
industrial and herbicides in agriculture agro-technical protective agents Pesticide index
touristic sectors Over-grazed pastures reduced by 10% Controlling and limiting use of compost and Irrigation water
sustainably sewage sludge that are applied to land for
Forested areas increased by about 10% demands and use
developed organic food production
Reduced use of nitrate based fertilisers in agri-
culture by 30% Constructing small waste water treatment
unit at all slaughterhouses or removing
Decreased concentration of nutrients in rivers,
organic wastes to nearby collecting /recycle
lakes and sea water by 30%
centers
Improved quality of littoral sea waters by 15%
Stimulating farming, keeping number of
Fish stock managed and harvested sustain- farms, farmers and livestock (large and small
ably and legally by applying ecosystem- based ruminants)
approach, so that overfishing is avoided
Conducting various erosion protective mea-
Economically used water from streams and sures, especially in areas with cultivated land
lakes and to a minimal extent from aquifer
Establishing new forest nurseries. Developing
systems for irrigation purposes. Groundwater
and implementing effective techniques for
pumping rate generally reduced by about 20% in
forest restoration
comparison with current stage
Imposedgreen practice concerning cleaning/ Systematically planting new trees
washing in all hotels in tourist resorts, reduced Widely introducing water saving technologies
specific consumption for ca 500 l/tourist/day to in irrigation such as drip or root irrigation
350 l/tourist/day
Fishing to be controlled by law and conducted
in sustainable manner
Building small biological treatment units at
resorts, hotels, restaurants and other touristic
infrastructure objects
Promoting green concept in main resorts
and informing tourists and visitors on
importance of water and energy saving and
supporting their environmentally friendly
behaviour during their stays and tours
Organising ecological and geo-heritage tours
focusing on karst features, wetlands, specific
biodiversity habitats and endemic species
Energy used Completed planned electro-energetic systems Completing environmental impact assess- Hydropower water use
efficiently and including dams and energy transmission lines ment studies for designed and newly planned Green energy contribution
in sustainable Installed appropriate filters at all air pollution energy objects and implementing all proposed
manner emitters (such as thermoelectric plants or big mitigation/monitoring actions
industrial factories) Constructing dams as well as water transfer
Controlled greenhouse gases emission and kept and energy transmission lines
at existing level Harmonizing and respecting legislation in
Introduced use of renewable vehicle fuels terms of maximaumgreenhouse gases emission
(biofuel) Controlling sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide
Treated all mine waters before flowing to and oxides of nitrogen, particulate matter
nearest recipients (PM10 and PM 2,5), lead, benzene and carbon
monoxide in ambient air
Constructed numerous solar energy plants
and wind energy objects by increasing share of Constructing new hydro-energetic plants and
renewable energy by 10% in total energy sector numerous small hydropower plants on small
streams
(Continued)
Increased number of installed heat pumps for Building solar and wind energy plants and
sub-geothermal water use by 100% compared implementing demonstration projects for sea
to actual status waves energy use
Constructed 2 pilot plants for conversion of sea Drilling and utilising groundwater for heat/
water waves into energy cooling purposes including dublet systems
(pumping/re-injecting water)
Stimulating use of solar panels for households
especially along coastal area and islands
Imposing stimulation rates for renewable
energy producers
Building local capacities and publicly promoting
green concept for energy saving and rational use
Measures to Reduced negative impacts of air pollution and Filtering gases emitted from industrial objects Protected habitat
protect nature noise disturbance of existing eco-systems by 30% and controlling noise in tourist resorts and in Water demands of dependent
formulated and Ensured ecological flows for all dependent off-roads in mountainous areas eco system
applied eco-systems by regulated minimal stream flows Managing aquifer recharge and regulating GW Specific endemic and endangered
and GW discharges at source sites discharge and stream flows species
Increased number of protected areas under Prohibiting hunting and controlling access to
various protective statuses and expanded pro- special reservation areas
tected land surface by 10%
Proposed selected karst features for protection Establishing criteria and forming teams and
as natural monuments and geo-heritage sites conducting surveys for selecting karstic fea-
due to their importance for humanity and karst tures of special importance to be protected
science (caves, potholes, uvalas, blind valleys, as geo-heritage sites, and proposing conserva-
karrenfelds, etc.) tion measures
Protected habitats and all threatened species Establishing system of control and protection
from IUCN red list of all endangered and endemic species in
Protected and monitored all endemic species karst areas and in karst underground
that inhabit the region, with special emphasis on
those in wetlands and caves
There are many references and projects related to environmental indicators which
cover different components of aquatic systems (including springs, streams, rivers,
lakes, wetlands, coastal lagoons and estuaries). Some of the more recent, such of Vrba
and Lipponen (2007) or UNECE (2007), pointed to a group of indicators helping to
evaluate pressures on water quantity and water quality.
Not all the indicators proposed (Table 20.2) have to be followed continually.
Those proposed for observation on an annual basis are as follows: Renewable
groundwater resources (item 1 from Table 20.2); Groundwater exploitation index
(5); Groundwater depletion (12). Others such as Specific pollutants index (17) and
Drinking water quality (by observing selected critical parameters), need more fre-
quent monitoring and the sampling frequency should be at least in accordance with
EU Water Framework Directive and European experiences (Jousma & Willems,
1996). However, many others should be observed continuously in an established
Groundwater Monitoring Network due to the specific intensive and variable
regime of Dinaric karstic aquifer systems, proportional to the complexity of the
status assessment of the groundwater body and presence of pollution trends. Most
of the monitoring sites should be located in drainage areas i.e. along base levels of
erosion and near recharge (ponors) and extraction sites (well fields, intakes).
Harmonisation of national legislation, legal and institutional reforms, creation of
a common or unique Water Information System and protocol for data exchange are
some of the proposals included as outputs in the Strategic Action Plan.
20.1.5 General Setup for Monitoring Network in

selected TBAs
of a new Groundwater Monitoring Network in designated areas of transboundary
concern which will fully respect specific karst behaviour. But, even in large inter-
national aquifer systems where a multilateral agreement of equitable water use and
protection have been reached, no systematic monitoring of groundwater quantity and
quality has taken place. The only exception is Genevese Aquifer, shared by France and
Switzerland.
The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System is one of the largest aquifers in the
world and spans approximately 2 million km2 across Libya, Egypt, Chad and
Sudan. For sustainable utilisation of the Nubian Sandstone aquifer, the four coun-
tries represented by their National Coordinators formulated and signed several
agreements. Within the framework of the second agreement NSAS countries agreed
to update the information by continuous monitoring and sharing of the following
information:
1. Yearly extraction in every extraction site, specifying geographical location and

number of producing wells and springs in each site.
2. Representative Electrical Conductivity measurements (EC), taken once a year in
each extraction site, followed by a complete chemical analysis if drastic changes
in salinity is observed.
3. Water level measurements taken twice a year in locations specified on maps and
tables.
Table 20.2 Proposed Environmental status indicators for DIKTAS project area and TBAs.
No Group Indicator Expressed as Unit
1 Water Renewable freshwater ratio: Total flow of surface and groundwater in the study area vs. mM3/year: mM3/year
Resources resources Total rainwater in study area (TBA catchment) or%
1a Availability Renewable freshwater Sub-indicator: As above but in critical drought periods mM3/4 critical months: mM3/4
(Pressures resources in recession (summer-autumn) critical months
on Water (drought) periods or%
2 Quantity) Domicile (and External)ratio: Total flow of surface and groundwater generated in the part mM3/year: mM3/year
freshwater resources of TBA inside each country vs. Total flow of surface and groundwa- or%
ter in the entire TBA catchment
3 Renewable GW resources ratio: Total flow of groundwater in the studied TBA catchment vs. mM3/year: mM3/year
(Dynamic reserves) Total rainwater in the studied TBA catchment or%
3a Renewable GW resources Sub-indicator: the same as above but in critical drought periods mM3/4 critical months: mM3/4
(Dynamic reserves) in (summer-autumn) critical months
critical periods or%
4 Water exploitation index ratio: Total water amount utilized for different purposes1 vs. Total mM3/year: mM3/year
renewable freshwater resources or%
5 Groundwater exploitation ratio: Total groundwater utilized for different purposes2 vs. Total mM3/year: mM3/year
index flow of groundwater in the study area or%
6 Water demands ratio: Total water demands for different purposes3 vs. Total renew- mM3/year: mM3/year
(availability) able freshwater resources or%
7 Drinking water demands ratio: Total water demands for drinking purpose vs. (1) Total renew- mM3/year: mM3/year
able freshwater resour-ces and vs. (2) Total flow of groundwater in or%
the study area
8 Water available per capita Water available (household water access) calculated per capita per m3/cap/
year year
9 Irrigation water demands ratio: Total water used for irrigation purpose vs. Total renewable mM3/year: mM3/year
and use freshwater resources or%
10 Hydropower water use ratio: Total water used for HP vs. Total renewable surface water mM3/year: mM3/year
resources or%
11 Green energy ratio: Summary green vs. total energy consumption and per every in millions Mw: millions Mw
contribution kind vs total or%,
12 Groundwater depletion Annual depletion of groundwater table (av. value) due to over m/year
abstraction. Punctually measured at selected points
13 Losses ratio: Total water losses (non-utilised)4 from the systems %
constructed for different purposes vs. Total tapped renewable
freshwater resources
14 Pressures Drinking water quality ratio: Number of samples of raw drinking water (from the sources) no: no
on Water with inappropriate quality5 vs. Total number of the controlled or%
Quality samples
15 Industry waste water ratio: Flow of untreated industrial (incl. mining) waste water mM3/year: mM3/year
index (returned to recipients) vs. Total flow of waste water generated in or%
study area
16 Household waste water ratio: Flow of untreated domestic waste water (returned to mM3/year: mM3/year
index recipients) vs. Total flow of domestic waste water in study area or%
17 Specific pollutants index ratio: Concentration (average) of selected component (pollutant) expressed in mg/l: mg/l (permitted
vs. maximal permitted level of the same component (pollutant)6 in level) or g/l: g/l (permitted level)
drinking water or % of samples of inappropriate
quality of cpec. comp. vs. total
samples
18 Fertiliser index ratio: Amount of mineral or organic fertiliers used per unit of kg/ha
arable land or tonnes /ha
19 Pesticide index ratio: Amount of pesticide used per unit of arable land kg/ha
20 Landfill status ratio: Number of inhabitants in study area without sanitary proper .000: .000
solid waste dumps vs. Total population in study area or%
21 Water reuse ratio: Reused or recycled water vs. Total flow of waste water in mM3/year: mM3/year
study area or%
22 Salt water intrusion ratio: Total water flow - already salty, brackish or under direct mM3/year: mM3/year
(in coastal aquifers) threat of intrusion vs. Total renewable freshwater resources or%
23 Protected habitat ratio: Total surface of protected area vs. Total surface of study area km2: km2
or%
24 Water demands of depen- ratio: Total water demands for downstream dependent eco system mM3/year: mM3/year
dent eco system vs. Total renewable freshwater resources-dynamic, or%
or Total water demands for (WDES) vs. Minimal discharge
(Continued)
No Group Indicator Expressed as Unit
25 Specific species Specific water demands (flow) for endangered species throughout Presence of protected endemic
Sub-indicators: Specific the year (e.g. trout) species List
endemic and endangered
species (list)
1
Includes different end-users: Drinking water purpose; Irrigation; Industry; Hydropower; Water dependent eco-systems. The Indicator should be calculated for each
consumer separately, but also expressed as(1+2+3)vs. (5)
2
The same as above
3
Demands to be calculated for each specific end-user as in the case of items 4 and 5.
4
Note: Mostly referring to water transport. If water leaked from reservoir and is utilized downstream for another purpose this is not a loss.
5
No compliance with drinking water standards for whatever reasons (microbiology, chemistry, specific comp.)
6
Pollutant or specific component in concentration higher than permitted, such as NO3, P or PO3(4), pesticides, PCB, turbidity, biology indicators, etc. List to be specified in
accordance to actual situation within TBAs and in compliance with EU Water Frame Directive for surveillance and operational monitoring
The Guarani aquifer system is the largest groundwater resource in the world,
with 45,000 km3 of water and a surface area of 1.2 million km2 (Valente, 2002).
The transboundary aquifer is shared by Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay.
Approximately 24 million people live in the area delimited by the boundaries of the
aquifer and a total of 70 million people live in areas that directly or indirectly influ-
enced it. The main use of the aquifer is for drinking water supply, but there are also
industrial, agricultural irrigation and thermal tourism uses. In article 12 of their agree-
ment for sustainable utilization of GAS, the parties agreed to establish cooperation
programmes with the purpose of extending the technical and scientific knowledge on
the Guarani Aquifer, promoting the exchange of information and management prac-
tices, and developing joint projects, but no specific common monitoring programme
with identified critical parameters has been put in place.
The Genevese Aquiferextends over 19 kilometers underneath the southern
margin of Lake Geneva and the Rhne River across the border betweenFrance and
Switzerland. The width of the aquifer varies between 1 and 3.5 km. An average
of 1517 106m3of water is extracted annually from this aquifer. The two bilat-
eralagreements, in 1978 and 2007 (http://www.internationalwatersgovernance.com/
franco-swiss-genevese-aquifer.html), clearly define responsibilities, monitoring proce-
dures (extracted water quantity and water table variations, as well as water quality
control) and a reporting mechanism to the Management Commission for this aquifer.
(http://www.unece.org/env/water/meetings/legal_board/2010/annexes_groundwater_
paper/Arrangement_French_Swiss.pdf.). Although not karstic (the aquifer consists of
glacial and fluvio-glacial silt-sand and gravel), this TBA is an excellent example of
sustainable aquifer development and agreed proportional water share. By introducing
artificial recharge these two countries have also prevented aquifer over-exploitation
since the 1970s (Wohlwend, 2002).
Several more recent projects (e.g. GENESIS project, Preda et al., 2012) or
Commissions for large international watersheds (e.g. The International Sava River
Basin Commission 2011) classified the indicator packages or established a list of crit-
ical parameters recommended to be monitored.
Finally, DIKTAS Strategic Action Plan includes a proposal to establish a fully
equipped pilot monitoring site in Cemi/Cijevna karstic aquifer and also to further
expand the monitoring network in the other selected TBAs. The general setup for a
Monitoring Network should primarily include the following parameters (Stevanovic,
2014): Rainfall and other climate elements (air temperature, humidity, wind, evapo-
ration) observed on a daily basis. Riverflow observed on a daily basis limnigraphs
for automatic recording or gauging stations installed on major rivers and streams in
each country sharing TBA (entrance/exit stations). Springflow observed on a daily
basis as above, the limnigraphs for automatic recording or classic gauging stations
installed on major springs within TBA. Groundwater table observed on a daily basis
automatic data logger for groundwater table recording installed in piezometers prop-
erly selected to represent aquifer system in recharge/discharge areas in both countries
sharing TBA. In addition, a manual recording of the groundwater table on a daily/
weekly basis (depending on wet/dry seasons) should also take place on the piezome-
ters of the 2nd rank. Water quality control is to be organised in compliance with EU
Water Framework Directive requirements for surveillance and operational monitor-
ing. Sampling frequency and the number of observed parameters (salinity, chemistry,
turbidity, biology, specific components and pollutants) are to be adapted to local cir-
cumstances and pollution risks. As a minimum in the initial stage (surveillance) a set
of the complete analyses is to be organised on major springs, streams and piezometers
twice a year (high and low water periods).
To be able to define other environmental impact indicators in addition to the
above water parameters, relevant information on surface waters and groundwater
regime (quantity and quality) should be collected and provided on a regular basis to
the responsible authorities and local water management institutions such as water
agencies, hydrometeorological surveys, health and sanitary control centres, and
municipalities. Groundwater monitoring and data collection must be the task of all
those using groundwater for drinking purposes.
20.2 CONCLUSIONS
To establish a list of essential environmental impact indicators and to organise monitor-

