World War I

1/20/2017 WorldWarIWikipedia
WorldWarI
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
WorldWarI(WWIorWW1),alsoknownastheFirst
WorldWar,ortheGreatWar,wasaglobalwar WorldWarI
originatinginEuropethatlastedfrom28July1914to11
November1918.Morethan70millionmilitarypersonnel,
including60millionEuropeans,weremobilisedinoneof
thelargestwarsinhistory.[5][6]Overninemillion
combatantsandsevenmillionciviliansdiedasaresultof
thewar(includingthevictimsofanumberofgenocides),a
casualtyrateexacerbatedbythebelligerents'technological
andindustrialsophistication,andthetacticalstalemate
causedbygruellingtrenchwarfare.Itwasoneofthe
deadliestconflictsinhistory,andpavedthewayformajor
politicalchanges,includingrevolutionsinmanyofthe
nationsinvolved.[7]
Thewardrewinalltheworld'seconomicgreatpowers,[8]
assembledintwoopposingalliances:theAllies(basedon
theTripleEntenteoftheRussianEmpire,theFrenchThird
Republic,andtheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainand Clockwisefromthetop:Theaftermathofshelling
Ireland)versustheCentralPowersofGermanyand duringtheBattleoftheSomme,MarkVtankscross
AustriaHungary.AlthoughItalywasamemberofthe theHindenburgLine,HMSIrresistiblesinksafter
TripleAlliancealongsideGermanyandAustriaHungary,it
hittingamineintheDardanelles,aBritishVickers
didnotjointheCentralPowers,asAustriaHungaryhad
machineguncrewwearsgasmasksduringtheBattle
takentheoffensive,againstthetermsofthealliance.[9]
oftheSomme,AlbatrosD.IIIfightersofJagdstaffel
Theseallianceswerereorganisedandexpandedasmore
11
nationsenteredthewar:Italy,JapanandtheUnitedStates
joinedtheAllies,whiletheOttomanEmpireandBulgaria Date 28July191411November1918
joinedtheCentralPowers. (4years,3monthsand2weeks)
Peacetreaties
ThetriggerforthewarwastheassassinationofArchduke
FranzFerdinandofAustria,heirtothethroneofAustria Location Europe,Africa,theMiddleEast,the
Hungary,byYugoslavnationalistGavriloPrincipin PacificIslands,China,IndianOcean,
Sarajevoon28June1914.Thissetoffadiplomaticcrisis andoffthecoastofSouthandNorth
whenAustriaHungarydeliveredanultimatumtothe America
KingdomofSerbia,[10][11]andentangledinternational Result Alliedvictory
alliancesformedoverthepreviousdecadeswereinvoked.
Withinweeks,themajorpowerswereatwarandthe EndoftheGerman,Russian,
conflictsoonspreadaroundtheworld. Ottoman,andAustroHungarian
empires
On28July,theAustroHungariansdeclaredwaron
Formationofnewcountriesin
Serbia.[12][13]AsRussiamobilisedinsupportofSerbia,
EuropeandtheMiddleEast
GermanyinvadedneutralBelgiumandLuxembourgbefore
TransferofGermancoloniesand
movingtowardsFrance,leadingtheUnitedKingdomto
declarewaronGermany.AftertheGermanmarchonParis regionsoftheformerOttoman
washalted,whatbecameknownastheWesternFront Empiretootherpowers
settledintoabattleofattrition,withatrenchlinethat EstablishmentoftheLeagueof
changedlittleuntil1917.OntheEasternFront,theRussian Nations.(more...)
armywassuccessfulagainsttheAustroHungarians,but
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I 1/54
theGermansstoppeditsinvasionofEastPrussia.In Belligerents
November1914,theOttomanEmpirejoinedtheCentral
Powers,openingfrontsintheCaucasus,Mesopotamiaand AlliedPowers CentralPowers
theSinai.In1915,ItalyjoinedtheAlliesandBulgaria France Germany
joinedtheCentralPowersRomaniajoinedtheAlliesin BritishEmpire AustriaHungary
Russia (191417) OttomanEmpire
1916,asdidtheUnitedStatesin1917.
Serbia Bulgaria (191518)
TheRussiangovernmentcollapsedinMarch1917,anda Montenegro
Belgium ...andcobelligerents
revolutioninNovemberfollowedbyafurthermilitary
Japan
defeatbroughttheRussianstotermswiththeCentral
Italy (191518)
PowersviatheTreatyofBrestLitovsk,whichgrantedthe
Portugal (191618)
Germansasignificantvictory.AfterastunningGerman Romania (191618)
offensivealongtheWesternFrontinthespringof1918,the Hejaz (191618)
AlliesralliedanddrovebacktheGermansinaseriesof UnitedStates (1917
successfuloffensives.On4November1918,theAustro 18)
Hungarianempireagreedtoanarmistice,andGermany, Greece (191718)
whichhaditsowntroublewithrevolutionaries,agreedto Siam (191718)
anarmisticeon11November1918,endingthewarin
victoryfortheAllies. ...andothers
Commandersandleaders
Bytheendofthewarorsoonafter,theGermanEmpire,
RussianEmpire,AustroHungarianEmpireandthe Alliedleaders CentralPowersleaders
OttomanEmpireceasedtoexist.Nationalborderswere GeorgesClemenceau WilhelmII
redrawn,withseveralindependentnationsrestoredor RaymondPoincar FranzJosephI
created,andGermany'scolonieswereparceledoutamong H.H.Asquith KarlI
thevictors.DuringtheParisPeaceConferenceof1919,the DavidLloydGeorge MehmedV
BigFour(Britain,France,theUnitedStatesandItaly) VittorioOrlando ThreePashas
imposedtheirtermsinaseriesoftreaties.TheLeagueof VictorEmmanuelIII FerdinandI
Nationswasformedwiththeaimofpreventingany WoodrowWilson
Yoshihito ...andothers
repetitionofsuchaconflict.Thiseffortfailed,and
NicholasII
economicdepression,renewednationalism,weakened
PeterI
successorstates,andfeelingsofhumiliation(particularlyin FerdinandI
Germany)eventuallycontributedtoWorldWarII.
...andothers
Strength
Contents
12,000,000 13,250,000
1 Names 8,841,541[1][2] 7,800,000
2 Background 8,660,000[3] 2,998,321
2.1 Politicalandmilitaryalliances 5,615,140 1,200,000
2.2 Armsrace 4,743,826
2.3 ConflictsintheBalkans 1,234,000 Total:25,248,321[4]
3 Prelude 800,000
3.1 Sarajevoassassination 707,343
3.2 JulyCrisis 380,000
4 Progressofthewar 250,000
4.1 Openinghostilities 50,000
4.1.1 ConfusionamongtheCentral
Powers Total:42,959,850[4]
4.1.2 Serbiancampaign
4.1.3 GermanforcesinBelgiumand Casualtiesandlosses
France Militarydead: Militarydead:
4.1.4 AsiaandthePacific 5,525,000 4,386,000
4.1.5 Africancampaigns Militarywounded: Militarywounded:
4.1.6 IndiansupportfortheAllies
4.2 WesternFront
4.2 WesternFront 12,831,500 8,388,000

4.2.1 Trenchwarfarebegins Militarymissing: Militarymissing:
4.2.2 Continuationoftrenchwarfare
4,121,000 3,629,000
4.3 Navalwar
4.4 Southerntheatres Total: Total:
4.4.1 WarintheBalkans 22,477,500KIA,WIAor 16,403,000KIA,WIAor
4.4.2 OttomanEmpire MIA MIA
4.4.3 Italianparticipation ...furtherdetails. ...furtherdetails.
4.4.4 Romanianparticipation
4.5 EasternFront
4.5.1 Initialactions
4.5.2 RussianRevolution
4.5.3 CzechoslovakLegion
4.6 CentralPowerspeaceovertures
4.7 19171918
4.7.1 Developmentsin1917
4.7.2 OttomanEmpireconflict,1917
1918
4.7.3 EntryoftheUnitedStates
4.7.4 GermanSpringOffensiveof
1918
4.7.5 Newstatesunderwarzone
4.8 Alliedvictory:summer1918onwards
4.8.1 HundredDaysOffensive
4.8.2 Armisticesandcapitulations
5 Aftermath
5.1 Formalendofthewar
5.2 Peacetreatiesandnationalboundaries
5.3 Nationalidentities
5.4 Healtheffects
6 Technology
6.1 Groundwarfare
6.2 Naval
6.3 Aviation
7 Warcrimes
7.1 Baralongincidents
7.2 TorpedoingofHMHSLlandovery
Castle
7.3 Chemicalweaponsinwarfare
7.4 Genocideandethniccleansing
7.4.1 RussianEmpire
7.5 RapeofBelgium
8 Soldiers'experiences
8.1 Prisonersofwar
8.2 Militaryattachsandwar
correspondents
9 Supportandoppositiontothewar
9.1 Support
9.2 Opposition
9.2.1 Conscription
10 Legacyandmemory
10.1 Historiography
10.2 Memorials
10.3 Culturalmemory
10.4 Socialtrauma
10.5 DiscontentinGermany
10.6 Economiceffects
11 Seealso
12 Footnotes
12 Footnotes
13 Notes
14 References
14.1 Primarysources
14.2 Historiographyandmemory
15 Externallinks
15.1 Animatedmaps
15.2 Libraryguides
Names
FromthetimeofitsstartuntiltheapproachofWorldWarII,theFirstWorldWarwascalledsimplytheWorld
WarortheGreatWarandthereaftertheFirstWorldWarorWorldWarI.[14][15]Atthetime,itwasalso
sometimescalled"thewartoendwar"or"thewartoendallwars"duetoitsthenunparalleledscaleand
devastation.[16]
InCanada,Maclean'smagazineinOctober1914wrote,"Somewarsnamethemselves.ThisistheGreat
War."[17]Duringtheinterwarperiod(19181939),thewarwasmostoftencalledtheWorldWarandtheGreat
WarinEnglishspeakingcountries.
Theterm"FirstWorldWar"wasfirstusedinSeptember1914bytheGermanbiologistandphilosopherErnst
Haeckel,whoclaimedthat"thereisnodoubtthatthecourseandcharacterofthefeared'EuropeanWar'...will
becomethefirstworldwarinthefullsenseoftheword,"[18]citingawireservicereportinTheIndianapolis
Staron20September1914.AftertheonsetoftheSecondWorldWarin1939,thetermsWorldWarIorthe
FirstWorldWarbecamestandard,withBritishandCanadianhistoriansfavouringtheFirstWorldWar,and
AmericansWorldWarI.[19]
Background
Politicalandmilitaryalliances
Duringthe19thcentury,themajorEuropeanpowerswent
togreatlengthstomaintainabalanceofpowerthroughout
Europe,resultingintheexistenceofacomplexnetworkof
politicalandmilitaryalliancesthroughoutthecontinentby
1900.[20]Thesebeganin1815,withtheHolyAlliance
betweenPrussia,Russia,andAustria.WhenGermanywas
unitedin1871,PrussiabecamepartofthenewGerman
nation.Soonafter,inOctober1873,GermanChancellor
OttovonBismarcknegotiatedtheLeagueoftheThree MilitaryalliancesleadingtoWorldWarITriple
Emperors(German:Dreikaiserbund)betweenthe EntenteingreenTripleAllianceinbrown
monarchsofAustriaHungary,RussiaandGermany.This
agreementfailedbecauseAustriaHungaryandRussia
couldnotagreeoverBalkanpolicy,leavingGermanyandAustriaHungaryinanallianceformedin1879,
calledtheDualAlliance.ThiswasseenasamethodofcounteringRussianinfluenceintheBalkansasthe
OttomanEmpirecontinuedtoweaken.[9]Thisallianceexpanded,in1882,toincludeItalyinwhatbecamethe
TripleAlliance.[21]
BismarckhadespeciallyworkedtoholdRussiaatGermany'ssideinanefforttoavoidatwofrontwarwith
FranceandRussia.WhenWilhelmIIascendedtothethroneasGermanEmperor(Kaiser),Bismarckwas
compelledtoretireandhissystemofallianceswasgraduallydeemphasised.Forexample,theKaiserrefused,
in1890,torenewtheReinsuranceTreatywithRussia.Twoyearslater,theFrancoRussianAlliancewassigned
tocounteracttheforceoftheTripleAlliance.In1904,BritainsignedaseriesofagreementswithFrance,the
EntenteCordiale,andin1907,BritainandRussiasignedtheAngloRussianConvention.Whilethese
agreementsdidnotformallyallyBritainwithFranceorRussia,theymadeBritishentryintoanyfutureconflict
involvingFranceorRussiaapossibility,andthesystemofinterlockingbilateralagreementsbecameknownas
theTripleEntente.[9]
Armsrace
Germanindustrialandeconomicpowerhadgrowngreatlyafter
unificationandthefoundationoftheEmpirein1871followingthe
FrancoPrussianWar.Fromthemid1890son,thegovernmentof
WilhelmIIusedthisbasetodevotesignificanteconomicresourcesfor
buildinguptheKaiserlicheMarine(ImperialGermanNavy),
establishedbyAdmiralAlfredvonTirpitz,inrivalrywiththeBritish
RoyalNavyforworldnavalsupremacy.[22]Asaresult,eachnation SMSRheinland,aNassauclass
strovetooutbuildtheotherincapitalships.Withthelaunchof battleship,Germany'sfirstresponseto
HMSDreadnoughtin1906,theBritishEmpireexpandedonits Dreadnought.
significantadvantageoveritsGermanrival.[22]Thearmsracebetween
BritainandGermanyeventuallyextendedtotherestofEurope,withall
themajorpowersdevotingtheirindustrialbasetoproducingtheequipmentandweaponsnecessaryforapan
Europeanconflict.[23]Between1908and1913,themilitaryspendingoftheEuropeanpowersincreasedby
50%.[24]
ConflictsintheBalkans
AustriaHungaryprecipitatedtheBosniancrisisof19081909by
officiallyannexingtheformerOttomanterritoryofBosniaand
Herzegovina,whichithadoccupiedsince1878.Thisangeredthe
KingdomofSerbiaanditspatron,thePanSlavicandOrthodoxRussian
Empire.Russianpoliticalmanoeuvringintheregiondestabilisedpeace
accords,whichwerealreadyfracturingintheBalkanswhichcametobe
knownasthe"powderkegofEurope".[25]In1912and1913,theFirst
BalkanWarwasfoughtbetweentheBalkanLeagueandthefracturing Sarajevocitizensreadingaposter
OttomanEmpire.TheresultingTreatyofLondonfurthershrankthe withtheproclamationoftheAustrian
OttomanEmpire,creatinganindependentAlbanianstatewhile annexationin1908.
enlargingtheterritorialholdingsofBulgaria,Serbia,Montenegro,and
Greece.WhenBulgariaattackedSerbiaandGreeceon16June1913,itlostmostofMacedoniatoSerbiaand
GreeceandSouthernDobrujatoRomaniainthe33daySecondBalkanWar,furtherdestabilisingtheregion.[26]
TheGreatPowerswereabletokeeptheseBalkanconflictscontained,butthenextonewouldspreadthroughout
Europe,andbeyond.
Prelude
Sarajevoassassination
On28June1914,AustrianArchdukeFranzFerdinandvisitedtheBosniancapital,Sarajevo.Agroupofsix
assassins(CvjetkoPopovi,GavriloPrincip,MuhamedMehmedbai,Nedeljkoabrinovi,TrifkoGrabe,
Vasoubrilovi)fromthenationalistgroupMladaBosna,suppliedbytheBlackHand,hadgatheredonthe
streetwheretheArchduke'smotorcadewouldpass,withtheintentionofassassinatinghim.abrinovithrewa
grenadeatthecar,butmissed.Somenearbywereinjuredbytheblast,butFerdinand'sconvoycarriedon.The
otherassassinsfailedtoactasthecarsdrovepastthem.
Aboutanhourlater,whenFerdinandwasreturningfromavisitatthe
SarajevoHospitalwiththosewoundedintheassassinationattempt,the
convoytookawrongturnintoastreetwhere,bycoincidence,Princip
stood.Withapistol,PrincipshotandkilledFerdinandandhiswife
Sophie.ThereactionamongthepeopleinAustriawasmild,almost
indifferent.AshistorianZbynkZemanlaterwrote,"theeventalmost
failedtomakeanyimpressionwhatsoever.OnSundayandMonday(28
and29June),thecrowdsinViennalistenedtomusicanddrankwine,as
ifnothinghadhappened."[29][30] Thispictureisusuallyassociatedwith
thearrestofGavriloPrincip,
TheAustroHungarianauthoritiesencouragedtheantiSerbriotsin
althoughsome[27][28]believeit
Sarajevo,inwhichCroatsandBosniakskilledtwoethnicSerbsand depictsFerdinandBehr,abystander.
damagednumerousSerbownedbuildings.[31][32]Violentactionsagainst
ethnicSerbswerealsoorganizedoutsideSarajevo,inlargeAustro
HungariancitiesinmoderndayBosniaandHerzegovina,Croatiaand
Slovenia.AustroHungarianauthoritiesinBosniaandHerzegovina
imprisonedandextraditedapproximately5,500prominentSerbs,700to
2,200ofwhomdiedinprison.Afurther460Serbsweresentencedto
deathandapredominantlyBosniakspecialmilitiaknownasthe
Schutzkorpswasestablishedandcarriedoutthepersecutionof
Serbs.[33][34][35][36]
JulyCrisis Crowdsonthestreetsintheaftermath
oftheantiSerbriotsinSarajevo,29
Theassassinationledtoamonthofdiplomaticmanoeuvringbetween June1914
AustriaHungary,Germany,Russia,FranceandBritain,calledtheJuly
Crisis.BelievingcorrectlythatSerbianofficials(especiallytheofficers
oftheBlackHand)wereinvolvedintheplottomurdertheArchduke
andwantingtofinallyendSerbianinterferenceinBosnia,[37]Austria
HungarydeliveredtoSerbiaon23JulytheJulyUltimatum,aseriesof
tendemandsthatweremadeintentionallyunacceptable,inaneffortto
provokeawarwithSerbia.[38]Thenextday,aftertheCouncilof
MinistersofRussiawasheldunderthechairmanshipoftheTsarat
KrasnoeSelo,RussiaorderedgeneralmobilizationforOdessa,Kiev,
KazanandMoscowmilitarydistrictsandfleetsoftheBalticandthe
BlackSea.Theyalsoaskedforotherregionstoacceleratepreparations
forgeneralmobilization.Serbiadecreedgeneralmobilizationonthe EthnolinguisticmapofAustria
25thand,thatnight,declaredthattheyacceptedallthetermsofthe Hungary,1910.BosniaHerzegovina
ultimatum,exceptarticlesix,whichdemandedthatAustriandelegates wasannexedin1908.
beallowedinSerbiaforthepurposeofparticipationintheinvestigation
intotheassassination.Followingthis,AustriabrokeoffdiplomaticrelationswithSerbiaand,thenextday,
orderedapartialmobilization.Finally,on28July1914,AustriaHungarydeclaredwaronSerbia.
On29July,Russia,insupportofitsSerbprotg,unilaterallydeclaredoutsideoftheconciliationprocedure
providedbytheFrancoRussianmilitaryagreementspartialmobilizationagainstAustriaHungary.German
ChancellorBethmannHollwegwasthenalloweduntilthe31stforanappropriateresponse.Onthe30th,Russia
orderedgeneralmobilizationagainstGermany.Inresponse,thefollowingday,Germanydeclareda"stateof
dangerofwar".ThisalsoledtothegeneralmobilizationinAustriaHungaryon4August.KaiserWilhelmII
askedhiscousin,TsarNicolasII,tosuspendtheRussiangeneralmobilization.Whenherefused,Germany
issuedanultimatumdemandingthearrestofitsmobilizationandcommitmentnottosupportSerbia.Another
wassenttoFrance,askinghernottosupportRussiaifitweretocometothedefenceofSerbia.On1August,
aftertheRussianresponse,GermanymobilizedanddeclaredwaronRussia.
TheGermangovernmentissueddemandstoFrancethatitremainneutralastheyhadtodecidewhich
deploymentplantoimplement,itbeingdifficultifnotimpossibletochangethedeploymentwhilstitwas
underway.ThemodifiedGermanSchlieffenPlan,AufmarschIIWest,woulddeploy80%ofthearmyinthe
west,andAufmarschIOstandAufmarschIIOstwoulddeploy60%inthewestand40%intheeastasthiswas
themaximumthattheEastPrussianrailwayinfrastructurecouldcarry.TheFrenchdidnotrespondbutsenta
mixedmessagebyorderingtheirtroopstowithdraw10km(6mi)fromthebordertoavoidanyincidents,butat
thesametimeorderedthemobilisationofherreserves.Germanyrespondedbymobilisingitsownreservesand
implementingAufmarschIIWest.GermanyattackedLuxembourgon2Augustandon3Augustdeclaredwar
onFrance.On4August,afterBelgiumrefusedtopermitGermantroopstocrossitsbordersintoFrance,
GermanydeclaredwaronBelgiumaswell.[39][40][41]BritaindeclaredwaronGermanyat19:00UTCon4
August1914(effectivefrom11pm),followingan"unsatisfactoryreply"totheBritishultimatumthatBelgium
mustbekeptneutral.[42]
Progressofthewar
Openinghostilities
ConfusionamongtheCentralPowers
ThestrategyoftheCentralPowerssufferedfrommiscommunication.Germanyhadpromisedtosupport
AustriaHungary'sinvasionofSerbia,butinterpretationsofwhatthismeantdiffered.Previouslytested
deploymentplanshadbeenreplacedearlyin1914,butthosehadneverbeentestedinexercises.Austro
HungarianleadersbelievedGermanywouldcoveritsnorthernflankagainstRussia.[43]Germany,however,
envisionedAustriaHungarydirectingmostofitstroopsagainstRussia,whileGermanydealtwithFrance.This
confusionforcedtheAustroHungarianArmytodivideitsforcesbetweentheRussianandSerbianfronts.
Serbiancampaign
AustriainvadedandfoughttheSerbianarmyattheBattleofCerand
BattleofKolubarabeginningon12August.Overthenexttwoweeks,
Austrianattackswerethrownbackwithheavylosses,whichmarkedthe
firstmajorAlliedvictoriesofthewaranddashedAustroHungarian
hopesofaswiftvictory.Asaresult,Austriahadtokeepsizableforces
ontheSerbianfront,weakeningitseffortsagainstRussia.[44]Serbia's
defeatoftheAustroHungarianinvasionof1914countsamongthe
SerbianArmyBlriotXI"Oluj",
majorupsetvictoriesofthetwentiethcentury.[45] 1915
GermanforcesinBelgiumandFrance
AttheoutbreakofWorldWarI,80%oftheGermanarmywasdeployed
assevenfieldarmiesinthewestaccordingtotheplanAufmarschII
West.However,theywerethenassignedtoexecutetheretired
deploymentplanAufmarschIWest,alsoknownastheSchlieffenPlan.
ThiswouldmarchGermanarmiesthroughnorthernBelgiumandinto
France,inanattempttoencircletheFrencharmyandthenbreachthe
'seconddefensivearea'ofthefortressesofVerdunandParisandthe
Marneriver.[10]
AufmarschIWestwasoneoffourdeploymentplansavailabletothe
GermanGeneralStaffin1914.Eachplanfavouredcertainoperations,
BritishhospitalattheWesternFront. butdidnotspecifyexactlyhowthoseoperationsweretobecarriedout,
leavingthecommandingofficerstocarrythoseoutattheirown
initiativeandwithminimaloversight.AufmarschIWest,designedforaonefrontwarwithFrance,hadbeen
retiredonceitbecameclearitwasirrelevanttothewarsGermanycouldexpecttofacebothRussiaandBritain
wereexpectedtohelpFrance,andtherewasnopossibilityofItaliannorAustroHungariantroopsbeing
availableforoperationsagainstFrance.Butdespiteitsunsuitability,andtheavailabilityofmoresensibleand
decisiveoptions,itretainedacertainallureduetoitsoffensivenatureandthepessimismofprewarthinking,
whichexpectedoffensiveoperationstobeshortlived,costlyincasualties,andunlikelytobedecisive.
Accordingly,theAufmarschIIWestdeploymentwaschangedfortheoffensiveof1914,despiteitsunrealistic
goalsandtheinsufficientforcesGermanyhadavailablefordecisivesuccess.[46]MoltketookSchlieffen'splan
andmodifiedthedeploymentofforcesonthewesternfrontbyreducingtherightwing,theonetoadvance
throughBelgium,from85%to70%.Intheend,theSchlieffenplanwassoradicallymodifiedbyMoltke,thatit
couldbemoreproperlycalledtheMoltkePlan.[47]
TheplancalledfortherightflankoftheGermanadvancetobypasstheFrencharmiesconcentratedonthe
FrancoGermanborder,defeattheFrenchforcesclosertoLuxembourgandBelgiumandmovesouthtoParis.
InitiallytheGermansweresuccessful,particularlyintheBattleoftheFrontiers(1424August).By12
September,theFrench,withassistancefromtheBritishExpeditionaryForce(BEF),haltedtheGermanadvance
eastofParisattheFirstBattleoftheMarne(512September)andpushedtheGermanforcesbacksome50km
(31mi).TheFrenchoffensiveintosouthernAlsace,launchedon20AugustwiththeBattleofMulhouse,had
limitedsuccess.
Intheeast,Russiainvadedwithtwoarmies.Inresponse,Germany
rapidlymovedthe8thFieldArmyfromitspreviousroleasreservefor
theinvasionofFrancetoEastPrussiabyrailacrosstheGermanEmpire.
Thisarmy,ledbygeneralPaulvonHindenburgdefeatedRussiaina
seriesofbattlescollectivelyknownastheFirstBattleofTannenberg(17
August2September).WhiletheRussianinvasionfailed,itcausedthe
diversionofGermantroopstotheeast,allowingtheAlliedvictoryatthe
FirstBattleoftheMarne.ThismeantGermanyfailedtoachieveits
objectiveofavoidingalong,twofrontwar.However,theGermanarmy
hadfoughtitswayintoagooddefensivepositioninsideFranceand Germansoldiersinarailwaygoods
effectivelyhalvedFrance'ssupplyofcoal.Ithadalsokilledor wagononthewaytothefrontin
permanentlycrippled230,000moreFrenchandBritishtroopsthanit 1914.Earlyinthewar,allsides
itselfhadlost.Despitethis,communicationsproblemsandquestionable expectedtheconflicttobeashort
commanddecisionscostGermanythechanceofamoredecisive one.
outcome.[48]
AsiaandthePacific
NewZealandoccupiedGermanSamoa(laterWesternSamoa)on30
August1914.On11September,theAustralianNavalandMilitary
ExpeditionaryForcelandedontheislandofNeuPommern(laterNew
Britain),whichformedpartofGermanNewGuinea.On28October,the
GermancruiserSMSEmdensanktheRussiancruiserZhemchuginthe
BattleofPenang.JapanseizedGermany'sMicronesiancoloniesand,
aftertheSiegeofTsingtao,theGermancoalingportofQingdaoonthe
ChineseShandongpeninsula.AsViennarefusedtowithdrawthe
AustroHungariancruiserSMSKaiserinElisabethfromTsingtao,Japan
declaredwarnotonlyonGermany,butalsoonAustriaHungarythe MilitaryrecruitmentinMelbourne,
shipparticipatedinthedefenseofTsingtaowhereitwassunkin Australia,1914.
November1914.[49]Withinafewmonths,theAlliedforceshadseized
alltheGermanterritoriesinthePacificonlyisolatedcommerceraiders
andafewholdoutsinNewGuinearemained.[50][51]
Africancampaigns
SomeofthefirstclashesofthewarinvolvedBritish,French,and
GermancolonialforcesinAfrica.On67August,FrenchandBritish
troopsinvadedtheGermanprotectorateofTogolandandKamerun.On
10August,GermanforcesinSouthWestAfricaattackedSouthAfrica
sporadicandfiercefightingcontinuedfortherestofthewar.The
GermancolonialforcesinGermanEastAfrica,ledbyColonelPaulvon
LettowVorbeck,foughtaguerrillawarfarecampaignduringWorldWar Mapofcolonialempiresthroughout
Iandonlysurrenderedtwoweeksafterthearmisticetookeffectin theworldin1914
Europe.[52]
IndiansupportfortheAllies
GermanyattemptedtouseIndiannationalismandpanIslamismtoitsadvantage.Shetriedinstigatinguprisings
inIndia,andsentamissiontoAfghanistanurginghertojointhewaronthesideofCentralpowers.However,
contrarytoBritishfearsofarevoltinIndia,theoutbreakofthewarsawanunprecedentedoutpouringofloyalty
andgoodwilltowardsBritain.[53][54]IndianpoliticalleadersfromtheIndianNationalCongressandother
groupswereeagertosupporttheBritishwareffort,sincetheybelievedthatstrongsupportforthewareffort
wouldfurtherthecauseofIndianHomeRule.TheIndianArmyinfactoutnumberedtheBritishArmyatthe
beginningofthewarabout1.3millionIndiansoldiersandlabourersservedinEurope,Africa,andtheMiddle
East,whilethecentralgovernmentandtheprincelystatessentlargesuppliesoffood,money,andammunition.
Inall,140,000menservedontheWesternFrontandnearly700,000intheMiddleEast.CasualtiesofIndian
soldierstotalled47,746killedand65,126woundedduringWorldWarI.[55]Thesufferingengenderedbythe
war,aswellasthefailureoftheBritishgovernmenttograntselfgovernmenttoIndiaaftertheendof
hostilities,breddisillusionmentandfuelledthecampaignforfullindependencethatwouldbeledbyMohandas
K.Gandhiandothers.
WesternFront
Trenchwarfarebegins
MilitarytacticsdevelopedbeforeWorldWarIfailedtokeeppacewith
advancesintechnologyandhadbecomeobsolete.Theseadvanceshad
allowedthecreationofstrongdefensivesystems,whichoutofdate
militarytacticscouldnotbreakthroughformostofthewar.Barbedwire
wasasignificanthindrancetomassedinfantryadvances,whileartillery,
vastlymorelethalthaninthe1870s,coupledwithmachineguns,made
crossingopengroundextremelydifficult.[56]Commandersonbothsides
failedtodeveloptacticsforbreachingentrenchedpositionswithout
heavycasualties.Intime,however,technologybegantoproducenew
offensiveweapons,suchasgaswarfareandthetank.[57] RoyalIrishRiflesina
communicationstrench,firstdayon
JustaftertheFirstBattleoftheMarne(512September1914),Entente theSomme,1916.
andGermanforcesrepeatedlyattemptedmanoeuvringtothenorthinan
efforttooutflankeachother:thisseriesofmanoeuvresbecameknownasthe"RacetotheSea".Whenthese
outflankingeffortsfailed,theopposingforcessoonfoundthemselvesfacinganuninterruptedlineofentrenched
positionsfromLorrainetoBelgium'scoast.[10]BritainandFrancesoughttotaketheoffensive,whileGermany
defendedtheoccupiedterritories.Consequently,Germantrenchesweremuchbetterconstructedthanthoseof
theirenemyAngloFrenchtrencheswereonlyintendedtobe"temporary"beforetheirforcesbrokethroughthe
Germandefences.[58]
Bothsidestriedtobreakthestalemateusingscientificandtechnologicaladvances.On22April1915,atthe
SecondBattleofYpres,theGermans(violatingtheHagueConvention)usedchlorinegasforthefirsttimeon
theWesternFront.Severaltypesofgassoonbecamewidelyusedbybothsides,andthoughitneverproveda
decisive,battlewinningweapon,poisongasbecameoneofthemostfearedandbestrememberedhorrorsofthe
war.[59][60]TanksweredevelopedbyBritainandFrance,andwerefirstusedincombatbytheBritishduringthe
BattleofFlersCourcelette(partoftheBattleoftheSomme)on15September1916,withonlypartialsuccess.
However,theireffectivenesswouldgrowasthewarprogressedtheAlliesbuilttanksinlargenumbers,whilst
theGermansemployedonlyafewoftheirowndesign,supplementedbycapturedAlliedtanks.
Continuationoftrenchwarfare
Neithersideprovedabletodeliveradecisiveblowforthenexttwoyears.
Throughout191517,theBritishEmpireandFrancesufferedmorecasualties
thanGermany,becauseofboththestrategicandtacticalstanceschosenbythe
sides.Strategically,whiletheGermansonlymountedonemajoroffensive,the
AlliesmadeseveralattemptstobreakthroughtheGermanlines.
InFebruary1916theGermansattackedtheFrenchdefensivepositionsat
Verdun.LastinguntilDecember1916,thebattlesawinitialGermangains,
beforeFrenchcounterattacksreturnedmatterstoneartheirstartingpoint.
CasualtiesweregreaterfortheFrench,buttheGermansbledheavilyaswell,
withanywherefrom700,000[61]to975,000[62]casualtiessufferedbetweenthe
twocombatants.VerdunbecameasymbolofFrenchdeterminationandself
French87thregimentnear sacrifice.[63]
Verdun,1916.
TheBattleoftheSommewasanAnglo
FrenchoffensiveofJulytoNovember1916.Theopeningofthis
offensive(1July1916)sawtheBritishArmyendurethebloodiestday
initshistory,suffering57,470casualties,including19,240dead,onthe
firstdayalone.TheentireSommeoffensivecosttheBritishArmysome
420,000casualties.TheFrenchsufferedanotherestimated200,000
casualtiesandtheGermansanestimated500,000.[64]
KingGeorgeV(frontleft)anda
ProtractedactionatVerdunthroughout1916,[65]combinedwiththe
groupofofficialsinspectaBritish
bloodlettingattheSomme,broughttheexhaustedFrencharmytothe
munitionsfactoryin1917.
brinkofcollapse.Futileattemptsusingfrontalassaultcameatahigh
priceforboththeBritishandtheFrenchandledtothewidespread
FrenchArmyMutinies,afterthefailureofthecostlyNivelleOffensive
ofAprilMay1917.[66]TheconcurrentBritishBattleofArraswasmore
limitedinscope,andmoresuccessful,althoughultimatelyoflittle
strategicvalue.[67][68]AsmallerpartoftheArrasoffensive,thecapture
ofVimyRidgebytheCanadianCorps,becamehighlysignificanttothat
country:theideathatCanada'snationalidentitywasbornoutofthe
battleisanopinionwidelyheldinmilitaryandgeneralhistoriesof
Canada.[69][70]
ThelastlargescaleoffensiveofthisperiodwasaBritishattack(with Canadiantroopsadvancingwitha
Frenchsupport)atPasschendaele(JulyNovember1917).This BritishMarkIItankattheBattleof
offensiveopenedwithgreatpromisefortheAllies,beforebogging VimyRidge,1917.
downintheOctobermud.Casualties,thoughdisputed,wereroughly
equal,atsome200,000400,000perside.