ing of these indicators in addition to water quantity and quality parameters. These are
not easy tasks in such a dynamic and vulnerable environment as karst. In the case of the
international Dinaric karst, it is necessary to expand the existing groundwater monitor-
ing networks through the inclusion of groundwater users (water supply systems, indus-
try, agriculture) and to establish many new monitoring sites. Monitoring data are to be
used to verify risk assessments and complement human impact assessments. The list of
indicators can be long and in the case of Dinaric karst comprise 25 indicators appropri-
ate to assess impacts and pressures on water quality and quantity. The same indicators
can also be used to assess the feasibility of proposed environmental quality targets.
Responsibility to collect information, organise surveys to designated areas, estab-
lish monitoring sites and conduct measurements and provide information belongs to
the national authorities of the countries which share an aquifer system. One commonly
established body should be responsible to coordinate these activities and establish
appropriate communication channels and specialised bodies for implementing strategy
and achieving defined environmental and water quality objectives in the karst region.
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Chapter 21
Hydrogeological settings for

underground dam construction
Four case studies from southwest
karst area of China
Jianhua Cao 1,2, Yuchi Jiang 1,2 & Petar Milanovic 1,3
1
International Research Center on Karst, UNESCO, Guilin, Guangxi,
China P.R.
2
Institute of Karst Geology, C AGS, Guilin, Guangxi, China P.R.
3
National Committee of IAH for Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
ABSTRACT
Only 10% of the total groundwater resources in the southwest karst area of China is used.
Approaches to exploration, utilisation and management, should be based on good understand-
ing the karst aquifer. The palaeozoic carbonate rocks are characterised as old, hard and weakly
porous. Karst hydrogeological media are highly heterogenous with many different lithologies
including: limestone, dolomite, mixed limestone/dolomite. These lithologies are often interca-
lated or in alternation with clastic rocks. Spatial distribution of lithology impacts groundwater
flow. This chapter considers four case studies of karst groundwater exploitation by under-
ground dams: damming groundwater flow to form a groundwater reservoir and construction
of a grout curtain to stop the flow and transfer the groundwater to a reservoir.
21.1 INTRODUCTION
Carbonate strata are widespread across China and outcrop over an area of 3.44 Mkm2
(Datong and Yang, 1983; Datong 1985). The strata range in age from Precambrian to
Cenozoic. In southwest China there is over 0.53 Mkm2 of exposed carbonate terrain,
most concentrated in Guangxi, Guizhou and Yunnan provinces (Figure21.1) (Jianhua
and Daoxian, 2005). The distribution of the carbonate rocks in different provinces is
shown in Table 21.1.
The carbonate formations are mainly of Triassic, Permian, Carboniferous,
Devonian and Cambrian age. They occur over an area of 13.5, 10.2, 8.3, 7.9 and
6.6 104 km2 respectively, or 87.5% of the entire exposed carbonate in southwest
China (Table 21.1). The carbonate rock formations in the Cambrian, Cretaceous, and
Triassic supergroups mainly occur in Hubei, Guizhou and Sichuan provinces, while
the carbonates in the Carboniferous and Devonian mainly occur in Hunan, Guangxi
and Guangdong provinces (Figure21.2). The dolomite is, therefore, mainly distributed
in Hubei, Guizhou and Sichuan, representing 36.9%, 24.8% and 22.8% of the total
exposed carbonate rocks. Limestone is mainly distributed in Hunan, Guangxi, and
Guangdong, which occupy 68. 6%, 71.6% and 69.4% of the total exposed carbonate
rocks (Figure21.3). Therefore, the carbonate is characterised as old, hard and poorly
porous. The karst media is highly heterogeneous with different carbonate rock types
Legend
Percentage of exposed carbonate

rock area in a countys land area
<30%
3050%
5070%
7090%
>90%
County border
Province border
0 200 400 km
Figure 21.1 Distribution of karst terrains in southwest China (from Jianhua, 2005).
Table 21.1 The exposed area of carbonate rock (104 km2) from different geological era and in different
provinces in southwest China km2.
K-J T P C D O S Z Total area

Hubei 0? 1.340 0.710 0.040 0.220 0.450 1.410 1.010 5.180
Hunan 0? 0.340 0.600 1.500 2.360 0.420 0.950 0.190 6.360
Sichuan 3.00 1.050 0.425 0.496 0.430 0.470 0.350 0.810 7.031
Chongqing 1.560 0.457 0.020 0.031 0.404 0.468 0.071 3.011
Yunnan 0.052 3.311 2.700 1.453 1.389 0.371 0.192 0.914 0.447 10.829
Guizhou 0.031 3.177 2.574 1.536 0.584 1.098 0.047 2.515 0.049 11.611
Guangxi 0.760 2.012 2.680 2.640 0.119 8.211
Guangdong 0.031 0.066 0.686 0.226 0.016 1.025
Total area 0.083 13.519 10.169 8.340 7.946 3.308 0.709 6.607 2.577 53.258
% 0.16 25.38 19.09 15.66 14.92 6.21 1.33 12.41 4.84
K-J - Jurassic, T - Triassic, P - Permian, C - Carboniferous, D- Devonian, O - Ordovician, S - Cambrian
and groups, including massive limestone, massive dolomite, mixed limestone/dolomite

carbonate rock intercalated with clastic rocks.
Extensive karstification coupled with tectonic movement creates various types
of karst topography in the area, including fault basins, karst plateaus, clustered con-
duits, high forest plain and stone forest areas. The topography and carbonate rock
types constrain the hydrogeological system in each karst watershed. The most signif-
icant characteristic in a well-developed karst aquifer is the secondary porosity, frac-
tures coupling many caves, conduits and underground drainage channels (Ford &
Williams, 2007; Goldscheider, 2012). Although underground conduit and drainage
channel systems occupy only a small part of whole karst hydrogeological system, their
Hydrogeological settings for underground dam construction 313
Exposed carbonate rock area (104km2)

14
12
10
0
K-J T P C D O S Z
Geological age
Figure 21.2 Exposed carbonate rock area from different geological age in Southwest China.
Different carbonate rock proportion (%)
80.00 limestone
70.00 dolomite
60.00 limestonedolomite
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
ei
ou
an
an
an
xi
ng
in
ub
ng
hu
un
do
zh
gq
Yu
ua
H
Sic
H
ui
ng
on
G
G
ua
ch
Province
G
Figure 21.3 The proportion of carbonate rock types in various provinces in Southwest China.
typical high hydraulic conductivity of has a large impact on the entire hydrological
system. Groundwater flow in karst medium is significantly different from that in a
homogeneous porous medium, where groundwater flow velocity in conduits can be
much faster than that in homogeneous porous media. This will lead to faster ground-
water transport as well as contaminant dispersion (Daoxian, 1991; Andreo, et al.,
2010).
In southwest China a large part of the precipitation is rapidly transferred into the
underground system and flows down gradient after the rainfall event. Thus, despite high
precipitation and favourable water resources in this region, droughts are often reported,
particularly in the dry season. Furthermore, insufficient groundwater exploitation and
utilisation, as well as uneven spatial distribution of water, hinders regional economic
development (Riyuan et al., 2003). It has been reported by the Guangxi Department
of Water Resources that the total annual karst groundwater resource amounts to
48.4 billion m3, and groundwater extraction amounts to 1.274 billion m3, or only
2.6% of the total potential amount (Risheng & Shumin, 2006).
Low utilisation levels of karst groundwater in Guangxi province have constrained
domestic water supply, and water for industrial and agricultural development. Global
warming and extreme climate events increase the frequency of droughts and floods.
Exploitation and management of karst groundwater resources in southwest China is,
therefore, imperative.
Despite the difficulties in constructing underground artificial storage systems,
successful construction of underground dams in favorable hydrogeological and sub-
surface geological structures have been reported (Milanovic, 2004). Large numbers
of underground engineering structures were constructed in the southwest China karst
region to achieve better use the groundwater resources (Daoxian, 1991). Construction
of underground dams in the karst area requires massive and meticulous geological
and hydrogeological investigations, coupled with various geophysical techniques.
Four successful cases studies of karst groundwater exploitation by underground dams
in the southwest karst of China are presented.
21.2 CASE STUDIES OF WATER USE BY

CONSTRUCTION OF UNDERGROUND DAMS
21.2.1 Case 1. Fenfa Cave underground reservoir

Reservoir construction by blocking an underground river outlet is the most common
engineering technique for karst groundwater resources utilisation. This requires a
retaining dam across the outlet to block the groundwater flow. The structure induces
a surface water reservoir in the upstream karst voids.
The Fenfa cave karst underground reservoir is constructed in a tributary of the
Yuzhai underground river system, which is located in Dushan County, Guizhou Province
(Mingzhang, 2006). The exposed rock formation is mainly from Upper Devonian (D3y)
dolomitic limestone. Preliminary speleological investigations show that the Fenfa Cave
mainly consists of an upper chamber and passage and a lower chamber and passage,
with high heterogeneity and irregular shape. The altitude of the cave entrances is 950 m
and 920 m, respectively. Underground river damming to form an underground reservoir
was initially constructed by local residents. Due to insufficient understanding of the
hydrogeological structure and groundwater flow system, leakage occurred shortly after
construction was completed. The local government successively built the second and
third dam inside the karst channel (Figure21.4). These were based on detailed investiga-
tions which indicated a fault zone in the outlet section of the Fenfa Cave. The previous
failure occurred due to water leaks through the fault and fractures zones. the location
for damming was finally selected 55 m from the cave entrance, avoiding the fault zone.
The underground dam is constructed in rock with good geotechnical properties.
The dam construction caused the groundwater level to increase to flood the sur-
face and form an artificial reservoir connecting the upstream Hongmei conduits and
Powuxi conduits. The water table is 26 m higher than previous water level. The res-
ervoir proved to be technically successful with 2.2 105 m3 storage capacity. This
supplies irrigation water to an area of 100 ha.
15
3
D3y Cave
4
30
Ground dam
Underground
reserivor
Hongmei depression Powoxi depression
Floodgate
Ground dam
Figure 21.4 Sketch of Fenfa underground reservoir connecting sections (from Mingzhang, 2006).
21.2.2 Case 2. Dalongdong reservoir (DR)

The Dalongdong conduit system is located in Xiyan village, Shanglin County, Guangxi
Province (Zhuoxin & Guangyan, 1999). Typical peak cluster topography occurs in
this area, and the limestone and dolomite are mainly of Carboniferous and Permian
age. The Dalongdong surface reservoir is a natural karst polje 10 km in length and
500600 m wide. Its total storage capacity is 151 106 m3 and effective storage capac-
ity of 109 106 m3. The recharge area of Dalongdong Reservoir is 310 km2 with aver-
age annual runoff 241 106 m3 via 6 karst springs flowing to the reservoir. Before the
reservoir was constructed, the polje had just the open flow of the Dalongdong conduit
system. The flow infiltrates through five sinkholes at the downstream part of polje. In
1957, dams were built using stone and concrete at the five sinkholes to retain water
in the polje (Figure21.5). However, karst collapse occurred after the surface reservoir
flooded, and created ten new sinkholes spread along the hillside with maximum water
leakage rate of 15 m3/s.
In order to identify the leakage location, detailed investigation was carried out
including tracer tests, drilling and electromagnetic CT imaging methods. It was found
that the mountain was acting as a dam of solid limestone. Seepage was through numer-
ous large fractures, fissures and multilayer small cave passages along three fault-zones
(F1, F2, F3).
2:1 cement slurry

sand and gravel
182.0
reservoir
sinkhole
limestone
drill
passage
concrete
Figure 21.5 Damming to plug the sinkhole (from Zhouxin, 1999).
Curtain grouting 1 N
(262 m)
Reservoir
18 00
Cu F3
2 25
5
rta
2
in sinkhole1 F2
gr
ou
tin F1
g 2 (144 m)
sinkhole4 sinkhole5
sinkhole2 (180 m)
80 sinkhole3 Curtain grouting 3 Cu
Legend rta
in g
rou
curtain tin (66 m)
g4
grouting
floodgate
falut
cave
Pool
fissure
altitute 70-8 0
0 32
sinkhole
drilling
hole
Pool
Figure 21.6 Location of sinkholes and curtain grouting in Dalongdong Reservoir (from Zhouxin, 1999).
A curtain grouting method was chosen to block water leakage. The grout curtain
extends to a depth at elevation 122.5 m. Four leakage grout curtain segments with total
lengths of 652 m were constructed from north to south of the hillside. The individual
length of the segments is 262 m, 144 m, 180 m and 66 m, respectively (Figure21.6).
Presently, Dalongdong Reservoir works well. It provides irrigating water for 1,200 ha
of farmland, and the associated hydropower production is 4.48 GWh (Figure21.7).
21.2.3 Case 3. Suduku underground river damming

The Suduku conduit is located in Zhulin town, Guangnan County, Yunnan Province
(Yu et al., 2006). The exposed carbonate rocks in this area are mainly limestone and
Hydropower station Karst spring

Karst spring
1506.7
623.0
516.5
Geolgical section downstream DR reservoir

SW SEE
Floodgate Dam
182
152
131
P1 C3 C2 C1
Figure 21.7 Landscape of Dalongdong Reservoir (from Risheng, 2008).
dolomite of Permian and Triassic age. A highly developed conduit system occurs along
a fault zone in this area. Most of the water resources are underground water. The
drinking water and irrigating water of Suduku village mainly depends on seasonal
epikarst springs in the southeast of the village. In the dry season, potable water is insuf-
ficient, and sometimes there is a shortage of drinking water.
Hydrogeological investigations were carried out. The water flow path was in a
shallow zone of carbonate strata, and frequent crossflow of surface water to ground-
water was observed. The depth of the conduit bottom is about 12 m. The irregular
karst channel, is 1.8 m high and 2 m wide. The groundwater flow rate of 15.0 l/s.
A dam, 12 m high, was constructed using concrete to increase the ground
water level to intersect the ground surface for local water supply. The Suduku conduit
was blocked successfully to form an underground reservoir. The new supply greatly
improved the living standard of local residents. It was reported that the captured
groundwater flow rate is 1296 m3/s during the dry season. The volume of the dam is
30 m3 and it cost 50000 RMB (Figure21.8).
21.2.4 Case 4. Pijiazhai large spring damming

There are many tectonic karst basins widely distributed in the eastern part of Yunnan
province. Due to low precipitation and high evaporation in basins, water shortage
often happens in this area where agricultural and industrial activities are also present.
There is a water surplus in the surrounding mountains. The Luxi karst basin is typical
of the area with a total area of 78.1 km2. The Pijiazhai Spring system is located at the
northeast edge of Luxi basin. The Pijiazhai Spring are located at E 1034720, N
243216, and the altitude of the spring is 1,711 m (Yu, 2008). Water shortage was
reported in the cultivated lands located in the east of the basin near Pijiazhai Spring.
150
floodgate
farmland
underground
reservoir T2g
0 5 10 m
limestone dam water flow
Figure 21.8 Sketch of the geological section of the Suduku underground dam (from Yu et al., 2006).
The elevation of the cultivated lands is much higher than that of the spring outlet.
Thus, the spring water could not be used to irrigate this cultivated land. However,
flood events happen frequently during the rainy season. In order to optimize ground-
water resources a grout curtain structure was used to increase the groundwater level
to irrigate the farmland.
Detailed karst hydrogeology investigations were conducted, with application of
remote sensing technology, high-density electrical method, groundwater monitoring,
hydrogeological boreholes and tracer tests. It was reported that the recharge area
of Pijiazhai Spring is 115 km2 in area, and 70100 m higher than that of Pijiazhai
Spring outlet. The hydraulic gradient is 1.431.62% and the water velocity is
144.82176.45 m/h. The Pijiazhai Spring water flow has hydro-powerful potential.
Therefore, the integrated dam structure was designed for water exploitation and util-
isation. It includes an underground anti-seepage grouting curtain, a Ushape dam to
form a small reservoir to concentrate flow, and pipeline system to connect the water
reservoir to a trench by adjusting water pressure and to release water for farmland
irrigation (Figure21.9).
After completion of the Pijiazhai system the groundwater level is now 4.4 m
higher than previously. The amount of groundwater which flows through the inverted
siphon to irrigate the farmland is 60000 m3/d. This structure resolved the agricultural
water shortage in the downstream farmland, and domestic water needs for potable
water in downstream area.
21.3 CONCLUSION
The spatial variation of carbonate rock in the different provinces in southwest China
creates varying karst topography. The four successful underground dam projects in
the karst areas provide illustrations of groundwater exploitation in southwest China:
damming methods including ground reservoir construction by blocking underground
Water
Lead release
East channel sluice gate
Narrowing water
pressure control
pool
Water delivery pipe
Anti-seepage
grouting curtain
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 21.9 Integrated dam engineering in Pijiazhai karst spring (from Yu, 2008). 1. karst condiut 2. soil
layer 3. water flow direction 4. previous water level 5. water level after damming.
conduit flow (in Guizhou); construction of grouting curtain to stop water leakage and
to transfer the karst flow into the surface reservoir (in Guangxi); damming the under-
ground flow located in the karst window to increase the water level to take water (in
Yunnan); and construction of U shaped concrete wall to block groundwater flow to
increase water level for irrigation of farmland (in Yunnan).
Successful retaining engineering structures in the karst area are very important for
local and regional socio-economic development.
REFERENCES
Andreo B., Carrasco F., Duran J.J., LaMoreaux J.W. (2010) Advances in Research in Karst
Media. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
Daoxian Y. (1991) Karst of China. China Geological Publishing House.
Datong L., Yang L. (1983) Measurement of Carbonate Rocks Distribution Area in China.
Carsologica Sinica 2(2), 147150 (in Chinese with English Abstract).
Datong L. (1985) Explanation of the map of soluble rock types in China. Cartographic
Publishing House (in Chinese).
Ford D., Williams P. (2007) Karst hydrogeology and geomorphology. Wiley, Chichester.
Goldscheider N. (2012) A holistic approach to groundwater protection and ecosystem services
in karst terrains. AQUA Mundi 2, 117124.
Jianhua C., Daoxian Y. (2005) Karst Ecosystem of Southwest China constrained by Geological
Setting. China Geological Publishing House. (in Chinese).
Milanovic P. (2004) Water Resources Engineering in Karst. CRC, Boca Raton.
Mingzhang W. (2006) Exploitation and Utilization of underground water resources in Guizhou
Karst Area. In: China Geological Survey, Institute of Karst Geology, CAGS (editors)
Exploitation and Utilization of Karst Groundwater Resources in Southwest China. China
Geological Publishing House. (in Chinese).
Risheng M., Shumin Q. (2006) Exploitation and Utilization of underground water resources in
Guangxi Karst Area. In: China Geological Survey, Institute of Karst Geology, CAGS (editors)
Exploitation and Utilization of Karst Groundwater Resources in Southwest China. China
Geological Publishing House (in Chinese).
Riyuan X., Jiansheng T., Yuanfeng Z. (2003) Sustainable utilization measures of groundwater
resources in karst areas of Southwest China. China Population, Resources and Environment
13(1), 8185 (in Chinese with English Abstract).
Yu W., Gui Z., Aihua L. (2006) Hydrogeological Setting for karst groundwater resources
exploitation and utilization in Yunan and some successful cases. In: China Geological Survey,
Institute of Karst Geology, CAGS (editors) Exploitation and Utilization of Karst Groundwater
Resources in Southwest China. China Geological Publishing House (in Chinese).
Yu W. (2008) Water resource exploitation from big karst spring by flow narrowing-water
pressure adjusting-water table raising A case in Pijiazhai spring, Luxi county, Yunnan,
Carsologica Sinica 17(1), 16 (in Chinese with English Abstract).
Zhuoxin W., Guangyan S. (1999) Treatments against the seepage of Dalongdong Karst
Reservoir in Shanglin County, Guangxi. Pearl River 4852 (in Chinese).
Chapter 22
3D Conduit modelling of leakage

below a dam situated in highly
karstified rocks
Saa Milanovic & Ljiljana Vasic
Faculty of Mining and Geology, Centre for Karst Hydrogeology of the
Department of Hydrogeology, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
ABSTRACT
One of the basic problems of dam and reservoir construction in karst is water tightness. As
a consequence of the nature of karst, and the associated insecurity of water storage due to
leakage, choosing optimal dam sites can be a highly complex task. Problems associated with
leakage are exemplified by the Viegrad dam site located in Bosnia & Herzegovina. During
the first year of the operation of this dam, the occurrence of submerged downstream springs
was noticed. Flow measurements of these springs established that the discharge increased from
~1.4 m3/s in 1990, to ~14.7 m3/s by 2013. This chapter presents results from field investigations
and modelling undertaken to establish the positions, geometry and flow through karst conduits
beneath the dam site. The modelling process consisted of formulating a 3D spatial model, and
subsequently a mathematical model of the groundwater flows observed in the system. Data
collected during subsequent remedial engineering works provided evidence that the method
applied for the construction of a 3D spatial model and subsequent parametric model of the
karst aquifer, aided by an incomplete data series, is feasible.
22.1 INTRODUCTION
In a number of karst areas the only natural resource of sufficient magnitude to

enable regional socio-economic development is the hydro-power potential. However,
the natural flow regime in karst presents a great variety of risks associated with the
development of this potential. Understanding modifications of surface and ground-
water regimes are the key requirements for proper planning of such water resource
systems. Successful solutions require serious and complex investigations and close
co-operation between a wide spectrum of scientists and engineers, including geolo-
gists, civil engineers, biologists, chemists, geophysicists, sociologists and many others.
In karst areas a special approach has to be applied to understanding and mitigating
water leakage through the banks of such reservoirs and beneath the dams. An appro-
priate programme of exploration prior to dam construction can significantly reduce
the risks of water losses, or at least minimise them to acceptable levels (Therond, 1972;
Zogovic, 1980; Milanovic P. 2000; Bruce, 2003; Turkmen, 2003; Ford & Williams,
2007; Fazeli, 2007; Bonacci O. & Bonacci R., 2008). Due to of very thorough and com-
plex investigation programmes, including all available investigation methods, whilst
leakage can be minimised to an acceptable level, it can never be completely eliminated.
Many analyses show that once a reservoir is filled, groundwater flow that was pre-
viously oriented towards the reservoir site can reactivate previously unsaturated (fossil)
conduits and pathways, and form a discharge outside the reservoir area. In response to
these findings, it is of paramount importance that, at an early stage of the site investi-
gation, the main emphasis must be on understanding the complex conditions of karst
groundwater circulation (Milanovic, 2015). Some inadequately explored dam sites and
reservoirs constructed in karst have never fully filled with water, for example the Hales
Bar dam in the USA or the Vrtac dam in Montenegro. Indeed, some have been com-
pletely abandoned after unsuccessful attempts to reduce water losses, such as at the
Montejaque dam in Spain. Some other dams have had sudden water losses even after
years of successful operation, or increases in leakage over time. Examples of this type
include Viegrad in Bosnia and Herzegovina; the Great Falls dam in Tennessee, USA;
the Mavrovo dam in FRY Macedonia; the Slano dam in Montenegro; the Hammam
Grouz dam in Algeria and others (Milanovic, 2000).
Romanov and Gabrovek (2003) state that karst conduits under natural condi-
tions are created on time scales of thousands to hundreds of thousands to millions
of years, as natural hydraulic heads drive water through narrow fractures which are
gradually widened by solution. By contrast, under reservoir condition where water
pressure of 5 to 10 or more Bar can accelerate conduit enlargement by more than ten
or one hundred times. For example, Bauer et al. (2005) demonstrated, through simu-
lation of a dual porosity system, that small conduits with initial diameters of 4 104
m can be enlarged by solution within tens of years and may cause serious water losses.
A study of karst conduit genesis and formation of a three dimensional spatial
model of the main karst pathways underlying the Viegrad dam site has been con-
ducted with the aim of better understanding and preventing leakage beneath the dam
site. The Viegrad hydropower plant is situated on the River Drina, 2.7 km upstream
from the town of Viegrad. It was built between 1985 and 1989. The dam of the
Viegrad Hydro-Power Plant is a concrete gravity dam. An integral part of the dam
is the 594 m long grouting curtain (325 m beneath the dam structure and 65 m in
the left abutment and 204 m in the right abutment) and 50 to 130 m deep. In order
to define the positions of karst conduits along which groundwater circulates under
the dam site, special-purpose investigations and remedial works were undertaken in
20092010 and again in 20132014. Remedial works are still in progress at the time
of writing (2015).
Geological investigations of the karst setting focused on a rather narrow area
containing a recharging sinking zone and a drainage discharge zone (Figure22.1).
The initial problem was how to perform a quality analysis to characterise the problem
sufficiently in order to enable effective remedial works to prevent leakage. The prob-
lem was approached theoretically, which initially played a major role and provided
guidelines for field activities; followed by detailed and complex field investigations; a
spatial 3D modeling of karst conduits; an empirical approach and later also a mathe-
matical approach aimed at producing the final form of the model.
22.2 MAIN GEOLOGICAL AND HYDROGEOLOGICAL

CHARACTERISTICS
The investigation area belongs to the Dinaricophiolitic zone, one of the most out-
standing and complex geological regions of the Dinaric karst. The dam site is located
3D Conduit modelling of leakage below a dam situated in highly karstified rocks 323
Submerged springs
Reservoir
Visegrad
Dam
Figure22. 1 Visegrad dam; Photo above left submerged springs below the dam site during tracer test
(discharge zone); Photo above right reservoir (sinking zone); Photo below panoramic
view of Visegrad dam.
within an asymmetric tectonic trench formed by gravitational activation of the River