TheseyearsoftrenchwarfareintheWestsawnomajorexchangesofterritoryand,asaresult,areoftenthought
ofasstaticandunchanging.However,throughoutthisperiod,British,French,andGermantacticsconstantly
evolvedtomeetnewbattlefieldchallenges.
Navalwar
Atthestartofthewar,theGermanEmpirehadcruisersscatteredacross
theglobe,someofwhichweresubsequentlyusedtoattackAllied
merchantshipping.TheBritishRoyalNavysystematicallyhuntedthem
down,thoughnotwithoutsomeembarrassmentfromitsinabilityto
protectAlliedshipping.Forexample,theGermandetachedlightcruiser
SMSEmden,partoftheEastAsiasquadronstationedatQingdao,
seizedordestroyed15merchantmen,aswellassinkingaRussian
cruiserandaFrenchdestroyer.However,mostoftheGermanEastAsia BattleshipsoftheHochseeflotte,
squadronconsistingofthearmouredcruisersScharnhorstand 1917.
Gneisenau,lightcruisersNrnbergandLeipzigandtwotransportships
didnothaveorderstoraidshippingandwasinsteadunderwayto
GermanywhenitmetBritishwarships.TheGermanflotillaandDresdensanktwoarmouredcruisersatthe
BattleofCoronel,butwasvirtuallydestroyedattheBattleoftheFalklandIslandsinDecember1914,withonly
Dresdenandafewauxiliariesescaping,butaftertheBattleofMsaTierrathesetoohadbeendestroyedor
interned.[71]
Soonaftertheoutbreakofhostilities,BritainbegananavalblockadeofGermany.Thestrategyproved
effective,cuttingoffvitalmilitaryandciviliansupplies,althoughthisblockadeviolatedacceptedinternational
lawcodifiedbyseveralinternationalagreementsofthepasttwocenturies.[72]Britainminedinternationalwaters
topreventanyshipsfromenteringentiresectionsofocean,causingdangertoevenneutralships.[73]Sincethere
waslimitedresponsetothistacticoftheBritish,Germanyexpectedasimilarresponsetoitsunrestricted
submarinewarfare.[74]
TheBattleofJutland(German:Skagerrakschlacht,or"BattleoftheSkagerrak")developedintothelargest
navalbattleofthewar.Itwastheonlyfullscaleclashofbattleshipsduringthewar,andoneofthelargestin
history.TheKaiserlicheMarine'sHighSeasFleet,commandedbyViceAdmiralReinhardScheer,foughtthe
RoyalNavy'sGrandFleet,ledbyAdmiralSirJohnJellicoe.Theengagementwasastandoff,astheGermans
wereoutmanoeuvredbythelargerBritishfleet,butmanagedtoescapeandinflictedmoredamagetotheBritish
fleetthantheyreceived.Strategically,however,theBritishassertedtheircontrolofthesea,andthebulkofthe
Germansurfacefleetremainedconfinedtoportforthedurationofthewar.[75]
GermanUboatsattemptedtocutthesupplylinesbetweenNorth
AmericaandBritain.[76]Thenatureofsubmarinewarfaremeantthat
attacksoftencamewithoutwarning,givingthecrewsofthemerchant
shipslittlehopeofsurvival.[76][77]TheUnitedStateslaunchedaprotest,
andGermanychangeditsrulesofengagement.Afterthesinkingofthe
passengershipRMSLusitaniain1915,Germanypromisednottotarget
passengerliners,whileBritainarmeditsmerchantships,placingthem
beyondtheprotectionofthe"cruiserrules",whichdemandedwarning
andmovementofcrewsto"aplaceofsafety"(astandardthatlifeboats
U155exhibitednearTowerBridge
inLondon,afterthe1918Armistice. didnotmeet).[78]Finally,inearly1917,Germanyadoptedapolicyof
unrestrictedsubmarinewarfare,realisingthattheAmericanswould
eventuallyenterthewar.[76][79]GermanysoughttostrangleAlliedsea
lanesbeforetheUnitedStatescouldtransportalargearmyoverseas,butcouldmaintainonlyfivelongrangeU
boatsonstation,tolimitedeffect.[76]
TheUboatthreatlessenedin1917,whenmerchantshipsbegantravellinginconvoys,escortedbydestroyers.
ThistacticmadeitdifficultforUboatstofindtargets,whichsignificantlylessenedlossesafterthehydrophone
anddepthchargeswereintroduced,accompanyingdestroyerscouldattackasubmergedsubmarinewithsome
hopeofsuccess.Convoysslowedtheflowofsupplies,sinceshipshadtowaitasconvoyswereassembled.The
solutiontothedelayswasanextensiveprogramofbuildingnewfreighters.Troopshipsweretoofastforthe
submarinesanddidnottraveltheNorthAtlanticinconvoys.[80]TheU
boatshadsunkmorethan5,000Alliedships,atacostof199
submarines.[81]WorldWarIalsosawthefirstuseofaircraftcarriersin
combat,withHMSFuriouslaunchingSopwithCamelsinasuccessful
raidagainsttheZeppelinhangarsatTonderninJuly1918,aswellas
blimpsforantisubmarinepatrol.[82] TheNordenfeltclassOttoman
submarineAbdlHamid.
Southerntheatres
WarintheBalkans
FacedwithRussia,AustriaHungarycouldspareonlyonethirdofits
armytoattackSerbia.Aftersufferingheavylosses,theAustriansbriefly
occupiedtheSerbiancapital,Belgrade.ASerbiancounterattackinthe
BattleofKolubarasucceededindrivingthemfromthecountrybythe
endof1914.Forthefirsttenmonthsof1915,AustriaHungaryused
mostofitsmilitaryreservestofightItaly.GermanandAustro
Hungariandiplomats,however,scoredacoupbypersuadingBulgariato
AustroHungariantroopsexecuting jointheattackonSerbia.[84]TheAustroHungarianprovincesof
capturedSerbians,1917.Serbialost Slovenia,CroatiaandBosniaprovidedtroopsforAustriaHungary,in
about850,000peopleduringthewar, thefightwithSerbia,RussiaandItaly.Montenegroallieditselfwith
aquarterofitsprewar Serbia.[85]
population. [83]
BulgariadeclaredwaronSerbia,
12Octoberandjoinedinthe
attackbytheAustroHungarianarmyunderMackensen'sarmyof
250,000thatwasalreadyunderway.Serbiawasconqueredinalittle
morethanamonth,astheCentralPowers,nowincludingBulgaria,sent
in600,000troopstotal.TheSerbianarmy,fightingontwofrontsand
facingcertaindefeat,retreatedintonorthernAlbania.TheSerbssuffered
defeatintheBattleofKosovo.MontenegrocoveredtheSerbianretreat
towardstheAdriaticcoastintheBattleofMojkovacin67January
1916,butultimatelytheAustriansalsoconqueredMontenegro.The Bulgariansoldiersinatrench,
survivingSerbiansoldierswereevacuatedbyshiptoGreece.[86]After preparingtofireagainstanincoming
conquest,SerbiawasdividedbetweenAustroHungaryandBulgaria.[87] airplane.
Inlate1915,aFrancoBritishforcelandedatSalonicainGreece,to
offerassistanceandtopressureitsgovernmenttodeclarewaragainst
theCentralPowers.However,theproGermanKingConstantineI
dismissedtheproAlliedgovernmentofEleftheriosVenizelosbeforethe
Alliedexpeditionaryforcearrived.[88]ThefrictionbetweentheKingof
GreeceandtheAlliescontinuedtoaccumulatewiththeNational
Schism,whicheffectivelydividedGreecebetweenregionsstillloyalto
thekingandthenewprovisionalgovernmentofVenizelosinSalonica.
AfterintensenegotiationsandanarmedconfrontationinAthens
betweenAlliedandroyalistforces(anincidentknownasNoemvriana),
theKingofGreeceresignedandhissecondsonAlexandertookhis
RefugeetransportfromSerbiain
placeGreecethenofficiallyjoinedthewaronthesideoftheAllies.
Leibnitz,Styria,1914.
Inthebeginning,theMacedonianFrontwasmostlystatic.FrenchandSerbianforcesretooklimitedareasof
MacedoniabyrecapturingBitolaon19November1916followingthecostlyMonastirOffensive,which
broughtstabilizationofthefront.[89]
SerbianandFrenchtroopsfinallymadeabreakthroughinSeptember1918,aftermostoftheGermanand
AustroHungariantroopshadbeenwithdrawn.TheBulgarianssufferedtheironlydefeatofthewarattheBattle
ofDobroPole.Bulgariacapitulatedtwoweekslater,on29September1918.[90]TheGermanhighcommand
respondedbydespatchingtroopstoholdtheline,buttheseforceswerefartooweaktoreestablishafront.[91]
ThedisappearanceoftheMacedonianFrontmeantthattheroadtoBudapestandViennawasnowopenedto
Alliedforces.HindenburgandLudendorffconcludedthatthestrategicandoperationalbalancehadnowshifted
decidedlyagainsttheCentralPowersand,adayaftertheBulgariancollapse,insistedonanimmediatepeace
settlement.[92]
OttomanEmpire
On2August1914theOttomanEmpiresigned
thesecretOttomanGermanAlliance,agreeing
toenterthewaronthesideofGermany,should
Russiaintervenemilitarily.[93]Theythenjoined
battleonwhentheyattackedtheRussianBlack
Seacoaston29October1914.Thisprompted
KaiserWilhelmIIinspecting Russiaanditsallies,BritainandFrance,to MehmedVgreeting
Turkishtroopsofthe15th declarewarontheOttomansinNovember WilhelmIIonhisarrivalat
CorpsinEastGalicia, 1914.[94][95] Constantinople.
Poland.PrinceLeopoldof
Bavaria,theSupreme TheOttomansthreatenedRussia'sCaucasian
CommanderoftheGerman territoriesandBritain'scommunicationswith
ArmyontheEasternFront, IndiaviatheSuezCanal.Astheconflict
issecondfromtheleft. progressed,theOttomanEmpiretookadvantage
oftheEuropeanpowers'preoccupation
withthewarandconductedlargescale
ethniccleansingoftheindigenous
Armenian,Greek,andAssyrian
Christianpopulations,knownasthe
ArmenianGenocide,GreekGenocide,
andAssyrianGenocide.[96][97][98]
TheBritishandFrenchopenedoverseas
frontswiththeGallipoli(1915)and Ottoman3rdArmytroopers
Mesopotamiancampaigns(1914).In withwintergear.
Australiantroopschargingneara
Gallipoli,theOttomanEmpire
TurkishtrenchduringtheGallipoli
successfullyrepelledtheBritish,French,andAustralianandNew
Campaign.
ZealandArmyCorps(ANZACs).InMesopotamia,bycontrast,afterthe
defeatoftheBritishdefendersintheSiegeofKutbytheOttomans
(191516),BritishImperialforcesreorganisedandcapturedBaghdadinMarch1917.TheBritishwereaidedin
MesopotamiabylocalArabandAssyriantribesmen,whiletheOttomansemployedlocalKurdishand
Turcomantribes.[99]
Furthertothewest,theSuezCanalwasdefendedfromOttomanattacksin1915and1916inAugust,aGerman
andOttomanforcewasdefeatedattheBattleofRomanibytheANZACMountedDivisionandthe52nd
(Lowland)InfantryDivision.Followingthisvictory,anEgyptianExpeditionaryForceadvancedacrossthe
SinaiPeninsula,pushingOttomanforcesbackintheBattleofMagdhabainDecemberandtheBattleofRafaon
theborderbetweentheEgyptianSinai
andOttomanPalestineinJanuary
1917.[100]
Russianarmiesgenerallysawsuccessin
theCaucasus.EnverPasha,supreme
commanderoftheOttomanarmed
forces,wasambitiousanddreamedof
reconqueringcentralAsiaandareasthat
hadbeenlosttoRussiapreviously.He RussianforesttrenchattheBattleof
was,however,apoorcommander.[101] Sarikamish,19141915.
XmascardfromBritish Helaunchedanoffensiveagainstthe
Mesopotamian RussiansintheCaucasusinDecember
ExpeditionaryForcewithlist 1914with100,000troops,insistingona
ofengagements,Basra,1917 frontalattackagainstmountainous
Russianpositionsinwinter.Helost86%
ofhisforceattheBattleof
Sarikamish.[102]
InDecember1914theOttomanEmpire,withGermansupport,invaded
Persia(modernIran)inanefforttocutoffBritishandRussianaccessto
Officersofthe79thInfantry
petroleumreservoirsaroundBakuneartheCaspianSea.[103]Persia,
RegimentduringtheFirstBattleof
ostensiblyneutral,hadlongbeenunderthespheresofBritishand
Gaza.
Russianinfluence.TheOttomansandGermanswereaidedbyKurdish
andAzeriforces,togetherwithalargenumberofmajorIraniantribes,
suchastheQashqai,Tangistanis,Luristanis,andKhamseh,whiletheRussiansandBritishhadthesupportof
ArmenianandAssyrianforces.ThePersianCampaignwastolastuntil1918andendinfailureforthe
Ottomansandtheirallies.HowevertheRussianwithdrawalfromthewarin1917ledtoArmenianandAssyrian
forces,whohadhithertoinflictedaseriesofdefeatsupontheforcesoftheOttomansandtheirallies,beingcut
offfromsupplylines,outnumbered,outgunnedandisolated,forcingthemtofightandfleetowardsBritishlines
innorthernMesopotamia.[104]
GeneralYudenich,theRussiancommanderfrom1915to1916,drovetheTurksoutofmostofthesouthern
Caucasuswithastringofvictories.[102]In1917,RussianGrandDukeNicholasassumedcommandofthe
Caucasusfront.NicholasplannedarailwayfromRussianGeorgiatotheconqueredterritories,sothatfresh
suppliescouldbebroughtupforanewoffensivein1917.However,inMarch1917(Februaryinthepre
revolutionaryRussiancalendar),theCzarabdicatedinthecourseoftheFebruaryRevolutionandtheRussian
CaucasusArmybegantofallapart.
TheArabRevolt,instigatedbytheArabbureauoftheBritishForeignOffice,startedJune1916withtheBattle
ofMecca,ledbySherifHusseinofMecca,andendedwiththeOttomansurrenderofDamascus.FakhriPasha,
theOttomancommanderofMedina,resistedformorethantwoandhalfyearsduringtheSiegeofMedina
beforesurrendering.[105]
TheSenussitribe,alongtheborderofItalianLibyaandBritishEgypt,incitedandarmedbytheTurks,wageda
smallscaleguerrillawaragainstAlliedtroops.TheBritishwereforcedtodispatch12,000troopstooppose
themintheSenussiCampaign.Theirrebellionwasfinallycrushedinmid1916.[106]
TotalAlliedcasualtiesontheOttomanfrontsamounted650,000men.TotalOttomancasualtieswere725,000
(325,000deadand400,000wounded).[107]
Italianparticipation
ItalyhadbeenalliedwiththeGermanandAustroHungarianEmpiressince
1882aspartoftheTripleAlliance.However,thenationhaditsowndesignson
AustrianterritoryinTrentino,theAustrianLittoral,Fiume(Rijeka)and
Dalmatia.Romehadasecret1902pactwithFrance,effectivelynullifyingits
partintheTripleAlliance.[108]Atthestartofhostilities,Italyrefusedtocommit
troops,arguingthattheTripleAlliancewasdefensiveandthatAustriaHungary
wasanaggressor.TheAustroHungariangovernmentbegannegotiationsto
secureItalianneutrality,offeringtheFrenchcolonyofTunisiainreturn.The
AlliesmadeacounterofferinwhichItalywouldreceivetheSouthernTyrol,
AustrianLittoralandterritoryontheDalmatiancoastafterthedefeatofAustria
Hungary.ThiswasformalisedbytheTreatyofLondon.Furtherencouragedby
theAlliedinvasionofTurkeyinApril1915,ItalyjoinedtheTripleEntenteand
declaredwaronAustriaHungaryon23May.Fifteenmonthslater,Italy
AustroHungariantroops,
Tyrol. declaredwaronGermany.[109]
TheItalianshadnumericalsuperioritybutthisadvantagewaslost,notonly
becauseofthedifficultterraininwhichthefightingtookplace,butalsobecauseofthestrategiesandtactics
employed.[110]FieldMarshalLuigiCadorna,astaunchproponentofthefrontalassault,haddreamsofbreaking
intotheSlovenianplateau,takingLjubljanaandthreateningVienna.
OntheTrentinofront,theAustroHungarianstookadvantageofthemountainousterrain,whichfavouredthe
defender.Afteraninitialstrategicretreat,thefrontremainedlargelyunchanged,whileAustrianKaiserschtzen
andStandschtzenengagedItalianAlpiniinbitterhandtohandcombatthroughoutthesummer.TheAustro
HungarianscounterattackedintheAltopianoofAsiago,towardsVeronaandPadua,inthespringof1916
(Strafexpedition),butmadelittleprogress.[111]
Beginningin1915,theItaliansunderCadornamountedeleven
offensivesontheIsonzofrontalongtheIsonzo(Soa)River,northeast
ofTrieste.AllelevenoffensiveswererepelledbytheAustro
Hungarians,whoheldthehigherground.Inthesummerof1916,after
theBattleofDoberd,theItalianscapturedthetownofGorizia.After
thisminorvictory,thefrontremainedstaticforoverayear,despite
severalItalianoffensives,centredontheBanjiceandKarstPlateaueast
ofGorizia.