Drina fault. This is the contact zone of two regional structural-tectonic mega-blocks:
the autochthonous East Bosnia-Durmitor unit, and the overthrust autochthonous
Dinaricophiolitic unit. These units are highly heterogeneous and comprise Triassic,
Jurassic and Quaternary formations. The dam is located on top of the Visegrad tec-
tonised Middle Triassic carbonate sediments, which are on the south east side less
tectonically altered limestones with subordinate dolomites (Milanovic, 2000). The
central part of the dam, located on the Drina river, is founded on Middle Triassic
dolomitic limestones, dolomites and cavernous dolomites with lenses of cherts and
sandstones, in tectonic contact with ophiolitic melange.
Under such complex conditions in the carbonate rock mass, which is divided
into blocks by fault structures and exhibits variable levels of karstification, dramatic
changes in boundary conditions in the existing karst aquifer occurred following the
formation of the reservoir.
With the change in the hydraulic gradient along the fault structures beneath the
dam, karstification processes have led to the formation of underground channels. The
results of water pressure tests indicate a generally permeable rock mass. The central
area (beneath the dam) is underlain by locally karstified dolomites. The zones of high
permeability are related to fault zones. The right bank of the reservoir consists of
karstified dolomites. A number of large (from 0.2 up to 1.2 m in diameter) karstic
channels, situated at several different levels, were discovered during drilling and
excavation for the foundation of the dam. These caves are mostly empty, although
some are filled with calcite and terra-rossa. Due to high-pressure washing out of fine-
grained, incohesive sediments from the filled faults, the percolation process became
more intensive through time. The constant increase in the measured discharges
downstream from the dam, as well as the intermittent increased turbidity (from 5 to
65 NTU) of the water in the springs, indicates that the karstification process is intensi-
fied. According to inspection by divers, heavily clay-laden groundwater discharge was
emanating from the openings in the river bed downstream of the dam. Abrupt dis-
charge pulsation and pulsation of the quantities of mud in the discharging water was
also observed. The number of springs in the downstream river bed increased alongside
the discharge of water leaking beneath the dam. In the first five years of dam opera-
tion the leakage increased from approximately 1.4 m3/s to 6.5 m3/s, and subsequently
to 14.68 m3/s by 2014. The number of observed springs in the downstream bed of the
river increased from 3 to 18.
It is important to highlight that during the first filling of the reservoir, water (dis-
charging from the river-bed springs) was clear, but its temperature was higher than
average (14.5C18.7C), which indicates a process of forced circulation of hypogenic
water within the karst aquifer. Over time and with the increasing discharge capacity
of the karst system beneath the dam, the temperature of the downstream river bed
springs decreased to match the temperature of water at the bottom of the reservoir.
22.3 OVERVIEW OF THE INVESTIGATIONS PERFORMED
Geological investigations were carried out during all phases of design and construc-
tion of the dam for the Viegrad Hydro-Power Plant. The initial period of investiga-
tion had the primary goal of choosing the optimum dam site as well as definition of
possible seepages. These investigations have yielded a large body of results, a part of
which are relevant to the solution of the leakage problem under the present conditions
below the dam site.
Geological mapping of the catchment area of the Viegrad reservoir and dam site
was done at a scale of 1:10000, while an engineering geological map of the dam site
was produced at a scale of 1:500. More detailed geological mapping of the dam site
at scales of 1:50 to 1:1000 were also undertaken. More than 4470 m of drilling was
undertaken during the investigation, together with water pressure tests. Groundwater
tracer tests were carried out in the phase of choosing the optimal dam site. Systematic
monitoring has been undertaken from the stage of initial investigation and construc-
tion design to the present day, and leakage beneath the dam has been monitored from
1991 to the present day (Figure22.2) (IWD, Jaroslav Cerni, 2009).
In 1993 an emergency grouting programme was carried out to a depth of 110m
because of excessively large leakage flow. An initial attempt using polyurethane mixed
with cement and sand was unsuccessful. A second attempt involved injecting fast-set-
ting thixotropic cement containing 310 mm and 816 mm sand fractions and which
also included a proportion of fine cut plastic sponge. Generally this was unsuccessful
at reducing leakage, and leakage was still occurring through reactivated karstic con-
duits deeper than 110 m (Milanovic, 2004). During this period of remedial works
groundwater levels were monitored in the piezometers located in dam-abutments and
abutment injection galleries, and subsequently on a continuous basis throughout the
16
14
12
discharge m3/s
10
8
6
2
0
1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013
year
Figure22. 2 Diagram of water discharge (leakage) increasing through time (Milanovic, 2015).
1 2 3
52
Figure22. 3 Creation of a 3D tectonic model of the Visegrad dam area as one of the main input for
the construction of a karst conduit model network. 1. Fault detail with 3D position and
real inclination due to upper and lower layers 2. 3D model of two fault zone detail sketch
3. Fault network in investigation zone with non-permeable layer.
years 1993, 1994 and 1995. At present the groundwater level regime is monitored
twice a month in 58 piezometers.
A new period of investigation of the Viegrad dam began in 2009 specifically to
define the leakage flowpaths beneath the dam site. The first step was a detailed inves-
tigation of the narrower area around the dam site involving a geodetical survey of
the dam and the appurtenant structures on the scale of 1:1000 (IWD, Jaroslav Cerni,
2009). The second step was remote sensing investigations, based on the analysis of
satellite images and aerial photographic images from periods both before and after
construction of the reservoir. The main goal of these investigations was to determine
the fracture locations and morpho-structural texture of the rocks as the input data for
3D modeling of faults, including their dominant orientation, karstification and con-
trol on water circulation (Figure22.3). By combining the geodetic and remote sensing
data with existing results from geological mapping and coring, as well as the mapping
of the dam foundation and results obtained during the grouting program, more than
40 faults in the area of the dam were detected and classified.
The fault zones were assigned numerical designations to facilitate the definition of
their characteristics. The classification included the separation of regional and local as
well as less important structures. Structural blocks were identified based on the positions
and lengths of the structures, as well as fault widths and the positions and thicknesses
of lithological units mapped from boreholes. Larger structural blocks are restricted by
Left bank Right bank
Dam HE Visegrad 350
300
250
200
150
Legenda
Groundwater flow direction
Tracer injection zone and
time of appearance
GW in high karastification zone 100
Investigation borehole Karstic aquifer high karastified
Faults limestone
Low permeability rock
70 m n.m.
Figure22. 4 Hydrogeological cross section of Viegrad dam site with position of grout curtain and
investigation boreholes.
significant faults, and these large faults have widths such that cavities can readily be
enlarged due to flushing and chemical corrosion (i.e. karstified rock). Identified cavities
were classified based on derived tectonic characteristics (i.e., all faults and dominant
fractures within the dam area were classified based on their importance and size).
A second group of faults comprised of faults within larger structural blocks were
divided into two sub-groups major faults with wide zones, and structures with
smaller fault zones. The analysis was undertaken with satellite imagery analysis with
the main task being to identify the largest faults, primarily those located within the
area of the Viegrad Hydro Power Plant reservoir.
Geological investigations of the dam site started with new, detailed geological
mapping of the terrain (Figure22.4). Geological mapping of the site was the basis of
the investigation process, which included verification of previous data and additional
mapping. These materials were used to generate a detailed cross section of the dam
area (Figure22.4).
Cross-hole geoelectrical tomography scanning in the left and right dam abutment
and over the reservoir was carried out, as well as reflective seismic investigations
in dam galleries. The electrical tomography method was applied in two stages: first
between the boreholes BD-1 and BD-2 and then at the profiles between the boreholes
BD-1 and BD-4, BD-4 and BD-2 and BD-2 and BD-3. Following the completion of
both test stages (i.e., after geo-electrical tomography measurements at all four bore-
holes), a 2D model was created based on a finite element analysis, for the BD-3
BD-2 BD-4 BD-1 profile as a base for further 3D model forming.
Self-potential measurements were performed simultaneously in the reservoir
zone. Survey in the reservoir zone led to the detection of anomalous locations that
indicated possible water percolation. Two profiles were located in dam abutments
(left and right) and one located partly across the reservoir and partly across the left
dam abutment. The depth coverage was from 80 to 130140 m. Geo-electrical scan-
ning performed along dam abutments and the reservoir also indicated the positions
of anomalous geo-electrical environments with low electrical resistance values (under
60 Ohm m) and which were interpreted as fault structures through which water cir-
culation and water losses most likely occur.
At the locations of the anomalies, detailed diving investigations and underwater
video camera recordings were undertaken. This led to the discovery of a large sink-
hole at a depth of 50 m in the reservoir which was measured and at which the water
inlet velocities (0,5 m/s average) were determined (Figure22.5). Investigation of the
large sinkhole was made using underwater robots and other special hydrogeological
underwater equipment constructed by the Centre for Karst Hydrogeology, Faculty of
Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade. The sinkhole was also sed to investogate
spatial groundwater flows upstream from the dam by the misse a la masse method.
Downstream from the dam, in the part of the riverbed near the dam, a bathymetric
survey was performed, as well as further diving investigations and measurements of sub-
merged spring discharge. During this investigations divers explored 8 large and 12 small
springs with discharges from a few l/s up to a few m3/s (Qsum = 14.91 m3/s) (Figure22.5).
Exploratory drilling and corresponding investigations in the boreholes (down-
hole-video, geophysical logging etc.) were carried out. The locations of the boreholes
was determined from the results of all previous investigations. Video recording of
boreholes was one of the important contributors to the 3D spatial model. More than
350 individual karst features were recorded and correlated with previous geological,
tectonic and hydrogeological data (Figure22.6). The change in chemical composi-
tion of the water in the piezometers drilled at various positions in the reservoir and
downstream was more pronounced in the deepest levels 180230 m than in zone of
grout curtain 5080 m. This indicated that water flowing under the grout curtain was
SPATIAL POSITION OF LARGE SINKHOLE 3D MODEL OF SINKHOLE CROSS SECTION

6m Depth 44 m PHOTOS OF
SINKHOLE
Depth 52 m
SUBMERGED SPRINGS
LARGEST SPRING
Figure22. 5 Spatial position of sinkhole in the reservoir area and springs downstream of the dam and
some of underwater investigation results.
334 m n.m.
0 reservoir surface
zone of karstification conduit direction water
10 depth from surface karstification level and type azimuth circulation
GWL = 17 m 62 m horizontal fracture no
20 63 m low karstification no
30 68.5 m low karstification 145 low
68.9 m low karstification low
40 70 m low karstification low
50 botom of reservoir 74.2 m crack 120 low
7676.5 m kavern low
60
83.183.6 m low karstification no
Videoendoscopy after finishing 70 97.2104.5 m high karstified zone 198 low
borehole
105106 m high karstified zone no
80
106113.2 m high karstified zone no
90 120120.8 m low karstification no
124124.3 m high karstified zone 84 yes
100
Rotation camera for 124.3125.2 m kavern 7 yes
110 small diameter logging 125.2125.9 m kavern 194 yes
high karstified zone 126.7128.3 m kavern 222 yes
120
084 194 groundwater 135.3 m kavern 354 yes
130 354 185 flow direction
135.4136.3 low karstification no
007 222channel direction
138139 m kavern 47 yes
140
151.8156.2 m kavern 150/030 no
150 karstified zone
Entrance to the big kavern at 124 m 156.3158 m high karstified zone low
030 180 channel direction
160 160160.7 m high karstified zone low
161162 m karstified zone low
170 163.4 m karstified zone no
180 167 m karstified zone no
169.7 m slaba ispucalost no
190
172 m high karstified zone 182/045 yes
200 174.3175.1 m high karstified zone yes
186.6 m kavern low
210
karstifikovana zona 217 m high karstified zone no
220 040 234 220.4 m kavern 234/040 low
slow circulation 220.5223.6 m high karstified zone low
230 of groundwater
Karstified zone at 156 m 225.5228.2 m high karstified zone low
228.2232 m no karstification no
Figure22. 6 Photos of drilling rig position at the surface of the reservoir (top left); characteristic caverns identified in boreholes (middle and bottom
left); borehole log (centre) and summary data table of borehole RB 9 CCTV survey (right).
flowing faster than it was through the curtain itself. Similar results were established
during investigations of a leakage problem at Ataturk dam (Unal et al., 2007).
More than 40 tracer tests were carried out, employing in total more than 80 kg of
sodium fluoresceine and more than 500 kg of sodium chloride. Tracers were injected
in the existing piezometers upstream from the dam, then in known sinkholes, as well
as into the newly drilled boreholes. Importantly, tracer tests were repeated several
times in the large sinkhole and in some investigative boreholes as a basis for model
testing and calibrating.
The results of the tracer tests were generally indicative of possible directions
and lengths of karst conduits. The results of the tracer tests conducted in the large
sinkhole; boreholes BD-2, BD-3 and BD-4; and piezometers UD-42k and UD-45k,
demonstrated a complex network of rapid flow connections in the conduit system
beneath the grout curtain, connecting the large sinkhole with the springs in the River
Drina riverbed downstream of the dam (Figure22.7).
Results from the tracer tests in the large sinkhole at ~50 m depth showed that,
in every test, the first arrival of tracer was recorded after 29 minutes at the spring
located in the left portion of the riverbed (looking downstream, No. 17b) and then at
springs in the central portion of the riverbed after 31 to 34 minutes (in the following
order: springs 8, 7, 5, 3b and 4). Somewhat later, but with the longest duration of the
emergence wave, the tracer emerged at the largest spring (No. 1) after 36 minutes. The
final springs at which the tracer emerged (after 40 and 41 minutes) are located further
downstream, towards the right bank (13b and 18b).
Tracer tests conducted in the boreholes BD-4, BD-2 and BD-3 (located between
the right and central portions of the dam profile) and at piezometers UD-42k and
UD-45k, also confirmed the underground connection with all springs downstream
from the dam. In all tests with sodium chloride, as well as with sodium fluorescein,
the tracer discharged in the same order as in the case of the sinkhole tracer tests. The
main findings from the tracer tests are shown on Figure22.7 and Table22.1.
s
ing
pr
ds
ge
er
bm
su
re
ser
vo
ir
Sinkhole
Figure 22.7 Map of tracer tests results.

Table 22.1 Summary overview of tracer tests.
Location of tracer injection UD-42k UD-45k BD-2 BD-3 BD-4 Sinkhole
Tracer emergence time (min.) Fictitious

Observation velocity from
points/spring Straight line distance (m) sinkhole (m/s)
17b 24 17 22 17 34 29 0.189
199 204 231 205 188 329
8 25 18 23 17 35 30 0.204
225 229 235 225 254 368
7 26 19 24 18 36 31 0.189
208 212 218 209 236 352
5 26 20 25 18 37 34 0.167
195 197 204 197 220 340
3b 26 20 25 20 38 34 0.161
178 182 190 186 205 328
4 26 20 25 20 38 34 0.170
195 220 208 203 223 346
1 30 22 28 22 41 36 0.191
262 265 275 270 288 412
18b 38 27 37 50 40 0.155
248 254 253 280 372
19 29 28 40 41 0.147
266 234 257 362
Tracer tests conducted from the right-hand bank of the reservoir resulted in low
tracer concentrations and long emergence times, suggesting a lower degree of karsti-
fication in this area.
It was considered appropriate to assume either that interactive work and inte-
grated use of known 2D and partly-defined 3D parameters was sufficient to produce
an output of a three-dimensional conduit defined within a 3D physical model. A con-
ceptual model based on the results of all of the investigations undertake is presented
schematically in Figure22.8.
22.4 3D MODELING OF KARST CONDUIT BELOW

VISEGRAD DAM SITE
Analysis of the geometry of the main karst conduits in the saturated zone below
the dam site and grout curtain connecting the reservoir with the discharge zone has
enabled the creation of a 3D model of karst channels. Analysis of the parameters
obtained through the quantitative and qualitative monitoring of groundwater charac-
teristics, and their analysis for the physical model, provided data on the relationship
between the recharge and discharge zones. Such a model was used for an analysis of
speleogenesis and the detailed hydrogeology of the dam area.
The basic problem in the determination of this methodology was how to
develop a model to further analyse the spatial position of karst conduits, integrating
HPP VISEGRAD
Reservoir
Right bank
Bottom water
Longitudinal cross section
Figure22. 8 Schematic longitudinal cross sections; 1 Location of first tracer appearance, 2 Location
of last tracer appearance, 3 Grout curtain, 4 Visegrad Dam, 5 Bottom Water,
6 Visegrad Reservoir, 7 Investigation borehole, 8 Karstified rock, 9 Limestone
with low karstification, 10 Groundwater flow direction, 11 Main ponor (sinkhole),
12 Channel with active water circulation, 13 Channel with slow water circulation due
to injection works.
hydrogeological laws and geological characteristics. So far, only a few techniques

have been developed to structure a karst conduit network model in a 3D environ-
ment (Stevanovic et al., 2010). Some of them are based on modelling the physics and
chemistry of the speleogenesis processes, as well as simulating the geometry of karstic
conduits on a regional scale, as constrained by the knowledge of the regional geology,
hydrology and hydrogeology, and by a conceptual knowledge of karst genetic factors
(Borghi et al., 2012; Filipponi, 2009).
The 3D modeling was approached from three parallel directions:
Theoretical approach, which initially played a major role and provided guidelines
for field activities.
Detailed field investigations.
Development of a basic input 3D model, then an empirical approach and later
also a mathematical approach, aimed at producing the final form of the model.
The 3D geological model was developed for the purposes of generating a network
of potential karst conduits running from the identified infiltration zone to the accu-
rately defined karst discharge zone. The 3D geological model was developed using
ArcGIS software and the 3D Analyst, Spatial Analyst and Network Analyst extensions
(Milanovic, 2010). All spatial data, such as geological maps and profiles, as well as the
positions of the dam, grout curtain, grout galleries and piezometers, were converted
into digital format, and each spatial unit was defined by its x, y and z coordinates.
1 2
3 4
Figure22. 9 Steps of 3D spatial network generation; 1. 2D data layer with all collected data, 2. 3D mod-
eling of faults, 3. 3D modeling of all other data (boreholes, diving, tracer tests, geophysics
etc.), 4. Final formulation of 3D conduit network.
Detailed development of separate inputs, the components of the basic model

(Figure22.9), were separated into three categories:
1. Individual fault digitisation, i.e. the creation of a series of 3D fault planes which,
in addition to the basic extent shown in the 2D presentation (plan view), are also
characterised by vertical attributes relating to depth and the angle of dip.
2. Generation of DEMs of the land surface and the base of karstification, as well as
3D models of faults whose outputs (nodes and lines) provide the starting point for
3D analysis.
3. Generation of an interactive node and line network based on faults, DEMs and
boreholes logs, as well as other directly quantifiable investigative data which were
integrated in a 3D spatial model of the karst conduit network.
The karst conduit network was generated by linking the most probable flow
directions, using tectonics as the safest parameter for the initial phase of evolution of
karst conduits over a certain time interval. A 3D network of potential karst conduit
pathways (Figure22.9) was constructed based on the results of GIS data processing.
The 3D model described the network of directions of potential karst conduits, from
the sinking zone to the discharge zone (Figure22.10).
As required by the numerical algorithms, this network was described by means of
model nodes and elements. They made up the topology of the numerical model and
spatially corresponded to the geological model. Nodes were represented via x, y and
2D model of conduit network 3D model of conduit network

DOWNSTREAM
RESERVOIR
DOWNSTREAM
RESERVOIR
Figure22. 10 Left 2D conduit network of possible leakage pathways below the dam site (model
result) Right 3D conduit network of possible leakage pathways below dam site
(Milanovic, 2015); 1 Dam, 2 Grout curtain, 3 Karst conduit, 4 Node at the sinking
zone, 5 Node at the intersection of fault (or on fault), 6 Node at the drainage zone,
7 General groundwater direction below dam site.
z coordinates, where potentials were computed. 1D elements were used for hydraulic
calculations based on the finite element method. The lengths of these elements were
defined by the corresponding nodes, and spatial mathematical calculations were per-
formed along them (Milanovic, 2015).
The network comprised 177 nodes linked by 226 elements (Figure22.10). Using
an optimisation algorithm, the number of nodes, elements and free parameters is
indicative of the complexity of the problem. As a result, 1130 parameters were deter-
mined and at the same time more than 100 computed values were compared with
measured values. This optimisation required substantial processor time and a parallel
genetic algorithm was, therefore, used for the final calculation.
22.5 RESULT OF CONDUIT MODELLING
The principal objective of the mathematical model was to determine the spatial layout
of the principal karst conduits and their physical characteristics. Taking into account
the satisfactory degree of congruence with the real system, the model defines all the
main groundwater flows, with the corresponding parameters: dimensions, resistances,
potentials, velocities and discharges. This model, with its results, represents a founda-
tion for the interpretation of geological data and the determination of the direction of
development of the dominant karst channels, i.e. water circulation paths. The mathe-
matical model was based on known physical dependencies which approximately define
the behaviour of the real system. Some model parameters, which affect model perfor-
mance, were unknown and their values were assumed from a set of possible values.
By simulating the adopted topology and flow characteristics in the hydraulic
model using all of the hydraulic parameters that had been obtained, an analysis and
definition of the dominant directions of water flow beneath the dam body can be
undertaken (Figure22.11).
The results of these investigations show that the greatest amount of water flows
from the reservoir underground through the large sinkhole which is best modelled
m3/s m2
10 50
25
5
0
0
Figure22. 11 Left calculation values of discharges along modeled karst conduits (m3/s). Right
calculation dimensions of underground flows represented as the areas of a transverse
section in m2 (IWD, Jaroslav C erni, 2009).
with length ~60 m and average cross-sectional area of 7.1 m2. According to the
measurement results ~8.15 m3/s infiltrates into the groundwater system through
this feature, with another ~6.5 m3/s infiltrating elsewhere in the reservoir bed.
From the large sinkhole are formed two karst conduits through which groundwater
flows.
Conduits on the left side, through which the water flows downwards from an
elevation of 260 m asl to an elevation of 235 m asl, have an average transversal
section area of 19.8 m2. Through these water flows with an average velocity of
~0.2 m/s, and the total discharge through this channel is ~4.1 m3/s. Along conduits
with a spatial position in the middle of the conduit net direction, flows underground
are 5.5 m3/s. The area of the transverse sections of these channels amounts to on
average 23.9 m2. The erosion process along the channel of diameter 14.4 m2, up to an
elevation of 228 m asl, the underground flow bifurcates into two arms. The average
area of the transverse section near the borehole profiles amounts to ~10 m2, with an
average water flow velocity of ~0.3 m/s. At the elevation of 147 m asl this profile
bifurcates, and the major portion of the water flows towards the middle part of the
riverbed toward springs 17, 8 and 1, where, at an elevation of 130 m asl, it joins
the smaller channel to the right. Flows ~2.5 m3/s occur in the channel that runs
from the left abutment, when the total discharge amounts to 3.8 m3/s, established
through 3D modelling and mathematical modelling of the karst conduit system
(IWD, Jaroslav Cerni, 2009).
22.6 CONCLUSION
The investigations defined the underground water courses and parameters necessary
for development of the technical solution for the permanent rehabilitation of seepage.
However, the sealing rehabilitation works under such complex conditions are com-
plex, and must be followed by detailed monitoring.
The results of investigations show that the largest amount of water flows from the
reservoir underground through the bottom and through the main sinkhole with area
of 7.1 m2. The left direction of underground flow, i.e. the karst channel, was formed
along the dominant longitudinal fault structures. Along this direction is a system of
karst channels with two courses, that generally run towards the boundary of the dam
blocks 8 and 9. The right direction of the underground flow is along the fault struc-
ture and water flows through it generally towards block 5 of the Viegrad Dam. This
direction upstream from the dam bifurcates into two courses; one of them, the more
important one, passes under block 5, while the other turns towards the central part
of the riverbed. These two courses are joined downstream from the dam axis. In the
region downstream from the dam, underground courses are mainly developed along
the directions of the longitudinal faults closer to the left abutment. The connection
with the springs in the River Drina riverbed is along the axis of the diagonal faults.
The 3D and mathematical modelling of the spatial position of conduits and flows
will serve as a foundation for the simulation of technological processes in the process
of rehabilitation regarding water seepage.
The 3D position of karst conduits and parameters necessary for the development
of technical solutions for the permanent rehabilitation of seepage, were defined by the
investigations. However, the sealing rehabilitation works are complex, and detailed
post-remediation monitoring is required. This is necessary in order to make correct
decisions during and after remediation.
The new data collected during grouting works (20122014) showed that the
method which was applied for the construction of a 3D spatial (physical) model and
the model of the karst aquifer, aided by an incomplete data series, was useful. The
underground cavity is now filled with more than 37000 m3 of inert material (sand
fractions from 4 to 32 mm) and leakage has been reduced by up to 65%.
REFERENCES
Bruce D.A. (2003) Sealing of massive water inflows through karst by grouting: principles and
practice. In: Back B (ed), Sinkholes and the Engineering and Environmental Impacts of Karst.
ASCE Geotech. Spec. publ. No.122.
Bauer S., Birk S., Liedl R., Sauter M. (2005) Simulation of karst aquifer genesis using a double
permeable approach Investigations for confined and unconfined settings, Processes of
Speleogenesis: A modeling approach, Editor Gabrovsek F., ZRC SAZU, Postojna.
Bonacci O., Roje-Bonacci T. (2008) Water losses from the Ricice reservoir built in the Dinaric
karst, Engineering Geology 99 (2008) Elsevier, pp 121127.
Borghi A., Renard P., Jenni S. (2012) A pseudo-genetic stochastic model to generate karstic
networks. Journal of Hydrology 414415, 516529.
Fazeli M. A. (2007) Construction of grout curtain in karstic environment case study: Salman
Farsi dam. Environmental Geology 51.
Filipponi M. (2009) Spatial Analysis of Karst Conduit Networks and Determination of
Parameters Controlling the Speleogenesis along Preferential Lithostratigraphic, Horizons,
thse no 4376, Suisse.
Ford D., Williams P. (2007) Karst hydrogeology and geomorphology. Wiley.
Institute for Developing of Water Resources (IWD) Jaroslav Cerni, 2009., Design on rehabili-
tation regarding water seepage beneath the dam of the Viegrad hydropower plant, Summary
report on performed investigations, Belgrade 2009.
Milanovic P. (2000) Geological Engineering in Karst. Monograph, Zebra Publ. Ltd, Belgrade.
Milanovic, P. (2004) Water resources engineering in karst, CRC Press, 143 p.
Milanovic S. (2007) Results of recording of karstic features Ourkiss dam project. Report.
Hidrotehnika, Belgrade.
Milanovic S. (2009) Report on special investigation on dam site Viegrad, Inst. for Develop. of
Water Resources Jaroslav Cerni, Belgrade.
Milanovic S. (2010) Creation of physical model of karstic aquifer on example of Beljanica mt.
(eastern Serbia), Doc. dissert, FMG, University of Belgrade, Beograd.
Milanovic S. (2015) Choosing optimal dam sites and preventing leakage from reservoirs, In:
Karst Aquifers - Characterisation and Engineering. (Ed. Z. Stevanovic), Springer, Professional
Practice in Earth Sciences, pp. 531549.
Romanov D., Gabrovek F., Dreybrot W. (2003) Dam sites in soluble rocks: a model of increas-
ing leakage by dissolutional widening of fractures beneath a dam. Engineering Geology 70,
1735.
Romanov D., Kaufmann G., Hiller T. (2010) Karstification of aquifers interspersed with
non-soluble rocks: From basic principles towards case studies, Engineering Geology 116,
261273, Elsevier.
Stevanovic Z., Milanovic S., Ristic V. (2010) Supportive methods for assessing effective poros-
ity and regulating karst aquifers. Acta Carsologica, 39(2), 313329.
Therond R. (1972) Recherche sur letancheite des lacs de barrage en pays karstique. Eyrolles,
Paris.
Turkmen S. (2003) Treatment of the seepage problems at the Kalecik Dam (Turkey). Engineering
Geology 68, 159169.
Unal B., ErenM., Yalcin G. (2007) Investigation of leakage at Ataturk dam and hydroelectric
power plant by means of hydrometric measurements, Engineering Geology 93, 4563.
Zogovic D. (1980) Some methodological aspects of hydrogeological analysis related to dam and
reservoir construction in karst. Proceedings of 6th Yugoslav Symposium for Hydrogeology
and Engineering Geology, Portoroz.
Chapter 23
Reactivation of karst springs