TheCentralPowerslaunchedacrushingoffensiveon26October1917, DepictionoftheBattleofDoberd,
spearheadedbytheGermans.TheyachievedavictoryatCaporetto foughtinAugust1916betweenthe
(Kobarid).TheItalianArmywasroutedandretreatedmorethan100 ItalianandtheAustroHungarian
kilometres(62mi)toreorganise,stabilisingthefrontatthePiaveRiver. armies.
SincetheItalianArmyhadsufferedheavylossesintheBattleof
Caporetto,theItalianGovernmentcalledtoarmsthesocalled'99Boys(Ragazzidel'99):thatis,allmalesborn
1899andprior,andsowere18yearsoldorolder.In1918,theAustroHungariansfailedtobreakthroughina
seriesofbattlesonthePiaveandwerefinallydecisivelydefeatedintheBattleofVittorioVenetoinOctoberof
thatyear.On1November,theItalianNavydestroyedmuchoftheAustroHungarianfleetstationedinPula,
preventingitfrombeinghandedovertothenewStateofSlovenes,CroatsandSerbs.On3November,the
ItaliansinvadedTriestefromthesea.Onthesameday,theArmisticeofVillaGiustiwassigned.Bymid
November1918,theItalianmilitaryoccupiedtheentireformerAustrianLittoralandhadseizedcontrolofthe
portionofDalmatiathathadbeenguaranteedtoItalybytheLondonPact.[112]Bytheendofhostilitiesin
November1918,[113]AdmiralEnricoMillodeclaredhimselfItaly'sGovernorofDalmatia.[113]AustriaHungary
surrenderedon11November1918.[114][115]
Romanianparticipation
RomaniahadbeenalliedwiththeCentralPowerssince1882.Whenthe
warbegan,however,itdeclareditsneutrality,arguingthatbecause
AustriaHungaryhaditselfdeclaredwaronSerbia,Romaniawasunder
noobligationtojointhewar.WhentheEntentePowerspromised
RomaniaTransylvaniaandBanat,largeterritoriesofeasternHungary,in
exchangeforRomania'sdeclaringwarontheCentralPowers,the
Romaniangovernmentrenounceditsneutrality.On27August1916,the
MarshalJoffreinspectingRomanian RomanianArmylaunchedanattackagainstAustriaHungary,with
troops,1916. limitedRussiansupport.TheRomanianoffensivewasinitially
successful,againsttheAustroHungariantroopsinTransylvania,buta
counterattackbytheforcesoftheCentralPowersdrovethemback.[116]AsaresultoftheBattleofBucharest,
theCentralPowersoccupiedBuchareston6December1916.FightinginMoldovacontinuedin1917,resulting
inacostlystalematefortheCentralPowers.[117][118]Russianwithdrawalfromthewarinlate1917asaresultof
theOctoberRevolutionmeantthatRomaniawasforcedtosignanarmisticewiththeCentralPowerson9
December1917.
InJanuary1918,RomanianforcesestablishedcontroloverBessarabia
astheRussianArmyabandonedtheprovince.Althoughatreatywas
signedbytheRomanianandtheBolshevikRussiangovernments
followingtalksfrom59March1918onthewithdrawalofRomanian
forcesfromBessarabiawithintwomonths,on27March1918Romania
attachedBessarabiatoitsterritory,formallybasedonaresolution
passedbythelocalassemblyofthatterritoryonitsunificationwith
Romania.[119]
RomaniantroopsduringtheBattleof
RomaniaofficiallymadepeacewiththeCentralPowersbysigningthe Mreti,1917.
TreatyofBuchareston7May1918.Underthattreaty,Romaniawas
obligedtoendthewarwiththeCentralPowersandmakesmallterritorialconcessionstoAustriaHungary,
cedingcontrolofsomepassesintheCarpathianMountains,andtograntoilconcessionstoGermany.In
exchange,theCentralPowersrecognisedthesovereigntyofRomaniaoverBessarabia.Thetreatywas
renouncedinOctober1918bytheAlexandruMarghilomangovernment,andRomanianominallyreenteredthe
waron10November1918.Thenextday,theTreatyofBucharestwasnullifiedbythetermsoftheArmisticeof
Compigne.[120][121]TotalRomaniandeathsfrom1914to1918,militaryandcivilian,withincontemporary
borders,wereestimatedat748,000.[122]
EasternFront
Initialactions
WhiletheWesternFronthadreachedstalemate,thewarcontinuedin
EastEurope.[123]InitialRussianplanscalledforsimultaneousinvasions
ofAustrianGaliciaandEastPrussia.AlthoughRussia'sinitialadvance
intoGaliciawaslargelysuccessful,itwasdrivenbackfromEastPrussia
byHindenburgandLudendorffattheBattleofTannenbergandthe TheRussianSiegeofPrzemylwas
MasurianLakesinAugustandSeptember1914.[124][125]Russia'sless thelongestsiegeofthewar
developedindustrialbaseandineffectivemilitaryleadershipwere
instrumentalintheeventsthatunfolded.Bythespringof1915,theRussianshadretreatedtoGalicia,and,in
May,theCentralPowersachievedaremarkablebreakthroughonPoland'ssouthernfrontiers.[126]On5August,
theycapturedWarsawandforcedtheRussianstowithdrawfromPoland.
RussianRevolution
DespiteRussia'ssuccesswiththeJune1916BrusilovOffensiveineastern
Galicia,[127]dissatisfactionwiththeRussiangovernment'sconductofthewar
grew.Theoffensive'ssuccesswasunderminedbythereluctanceofother
generalstocommittheirforcestosupportthevictory.AlliedandRussianforces
wererevivedonlytemporarilybyRomania'sentryintothewaron27August.
GermanforcescametotheaidofembattledAustroHungarianunitsin
TransylvaniawhileaGermanBulgarianforceattackedfromthesouth,and
BucharestwasretakenbytheCentralPowerson6December.Meanwhile,
unrestgrewinRussia,astheTsarremainedatthefront.EmpressAlexandra's
increasinglyincompetentruledrewprotestsandresultedinthemurderofher
favourite,Rasputin,attheendof1916.
InMarch1917,demonstrationsinPetrogradculminatedintheabdicationof
TsarNicholasIIandtheappointmentofaweakProvisionalGovernment,which
sharedpowerwiththePetrogradSovietsocialists.Thisarrangementledto
confusionandchaosbothatthefrontandathome.Thearmybecame Russiantroopsinatrench,
increasinglyineffective.[126] awaitingaGermanattack,
1917.
FollowingtheTsar'sabdication,VladimirLeninwasusheredbytrain
fromSwitzerlandintoRussia16April1917,andfinancedbyGermany.
DiscontentandtheweaknessesoftheProvisionalGovernmentledtoa
riseinthepopularityoftheBolshevikParty,ledbyLenin,which
demandedanimmediateendtothewar.TheRevolutionofNovember
wasfollowedinDecemberbyanarmisticeandnegotiationswith
Germany.Atfirst,theBolsheviksrefusedtheGermanterms,butwhen
GermantroopsbeganmarchingacrossUkraineunopposed,thenew
governmentaccededtotheTreatyofBrestLitovskon3March1918.
Thetreatycededvastterritories,includingFinland,theBalticprovinces,
TreatyofBrestLitovsk,1918.
partsofPolandandUkrainetotheCentralPowers.[128]Despitethis
enormousapparentGermansuccess,themanpowerrequiredforGerman 1.CountOttokarvonCzernin
occupationofformerRussianterritorymayhavecontributedtothe 2.RichardvonKhlmann
failureoftheSpringOffensiveandsecuredrelativelylittlefoodorother 3.VasilRadoslavov
materielfortheCentralPowerswareffort.
WiththeadoptionoftheTreatyofBrestLitovsk,theEntentenolonger
existed.TheAlliedpowersledasmallscaleinvasionofRussia,partlytostopGermanyfromexploiting
Russianresources,andtoalesserextent,tosupportthe"Whites"(asopposedtothe"Reds")intheRussian
CivilWar.[129]AlliedtroopslandedinArkhangelskandinVladivostokaspartoftheNorthRussiaIntervention.
CzechoslovakLegion
TheCzechoslovakLegionfoughtwiththeEntentetheirgoalwastowin
supportfortheindependenceofCzechoslovakia.TheLegioninRussia
wasestablishedinSeptember1914,inDecember1917inFrance
(includingvolunteersfromAmerica)andinApril1918inItaly.
CzechoslovakLegiontroopsdefeatedtheAustroHungarianarmyatthe
UkrainianvillageZborovinJuly1917.Afterthissuccess,thenumberof
Czechoslovaklegionariesincreased,aswellasCzechoslovakmilitary
power.IntheBattleofBakhmach,theLegiondefeatedtheGermansand CzechoslovakLegion,Vladivostok,
forcedthemtomakeatruce. 1918.
InRussia,theywereheavilyinvolvedintheRussianCivilWarsidingwiththeWhitesagainsttheBolsheviks,
attimescontrollingmostoftheTransSiberianrailwayandconqueringallthemajorcitiesofSiberia.The
presenceoftheCzechoslovakLegionneartheYekaterinburgappearstohavebeenoneofthemotivationsfor
theBolshevikexecutionoftheTsarandhisfamilyinJuly1918.Legionariesarrivedlessthanaweek
afterwardsandcapturedthecity.BecauseRussia'sEuropeanportswerenotsafe,thecorpswastobeevacuated
byalongdetourviatheportofVladivostok.ThelasttransportwastheAmericanshipHeffroninSeptember
1920.
CentralPowerspeaceovertures
InDecember1916,aftertenbrutalmonthsoftheBattleofVerdunanda
successfuloffensiveagainstRomania,theGermansattemptedto
negotiateapeacewiththeAllies.Soonafter,theUSpresident,
WoodrowWilson,attemptedtointerveneasapeacemaker,askingina
noteforbothsidestostatetheirdemands.LloydGeorge'sWarCabinet
consideredtheGermanoffertobeaploytocreatedivisionsamongstthe
Allies.Afterinitialoutrageandmuchdeliberation,theytookWilson's
noteasaseparateeffort,signallingthattheUnitedStateswasonthe
vergeofenteringthewaragainstGermanyfollowingthe"submarine
outrages".WhiletheAlliesdebatedaresponsetoWilson'soffer,the "Theyshallnotpass",aphrase
Germanschosetorebuffitinfavourof"adirectexchangeofviews". typicallyassociatedwiththedefense
LearningoftheGermanresponse,theAlliedgovernmentswerefreeto ofVerdun.
makecleardemandsintheirresponseof14January.Theysought
restorationofdamages,theevacuationofoccupiedterritories,
reparationsforFrance,RussiaandRomania,andarecognitionoftheprincipleofnationalities.Thisincluded
theliberationofItalians,Slavs,Romanians,CzechoSlovaks,andthecreationofa"freeandunitedPoland".On
thequestionofsecurity,theAlliessoughtguaranteesthatwouldpreventorlimitfuturewars,completewith
sanctions,asaconditionofanypeacesettlement.[130]ThenegotiationsfailedandtheEntentepowersrejected
theGermanoffer,becauseGermanydidnotstateanyspecificproposals.TheEntentepowersstatedtoWilson
thattheywouldnotstartpeacenegotiationsuntiltheCentralpowersevacuatedalloccupiedAlliedterritories
andprovidedindemnitiesforalldamagewhichhadbeendone.[131]
19171918
Developmentsin1917
Eventsof1917proveddecisiveinendingthewar,althoughtheireffects
werenotfullyfeltuntil1918.
TheBritishnavalblockadebegantohaveaseriousimpactonGermany.
Inresponse,inFebruary1917,theGermanGeneralStaffconvinced
ChancellorTheobaldvonBethmannHollwegtodeclareunrestricted
submarinewarfare,withthegoalofstarvingBritainoutofthewar.
Germanplannersestimatedthatunrestrictedsubmarinewarfarewould
costBritainamonthlyshippinglossof600,000tons.TheGeneralStaff
acknowledgedthatthepolicywouldalmostcertainlybringtheUnited Germanfilmcrewrecordingthe
Statesintotheconflict,butcalculatedthatBritishshippinglosseswould action.
besohighthattheywouldbeforcedtosueforpeaceafter5to6
months,beforeAmericaninterventioncouldmakeanimpact.Inreality,tonnagesunkroseabove500,000tons
permonthfromFebruarytoJuly.Itpeakedat860,000tonsinApril.AfterJuly,thenewlyreintroducedconvoy
systembecameeffectiveinreducingtheUboatthreat.Britainwassafefromstarvation,whileGerman
industrialoutputfellandtheUnitedStatesjoinedthewarfarearlierthanGermanyhadanticipated.
On3May1917,duringtheNivelleOffensive,theFrench2ndColonialDivision,veteransoftheBattleof
Verdun,refusedorders,arrivingdrunkandwithouttheirweapons.Theirofficerslackedthemeanstopunishan
entiredivision,andharshmeasureswerenotimmediatelyimplemented.TheFrenchArmyMutinieseventually
spreadtoafurther54Frenchdivisionsandsaw20,000mendesert.However,appealstopatriotismandduty,as
wellasmassarrestsandtrials,encouragedthesoldierstoreturntodefendtheir
trenches,althoughtheFrenchsoldiersrefusedtoparticipateinfurtheroffensive
action.[132]RobertNivellewasremovedfromcommandby15May,replacedby
GeneralPhilippePtain,whosuspendedbloodylargescaleattacks.
ThevictoryoftheCentralPowersattheBattleofCaporettoledtheAlliesto
convenetheRapalloConferenceatwhichtheyformedtheSupremeWar
Counciltocoordinateplanning.Previously,BritishandFrencharmieshad
operatedunderseparatecommands.
InDecember,theCentralPowerssignedanarmisticewithRussia,thusfreeing
largenumbersofGermantroopsforuseinthewest.WithGerman
reinforcementsandnewAmericantroopspouringin,theoutcomewastobe
FrenchArmylookoutathis decidedontheWesternFront.TheCentralPowersknewthattheycouldnotwin
observationpost,HautRhin, aprotractedwar,buttheyheldhighhopesforsuccessbasedonafinalquick
France,1917. offensive.Furthermore,bothsidesbecameincreasinglyfearfulofsocialunrest
andrevolutioninEurope.Thus,bothsidesurgentlysoughtadecisive
victory.[133]
In1917,EmperorCharlesIofAustriasecretlyattemptedseparatepeacenegotiationswithClemenceau,through
hiswife'sbrotherSixtusinBelgiumasanintermediary,withouttheknowledgeofGermany.Italyopposedthe
proposals.Whenthenegotiationsfailed,hisattemptwasrevealedtoGermany,resultinginadiplomatic
catastrophe.[134][135]
OttomanEmpireconflict,19171918
InMarchandApril1917,atthe
FirstandSecondBattlesof
Gaza,GermanandOttoman
forcesstoppedtheadvanceof
theEgyptianExpeditionary
Force,whichhadbegunin
August1916attheBattleof
Romani.[136][137]Attheendof
October,theSinaiandPalestine
OttomantroopsduringMesopotamian
Campaignresumed,when
campaign.
GeneralEdmundAllenby'sXXth
Corps,XXICorpsandDesert
MountedCorpswontheBattle
ofBeersheba.[138]TwoOttoman
armiesweredefeatedafew
weekslaterattheBattleof
BritishartillerybatteryonMount MugharRidgeand,earlyin
ScopusintheBattleofJerusalem, December,Jerusalemwas
1917. capturedfollowinganother
OttomandefeatattheBattleof
Jerusalem(1917). [139][140][141]Aboutthistime,FriedrichFreiherrKress
vonKressensteinwasrelievedofhisdutiesastheEighthArmy's
commander,replacedbyDjevadPasha,andafewmonthslaterthe Britishtroopsonthemarchduring
commanderoftheOttomanArmyinPalestine,ErichvonFalkenhayn, Mesopotamiancampaign,1917.
wasreplacedbyOttoLimanvonSanders.[142][143]
Inearly1918,thefrontlinewasextendedandtheJordanValleywasoccupied,followingtheFirstTransjordan
andtheSecondTransjordanattackbyBritishEmpireforcesinMarchandApril1918.[144]InMarch,mostof
theEgyptianExpeditionaryForce'sBritishinfantryandYeomanrycavalryweresenttotheWesternFrontasa
consequenceoftheSpringOffensive.TheywerereplacedbyIndianArmyunits.Duringseveralmonthsof
reorganisationandtrainingofthesummer,anumberofattackswerecarriedoutonsectionsoftheOttoman
frontline.ThesepushedthefrontlinenorthtomoreadvantageouspositionsfortheEntenteinpreparationfor
anattackandtoacclimatisethenewlyarrivedIndianArmyinfantry.ItwasnotuntilthemiddleofSeptember
thattheintegratedforcewasreadyforlargescaleoperations.
ThereorganisedEgyptianExpeditionaryForce,withanadditionalmounteddivision,brokeOttomanforcesat
theBattleofMegiddoinSeptember1918.IntwodaystheBritishandIndianinfantry,supportedbyacreeping
barrage,broketheOttomanfrontlineandcapturedtheheadquartersoftheEighthArmy(OttomanEmpire)at
Tulkarm,thecontinuoustrenchlinesatTabsor,AraraandtheSeventhArmy(OttomanEmpire)headquartersat
Nablus.TheDesertMountedCorpsrodethroughthebreakinthefrontlinecreatedbytheinfantryand,during
virtuallycontinuousoperationsbyAustralianLightHorse,BritishmountedYeomanry,IndianLancersandNew
ZealandMountedRiflebrigadesintheJezreelValley,theycapturedNazareth,AfulahandBeisan,Jenin,along
withHaifaontheMediterraneancoastandDaraaeastoftheJordanRiverontheHejazrailway.Samakhand
TiberiasontheSeaofGalilee,werecapturedonthewaynorthwardstoDamascus.Meanwhile,Chaytor'sForce
ofAustralianlighthorse,NewZealandmountedrifles,Indian,BritishWestIndiesandJewishinfantrycaptured
thecrossingsoftheJordanRiver,EsSalt,AmmanandatZizamostoftheFourthArmy(OttomanEmpire).The
ArmisticeofMudros,signedattheendofOctober,endedhostilitieswiththeOttomanEmpirewhenfighting
wascontinuingnorthofAleppo.
EntryoftheUnitedStates
Attheoutbreakofthewar,theUnitedStatespursuedapolicyofnon
intervention,avoidingconflictwhiletryingtobrokerapeace.Whenthe
GermanUboatU20sanktheBritishlinerRMSLusitaniaon7May
1915with128Americansamongthedead,PresidentWoodrowWilson
insistedthat"Americaistooproudtofight"butdemandedanendto
attacksonpassengerships.Germanycomplied.Wilsonunsuccessfully
triedtomediateasettlement.However,healsorepeatedlywarnedthat
theUnitedStateswouldnottolerateunrestrictedsubmarinewarfare,in
violationofinternationallaw.FormerpresidentTheodoreRoosevelt
denouncedGermanactsas"piracy".[145]Wilsonwasnarrowlyreelected PresidentWilsonbeforeCongress,
in1916ashissupportersemphasized"hekeptusoutofwar". announcingthebreakinofficial
relationswithGermanyon3
InJanuary1917,Germanyresumedunrestrictedsubmarinewarfare, February1917.
realizingitwouldmeanAmericanentry.TheGermanForeignMinister,
intheZimmermannTelegram,invitedMexicotojointhewaras
Germany'sallyagainsttheUnitedStates.Inreturn,theGermanswouldfinanceMexico'swarandhelpit
recovertheterritoriesofTexas,NewMexico,andArizona.[146]TheUnitedKingdominterceptedthemessage
andpresentedittotheUSembassyintheUK.FromthereitmadeitswaytoPresidentWilsonwhoreleasedthe
Zimmermannnotetothepublic,andAmericanssawitascasusbelli.Wilsoncalledonantiwarelementstoend
allwars,bywinningthisoneandeliminatingmilitarismfromtheglobe.Hearguedthatthewarwasso
importantthattheUShadtohaveavoiceinthepeaceconference.[147]AfterthesinkingofsevenUSmerchant
shipsbysubmarinesandthepublicationoftheZimmermanntelegram,WilsoncalledforwaronGermany,[148]
whichtheUSCongressdeclaredon6April1917.
TheUnitedStateswasneverformallyamemberoftheAlliesbutbecameaselfstyled"AssociatedPower".The
UnitedStateshadasmallarmy,but,afterthepassageoftheSelectiveServiceAct,itdrafted2.8million
men,[149]and,bysummer1918,wassending10,000freshsoldierstoFranceeveryday.In1917,theUS
CongressgaveUScitizenshiptoPuertoRicanswhentheyweredraftedtoparticipateinWorldWarI,aspartof
theJonesAct.IfGermanybelieveditwouldbemanymoremonthsbeforeAmericansoldierswouldarriveand
thattheirarrivalcouldbestoppedbyUboats,ithadmiscalculated.[150]
TheUnitedStatesNavysentabattleshipgrouptoScapaFlowtojoinwiththeBritishGrandFleet,destroyersto
Queenstown,Ireland,andsubmarinestohelpguardconvoys.SeveralregimentsofUSMarineswerealso
dispatchedtoFrance.TheBritishandFrenchwantedAmericanunitsusedtoreinforcetheirtroopsalreadyon
thebattlelinesandnotwastescarceshippingonbringingoversupplies.GeneralJohnJ.Pershing,American
ExpeditionaryForces(AEF)commander,refusedtobreakupAmericanunitstobeusedasfillermaterial.Asan
exception,hedidallowAfricanAmericancombatregimentstobeusedinFrenchdivisions.TheHarlem
HellfightersfoughtaspartoftheFrench16thDivision,andearnedaunitCroixdeGuerrefortheiractionsat
ChteauThierry,BelleauWood,andSechault.[151]AEFdoctrinecalledfortheuseoffrontalassaults,which
hadlongsincebeendiscardedbyBritishEmpireandFrenchcommandersduetothelargelossoflifethat
resulted.[152]
GermanSpringOffensiveof1918
Ludendorffdrewupplans(codenamedOperationMichael)forthe1918
offensiveontheWesternFront.TheSpringOffensivesoughttodivide
theBritishandFrenchforceswithaseriesoffeintsandadvances.The
GermanleadershiphopedtoendthewarbeforesignificantUSforces
arrived.Theoperationcommencedon21March1918,withanattackon
BritishforcesnearSaintQuentin.Germanforcesachievedan
unprecedentedadvanceof60kilometres(37mi).[153]
BritishandFrenchtrencheswerepenetratedusingnovelinfiltration British55thDivisionsoldiers,blinded
tactics,alsonamedHutiertactics,afterGeneralOskarvonHutier,by byteargasduringtheBattleof
speciallytrainedunitscalledstormtroopers.Previously,attackshadbeen Estaires,10April1918.
characterisedbylongartillerybombardmentsandmassedassaults.
However,intheSpringOffensiveof1918,Ludendorffusedartillery
onlybrieflyandinfiltratedsmallgroupsofinfantryatweakpoints.They
attackedcommandandlogisticsareasandbypassedpointsofserious
resistance.Moreheavilyarmedinfantrythendestroyedtheseisolated
positions.ThisGermansuccessreliedgreatlyontheelementof
surprise.[154]
Thefrontmovedtowithin120kilometres(75mi)ofParis.Threeheavy
Krupprailwaygunsfired183shellsonthecapital,causingmany
Parisianstoflee.TheinitialoffensivewassosuccessfulthatKaiser FrenchsoldiersunderGeneral
WilhelmIIdeclared24Marchanationalholiday.ManyGermans Gouraud,withmachinegunsamongst
thoughtvictorywasnear.Afterheavyfighting,however,theoffensive theruinsofacathedralnearthe
washalted.Lackingtanksormotorisedartillery,theGermanswere Marne,1918.
unabletoconsolidatetheirgains.Theproblemsofresupplywerealso
exacerbatedbyincreasingdistancesthatnowstretchedoverterrainthat
wasshelltornandoftenimpassabletotraffic.[155]
GeneralFochpressedtousethearrivingAmericantroopsasindividualreplacements,whereasPershingsought
tofieldAmericanunitsasanindependentforce.TheseunitswereassignedtothedepletedFrenchandBritish
Empirecommandson28March.ASupremeWarCouncilofAlliedforceswascreatedattheDoullens
Conferenceon5November1917.GeneralFochwasappointedassupremecommanderoftheAlliedforces.
Haig,Petain,andPershingretainedtacticalcontroloftheirrespectivearmiesFochassumedacoordinating
ratherthanadirectingrole,andtheBritish,French,andUScommandsoperatedlargelyindependently.[156]
FollowingOperationMichael,GermanylaunchedOperationGeorgetteagainstthenorthernEnglishChannel
ports.TheAllieshaltedthedriveafterlimitedterritorialgainsbyGermany.TheGermanArmytothesouththen
conductedOperationsBlcherandYorck,pushingbroadlytowardsParis.GermanylaunchedOperationMarne
(SecondBattleoftheMarne)15July,inanattempttoencircleReims.Theresultingcounterattack,which
startedtheHundredDaysOffensive,markedthefirstsuccessfulAlliedoffensiveofthewar.
By20July,theGermanshadretreatedacrosstheMarnetotheirstartinglines,[157]havingachievedlittle,and
theGermanArmyneverregainedtheinitiative.GermancasualtiesbetweenMarchandApril1918were
270,000,includingmanyhighlytrainedstormtroopers.
Meanwhile,Germanywasfallingapartathome.Antiwarmarchesbecamefrequentandmoraleinthearmy
fell.Industrialoutputwashalfthe1913levels.
Newstatesunderwarzone
Inthelatespringof1918,threenewstateswereformedintheSouthCaucasus:theFirstRepublicofArmenia,
theAzerbaijanDemocraticRepublic,andtheDemocraticRepublicofGeorgia,whichdeclaredtheir
independencefromtheRussianEmpire.Twootherminorentitieswereestablished,theCentrocaspian
DictatorshipandSouthWestCaucasianRepublic(theformerwasliquidatedbyAzerbaijanintheautumnof
1918andthelatterbyajointArmenianBritishtaskforceinearly1919).WiththewithdrawaloftheRussian
armiesfromtheCaucasusfrontinthewinterof191718,thethreemajorrepublicsbracedforanimminent
Ottomanadvance,whichcommencedintheearlymonthsof1918.Solidaritywasbrieflymaintainedwhenthe
TranscaucasianFederativeRepublicwascreatedinthespringof1918,butthiscollapsedinMay,whenthe
GeorgiansaskedforandreceivedprotectionfromGermanyandtheAzerbaijanisconcludedatreatywiththe
OttomanEmpirethatwasmoreakintoamilitaryalliance.Armeniawaslefttofendforitselfandstruggledfor
fivemonthsagainstthethreatofafullfledgedoccupationbytheOttomanTurksbeforedefeatingthematthe
BattleofSardarabad.[158]
Alliedvictory:summer1918onwards
HundredDaysOffensive
TheAlliedcounteroffensive,knownastheHundred
DaysOffensive,beganon8August1918,withthe
BattleofAmiens.Thebattleinvolvedover400
tanksand120,000British,Dominion,andFrench
troops,andbytheendofitsfirstdayagap24
kilometres(15mi)longhadbeencreatedinthe
Germanlines.Thedefendersdisplayedamarked
collapseinmorale,causingLudendorfftoreferto
thisdayasthe"BlackDayoftheGerman
army".[160][161]Afteranadvanceasfaras23
kilometres(14mi),Germanresistancestiffened,
andthebattlewasconcludedon12August.
AlliesincreasedtheirfrontlineriflestrengthwhileGerman
RatherthancontinuingtheAmiensbattlepastthe strengthfellinhalfin1918[159]
pointofinitialsuccess,ashadbeendonesomany
timesinthepast,theAlliesshiftedtheirattention
elsewhere.Alliedleadershadnowrealisedthattocontinueanattackafterresistancehadhardenedwasawaste
oflives,anditwasbettertoturnalinethantotrytorolloverit.Theybegantoundertakeattacksinquickorder
totakeadvantageofsuccessfuladvancesontheflanks,thenbrokethemoffwheneachattacklostitsinitial
impetus.[162]
BritishandDominionforces
launchedthenextphaseofthe
campaignwiththeBattleof
Alberton21August.[163]The
assaultwaswidenedby
French[164]andthenfurther
Britishforcesinthefollowing
days.Duringthelastweekof
AugusttheAlliedpressurealong
a110kilometre(68mi)front AerialviewofruinsofVauxdevant
CanadianScottish,advancingduring
againsttheenemywasheavy Damloup,France,1918.
theBattleoftheCanalduNord,
andunrelenting.FromGerman
1918.
accounts,"Eachdaywasspentin
bloodyfightingagainstaneverandagainonstormingenemy,and
nightspassedwithoutsleepinretirementstonewlines."[162]
Facedwiththeseadvances,on2SeptembertheGermanSupremeArmyCommandissuedorderstowithdrawto
theHindenburgLineinthesouth.ThiscededwithoutafightthesalientseizedthepreviousApril.[165]
AccordingtoLudendorff"Wehadtoadmitthenecessity...towithdrawtheentirefrontfromtheScarpetothe
Vesle.[166]
SeptembersawtheAlliesadvancetotheHindenburgLineinthenorthandcentre.TheGermanscontinuedto
fightstrongrearguardactionsandlaunchednumerouscounterattacksonlostpositions,butonlyafew
succeeded,andthoseonlytemporarily.Contestedtowns,villages,heights,andtrenchesinthescreening
positionsandoutpostsoftheHindenburgLinecontinuedtofalltotheAllies,withtheBEFalonetaking
30,441prisonersinthelastweekofSeptember.On24SeptemberanassaultbyboththeBritishandFrench
camewithin3kilometres(2mi)ofSt.Quentin.[164]TheGermanshadnowretreatedtopositionsalongor
behindtheHindenburgLine.
Innearlyfourweeksoffightingbeginning8August,over100,000
Germanprisonersweretaken.Asof"TheBlackDayoftheGerman
Army",theGermanHighCommandrealisedthatthewarwaslostand
madeattemptstoreachasatisfactoryend.Thedayafterthatbattle,
Ludendorffsaid:"Wecannotwinthewaranymore,butwemustnot
loseiteither."On11AugustheofferedhisresignationtotheKaiser,
whorefusedit,replying,"Iseethatwemuststrikeabalance.Wehave
nearlyreachedthelimitofourpowersofresistance.Thewarmustbe
ended."On13August,atSpa,Hindenburg,Ludendorff,theChancellor,
andForeignMinisterHintzagreedthatthewarcouldnotbeended
militarilyand,onthefollowingday,theGermanCrownCouncildecided
thatvictoryinthefieldwasnowmostimprobable.AustriaandHungary
warnedthattheycouldonlycontinuethewaruntilDecember,and
Ludendorffrecommendedimmediatepeacenegotiations.Prince
RupprechtwarnedPrinceMaxofBaden:"Ourmilitarysituationhas
deterioratedsorapidlythatInolongerbelievewecanholdoutoverthe
winteritisevenpossiblethatacatastrophewillcomeearlier."On10
SeptemberHindenburgurgedpeacemovestoEmperorCharlesof
Austria,andGermanyappealedtotheNetherlandsformediation.On14
SeptemberAustriasentanotetoallbelligerentsandneutralssuggesting AnAmericanmajor,pilotingan
ameetingforpeacetalksonneutralsoil,andon15SeptemberGermany observationballoonnearthefront,
madeapeaceoffertoBelgium.Bothpeaceofferswererejected,andon 1918.
24SeptemberSupremeArmyCommandinformedtheleadersinBerlin
thatarmisticetalkswereinevitable.[164]
ThefinalassaultontheHindenburgLinebeganwiththeMeuseArgonneOffensive,launchedbyFrenchand
Americantroopson26September.Thefollowingweek,cooperatingFrenchandAmericanunitsbrokethrough
inChampagneattheBattleofBlancMontRidge,forcingtheGermansoffthecommandingheights,and
closingtowardstheBelgianfrontier.[167]On8OctoberthelinewaspiercedagainbyBritishandDominion
troopsattheBattleofCambrai.[168]TheGermanarmyhadtoshortenitsfrontandusetheDutchfrontierasan
anchortofightrearguardactionsasitfellbacktowardsGermany.
WhenBulgariasignedaseparatearmisticeon29September,Ludendorff,havingbeenundergreatstressfor
months,sufferedsomethingsimilartoabreakdown.ItwasevidentthatGermanycouldnolongermounta
successfuldefence.[169][170]
NewsofGermany'simpendingmilitarydefeatspreadthroughoutthe
Germanarmedforces.Thethreatofmutinywasrife.AdmiralReinhard
ScheerandLudendorffdecidedtolaunchalastattempttorestorethe
"valour"oftheGermanNavy.KnowingthegovernmentofPrince
MaximilianofBadenwouldvetoanysuchaction,Ludendorffdecided
nottoinformhim.Nonetheless,wordoftheimpendingassaultreached
sailorsatKiel.Many,refusingtobepartofanavaloffensive,which
theybelievedtobesuicidal,rebelledandwerearrested.Ludendorfftook
MenofUS64thRegiment,7th theblametheKaiserdismissedhimon26October.Thecollapseofthe
InfantryDivision,celebratethenews BalkansmeantthatGermanywasabouttoloseitsmainsuppliesofoil
oftheArmistice,11November1918. andfood.Itsreserveshadbeenusedup,evenasUStroopskeptarriving
attherateof10,000perday.[171]TheAmericanssuppliedmorethan
80%ofAlliedoilduringthewar,andtherewasnoshortage.[172]
WiththemilitaryfalteringandwithwidespreadlossofconfidenceintheKaiser,Germanymovedtowards
surrender.PrinceMaximilianofBadentookchargeofanewgovernmentasChancellorofGermanyto
negotiatewiththeAllies.NegotiationswithPresidentWilsonbeganimmediately,inthehopethathewould
offerbettertermsthantheBritishandFrench.Wilsondemandedaconstitutionalmonarchyandparliamentary
controlovertheGermanmilitary.[173]TherewasnoresistancewhentheSocialDemocratPhilippScheidemann
on9NovemberdeclaredGermanytobearepublic.TheKaiser,kingsandotherhereditaryrulersallwere
removedfrompowerandWilhelmfledtoexileintheNetherlands.ImperialGermanywasdeadanew
GermanyhadbeenbornastheWeimarRepublic.[174]
Armisticesandcapitulations
ThecollapseoftheCentralPowerscameswiftly.Bulgariawasthefirsttosignanarmistice,on29September
1918atSaloniki.[176]On30October,theOttomanEmpirecapitulated,signingtheArmisticeofMudros.[176]
On24October,theItaliansbeganapushthatrapidlyrecoveredterritorylostaftertheBattleofCaporetto.This
culminatedintheBattleofVittorioVeneto,whichmarkedtheendoftheAustroHungarianArmyasan
effectivefightingforce.TheoffensivealsotriggeredthedisintegrationoftheAustroHungarianEmpire.During
thelastweekofOctober,declarationsofindependenceweremadeinBudapest,Prague,andZagreb.On29
October,theimperialauthoritiesaskedItalyforanarmistice.ButtheItalianscontinuedadvancing,reaching
Trento,Udine,andTrieste.On3November,AustriaHungarysentaflagoftrucetoaskforanarmistice
(ArmisticeofVillaGiusti).Theterms,arrangedbytelegraphwiththeAlliedAuthoritiesinParis,were
communicatedtotheAustriancommanderandaccepted.TheArmisticewithAustriawassignedintheVilla
Giusti,nearPadua,on3November.AustriaandHungarysignedseparatearmisticesfollowingtheoverthrowof
theHabsburgMonarchy.