after regional mine dewatering in
the Tata area, Hungary
Attila Kovcs & Teodra Szocs
Geological and Geophysical Institute of Hungary, Budapest, Hungary
ABSTRACT
Mine dewatering operations in the Transdanubian Mountains, Hungary between 1960 and
1990 caused significant groundwater depressurisation and drying up of several karst springs in
the city of Tata. Following the termination of mining operations, the groundwater flow system
started to recover. Many of the former springs reactivated and further springs are expected
to reappear in the future, causing environmental issues. Spring locations in Tata are aligned
with deep tectonic structures both in uncovered and confined karst areas. The analysis of well
hydrographs indicates that there is no hydraulic connection between shallow and karst ground-
water bodies. The prediction of karst water levels based on physical curve fitting suggests
that equilibrium karst water level will be reached around the year 2018 at approximately
140 m asl. The chemical composition of karst waters in the Tata region confirms that they come
from a dolomitic aquifer. While the karst waters of the region show a uniform composition,
shallow groundwater shows a variable composition. The chemical composition of most reac-
tivating springs indicates karst water origin. Some springs discharge shallow groundwater and
show signs of local pollution.
23.1 INTRODUCTION
The area of interest is located on the northern edge of the Transdanubian Mountains,
Hungary (Figure23.1). The Tata Springs represent the natural outlet of the Transdanubian
karst aquifer. The aquifer is situated in Triassic limestones and dolomites. The
Transdanubian karst system was strongly affected by mine dewatering related to baux-
ite and coal mining from the beginning of the 1950s (Figure23.2). The total groundwa-
ter abstraction rate reached 12 m3/s during the period between the late 1960s and the
late 1980s. The intense karst water abstraction caused regional groundwater recession
(VITUKI, 2000; Csepregi, 2007), and as a consequence, several springs in the Tata area
disappeared during this period. Following the termination of mining operations in the
early 1990s, mining related groundwater abstraction significantly decreased, and total
abstraction rates had dropped to 3.5 m3/s by the late 2000s . As a consequence the flow
system started to recover. Since the late 1990s the karst water table has risen by more
than 40 m in the Tata area. As a result, some of the former springs reactivated and fur-
ther springs are expected to reappear (Maller & Hajnal, 2013).
During the 1970s significant developments took place in areas that were pre-
viously used as agricultural land. Currently 30% of the population of Tata lives in
270000
TATA
250000
230000
210000
560000 580000 600000
Figure23.1 Site location with dominant groundwater flow directions in natural state.
this area. The reactivating springs cause significant environmental problems related
to sewerage and water quality.
The aim of the study was to understand the hydraulic and hydrogeochemical
behaviour of the recovering flow system, to delineate affected areas and to provide
predictions on the location and timing of spring reactivation.
23.2 HYDROGEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
The karst springs at Tata represent one of the main natural outlets of the Transdanubian
carbonate aquifer system. The regional erosion base is the ltal-r creek. The recharge
areas of the springs are located in the north western uncovered carbonate aquifers of
the Gerecse and Vrtes Mountains, and in the north eastern karst areas of the Bakony
Mountains (Csepregi, 2002) (Figure23.1).
Reactivation of karst springs after regional mine dewatering 339
15
Groundwater abstraction (m3/s)
10
0
1951 1954 1957 1960 1963 1966 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2011 2014
year
Budapest m3/s DKH K-i rsz Tatabnya Dorog
Kincses Vrpalota DKH Ny-i rsz Nyird, Halimba
Ajka Balinka, Dudar Forrsok Hvzi-t
Figure23.2 Total groundwater extracted by minng operations in the Transdanubian Mountains after
(Csepregi, 2007),
The karst springs in the Tata area are located along a chessboard-like fault system
which developed during tectonic movements between the Eocene and Pliocene periods
(Figure23.3). Before the beginning of mine dewatering operations, there were several
active springs in the area, at topographic elevations between 118141 m asl with
yields between 0.00001 and 1 m3/s (Horusitzky, 1923). Spring locations are aligned
with deep tectonic structures both in unconfined and confined karst areas. Although
there is little evidence of karstification, concentrated groundwater flow takes place
along tectonic structures representing preferential flowpaths. The confining marls in
the city of Tata do not block groundwater discharge to the surface along tectonic
features.
Potentiometric data in the monitoring wells indicate a very flat karst water sur-
face. The hydraulic gradient is in the range of 0.0010.0005. The natural regional
flow direction in the carbonate basement was from southwest to northeast. As a con-
sequence of mine dewatering, the natural flow directions were altered because of a
large depression located south east of the Tata area.
The karst water level in the vicinity of Tata was around 136 m asl (in the obser-
vation wells T-2: 135.6 m, T-3: 135.5 m, Lo Presti: 136.0 m, Tkr: 136.2 m,
Fnyes-1: 138.3 m; locations shown on Figure23.3.) based on data from January
2014. According to the low hydraulic gradients throughout the investigation area
the karst water level can be approximated with a uniform value of 136 m asl at the
beginning of 2014.
The original, undisturbed karstic water level data differs between various refer-
ences, and vary between 140 and 143.5 m asl (Horusitzky, 1923; Fogarasi, 2001). A
modelled water level was calculated at 138 m asl for 2020 by Csepregi (2002). The
natural-state water level data involves uncertainties. It is assumed that the karstic
level was about 140 m asl near Tata based on historical spring levels, and expect a
similar water level by the end of water level recovery, knowing that this also depends
on water extraction and on future climate conditions.
595000
Legend
Observation bores
Springs
tectonic zones
ltal-r Creek
Tata Lake
soPa2
sPa1-2-soPa2
kPa1-2
sPa1-2
c-mOl1-2
255000
255000
cOl1-2
taK2
J
dT3
595000
Figure23.3 Geological settings and locations of springs and monitoring bores. Pa1-2 and Ol1-2 indi-
cate confining Pannonian (Upper Miocene Pliocene) and Oligocene sediments. T3J and
K2 indicate the unconfined zones of the Upper Triassic, Jurassic and Upper Cretaceous
carbonate aquifers.
23.3 SHALLOW GROUNDWATER
The Mesozoic carbonate aquifer is overlain by a series of younger sediments which

contain shallow groundwater bodies. The main shallow aquifer is unconfined and is a
few meters thick. The groundwater table follows the ground surface at an average of
13 m depth but is deeper in the hilly areas. The flow direction of the shallow ground-
water is generally in the direction of the ltal-r creek.
The comparison between time series of monitoring wells screened in the shallow
aquifer and those installed in the deep karst aquifer suggest that there is no hydraulic
connection between shallow and karst aquifers. The effect of karst water recovery is
not seen in hydrograph data for shallow bores.
A local confined shallow aquifer can be found in Upper Pannonian (Late Miocene)
sediments covered by a marl aquitard. The potentiometric levels in the confined shal-
low groundwater show a damped effect of karst water level recovery, suggesting a
leaky connection to the karst aquifer which is indicated by monitoring well Tszf-2/a
(Figure23.4).
23.4 PIEZOMETRIC MONITORING DATA
A groundwater level monitoring system has been operated by the regional Water
Directorate for several decades, and this has been expanded with new auxiliary karstic
and shallow groundwater level monitoring wells and contamination monitoring wells
during the implementation of the safety regulations for drinking water protection
areas in 2002 (Csepregi, 2002).
137
Tkr
136
Lo Presti
135
Tszf-10
134
133
T-2 T-3
132
Tszf-2/a
131
130
measured water level (m ASL)
129
Tszf-1/a
128
127
126 Tszf-2/b
Tszf-2/b
125
Tszf-3/a
124
123 Tszf-3/a
122 Tszf-2/a Tszf-9
121
Pokol
120
T-1
119 Tszf-7
Tszf-8
118
Fnyes
117
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
T-1 T-2 T-3 Tszf1/a Tszf-2/a Tszf-2/b Tszf-3/a Tszf-7
Tszf-8 Tszf-9 Tszf-10 Fnyes Pokol Lo Presti Tkr
Figure23.4 Time series water level data for monitoring wells at Tata.
The changes in groundwater levels in the monitoring wells between 2001 and
2014 are shown in Figure23.4. Wells T-1, T-2 and T-3 were sited to monitor the
changes in groundwater level and groundwater chemistry in the main karst aquifer.
Wells Tszf-1 to Tszf-18 were installed to characterise the changes in groundwater level
and groundwater chemistry of shallow groundwater, and to characterise the hydraulic
connection between shallow groundwater and karst water.
23.5 WATER LEVEL PREDICTION
One of the practical goals of the study was to predict when the flow system reaches
natural equilibrium. The karst water level prediction was based on time series of
several karst water monitoring wells. A logarithmic trend line was fitted on the time
series of wells T-1, T-2 and T-3. The application of a logarithmic function for
curve fitting was based on the assumption that the recovery follows the Cooper and
Jacob (1946) well function. The Cooper and Jacob solution is an approximation of
the Theis (1935) non-equilibrium method.
Curve fitting was performed for the 20012009 period (Figure23.5), since the
extremely high precipitation in 2010 broke the trend of previous years, causing more
than 4 m rise in karst water levels. The trend-line was shifted by 4 m in 2010 to repre-
sent the trend characteristic of the following years. The fitted equation and the karst
water prognosis up to 2020 are shown in Figure23.5. The prediction based on curve
fitting suggests that the equilibrium level of the karst water table in the study area will
be reached around 2018 at approximately 140 m asl. This prediction is based on the
assumption that water abstraction rates and climatic conditions recorded between
2000 and 2009 remain constant during the following years. Any significant change
in these parameters might influence the recovery process and thus the time of spring
reactivation.
The horizontal dashed lines in Figure23.5 show the topographic levels of the
springs. The intersection of these topographic levels with the fitted trend line deter-
mines the predicted date of reactivation of the surveyed springs, and also provides
information about expected karst water level changes until 2020.
While most springs have already reactivated during the past years, the Lo Presti,
Kismos, Pokol and Tkr springs are expected to reactivate until 2018. The water
level in the wells located at higher topographic levels (Piarista well, Barta well, Piactri
well) are predicted to rise by a further 45 m by 2018.
After the end of karst water recovery any oscillations in water levels will be
determined by climatic conditions. These water level variations are expected to range
between 0 and 2 m.
Locations of natural springs and dug wells are indicated in Figure23.6. The 136 m
asl topographic level corresponds to the current karst water level, while the predicted
equilibrium karst water level is around 140 m asl. The grey area in between the two
isolines is subject to the possible reappearance of the springs in later years. The striped
areas indicate tectonic zones assumed to represent preferential pathways for ground-
water flow. The outcrop line of the Mesozoic carbonate aquifer is indicated with a
grey dashed line.
145
Piarista Kt (143,5)
Pokol F. (140,8 m)
140
Lo Presti F. (139,3 m)
Kis mos Kt (139,3 m)
y = 120,37In(x)-1144,5
Tkr F. (138 m)
135
Karstwater Ievel (m)
Trkfrd F. (135,3 m)
Zsid Iskola Ktja (133 m)
Piactri Kt (131 m)
130
Minnich Kt (130,3 m)
Vadszbolt (127,8)
Mjus 1 t 43 (127 m)
125
Lelkes F. (125 m)
y = 120,37In(x) 1148,5 Fnyes F. (118,8 m)
T_1
120
T_2
T_3
trend 20112014
115
2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018 trend 20012009
Time (year)
Figure23.5 Karst water level prognosis based on time series of the karst water monitoring wells in the Tata region and the topographic levels of
main springs.
595000
Legend N
Observation bores
Extraction bores
Springs
Aquifer outcrop boundary
tectonic zones
2014-2018 groundwater recovery zone
ltal-r Creek
Tata Lake
255000
255000
595000
Figure23.6 Locations of natural springs and dug wells together with topographic elevation contours.
Shaded area indicates the future zone of groundwater heads rising above ground surface.
23.6 GENERAL HYDROGEOCHEMICAL

CHARACTERISTICS
The evaluation of the hydrogeochemical conditions was based on historical data, on

past surveys (Csepregi, 2002) and on data collected by the Tata Municipality and the
Geological and Geophysical Institute of Hungary. New groundwater samples were
collected during early spring and late autumn in 2014. The study gives an overview of
the chemical composition and isotope data distribution of the springs and seepages,
and shallow and deep wells. Although the analyses of the different data sources were
carried out by different methods and in some cases with different detection limits, or
they were limited to just a few parameters, they can be considered reliable for follow-
ing the changes in the water chemistry due to karst water abstraction followed by
karst water table rise after the mine closures.
The karst waters in the Tata region are CaMg-HCO3 type, indicting they come
from a dolomitic aquifer. In order to present the chemical characteristics of ground-
water the data were plotted on Piper diagrams. Figure23.7 shows the data for
karst water wells (Tata 26, 27/A, 28, 34, 41 and Karst recent representing Tata 28
and Tata 34 data for samples collected in 2014), springs (Fnyes, Lo Presti, Pokol,
Trkfrdo, Kastlykert, Bds csorg, Zsid iskola), seepages (43 Mjus 1 street,
45 Mjus 1 street, Attila, Lelkes, Vadszbolt), a stream (Kismos) and a dug well
(Kismos well) next to the stream. At those sites where three or more data sets were
available, the median values were applied. In the case of two karst water wells (Tata
28, Tata 34), the time series were grouped in two parts (data before 1983 and after
TATA 26 Trkfrd
TATA 27/A Kastlykert
80 80 Bds csorg
TATA 28_m1
>
TATA 28_m2 Mjus 1. u. 43

4=
60 60 TATA 34_m1 Mjus 1. u. 45

SO
<=
TATA 34_m2 Attila

Ca
CI+
40 40 TATA 41 Vadszbolt
+M
Karst 'recent' Lelkes

g
20 20 Fnyes Kismos stream

Fnyes main Kismos well
Mg Pokol
SO4
Lo Presti
Zsid iskola
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
80
60
60
80
40
20
40
20
Ca Na+K HCO3+CO3 CI
Figure23.7 Chemical characteristics of groundwater based on data of karst water wells, springs, see
pages, a stream and a dug well.
1983) based on the changes in the chemical composition due to the effects of mining
activities. Medians were calculated for both data groups.
The chemical composition of the surveyed wells, the Fnyes, Lo Presti, Trkfrdo,
Pokol springs and the new Attila seepage and seepages at Mjus 1.u 43 and 45 show
karst water composition with CaMg-HCO3 or MgCa-HCO3 water types.
The chemical composition of Kastlykert spring and of the dug well at Kismos
stream are similar, both having a CaMg-HCO3SO4 water type. This shows the effect
of mixing with shallow groundwater and potentially also of local pollution. The high
nitrate concentration in the Kastlykert spring also suggests pollution from an anthro-
pogenic source.
Sampling sites Bds csorg and Lelkes seepages have a distinct chemical compo-
sition of the MgCa-SO4HCO3-MgCaNa-SO4HCO3 water type.
Kismos stream as a local discharge area, does not show any connection with the
karst water, is of the CaMg-SO4 water type, and is badly polluted.
Figure23.8 illustrates the data obtained from chemical analyses for groundwater
from shallow bores. The chemistry of shallow groundwater (TSZF wells) is typically
of CaMg-HCO3SO4 type, but some of them are of NaCaMg-HCO3 or CaMg-SO4
type. Their water composition covers a much larger range than the karst waters,
reflecting the effect of the local near surface geology and hydrogeology, which is
probably influenced by local tectonics. While the karst waters of the region show a
uniform composition, the shallow groundwater shows a variable composition. Many
of the shallow groundwater wells, not just the local dug wells, are polluted with
nitrate. This pollution is local, and usually cannot be found in the adjacent wells or
springs suggesting that nitrate might originate from septic tanks or a leaking sewage
system.
TSZF-1/a
80 80 TSZF-2/a
=>
O4
TSZF-2/b
<=
60 60
Ca
+S
TSZF-3/a
40
+M
40
CI
TSZF-4
g
20 20 TSZF-5
TSZF-6
Mg SO4 TSZF-7
TSZF-8
80 80 TSZF-9
60 60 TSZF-10
TSZF-14
40 40
TSZF-17
20 20 TSZF-18
80
20
40
60
80
20
40
60
Ca Na+K HCO3+CO3 CI
Figure23.8 Chemical characteristics of groundwater based on data from shallow boreholes.