On11November,at5:00am,anarmisticewithGermanywassignedinarailroadcarriageatCompigne.At
11amon11November1918"theeleventhhouroftheeleventhdayoftheeleventhmonth"aceasefirecame
intoeffect.Duringthesixhoursbetweenthesigningofthearmisticeanditstakingeffect,opposingarmieson
theWesternFrontbeganto
withdrawfromtheirpositions,
butfightingcontinuedalong
manyareasofthefront,as
commanderswantedtocapture
territorybeforethewarended.
TheoccupationoftheRhineland
tookplacefollowingthe
Armistice.Theoccupying
armiesconsistedofAmerican,
Belgian,BritishandFrench
forces.
InNovember1918,theAllies
hadamplesuppliesofmenand
TheNewYorkTimesof11November materieltoinvadeGermany.Yet
1918. FerdinandFoch,secondfromright,
atthetimeofthearmistice,no picturedoutsidethecarriagein
Alliedforcehadcrossedthe Compigneafteragreeingtothe
GermanfrontiertheWesternFrontwasstillsome720kilometres armisticethatendedthewarthere.
(450mi)fromBerlinandtheKaiser'sarmieshadretreatedfromthe ThecarriagewaslaterchosenbyNazi
battlefieldingoodorder.ThesefactorsenabledHindenburgandother Germanyasthesymbolicsettingof
seniorGermanleaderstospreadthestorythattheirarmieshadnotreally
Ptain'sJune1940armistice. [175]
beendefeated.Thisresultedinthestabinthebacklegend,[177][178]
whichattributedGermany'sdefeatnottoitsinabilitytocontinue
fighting(eventhoughuptoamillionsoldiersweresufferingfromthe1918flupandemicandunfittofight),but
tothepublic'sfailuretorespondtoits"patrioticcalling"andthesupposedintentionalsabotageofthewar
effort,particularlybyJews,Socialists,andBolsheviks.
TheAllieshadmuchmorepotentialwealththeycouldspendonthewar.Oneestimate(using1913USdollars)
isthattheAlliesspent$58billiononthewarandtheCentralPowersonly$25billion.AmongtheAllies,the
UKspent$21billionandtheUS$17billionamongtheCentralPowersGermanyspent$20billion.[179]
Aftermath
Intheaftermathofthewar,fourempiresdisappeared:theGerman,
AustroHungarian,Ottoman,andRussian.Numerousnationsregained
theirformerindependence,andnewonescreated.Fourdynasties,
togetherwiththeirancillaryaristocracies,allfellasaresultofthewar:
theRomanovs,theHohenzollerns,theHabsburgs,andtheOttomans.
BelgiumandSerbiawerebadlydamaged,aswasFrance,with
1.4millionsoldiersdead,[180]notcountingothercasualties.Germany
andRussiaweresimilarlyaffected.[181]
TheFrenchmilitarycemeteryatthe
Formalendofthewar Douaumontossuary,whichcontains
theremainsofmorethan130,000
Aformalstateofwarbetweenthetwosidespersistedforanotherseven unknownsoldiers.
months,untilthesigningoftheTreatyofVersailleswithGermanyon28
June1919.TheUnitedStatesSenatedidnotratifythetreatydespite
publicsupportforit,[182][183]anddidnotformallyenditsinvolvementinthewaruntiltheKnoxPorter
Resolutionwassignedon2July1921byPresidentWarrenG.Harding.[184]FortheUnitedKingdomandthe
BritishEmpire,thestateofwarceasedundertheprovisionsoftheTerminationofthePresentWar(Definition)
Act1918withrespectto:
Germanyon10January1920.[185]
Austriaon16July1920.[186]
Bulgariaon9August1920.[187]
Hungaryon26July1921.[188]
Turkeyon6August1924.[189]
AftertheTreatyofVersailles,treatieswithAustria,Hungary,Bulgaria,andtheOttomanEmpireweresigned.
However,thenegotiationofthelattertreatywiththeOttomanEmpirewasfollowedbystrife,andafinalpeace
treatybetweentheAlliedPowersandthecountrythatwouldshortlybecometheRepublicofTurkeywasnot
signeduntil24July1923,atLausanne.
SomewarmemorialsdatetheendofthewarasbeingwhentheVersaillesTreatywassignedin1919,which
waswhenmanyofthetroopsservingabroadfinallyreturnedtotheirhomecountriesbycontrast,most
commemorationsofthewar'sendconcentrateonthearmisticeof11November1918.Legally,theformalpeace
treatieswerenotcompleteuntilthelast,theTreatyofLausanne,wassigned.Underitsterms,theAlliedforces
divestedConstantinopleon23August1923.
Peacetreatiesandnationalboundaries
Afterthewar,theParisPeaceConferenceimposedaseriesofpeace
treatiesontheCentralPowersofficiallyendingthewar.The1919
TreatyofVersaillesdealtwithGermanyand,buildingonWilson's14th
point,broughtintobeingtheLeagueofNationson28June
1919.[190][191]
TheCentralPowershadtoacknowledgeresponsibilityfor"alltheloss
anddamagetowhichtheAlliedandAssociatedGovernmentsandtheir
nationalshavebeensubjectedasaconsequenceofthewarimposed
uponthemby"theiraggression.IntheTreatyofVersailles,this
statementwasArticle231.ThisarticlebecameknownasWarGuilt
clauseasthemajorityofGermansfelthumiliatedandresentful.[192]
OveralltheGermansfelttheyhadbeenunjustlydealtbywhatthey
calledthe"diktatofVersailles".SchulzesaidtheTreatyplacedGermany
"underlegalsanctions,deprivedofmilitarypower,economicallyruined, TheSigningofPeaceintheHallof
andpoliticallyhumiliated."[193]BelgianhistorianLaurenceVan Mirrors,Versailles,28June1919
Yperseleemphasizesthecentralroleplayedbymemoryofthewarand
theVersaillesTreatyinGermanpoliticsinthe1920sand1930s:
ActivedenialofwarguiltinGermanyandGermanresentmentatbothreparationsandcontinued
AlliedoccupationoftheRhinelandmadewidespreadrevisionofthemeaningandmemoryofthe
warproblematic.Thelegendofthe"stabintheback"andthewishtorevisethe"Versaillesdiktat",
andthebeliefinaninternationalthreataimedattheeliminationoftheGermannationpersistedat
theheartofGermanpolitics.EvenamanofpeacesuchasStresemannpubliclyrejectedGerman
guilt.AsfortheNazis,theywavedthebannersofdomestictreasonandinternationalconspiracyin
anattempttogalvanizetheGermannationintoaspiritofrevenge.LikeaFascistItaly,Nazi
Germanysoughttoredirectthememoryofthewartothebenefitofitsownpolicies.[194]
Meanwhile,newnationsliberatedfromGermanruleviewedthetreatyasrecognitionofwrongscommitted
againstsmallnationsbymuchlargeraggressiveneighbors.[195]ThePeaceConferencerequiredallthedefeated
powerstopayreparationsforallthedamagedonetocivilians.However,owingtoeconomicdifficultiesand
Germanybeingtheonlydefeatedpowerwithanintacteconomy,theburdenfelllargelyonGermany.
AustriaHungarywaspartitionedintoseveralsuccessorstates,including
Austria,Hungary,Czechoslovakia,andYugoslavia,largelybutnot
entirelyalongethniclines.TransylvaniawasshiftedfromHungaryto
GreaterRomania.ThedetailswerecontainedintheTreatyofSaint
GermainandtheTreatyofTrianon.AsaresultoftheTreatyofTrianon,
3.3millionHungarianscameunderforeignrule.Althoughthe
Hungariansmadeup54%ofthepopulationoftheprewarKingdomof
Hungary,only32%ofitsterritorywaslefttoHungary.Between1920
and1924,354,000HungariansfledformerHungarianterritories
attachedtoRomania,Czechoslovakia,andYugoslavia.[196] BordersofTurkeyaccordingtothe
TreatyofSvres(1920)whichwas
TheRussianEmpire,whichhadwithdrawnfromthewarin1917after replacedbytheTreatyofLausanne
theOctoberRevolution,lostmuchofitswesternfrontierasthenewly (1923).
independentnationsofEstonia,Finland,Latvia,Lithuania,andPoland
werecarvedfromit.RomaniatookcontrolofBessarabiainApril
1918.[197]
TheOttomanEmpiredisintegrated,withmuchofitsLevantterritoryawardedtovariousAlliedpowersas
protectorates.TheTurkishcoreinAnatoliawasreorganisedastheRepublicofTurkey.TheOttomanEmpire
wastobepartitionedbytheTreatyofSvresof1920.ThistreatywasneverratifiedbytheSultanandwas
rejectedbytheTurkishNationalMovement,leadingtothevictoriousTurkishWarofIndependenceandthe
muchlessstringent1923TreatyofLausanne.
Nationalidentities
Polandreemergedasanindependentcountry,aftermorethanacentury.TheKingdomofSerbiaanditsdynasty,
asa"minorEntentenation"andthecountrywiththemostcasualtiespercapita,[198][199][200]becamethe
backboneofanewmultinationalstate,theKingdomofSerbs,CroatsandSlovenes,laterrenamedYugoslavia.
Czechoslovakia,combiningtheKingdomofBohemiawithpartsoftheKingdomofHungary,becameanew
nation.RussiabecametheSovietUnionandlostFinland,Estonia,Lithuania,andLatvia,whichbecame
independentcountries.TheOttomanEmpirewassoonreplacedbyTurkeyandseveralothercountriesinthe
MiddleEast.
IntheBritishEmpire,thewarunleashednewformsofnationalism.In
AustraliaandNewZealandtheBattleofGallipolibecameknownas
thosenations'"BaptismofFire".Itwasthefirstmajorwarinwhichthe
newlyestablishedcountriesfought,anditwasoneofthefirsttimesthat
AustraliantroopsfoughtasAustralians,notjustsubjectsoftheBritish
Crown.AnzacDay,commemoratingtheAustralianandNewZealand
ArmyCorps,celebratesthisdefiningmoment.[201][202]
AftertheBattleofVimyRidge,wheretheCanadiandivisionsfought
togetherforthefirsttimeasasinglecorps,Canadiansbegantoreferto MapofterritorialchangesinEurope
afterWorldWarI(asof1923).
theirsasanation"forgedfromfire".[203]Havingsucceededonthesame
battlegroundwherethe"mothercountries"hadpreviouslyfaltered,they
wereforthefirsttimerespectedinternationallyfortheirownaccomplishments.Canadaenteredthewarasa
DominionoftheBritishEmpireandremainedso,althoughitemergedwithagreatermeasureof
independence.[204][205]WhenBritaindeclaredwarin1914,thedominionswereautomaticallyatwaratthe
conclusion,Canada,Australia,NewZealand,andSouthAfricawereindividualsignatoriesoftheTreatyof
Versailles.[206]
TheestablishmentofthemodernstateofIsraelandtherootsofthecontinuingIsraeliPalestinianconflictare
partiallyfoundintheunstablepowerdynamicsoftheMiddleEastthatresultedfromWorldWarI.[207]Before
theendofthewar,theOttomanEmpirehadmaintainedamodestlevelofpeaceandstabilitythroughoutthe
MiddleEast.[208]WiththefalloftheOttomangovernment,powervacuumsdevelopedandconflictingclaimsto
landandnationhoodbegantoemerge.[209]ThepoliticalboundariesdrawnbythevictorsofWorldWarIwere
quicklyimposed,sometimesafteronlycursoryconsultationwiththelocalpopulation.Thesecontinuetobe
problematicinthe21stcenturystrugglesfornationalidentity.[210][211]WhilethedissolutionoftheOttoman
EmpireattheendofWorldWarIwaspivotalincontributingtothemodernpoliticalsituationoftheMiddle
East,includingtheArabIsraeliconflict,[212][213][214]theendofOttomanrulealsospawnedlesserknown
disputesoverwaterandothernaturalresources.[215]
Healtheffects
Thewarhadprofoundconsequencesinthehealthofsoldiers.Ofthe
60millionEuropeanmilitarypersonnelwhoweremobilizedfrom1914
to1918,8millionwerekilled,7millionwerepermanentlydisabled,and
15millionwereseriouslyinjured.Germanylost15.1%ofitsactive
malepopulation,AustriaHungarylost17.1%,andFrancelost
10.5%.[216]InGermany,civiliandeathswere474,000higherthanin
peacetime,dueinlargeparttofoodshortagesandmalnutritionthat
weakenedresistancetodisease.[217]Bytheendofthewar,starvation
causedbyfaminehadkilledapproximately100,000peoplein
TransportingOttomanwoundedat Lebanon.[218]Between5and10millionpeoplediedintheRussian
Sirkeci. famineof1921.[219]By1922,therewerebetween4.5millionand7
millionhomelesschildreninRussiaasaresultofnearlyadecadeof
devastationfromWorldWarI,theRussianCivilWar,andthesubsequentfamineof19201922.[220]Numerous
antiSovietRussiansfledthecountryaftertheRevolutionbythe1930s,thenorthernChinesecityofHarbin
had100,000Russians.[221]ThousandsmoreemigratedtoFrance,England,andtheUnitedStates.
InAustralia,theeffectsofthewarontheeconomywerenolesssevere.
TheAustralianprimeminister,BillyHughes,wrotetotheBritishprime
minister,LloydGeorge,"Youhaveassuredusthatyoucannotgetbetter
terms.Imuchregretit,andhopeevennowthatsomewaymaybefound
ofsecuringagreementfordemandingreparationcommensuratewiththe
tremendoussacrificesmadebytheBritishEmpireandherAllies."
Australiareceived5,571,720warreparations,butthedirectcostofthe
wartoAustraliahadbeen376,993,052,and,bythemid1930s,
repatriationpensions,wargratuities,interestandsinkingfundcharges
were831,280,947.[222]Ofabout416,000Australianswhoserved, Emergencymilitaryhospitalduring
about60,000werekilledandanother152,000werewounded.[223] theSpanishflupandemic,which
killedabout675,000peopleinthe
Diseasesflourishedinthechaoticwartimeconditions.In1914alone, UnitedStatesalone.CampFunston,
louseborneepidemictyphuskilled200,000inSerbia.[224]From1918to Kansas,1918.
1922,Russiahadabout25millioninfectionsand3milliondeathsfrom
epidemictyphus.[225]In1923,13millionRussianscontractedmalaria,a
sharpincreasefromtheprewaryears.[226]Inaddition,amajorinfluenzaepidemicspreadaroundtheworld.
Overall,the1918flupandemickilledatleast50millionpeople.[227][228]
LobbyingbyChaimWeizmannandfearthatAmericanJewswouldencouragetheUnitedStatestosupport
GermanyculminatedintheBritishgovernment'sBalfourDeclarationof1917,endorsingcreationofaJewish
homelandinPalestine.[229]Atotalofmorethan1,172,000JewishsoldiersservedintheAlliedandCentral
PowerforcesinWorldWarI,including275,000inAustriaHungaryand450,000inTsaristRussia.[230]
ThesocialdisruptionandwidespreadviolenceoftheRussianRevolutionof1917andtheensuingRussianCivil
Warsparkedmorethan2,000pogromsintheformerRussianEmpire,mostlyinUkraine.[231]Anestimated
60,000200,000civilianJewswerekilledintheatrocities.[232]
IntheaftermathofWorldWarI,GreecefoughtagainstTurkishnationalistsledbyMustafaKemal,awarwhich
eventuallyresultedinamassivepopulationexchangebetweenthetwocountriesundertheTreatyof
Lausanne.[233]Accordingtovarioussources,[234]severalhundredthousandGreeksdiedduringthisperiod,
whichwastiedinwiththeGreekGenocide.[235]
Technology
Groundwarfare
WorldWarIbeganasaclashof20thcenturytechnologyand19th
centurytactics,withtheinevitablylargeensuingcasualties.Bytheend
of1917,however,themajorarmies,nownumberingmillionsofmen,
hadmodernisedandweremakinguseoftelephone,wireless
communication,[236]armouredcars,tanks,[237]andaircraft.Infantry
formationswerereorganised,sothat100mancompanieswereno
longerthemainunitofmanoeuvreinstead,squadsof10orsomen,
underthecommandofajuniorNCO,werefavoured.
ARussianarmouredcar,1919
Artilleryalsounderwentarevolution.In1914,cannonswerepositioned
inthefrontlineandfireddirectlyattheirtargets.By1917,indirectfirewithguns(aswellasmortarsandeven
machineguns)wascommonplace,usingnewtechniquesforspottingandranging,notablyaircraftandtheoften
overlookedfieldtelephone.[238]Counterbatterymissionsbecamecommonplace,also,andsounddetectionwas
usedtolocateenemybatteries.
GermanywasfaraheadoftheAlliesinutilisingheavyindirectfire.TheGermanArmyemployed150mm
(6in)and210mm(8in)howitzersin1914,whentypicalFrenchandBritishgunswereonly75mm(3in)and
105mm(4in).TheBritishhada6inch(152mm)howitzer,butitwassoheavyithadtobehauledtothefield
inpiecesandassembled.TheGermansalsofieldedAustrian305mm(12in)and420mm(17in)gunsand,
evenatthebeginningofthewar,hadinventoriesofvariouscalibersofMinenwerfer,whichwereideallysuited
fortrenchwarfare.[239][240]
Muchofthecombatinvolvedtrenchwarfare,inwhichhundredsoftendiedforeachmetregained.Manyofthe
deadliestbattlesinhistoryoccurredduringWorldWarI.SuchbattlesincludeYpres,theMarne,Cambrai,the
Somme,Verdun,andGallipoli.TheGermansemployedtheHaberprocessofnitrogenfixationtoprovidetheir
forceswithaconstantsupplyofgunpowderdespitetheBritishnavalblockade.[241]Artillerywasresponsible
forthelargestnumberofcasualties[242]andconsumedvastquantitiesofexplosives.Thelargenumberofhead
woundscausedbyexplodingshellsandfragmentationforcedthecombatantnationstodevelopthemodernsteel
helmet,ledbytheFrench,whointroducedtheAdrianhelmetin1915.ItwasquicklyfollowedbytheBrodie
helmet,wornbyBritishImperialandUStroops,andin1916bythedistinctiveGermanStahlhelm,adesign,
withimprovements,stillinusetoday.
Gas!GAS!Quick,boys!Anecstasyoffumbling,
Fittingtheclumsyhelmetsjustintime
Butsomeonestillwasyellingoutandstumbling,
Andflound'ringlikeamaninfireorlime...
Dim,throughthemistypanesandthickgreenlight,
Asunderagreensea,Isawhimdrowning.
WilfredOwen,DulceetDecorumest,1917[243]
ACanadiansoldierwithmustardgas
burns,ca.19171918.
Thewidespreaduseofchemicalwarfarewasadistinguishingfeatureoftheconflict.Gasesusedincluded
chlorine,mustardgasandphosgene.Fewwarcasualtieswerecausedbygas,[244]aseffectivecountermeasures
togasattackswerequicklycreated,suchasgasmasks.Theuseofchemicalwarfareandsmallscalestrategic
bombingwerebothoutlawedbytheHagueConventionsof1899and1907,andbothprovedtobeoflimited
effectiveness,[245]thoughtheycapturedthepublicimagination.[246]
Themostpowerfullandbasedweaponswererailwayguns,weighingdozensoftonsapiece.[247]TheGerman
oneswerenicknamedBigBerthas,eventhoughthenamesakewasnotarailwaygun.Germanydevelopedthe
ParisGun,abletobombardParisfromover100kilometres(62mi),thoughshellswererelativelylightat
94kilograms(210lb).
Trenches,machineguns,airreconnaissance,barbedwire,andmodern
artillerywithfragmentationshellshelpedbringthebattlelinesofWorld
WarItoastalemate.TheBritishandtheFrenchsoughtasolutionwith
thecreationofthetankandmechanisedwarfare.TheBritishfirsttanks
wereusedduringtheBattleoftheSommeon15September1916.
Mechanicalreliabilitywasanissue,buttheexperimentprovedits
worth.Withinayear,theBritishwerefieldingtanksbythehundreds,
andtheyshowedtheirpotentialduringtheBattleofCambraiin
November1917,bybreakingtheHindenburgLine,whilecombined
armsteamscaptured8,000enemysoldiersand100guns.Meanwhile, BritishVickersmachinegun,1917.
theFrenchintroducedthefirsttankswitharotatingturret,theRenault
FT,whichbecameadecisivetoolofthevictory.Theconflictalsosawtheintroductionoflightautomatic
weaponsandsubmachineguns,suchastheLewisGun,theBrowningautomaticrifle,andtheBergmannMP18.
Anothernewweapon,theflamethrower,wasfirstusedbytheGermanarmyandlateradoptedbyotherforces.
Althoughnotofhightacticalvalue,theflamethrowerwasapowerful,demoralisingweaponthatcausedterror
onthebattlefield.
Trenchrailwaysevolvedtosupplytheenormousquantitiesoffood,water,andammunitionrequiredtosupport
largenumbersofsoldiersinareaswhereconventionaltransportationsystemshadbeendestroyed.Internal
combustionenginesandimprovedtractionsystemsforautomobilesandtrucks/lorrieseventuallyrendered
trenchrailwaysobsolete.
Naval
GermanydeployedUboats(submarines)afterthewarbegan.Alternatingbetweenrestrictedandunrestricted
submarinewarfareintheAtlantic,theKaiserlicheMarineemployedthemtodeprivetheBritishIslesofvital
supplies.ThedeathsofBritishmerchantsailorsandtheseeminginvulnerabilityofUboatsledtothe
developmentofdepthcharges(1916),hydrophones(passivesonar,1917),blimps,hunterkillersubmarines
(HMSR1,1917),forwardthrowingantisubmarineweapons,anddippinghydrophones(thelattertwoboth
abandonedin1918).[82]Toextendtheiroperations,theGermansproposedsupplysubmarines(1916).Mostof
thesewouldbeforgottenintheinterwarperioduntilWorldWarIIrevivedtheneed.[248]
Aviation
FixedwingaircraftwerefirstusedmilitarilybytheItaliansinLibyaon
23October1911duringtheItaloTurkishWarforreconnaissance,soon
followedbythedroppingofgrenadesandaerialphotographythenext
year.By1914,theirmilitaryutilitywasobvious.Theywereinitially
usedforreconnaissanceandgroundattack.Toshootdownenemy
planes,antiaircraftgunsandfighteraircraftweredeveloped.Strategic
bomberswerecreated,principallybytheGermansandBritish,though
theformerusedZeppelinsaswell.[250]Towardstheendoftheconflict,
aircraftcarrierswereusedforthefirsttime,withHMSFurious RAFSopwithCamel.InApril1917,
launchingSopwithCamelsinaraidtodestroytheZeppelinhangarsat theaveragelifeexpectancyofa
BritishpilotontheWesternFrontwas
Tondernin1918.[251]
93flyinghours. [249]
Mannedobservationballoons,floatinghighabovethetrenches,were
usedasstationaryreconnaissanceplatforms,reportingenemymovementsanddirectingartillery.Balloons
commonlyhadacrewoftwo,equippedwithparachutes,[252]sothatiftherewasanenemyairattackthecrew
couldparachutetosafety.Atthetime,parachutesweretooheavytobeusedbypilotsofaircraft(withtheir
marginalpoweroutput),andsmallerversionswerenotdevelopeduntiltheendofthewartheywerealso
opposedbytheBritishleadership,whofearedtheymightpromotecowardice.[253]
Recognisedfortheirvalueasobservationplatforms,balloonswereimportanttargetsforenemyaircraft.To
defendthemagainstairattack,theywereheavilyprotectedbyantiaircraftgunsandpatrolledbyfriendly
aircrafttoattackthem,unusualweaponssuchasairtoairrocketswereeventried.Thus,thereconnaissance
valueofblimpsandballoonscontributedtothedevelopmentofairtoaircombatbetweenalltypesofaircraft,
andtothetrenchstalemate,becauseitwasimpossibletomovelargenumbersoftroopsundetected.The
GermansconductedairraidsonEnglandduring1915and1916withairships,hopingtodamageBritishmorale
andcauseaircrafttobedivertedfromthefrontlines,andindeedtheresultingpanicledtothediversionof
severalsquadronsoffightersfromFrance.[250][253]
Warcrimes
Baralongincidents
On19August1915,theGermansubmarineU27wassunkbytheBritishQshipHMSBaralong.AllGerman
survivorsweresummarilyexecutedbyBaralong'screwontheordersofLieutenantGodfreyHerbert,the
captainoftheship.TheshootingwasreportedtothemediabyAmericancitizenswhowereonboardthe
Nicosia,aBritishfreighterloadedwithwarsupplies,whichwasstoppedbyU27justminutesbeforethe
incident.[254]
On24September,BaralongdestroyedU41,whichwasintheprocessofsinkingthecargoshipUrbino.
AccordingtoKarlGoetz,thesubmarine'scommander,BaralongcontinuedtoflytheUSflagafterfiringonU
41andthenrammedthelifeboatcarryingtheGermansurvivorssinkingit.[255]
TorpedoingofHMHSLlandoveryCastle
TheCanadianhospitalshipHMHSLlandoveryCastlewastorpedoedbytheGermansubmarineSMU86on27
June1918inviolationofinternationallaw.Only24ofthe258medicalpersonnel,patients,andcrewsurvived.
SurvivorsreportedthattheUboatsurfacedandrandownthelifeboats,machinegunningsurvivorsinthewater.
TheUboatcaptain,HelmutPatzig,waschargedwithwarcrimesinGermanyfollowingthewar,butescaped
prosecutionbygoingtotheFreeCityofDanzig,beyondthejurisdictionofGermancourts.[256]
Chemicalweaponsinwarfare
Thefirstsuccessfuluseofpoisongasasaweaponofwarfareoccurred
duringtheSecondBattleofYpres(22April25May1915).[257]Gas
wassoonusedbyallmajorbelligerentsthroughoutthewar.Itis
estimatedthattheuseofchemicalweaponsemployedbybothsides
throughoutthewarhadinflicted1.3millioncasualties.Forexample,the
Britishhadover180,000chemicalweaponscasualtiesduringthewar,
anduptoonethirdofAmericancasualtieswerecausedbythem.The
RussianArmyreportedlysufferedroughly500,000chemicalweapon
casualtiesinWorldWarI.[258]Theuseofchemicalweaponsinwarfare
wasindirectviolationofthe1899HagueDeclarationConcerning
AsphyxiatingGasesandthe1907HagueConventiononLandWarfare, Frenchsoldiersmakingagasand
whichprohibitedtheiruse.[259][260] flameattackonGermantrenchesin
Flanders
Theeffectofpoisongaswasnotlimitedtocombatants.Civilianswere
atriskfromthegasesaswindsblewthepoisongasesthroughtheir
towns,andrarelyreceivedwarningsoralertsofpotentialdanger.Inadditiontoabsentwarningsystems,
civiliansoftendidnothaveaccesstoeffectivegasmasks.Anestimated100,000260,000civiliancasualties
werecausedbychemicalweaponsduringtheconflictandtensofthousandsmore(alongwithmilitary
personnel)diedfromscarringofthelungs,skindamage,andcerebraldamageintheyearsaftertheconflict
ended.Manycommandersonbothsidesknewsuchweaponswouldcausemajorharmtociviliansbut
nonethelesscontinuedtousethem.BritishFieldMarshalSirDouglasHaigwroteinhisdiary,"Myofficersand
Iwereawarethatsuchweaponswouldcauseharmtowomenandchildrenlivinginnearbytowns,asstrong
windswerecommoninthebattlefront.However,becausetheweaponwastobedirectedagainsttheenemy,
noneofuswereoverlyconcernedatall."[261][262][263][264]
Genocideandethniccleansing
TheethniccleansingoftheOttomanEmpire'sArmenianpopulation,
includingmassdeportationsandexecutions,duringthefinalyearsofthe
OttomanEmpireisconsideredgenocide.[267]TheOttomanscarriedout
organizedandsystematicmassacresoftheArmenianpopulationatthe
beginningofthewarandportrayeddeliberatelyprovokedactsof
Armenianresistanceasrebellionstojustifyfurtherextermination.[268]In
early1915,anumberofArmeniansvolunteeredtojointheRussian
forcesandtheOttomangovernmentusedthisasapretexttoissuethe
TehcirLaw(LawonDeportation),whichauthorizedthedeportationof Armenianskilledduringthe
ArmeniansfromtheEmpire'seasternprovincestoSyriabetween1915 ArmenianGenocide.Imagetaken
and1918.TheArmenianswereintentionallymarchedtodeathanda fromAmbassadorMorgenthau's
numberwereattackedbyOttomanbrigands.[269]Whileanexactnumber Story,writtenbyHenryMorgenthau,
ofdeathsisunknown,theInternationalAssociationofGenocide Sr.andpublishedin1918. [265]
Scholarsestimates1.5million. [267][270]ThegovernmentofTurkeyhas
consistentlydeniedthegenocide,arguingthatthosewhodiedwere
victimsofinterethnicfighting,famine,ordiseaseduringWorldWarItheseclaimsarerejectedbymost
historians.[271]Otherethnicgroupsweresimilarlyattackedbythe
OttomanEmpireduringthisperiod,includingAssyriansandGreeks,
andsomescholarsconsiderthoseeventstobepartofthesamepolicyof
extermination.[272][273][274]
RussianEmpire
ManypogromsaccompaniedtheRussianRevolutionof1917andthe AustroHungariansoldiersexecuting
ensuingRussianCivilWar.60,000200,000civilianJewswerekilledin
menandwomeninSerbia,1916. [266]
theatrocitiesthroughouttheformerRussianEmpire(mostlywithinthe
PaleofSettlementinpresentdayUkraine).[275]
RapeofBelgium
TheGermaninvaderstreatedanyresistancesuchassabotagingraillinesasillegalandimmoral,andshot
theoffendersandburnedbuildingsinretaliation.Inaddition,theytendedtosuspectthatmostcivilianswere
potentialfranctireurs(guerrillas)and,accordingly,tookandsometimeskilledhostagesfromamongthecivilian
population.TheGermanarmyexecutedover6,500FrenchandBelgianciviliansbetweenAugustand
November1914,usuallyinnearrandomlargescaleshootingsofciviliansorderedbyjuniorGermanofficers.
TheGermanArmydestroyed15,00020,000buildingsmostfamouslytheuniversitylibraryatLouvainand
generatedawaveofrefugeesofoveramillionpeople.OverhalftheGermanregimentsinBelgiumwere
involvedinmajorincidents.[276]ThousandsofworkerswereshippedtoGermanytoworkinfactories.British
propagandadramatizingtheRapeofBelgiumattractedmuchattentionintheUnitedStates,whileBerlinsaidit
wasbothlawfulandnecessarybecauseofthethreatoffranctireurslikethoseinFrancein1870.[277]The
BritishandFrenchmagnifiedthereportsanddisseminatedthemathomeandintheUnitedStates,wherethey
playedamajorroleindissolvingsupportforGermany.[278][279]
Soldiers'experiences
TheBritishsoldiersofthewarwereinitiallyvolunteersbutincreasingly
wereconscriptedintoservice.Survivingveterans,returninghome,often
foundthattheycouldonlydiscusstheirexperiencesamongst
themselves.Groupingtogether,theyformed"veterans'associations"or
"Legions".
Prisonersofwar TheFirstContingentoftheBermuda
VolunteerRifleCorpstothe1
Abouteightmillionmen Lincolns,traininginBermudaforthe
surrenderedandwereheldin WesternFront,winter19141915.
POWcampsduringthewar.All ThetwoBVRCcontingentssuffered
nationspledgedtofollowthe 75%casualties.
HagueConventionsonfair
treatmentofprisonersofwar,andthesurvivalrateforPOWswas
generallymuchhigherthanthatoftheirpeersatthefront.[280]
Individualsurrenderswereuncommonlargeunitsusuallysurrendered
enmasse.AtthesiegeofMaubeugeabout40,000Frenchsoldiers
GermanprisonersinaFrenchprison surrendered,atthebattleofGaliciaRussianstookabout100,000to
camp,duringthelaterpartofthe 120,000Austriancaptives,attheBrusilovOffensiveabout325,000to
war. 417,000GermansandAustrianssurrenderedtoRussians,attheBattle
ofTannenberg92,000Russianssurrendered.Whenthebesieged
garrisonofKaunassurrenderedin1915,some20,000Russiansbecame
prisoners,atthebattlenearPrzasnysz(FebruaryMarch1915)14,000GermanssurrenderedtoRussians,atthe
FirstBattleoftheMarneabout12,000GermanssurrenderedtotheAllies.2531%ofRussianlosses(asa
proportionofthosecaptured,wounded,orkilled)weretoprisonerstatusforAustriaHungary32%,forItaly
26%,forFrance12%,forGermany9%forBritain7%.PrisonersfromtheAlliedarmiestotalledabout
1.4million(notincludingRussia,whichlost2.53.5millionmenasprisoners).FromtheCentralPowersabout
3.3millionmenbecameprisonersmostofthemsurrenderedtoRussians.[281]Germanyheld2.5million
prisonersRussiaheld2.22.9millionwhileBritainandFranceheldabout720,000.Mostwerecapturedjust
beforetheArmistice.TheUnitedStatesheld48,000.Themostdangerousmomentwastheactofsurrender,
whenhelplesssoldiersweresometimesgunneddown.[282][283]Onceprisonersreachedacamp,conditionswere,
ingeneral,satisfactory(andmuchbetterthaninWorldWarII),thanksinparttotheeffortsoftheInternational
RedCrossandinspectionsbyneutralnations.However,conditionswereterribleinRussia:starvationwas
commonforprisonersandciviliansalikeabout1520%oftheprisonersinRussiadiedandinCentralPowers
imprisonment8%ofRussians.[284]InGermany,foodwasscarce,butonly5%died.[285][286][287]
TheOttomanEmpireoftentreatedPOWspoorly.[288]Some11,800British
Empiresoldiers,mostofthemIndians,becameprisonersaftertheSiegeofKut
inMesopotamiainApril19164,250diedincaptivity.[289]Althoughmanywere
inapoorconditionwhencaptured,Ottomanofficersforcedthemtomarch
1,100kilometres(684mi)toAnatolia.Asurvivorsaid:"Weweredrivenalong
likebeaststodropoutwastodie."[290]Thesurvivorswerethenforcedtobuild
arailwaythroughtheTaurusMountains.