23.7 EFFECTS OF MINE DEWATERING ON

GROUNDWATER CHEMISTRY
The changes in chemical composition through time are shown for some parameters in
Figures 23.923.11. The hydrogen-bicarbonate content of karstic waters is typically
400 to 500 mg/l (Figure23.9), while in the shallow groundwater (TSZF wells) varies
in the range of 100 to 800 mg/l (not shown in figure). The effect of mining activities
on the karst water composition is shown in Figure23.9 where the hydrogen-bicar-
bonate data of some representative karst wells and springs are plotted against time.
It can be seen that the hydrogen-bicarbonate content dropped at the beginning of
1983, with median values decreasing from 476 mg/l to 458 mg/l. This might indicate
a hydrochemical response to aquifer dewatering which started in the early 1950s and
intensified around 1972 to 1973 in the Tatabnya region.
The recent data from new karst water seepages (43 Mjus 1 street. 45, Mjus 1
street) also show these decreased concentrations, but samples collected from Lo Presti
karst spring and the two drinking water supply wells (Tata 28, Tata 34) in the last quar-
ter of 2014 and in 2015 show slightly increasing concentrations (median 3 = 468 mg/l).
These minor concentration changes are within measurement error limits, but the general
pattern, including concentration changes in other anions, suggests a recent change in karst
water composition starting probably from the mid-2000s, and increased since 2010.
550 140
1.
Tata 28_Fnyes Vzmu Mjus 1.u. 43.
2.
Lo Presti spring Karst water level
130
Karst water level (Fnyes) masl
500
median 1 = 476 mg/1
median 3 120
HCO3 mg/1
= 468 mg/1
110
450
median 2 = 458 mg/1
100
400 90
1950 1958 1966 1974 1982 1990 1998 2006 2014
Date year
Figure23.9 Changes with time in the hydrogen-bicarbonate concentration based on some represent-
ative karst water wells, spring and seepages.
The decrease in the hydrogen-bicarbonate content was accompanied by an

increase in sulphate content from 1977 (Figure23.10), which supports changes in
groundwater chemistry in response to mine dewatering. The initial 10 mg/l sulphate
median values rose to 5967 mg/l by 19861987. The data for the last few years
show a stable or even slightly lower sulphate value (median 3 = 54 mg/l) which
might be a sign of the start of hydrochemical regeneration of the karst water flow
system.
No data were available on anion concentrations before 1967. From the begin-
ning of the available data series chloride concentrations remained stable until about
the mid-2000s. Recent data show a clear decrease in chloride concentrations. This
may indicate a hydrochemical response to the recovery of the karst water flow
system.
No cation data were available before the 1980s, so any changes in cation concen-
trations could not be analysed. The calcium data of the last 30 years are variable, but
a slight increase in calcium concentration can be identified.
Groundwater lowering in Tatabnya started in the early 1950s with increasing
abstraction rates throughout the following years. The maximum amount of abstracted
karst water reached its peak in 1988 with 2 m3/s, after an almost 25 years long period
with a similarly high abstraction level. In the following years, mostly between 1989
and 1992, with the progressive mine closures, the karst water abstraction rates
150 140
1.
2.
130

100
120
SO42 mg/1
median 2
= 59-67 mg/1
110
50
median 1 = 10 mg/1 median 3 = 54 mg/1 100
0 90
1950 1958 1966 1974 1982 1990 1998 2006 2014
Date year
Figure23.10 Changes with time in the sulphate concentration based on some representative karst
water wells, spring and seepages.
50 140
1.
2.
40 130

30 120
CI mg/1
20 110
median 1; 2 = 2122 mg/1
10 100
median 3 = 12 mg/1
0 90
1950 1958 1966 1974 1982 1990 1998 2006 2014
Date year
Figure23.11 Changes with time in the chloride concentration based on some representative karst
water wells, spring and seepages.
dropped to about 0.5 m3/s (Figure23.2). Figures 23.923.11 show the deepest point
in karst water level that was reached in 1990.
The remarkable changes in the concentration of hydrogen-bicarbonate around
198384 and of sulphate between 1977 and 19861987 are assumed to indicate the
hydrochemical response of the groundwater system due to large-scale aquifer dewa-
tering. As no sufficient data on hydrochemistry was available at the early stages of
the mining activity, nor on extraction rates, the lag between dewatering and chemical
response cannot be estimated confidently.
Recent hydrochemical data indicate that the concentration of the main water
components started to rebound towards their original values around the mid-2000s,
emphasised from 2010, presumably indicating the hydrochemical recovery of the
groundwater system. The comparison between abstraction rates and chemical data
suggests a delay of 1020 years between groundwater chemistry and groundwater flow
conditions.
Although further studies are required to support this conclusion, it can be assumed
that the hydrochemical changes were caused by the reversal of hydraulic gradients
and the subsequent changes in regional flow directions between the natural north
easterly flow and a modified southwesterly groundwater flow.
23.8 MIXING PROCESSES
One of the major questions is whether the regenerating karst springs or new seepages
contain pure karst water, or are a mixture of karst and shallow groundwater, or are
seepages of shallow groundwater. Since very few samples could be analysed for iso-
topes, a conservative anion in the groundwater flow system, namely chloride, was
used to study mixing processes. Most of the dug wells in the city of Tata contain very
high nitrate concentrations, and sometimes ammonium, reflecting a strong anthro-
pogenic influence. Therefore, data from shallow boreholes were used (Figure23.8).
16 shallow boreholes were drilled in the drinking water protection area safety survey
(Csepregi, 2002). Some of them provided information on the connection between
shallow groundwater and karst water, others enabled an evaluation of the effects of
former pollution or potential pollution. The chemical composition of the water in
these shallow wells varies greatly, but for different reasons. The deeper wells show
connections either with the deeper groundwater, with the karst water, or one of the
wells in contact with the systematically regulated water level of Lake Tata. The vari-
able shallow groundwater composition is probably controlled by the fractures in the
area. Well TSZF-2/b shows a typical, shallow groundwater composition. This median
data for this well was used as an end member for shallow groundwater in the study
of potential mixing processes.
The concentration ranges with whiskers representing the 10 and 90% percentile
values of the main anions and their median values are shown in Figures23.1223.15.
In addition to the previously shown hydrogen-bicarbonate, sulphate and chloride
concentration time series of some representative karst water wells, springs and seep-
ages (Figures 23.923.11), these figures illustrate not just the typical concentration
ranges based on karst water wells and recent (Tata 28 and Tata 34 data of samples
collected in 2014 and 2015) karst water data (left side), but also the data of charac-
teristic shallow groundwater (TSZF-2/b), karst springs (Fnyes, Fnyes main, Pokol,
Lo Presti, Zsid iskola, Trkfrdo) and new seepages (Mjus 1.u. 43, Mjus 1.u.
45, Attila, Vadszbolt). It can be seen that the karst springs have similar concentra-
tion values as the karst water wells. While the CaMg-HCO3-water type of the new
seepages show a typical karst water composition, the higher Cl, NO3 concentra-
tions (first samples) at 45 Mjus 1 street also show an anthropogenic influence and
potential mixture with shallow groundwater. At the Attila and Vadszbolt seepages
a very small percentage of shallow groundwater mixing can also be seen, based on
the slightly higher hydrogen-bicarbonate and nitrate concentrations. The appear-
ance of nitrate in the karst springs and seepages show some local, minor anthropo-
genic contamination of the shallow aquifer which through mixing with karst water
results in elevated concentrations of these parameters in certain springs. The mixing
between karst water and shallow groundwater primarily takes place along deep
fractures where the Mesozoic carbonate reservoir discharges to the surface.
23.8.1 Isotope geochemical characteristics

Some of the samples were analyses for D-18O, 13C, 3H and 14C in order to get a
better understanding of the karst water system, and the origin, as well as the relative
or absolute ages of water from the springs and seepages.
800
750
700
HCO3 mg/1
600
502
482
482
478
477
476
471
470
468
463
459
459
459
458
458
458
457
500
452
400
347
300
Trkfrdo
TSZF-2/b
Vadszbolt
Attila
Tata 34 (I.)
Fnyes main
Zsid iskola
Tata 28 (I.)
Polkol
Tata 26
Karst recent
Lo Presti
Fnyes
Mjus 1.u. 45
Tata 28 (II.)
Tata 34 (II.)
Tata 41
Mjus 1. u. 43.
Tata 27A
Bds csorg
Figure23.12 Hydrogen-bicarbonate concentration ranges with whiskers representing the 10 and

90% percentile values and their median values (left: karst water wells; right: shallow
groundwater (TSZF-2/b), karst springs and new seepages).
The tritium content of the sampled karst waters is below the detection limit
(0.059 Bq/l), which suggests that there is no precipitation component younger than
50 years in the karst waters (Figure23.16). This also means that shallow ground
water does not mix with karst waters at the surveyed sites.
Based on previous studies (Dek, 2006) groundwater in Hungarian aquifers with
18O values higher than 10 are generally considered to be of Holocene origin.
However, where mixing has occurred, especially with deep formation waters, higher
values are also recorded. The 18O data of the karst wells cluster very close to each
other with values of 10.9, while the D data range between 75.1 and 76.2
respectively (Figure23.17). The data (6.6 18O and 52.2 D) of the Bds csorg
spring which is shifted from the Carpathian Basin Meteoric Water Line (CBMWL)
D = 7.8*18O + 6 defined by Dek (1995) shows the effect of evaporation (Clark &
400
355
300
247
SO42 mg/1
200
79
67
100
64
63
62
61
59
56
58
55
52
50
51
51
46
10
10
10
0
TSZF-2/b
Bds csorg
Attila
Tata 34 (II.)
Mjus 1. u. 43.
Vadszbolt
Fnyes main
Tata 41
Tata 28 (II.)
Tata 27A
Mjus 1.u. 45
Karst recent
Zsid iskola
Trkfrdo
Lo Presti
Fnyes
Polkol
Tata 28 (I.)
Tata 26
Tata 34 (I.)

Figure23.13 Sulphate concentration ranges with whiskers representing the 10 and 90% percentile
values and their median values (left: karst water wells; right: shallow groundwater
(TSZF-2/b), karst springs and new seepages).
Fritz, 1997). The CBMWL is very close to the Global Meteoric Water Line defined
by Craig (1961).
Age calculations based on Carbon-14 measurements were done by the application
of a Carbon-13 correction (Pearson, 1965). Carbon-14 data vary between 8.59.7%
pmC, while 13C data vary between 8 and 9. The radiocarbon ages calculated by the
widely used Carbon-13 correction method vary between 11800 years and 13100 years.
The isotope compositions of the sampled karst waters clearly show Pleistocene
recharge except for well K-28. It can, therefore, be assumed that the karst waters in
the Tata region are older than 10000 years. Importantly, despite a rise in the karst
water level, no sign of recent (young) infiltration could be detected in the karst water.
Bds csorg spring and a dug well at the Kismos stream have a significant or wholly
recent infiltration origin. Based on tritium data, mixing with karst water cannot be
100
88
90
72
80
70
54
60
CI mg/1
50
40
22
22
30
21
21
20
20
19
18
18
17
16
15
15
14
13
12
20
9
10
0
Attila
Polkol
Fnyes
Tata 41
Tata 26
TSZF-2/b
Tata 27A
Lo Presti
Tata 34 (I.)
Vadszbolt
Tata 28 (I.)
Trkfrdo
Mjus 1.u. 45
Tata 34 (II.)
Tata 28 (II.)
Mjus 1.u. 43.
Zsid iskola
Fnyes main
Bds csorg
Karst recent
Figure23.14 Chloride concentration ranges with whiskers representing the 10 and 90% percentile
completely excluded, but neither the main nor the trace element data support the pos-
sibility of mixing. The high chloride concentration (Figure23.14) shows mixing with
shallow groundwater. More information on mixing could be gained by using D18O
data. Figure23.18 shows that with an increase of the recent infiltration component,
shown by an increase in the tritium content, there is a significant increase in the chlo-
ride concentration which suggests mixing with shallow groundwater at these sites.
23.9 CONCLUSIONS
A hydrogeological and hydrochemical study was implemented to investigate hydro-

geological settings and the effects of mine dewatering on the historical Tata springs.
105,0
110
100
90
NO3 mg/1
10
5,2
3,9
2,3
2,2
0,0001
0,0001
0,0001
1,1
0,8
0,7
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,5
0,5
0,0001
0,0001
0,2
0,3
Attila
Polkol
Fnyes
Tata 41
Tata 26
Lo Presti
Tata 27A
TSZF-2/b
Mjus 1.u. 45
Vadszbolt
Mjus 1.u. 43.
Tata 28 (I.)
Tata 34 (I.)
Tata 28 (II.)
Tata 34 (II.)
Zsid iskola
Trkfrdo
Fnyes main
Bds csorg
Karst recent

Figure23.15 Nitrate concentration ranges with whiskers representing the 10 and 90% percentile
Spring locations are aligned with deep tectonic structures both in uncovered and
confined karst areas. This indicates that concentrated groundwater flow takes place
along tectonic structures and the confining marls do not prevent groundwater dis-
charge to the surface.
The comparison between time series of monitoring wells screened in the shallow
aquifer and those installed in the deep karst aquifer suggest that there is no hydraulic
connection between shallow and karst aquifers.
The prediction of karst water levels based on physical curve fitting suggests that
equilibrium level of the karst water table will be reached around 2018 at approxi-
mately 140 m asl. While most springs have already reactivated in recent years, the Lo
Presti, Kismos, Pokol and Tkr springs are expected to reactivate until 2018. The
water level is predicted to rise by a further 4 m.
6 Component younger than 50 years 10
7 Evaporation effect 5.
1.
9,6
8
2.
18OVSMOW
C pmC %
9 9,2
14
10 1. Majus 1.u. 43.
2. Fenyes spring
3. Trkfrdo 8,8
1. 4. Tata 28_Fenyes Vzmu
1.
2. 4. 5. Bds csorg
11 3.
Pleistocene waters
18O data
3. 14
C data
12 8,4
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7
3
H Bq/l
Figure23.16 Tritium, oxygen-18 and 14C isotope data characteristics.
The karst waters in the Tata region are CaMg-HCO3 type, indicating that they
come from a dolomitic aquifer. While the karst waters of the region show a uniform
composition, the shallow groundwater shows a variable composition. The chemical
composition of the surveyed wells, the Fnyes, Lo Presti, Trkfrdo, Pokol springs,
and the new Attila seepage and seepages at 43 and 45 Mjus 1 street show karstic
water composition. The chemical composition of Kastlykert spring and the dug well
at Kismos stream are similar, and show the effect of mixing with shallow ground
water and potentially also local pollution. Kismos stream does not show any connec-
tion with the karst water and is badly polluted.
Geochemical data indicate significant changes in karst water chemistry in response
to groundwater depressurisation and later recovery. While bicarbonate concentra-
tions decreased, sulphate concentrations increased during the mine dewatering oper-
ations. Recent hydrochemical data indicates that the concentration of the main water
components started to recover towards their original values around the mid-2000s,
increasingly since 2010. This presumably indicates the geochemical recovery of the
groundwater system. The available data suggest a delay of approximately 1020 years
between the changes in dewatering rates and the subsequent hydrochemical reactions.
The hydrochemical changes were caused by the reversal of hydraulic gradients and
regional flow directions between the natural north easterly flow and a modified south
westerly groundwater flow direction.
50
Evaporation effect
60
Holocene infiltration
DVSMOW
70
Karst water
Majus 1.u. 43, Fenyes spring,
80 Trk frdo , Tata 28_Fenyes Vzmu 1.
GMWL
CBMWL
Recent infiltration
Bds csorgo
90
12 10 8 6
18OVSMOW
Figure23.17 18O versus D.
100
9.
80
60
Cl mg/l
8.
40
1. Fenyes spring
2. Majus 1.u. 43.
3. Trkfrdo
7. 4. Lo Presti
20 1. 6. 5. Tata 28_Fenyes Vzmu 1.
2. 6. Vadaszbolt
5.
3. 7. Kismoso stream (seepage)
4. 8. Kismoso well
9. Bds csorgo
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
3
H Bq/l
Figure23.18 Tritium data versus chloride concentration.

Chloride as a conservative anion was used to study the mixing processes. Most
springs have similar concentration values as karst water wells. While new seep-
ages show a typical karst water composition, the higher Cl, NO3 concentrations at
45 Mjus 1 street also show an anthropogenic influence and potential mixing with
shallow groundwater. At the Attila and Vadszbolt seepages a very small percentage
of shallow groundwater mixing can also be seen.
The tritium content of karst waters is below detection limit, which means there
is no precipitation component younger than 50 years in the karst waters. The isotope
compositions of the sampled karst waters clearly show Pleistocene recharge except
for well K-28. Based on this it can be assumed that the karst waters in the Tata region
are older than 10000 years. Importantly, despite recent rising water levels no signs
of recent infiltration could be detected in the karst water discharges. Bds csorg
spring and a dug well at the Kismos stream have a significant or wholly recent
infiltration origin.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank the City Council of Tata for providing support and making
their data available for this research. We also acknowledge the North Transdanubian
Water Directorate, the szakdunntli Vzmu Zrt., Mrton Maller, Gza Hajnal
and Andrs Csepregi who provided data for this study, and Fnyes Spa for providing
local knowledge. We would like to thank Zsolt Galgczy and Andrs Rehk for their
field help.
REFERENCES
Clark I., Fritz P. (1997) Environmental isotopes in Hydrogeology. Lewis Publishers, USA.
Cooper H.H., Jacob C.E. (1946) A generalized graphical method for evaluating formation
constants and summarizing well field history, American Geophysical Union Transactions 27,
526534.
Craig H. (1961) Isotopic Variations in Meteoric Waters. Science, 133, pp. 17021703.
Csepregi A. (2002) A tatai vzbzis biztonsgba helyezsi terve. Report of Csepregi Ltd.
Csepregi A. (2007) A karsztvztermels hatsa a Dunntli-kzphegysg vzhztartsra. In:
Bnyszati karsztvzszint sllyeszts a Dunntli-kzphegysgben. (Ed.: Alfldi, L, Kapolyi
L.) pp. 77106.
Dek J. (1995): A felszn alatti vizek utnptldsnak meghatrozsa izotpos mdszerekkel
az Alfldn. VITUKI report. Budapest.
Dek J. (2006): A Duna-Tisza kze rtegvz ramlsi rendszernek izotp-hidrolgiai vizs-
glata. PhD thesis. Budapest.
Fogarasi S. (2001) Visszatrnek-e a tatai forrsok? Fldrajzi Konferencia, Szeged. Report. 15.p.
Horusitzky, H. (1923) Tata s Tvros hvforrsainak hidrogeolgija s kzgazdasgijvoje
A Magyar Kirlyi Fldtani Intzet vknyve XXV. ktet 3. fzet, Budapest. pp. 3783.
Maller M., Hajnal G. (2013) A tatai forrsok hidrogeolgiai vizsglata. Mrnkgeolgia-
Kozetmechanika (Ed.: Trk ., Grg P. & Vsrhelyi B.), pp. 718.
Pearson F. J., Jr. (1965) Use of 13C/12C ratios to correct radiocarbon ages of materials initially
diluted by limestones, In: Chatters, R M and Olson, E A, (Eds.), Intern. conf. on 14C and
tritium dating, 6th, Proc: Clearinghouse Fed Sci Tech Inf, NBS, Washington, DC, p 357366.
Theis C.V. (1935) The relation between the lowering of the piezometric surface and the rate
and duration of discharge of a well using groundwater storage, American Geophysical Union
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VITUKI Rt. (2000) Karsztvzvdelem a Kzp-Dunntli Rgiban, Budapest. Report.
(T.: 721/1/4846-1)
Geographic names (Regional)
Apennines (Italy) Javorniki Hruica Mts.

Alburni massif 35 (Ljubljanica River basin, Slovenia)
Matese Picentini Mts. 228 135
Ohrid-Prespa lakes (FRY of Macedonia-
Bacony Mts. (Transdanubian range, Albania-Greece) 30
Hungary) 207, 209, 337 Plitvice Lakes (Croatia) 269
Betic Cordillera (Grazalema Mts., Spain) 157 Rumija Mts. (Skadar Lake, Montenegro-
Albania) 90
Carpathian Mts. Velebit Mt. (Gorski Kotar, Croatia) 180
Aggtelek Slovensky kras (Hungary- Viegrad (Drina River basin, Bosnia &
Slovakia) 64 Herzegovina) 322
Beljanica Mt. (Serbia) 172
Miroc Mt. (Serbia) 259 Genevese aquifer (France-Switzerland) 307
Stara Planina Mt. (Serbia-Bulgaria) 72 Guarani aquifer (Argentina-Brazil-Paraguay-
Uruguay) 303
Dinaric karst
borders 4 Mount Lebanon-Anti Lebanon (Orontes
classification (units) 6, 910 River basin, Lebanon-Syria) 54
dams 1415, 35, 106111, 292
development 5, 6, 292 Nubian aquifer (Lybia-Egypt-Chad-Sudan)
feautures 67, 103 307
flow velocity 10, 330
project (DIKTAS) 4, 16, 292 SE Europe, Near and Middle East and
springs 1113 East Africa 43
system 3, 6 SW China
tectonics 7, 105, 180, 185 Guanxi, Guillin 246
Dinarides Guanxi, Guizhou, Yunnan 311
East Herzegovina (Trebinjica-Neretva
river basins, Bosnia & Herzegovina) 103 Zagros Mts. (Iran) 218
Series IAH-selected papers
Volume 14 Out of Print

5. Nitrates in Groundwater
Edited by: Lidia Razowska-Jaworek and Andrzej Sadurski
2005, ISBN Hb: 90-5809-664-5
6. Groundwater and Human Development
Edited by: Emilia Bocanegra, Mario Hrnandez and Eduardo Usunoff
2005, ISBN Hb: 0-415-36443-4
7. Groundwater Intensive Use
Edited by: A. Sahuquillo, J. Capilla, L. Martinez-Cortina and X. Snchez-Vila
2005, ISBN Hb: 0-415-36444-2
8. Urban Groundwater Meeting the Challenge
Edited by: Ken F.W. Howard
2007, ISBN Hb: 978-0-415-40745-8
9. Groundwater in Fractured Rocks
Edited by: J. Krsn and John M. Sharp
2007, ISBN Hb: 978-0-415-41442-5
10. Aquifer Systems Management: Darcys Legacy in a World of
impending Water Shortage
Edited by: Laurence Chery and Ghislaine de Marsily
2007, ISBN Hb: 978-0-415-44355-5
11. Groundwater Vulnerability Assessment and Mapping
Edited by: Andrzej J. Witkowski, Andrzej Kowalczyk and Jaroslav Vrba
2007, ISBN Hb: 978-0-415-44561-0
12. Groundwater Flow Understanding From Local to Regional Scale
Edited by: J. Joel Carrillo R. and M. Adrian Ortega G.
2008, ISBN Hb: 978-0-415-43678-6
13. Applied Groundwater Studies in Africa
Edited by: Segun Adelana, Alan MacDonald, Tamiru Alemayehu
and Callist Tindimugaya
2008, ISBN Hb: 978-0-415-45273-1
364 Series IAH-selected papers
14. Advances in Subsurface Pollution of Porous Media: Indicators,

Processes and Modelling
Edited by: Lucila Candela, Iaki Vadillo and Francisco Javier Elorza
2008, ISBN Hb: 978-0-415-47690-4
Vogwill SERIES.tex 14/1/2016 13: 51 Page 2
15. Groundwater Governance in the Indo-Gangetic and Yellow River Basins
Realities and Challenges
Edited by: Aditi Mukherji, Karen G. Villholth, Bharat R. Sharma
and Jinxia Wang
2009, ISBN Hb: 978-0-415-46580-9
16. Groundwater Response to Changing Climate
Edited by: Makoto Taniguchi and Ian P. Holman
2010, ISBN Hb: 978-0-415-54493-1
17. Groundwater Quality Sustainability
Edited by: Piotr Maloszewski, Stanisaw Witczak and Grzegorz Malina
2013, ISBN Hb: 978-0-415-69841-2
18. Groundwater and Ecosystems
Edited by: Lus Ribeiro, Tibor Y. Stigter, Antnio Chambel,
M. Teresa Condesso de Melo, Jos Paulo Monteiro and Albino Medeiros
2013, ISBN Hb: 978-1-138-00033-9
19. Assesing and Managing Groundwater in Different Evironments
Edited by: Jude Cobbing, Shafick Adams, Ingrid Dennis & Kornelius Rieman
2013, ISBN Hb: 978-1-138-00100-8
20. Fractured Rock Hydrogeology
Edited by: John M. Sharp
2014, ISBN Hb: 978-1-138-00159-6
21. Calcium and Magnesium in Groundwater: Occurrence and
Significance for Human Health
Edited by: Lidia Razowska-Jaworek
2014, ISBN Hb: 978-1-138-00032-2
22. Solving the Groundwater Challenges of the 21st Century
Edited by: Ryan Vogwill
2016, ISBN Hb: 978-1-138-02747-3
23
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF HYDROGEOLOGISTS SELECTED PAPERS INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF HYDROGEOLOGISTS SELECTED PAPERS
23
Editors:
Karstified rocks, of various lithologies, cover more than 10% of the land surface of

our planet. About 20% of the global population depends on karstic groundwater
Zoran Stevanovic
for its wellbeing, despite limited natural resources and in some places a near Neven Kreic
absence of drinking water. The problems of water shortage, equitable water use Neno Kukuric
and protection from pollution become even more problematic in transboundary
regions. The Dinaric Region is a classical karst area where the borders of newly
established countries have created an urgent need to create sustainable water
management within each country and in the region as a whole. The DIKTAS
project, working in the Dinaric Karst system, is one of the first attempts to
establish sustainable integrated management principles in a transboundary
karst aquifer. This volume highlights some of the DIKTAS project achievements
alongside research from other karst environments worldwide. This book is of
wide interest to scientists working in karst environments, to regulators and
managers of sparse water resources and to all practitioners in the water industry.
It also provides a number of case studies that students will find valuable.
Neno Kukuric
Neven Kreic
Zoran Stevanovic
Editors:
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Karst without Boundaries

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF HYDROGEOLOGISTS

ISBN: 978-1-138-02968-2 (Hbk)

2 How confident are we about the definition of boundaries in karst?

3 WOKAM The world karst aquifer mapping project, examples from

4 Groundwater flow in the Orontes River basin and the SyriaLebanon

5 HungarianSlovakian transboundary karstic groundwater management

6 Development and protection of transboundary karst and karst aquifers

7 An assessment of territory participation in transboundary karst aquifer

9 Spring hydrograph recession:A brief review focused on karst aquifers 117

10 Characterisation of selected karst springs in Slovenia by means

11 Characterisation of the influence of evaporite rocks on

12 3D Spatial modelling of karst channels The Beljanica karst massif 169

13 A field work oriented approach for complex karst aquifer

14 Scale-dependent evaluation of an unconfined carbonate system

15 Characterization of karst system using modelling of rainfall-discharge

17 Water balance analysis of a vadose stream to discern hillslope

18 Hydraulic behaviour of a subthermal karst spring Blederija spring,

19 Delineation of the Plitvice Lakes karst catchment area, Croatia 269

21 Hydrogeological settings for underground dam construction

22 3D Conduit modelling of leakage below a dam situated in highly

23 Reactivation of karst springs after regional mine dewatering

Subject index 359

Bosnia and Herzegovina), one paper discusses consequences of abandoned mine

Dinaric Karst Aquifer One of

The Dinaric system (Dinarides) represents a geologically heterogeneous, south European

DIKTAS is an acronym of the GEF (Global Environment Facility) regional project

1.2 GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY

14,000000 16,000000 18,000000 20,000000

Pula Croatia Banja Luka

Dinaric Karst Boundary

14,000000 16,000000 18,000000 20,000000

0 25 50 100 150 200

Submarine spring 600

1.3 ARTIFICIAL CONTROL OF KARST WATERS

Figure 1.11 Grancarevo dam (Trebinje, Bosnia & Herzegovina).

1.4 KARST AQUIFER MANAGEMENT AND

1. Insufficient knowledge of the distribution and properties of aquifers. Despite many

Insuch circumstances the principles of EU Water Framework Directive regarding eco-

The Ecosystem Based Management Approach; and

Proposed Action Proposed for TBA(s), not exclusive

1.Establishment of a common groundwater All TBAs

With this vision in mind, the following objectives were planned:

Policy, legislative and institutional actions;

How confident are we about

2.1 INTRODUCTION: THE KARST ENVIRONMENT

Non-sustainable use of aquifers, and lack of adequate management of groundwater.

Excessive use of agro-chemicals, with likely contamination of aquifers.

Karst aquifers, in particular, require application of specific hydrogeological

2.2 THE MEANING OF TRANSBOUNDARY

The high importance of transboundary water resources has been recognised

2.3 APPLYING THE CONCEPTS OF RESILIENCE AND

WOKAM The world karst

3.2 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH

Classification of karst aquifers (including criteria such as lithology, porosity,

In addition, management of such a project is not an easy task because due to

3.2.1 Rock complexes Aquifer systems

3.2.2 Deep and confined karst aquifers

3.2.3 WOKAM GIS database

3.2.4 Case example Springs and caves of

is almost entirely carbonate (limestones and dolomites), while varieties of evaporitic

3.3 DRAFT MAP OF THE STUDIED REGION

1.Establishment of a common groundwater All TBAs