InRussia,whentheprisonersfromtheCzechLegionoftheAustroHungarian
armywerereleasedin1917,theyrearmedthemselvesandbrieflybecamea
militaryanddiplomaticforceduringtheRussianCivilWar.
WhiletheAlliedprisonersoftheCentralPowerswerequicklysenthomeatthe
endofactivehostilities,thesametreatmentwasnotgrantedtoCentralPower EmaciatedIndianArmy
prisonersoftheAlliesandRussia,manyofwhomservedasforcedlabor,e.g., soldierwhosurvivedthe
inFranceuntil1920.Theywerereleasedonlyaftermanyapproachesbythe SiegeofKut.
RedCrosstotheAlliedSupremeCouncil.[291]Germanprisonerswerestill
beingheldinRussiaaslateas1924.[292]
Militaryattachsandwarcorrespondents
Militaryandcivilianobserversfromeverymajorpowercloselyfollowedthecourseofthewar.Manywereable
toreportoneventsfromaperspectivesomewhatakintomodern"embedded"positionswithintheopposing
landandnavalforces.
Supportandoppositiontothewar
Support
IntheBalkans,Yugoslavnationalistssuchastheleader,AnteTrumbi,stronglysupportedthewar,desiringthe
freedomofYugoslavsfromAustriaHungaryandotherforeignpowersandthecreationofanindependent
Yugoslavia.TheYugoslavCommitteewasformedinParison30April1915butshortlymoveditsofficeto
LondonTrumbiledtheCommittee.[293]InApril1918,theRomeCongressofOppressedNationalitiesmet,
includingCzechoslovak,Italian,Polish,Transylvanian,andYugoslavrepresentativeswhourgedtheAlliesto
supportnationalselfdeterminationforthepeoplesresidingwithinAustriaHungary.[294]
IntheMiddleEast,ArabnationalismsoaredinOttomanterritoriesinresponsetotheriseofTurkish
nationalismduringthewar,withArabnationalistleadersadvocatingthecreationofapanArabstate.In1916,
theArabRevoltbeganinOttomancontrolledterritoriesoftheMiddleEastinanefforttoachieve
independence.[295]
Anumberofsocialistpartiesinitiallysupportedthewarwhenitbegan
inAugust1914.[294]ButEuropeansocialistssplitonnationallines,with
theconceptofclassconflictheldbyradicalsocialistssuchasMarxists
andsyndicalistsbeingoverbornebytheirpatrioticsupportforwar.[296]
Oncethewarbegan,Austrian,British,French,German,andRussian
socialistsfollowedtherisingnationalistcurrentbysupportingtheir
countries'interventioninthewar.[297]
Italiannationalismwasstirredbytheoutbreakofthewarandwas
initiallystronglysupportedbyavarietyofpoliticalfactions.Oneofthe
mostprominentandpopularItaliannationalistsupportersofthewarwas
Gabrieled'Annunzio,whopromotedItalianirredentismandhelped
swaytheItalianpublictosupportinterventioninthewar.[298]The
ItalianLiberalParty,undertheleadershipofPaoloBoselli,promoted
interventioninthewaronthesideoftheAlliesandutilisedtheDante
AlighieriSocietytopromoteItaliannationalism.[299]Italiansocialists Posterurgingwomentojointhe
weredividedonwhethertosupportthewaroropposeitsomewere Britishwareffort,publishedbythe
militantsupportersofthewar,includingBenitoMussoliniandLeonida YoungWomen'sChristianAssociation
Bissolati.[300]However,theItalianSocialistPartydecidedtoopposethe
warafterantimilitaristprotestorswerekilled,resultinginageneral
strikecalledRedWeek.[301]TheItalianSocialistPartypurgeditselfofprowarnationalistmembers,including
Mussolini.[301]Mussolini,asyndicalistwhosupportedthewarongroundsofirredentistclaimsonItalian
populatedregionsofAustriaHungary,formedtheprointerventionistIlPopolod'ItaliaandtheFasci
Rivoluzionariod'AzioneInternazionalista("RevolutionaryFasciforInternationalAction")inOctober1914that
laterdevelopedintotheFascidiCombattimentoin1919,theoriginoffascism.[302]Mussolini'snationalism
enabledhimtoraisefundsfromAnsaldo(anarmamentsfirm)andothercompaniestocreateIlPopolod'Italia
toconvincesocialistsandrevolutionariestosupportthewar.[303]
Opposition
Oncewarwasdeclared,manysocialistsandtradeunionsbackedtheir
governments.AmongtheexceptionsweretheBolsheviks,theSocialist
PartyofAmerica,andtheItalianSocialistParty,andindividualssuchas
KarlLiebknecht,RosaLuxemburg,andtheirfollowersinGermany.
BenedictXV,electedtothepapacylessthanthreemonthsintoWorld
WarI,madethewaranditsconsequencesthemainfocusofhisearly
pontificate.Instarkcontrasttohispredecessor,[304]fivedaysafterhis
electionhespokeofhisdeterminationtodowhathecouldtobring SackvilleStreet(nowO'Connell
peace.Hisfirstencyclical,AdbeatissimiApostolorum,given1 Street)afterthe1916EasterRisingin
November1914,wasconcernedwiththissubject.BenedictXVfound Dublin.
hisabilitiesanduniquepositionasareligiousemissaryofpeaceignored
bythebelligerentpowers.The1915TreatyofLondonbetweenItalyand
theTripleEntenteincludedsecretprovisionswherebytheAlliesagreedwithItalytoignorepapalpeacemoves
towardstheCentralPowers.Consequently,thepublicationofBenedict'sproposedsevenpointPeaceNoteof
August1917wasroundlyignoredbyallpartiesexceptAustriaHungary.[305]
InBritain,in1914,thePublicSchoolsOfficers'TrainingCorpsannualcampwasheldatTidworthPennings,
nearSalisburyPlain.HeadoftheBritishArmy,LordKitchener,wastoreviewthecadets,buttheimminenceof
thewarpreventedhim.GeneralHoraceSmithDorrienwassentinstead.Hesurprisedthetwoorthreethousand
cadetsbydeclaring(inthewordsofDonaldChristopherSmith,a
Bermudiancadetwhowaspresent),
thatwarshouldbeavoidedatalmostanycost,thatwar
wouldsolvenothing,thatthewholeofEuropeandmore
besideswouldbereducedtoruin,andthatthelossoflife
wouldbesolargethatwholepopulationswouldbe
decimated.InourignoranceI,andmanyofus,feltalmost
ashamedofaBritishGeneralwhoutteredsuchdepressing TheDeserter,1916.Antiwarcartoon
andunpatrioticsentiments,butduringthenextfouryears, depictingJesusfacingafiringsquad
thoseofuswhosurvivedtheholocaustprobablynotmore withsoldiersfromfiveEuropean
thanonequarterofuslearnedhowrighttheGeneral's countries.
prognosiswasandhowcourageoushehadbeentoutter
it.[306]
VoicingthesesentimentsdidnothinderSmithDorrien'scareer,orpreventhimfromdoinghisdutyinWorld
WarItothebestofhisabilities.
Manycountriesjailedthosewhospokeoutagainsttheconflict.These
includedEugeneDebsintheUnitedStatesandBertrandRussellin
Britain.IntheUS,theEspionageActof1917andSeditionActof1918
madeitafederalcrimetoopposemilitaryrecruitmentormakeany
statementsdeemed"disloyal".Publicationsatallcriticalofthe
governmentwereremovedfromcirculationbypostalcensors,[147]and
manyservedlongprisonsentencesforstatementsoffactdeemed
unpatriotic.
PossibleexecutionatVerdunatthe
Anumberofnationalistsopposedintervention,particularlywithinstates timeofthemutiniesin1917.The
thatthenationalistswerehostileto.AlthoughthevastmajorityofIrish originalFrenchtextaccompanying
peopleconsentedtoparticipateinthewarin1914and1915,aminority thisphotographnoteshoweverthat
ofadvancedIrishnationalistsstaunchlyopposedtakingpart.[307]The theuniformsarethoseof1914/15and
warbeganamidtheHomeRulecrisisinIrelandthathadresurfacedin thattheexecutionmaybethatofa
1912and,byJuly1914,therewasaseriouspossibilityofanoutbreakof spyatthebeginningofthewar.
civilwarinIreland.IrishnationalistsandMarxistsattemptedtopursue
Irishindependence,culminatingintheEasterRisingof1916,with
Germanysending20,000riflestoIrelandtostirunrestinBritain.[308]
TheUKgovernmentplacedIrelandundermartiallawinresponsetothe
EasterRisingalthough,oncetheimmediatethreatofrevolutionhad
dissipated,theauthoritiesdidtrytomakeconcessionstonationalist
feeling.[309]
Otheroppositioncamefromconscientiousobjectorssomesocialist, GermanRevolution,Kiel,1918.
somereligiouswhorefusedtofight.InBritain,16,000peopleasked
forconscientiousobjectorstatus.[310]Someofthem,mostnotably
prominentpeaceactivistStephenHenryHobhouse,refusedbothmilitaryandalternativeservice.[311]Many
sufferedyearsofprison,includingsolitaryconfinementandbreadandwaterdiets.Evenafterthewar,inBritain
manyjobadvertisementsweremarked"Noconscientiousobjectorsneedapply".
TheCentralAsianRevoltstartedinthesummerof1916,whentheRussianEmpiregovernmentendedits
exemptionofMuslimsfrommilitaryservice.[312]
In1917,aseriesofFrenchArmyMutiniesledtodozensofsoldiersbeingexecutedandmanymoreimprisoned.
InMilan,inMay1917,Bolshevikrevolutionariesorganisedandengagedinriotingcallingforanendtothe
war,andmanagedtoclosedownfactoriesandstoppublictransportation.[313]TheItalianarmywasforcedto
enterMilanwithtanksandmachinegunstofaceBolsheviksandanarchists,whofoughtviolentlyuntil23May
whenthearmygainedcontrolofthecity.Almost50people(includingthreeItaliansoldiers)werekilledand
over800peoplearrested.[313]
InSeptember1917,RussiansoldiersinFrancebeganquestioningwhytheywerefightingfortheFrenchatall
andmutinied.[314]InRussia,oppositiontothewarledtosoldiersalsoestablishingtheirownrevolutionary
committees,whichhelpedfomenttheOctoberRevolutionof1917,withthecallgoingupfor"bread,land,and
peace".TheBolsheviksagreedtoapeacetreatywithGermany,thepeaceofBrestLitovsk,despiteitsharsh
conditions.
InnorthernGermany,theendofOctober1918sawthebeginningoftheGermanRevolutionof19181919.
UnitsoftheGermanNavyrefusedtosetsailforalast,largescaleoperationinawarwhichtheysawasgoodas
lostthisinitiatedtheuprising.Thesailors'revoltwhichthenensuedinthenavalportsofWilhelmshavenand
Kielspreadacrossthewholecountrywithindaysandledtotheproclamationofarepublicon9November
1918andshortlythereaftertotheabdicationofKaiserWilhelmII.
Conscription
ConscriptionwascommoninmostEuropeancountries.Howeveritwas
controversialinEnglishspeakingcountries.Itwasespeciallyunpopular
amongminorityethnicgroupsespeciallytheIrishCatholicsin
Ireland[315]andAustralia,andtheFrenchCatholicsinCanada.In
Canadatheissueproducedamajorpoliticalcrisisthatpermanently
alienatedtheFrancophiles.ItopenedapoliticalgapbetweenFrench
Canadians,whobelievedtheirtrueloyaltywastoCanadaandnottothe
BritishEmpire,andmembersoftheAnglophonemajority,whosawthe
warasadutytotheirBritishheritage.[316]InAustralia,asustainedpro
conscriptioncampaignbyBillyHughes,thePrimeMinister,causeda
Youngmenregisteringfor
splitintheAustralianLaborParty,soHughesformedtheNationalist
conscription,NewYorkCity,5June
PartyofAustraliain1917topursuethematter.Farmers,thelabour
1917.
movement,theCatholicChurch,andtheIrishCatholicssuccessfully
opposedHughes'push,whichwasrejectedintwoplebiscites.[317]
InBritain,conscriptionresultedinthecallingupofnearlyeveryphysicallyfitmaninBritainsixoften
millioneligible.Ofthese,about750,000losttheirlives.Mostdeathsweretoyoungunmarriedmenhowever,
160,000wiveslosthusbandsand300,000childrenlostfathers.[318]IntheUnitedStates,conscriptionbeganin
1917andwasgenerallywellreceived,withafewpocketsofoppositioninisolatedruralareas.[319]
Legacyandmemory
..."Strange,friend,"Isaid,"Hereisnocausetomourn."
"None,"saidtheother,"Savetheundoneyears"...
WilfredOwen,StrangeMeeting,1918[243]
Thefirsttentativeeffortstocomprehendthemeaningandconsequencesofmodernwarfarebeganduringthe
initialphasesofthewar,andthisprocesscontinuedthroughoutandaftertheendofhostilities,andisstill
underway,morethanacenturylater.
Historiography
HistorianHeatherJonesarguesthatthehistoriographyhasbeenreinvigoratedbytheculturalturninrecent
years.Scholarshaveraisedentirelynewquestionsregardingmilitaryoccupation,radicalizationofpolitics,race,
andthemalebody.Furthermore,newresearchhasrevisedourunderstandingoffivemajortopicsthathistorians
havelongdebated.Theseare:Whydidthewarbegin?WhydidtheAllieswin?Werethegeneralstoblamefor
thehighcasualtyrates?Howdidthesoldiersendurethehorrorsoftrenchwarfare?Towhatextentdidthe
civilianhomefrontacceptandendorsethewareffort?[320]
Memorials
Memorialswereerectedinthousandsofvillagesandtowns.Closeto
battlefields,thoseburiedinimprovisedburialgroundsweregradually
movedtoformalgraveyardsunderthecareoforganisationssuchasthe
CommonwealthWarGravesCommission,theAmericanBattle
MonumentsCommission,theGermanWarGravesCommission,andLe
Souvenirfranais.Manyofthesegraveyardsalsohavecentral
monumentstothemissingorunidentifieddead,suchastheMeninGate
memorialandtheThiepvalMemorialtotheMissingoftheSomme.
In1915JohnMcCrae,aCanadianarmydoctor,wrotethepoemIn
FlandersFieldsasasalutetothosewhoperishedintheGreatWar. Atypicalvillagewarmemorialto
PublishedinPunchon8December1915,itisstillrecitedtoday, soldierskilledinWorldWarI
especiallyonRemembranceDayandMemorialDay.[321][322]
NationalWorldWarIMuseumandMemorialinKansasCity,Missouri,isamemorialdedicatedtoall
AmericanswhoservedinWorldWarI.TheLibertyMemorialwasdedicatedon1November1921,whenthe
supremeAlliedcommandersspoketoacrowdofmorethan100,000people.[323]
TheUKGovernmenthasbudgetedsubstantialresourcestothecommemorationofthewarduringtheperiod
2014to2018.TheleadbodyistheImperialWarMuseum.[324]On3August2014,FrenchPresidentFrancois
HollandeandGermanPresidentJoachimGaucktogethermarkedthecentenaryofGermany'sdeclarationofwar
onFrancebylayingthefirststoneofamemorialinVieilArmand,knowninGermanasHartmannswillerkopf,
forFrenchandGermansoldierskilledinthewar.[325]
Culturalmemory
WorldWarIhadalastingimpactonsocialmemory.Itwas
seenbymanyinBritainassignallingtheendofaneraof
stabilitystretchingbacktotheVictorianperiod,andacross
Europemanyregardeditasawatershed.[326]Historian
SamuelHynesexplained:
Agenerationofinnocentyoungmen,their
headsfullofhighabstractionslikeHonour,
GloryandEngland,wentofftowartomake
theworldsafefordemocracy.Theywere
slaughteredinstupidbattlesplannedbystupid
generals.Thosewhosurvivedwereshocked, Left:JohnMcCrae,authorofInFlandersFields.
disillusionedandembitteredbytheirwar Right:SiegfriedSassoon.
experiences,andsawthattheirrealenemies
werenottheGermans,buttheoldmenat
homewhohadliedtothem.Theyrejectedthe
valuesofthesocietythathadsentthemto
war,andindoingsoseparatedtheirown
generationfromthepastandfromtheir
culturalinheritance.[327]
ThishasbecomethemostcommonperceptionofWorldWarI,perpetuatedbytheart,cinema,poems,and
storiespublishedsubsequently.FilmssuchasAllQuietontheWesternFront,PathsofGloryandKing&
Countryhaveperpetuatedtheidea,whilewartimefilmsincludingCamrades,PoppiesofFlanders,and
ShoulderArmsindicatethatthemostcontemporaryviewsofthewarwereoverallfarmorepositive.[328]
Likewise,theartofPaulNash,JohnNash,ChristopherNevinson,andHenryTonksinBritainpainteda
negativeviewoftheconflictinkeepingwiththegrowingperception,whilepopularwartimeartistssuchas
MuirheadBonepaintedmoresereneandpleasantinterpretationssubsequentlyrejectedasinaccurate.[327]
SeveralhistorianslikeJohnTerraine,NiallFergusonandGarySheffieldhavechallengedtheseinterpretations
aspartialandpolemicalviews:
Thesebeliefsdidnotbecomewidelysharedbecausetheyofferedtheonlyaccurateinterpretationof
wartimeevents.Ineveryrespect,thewarwasmuchmorecomplicatedthantheysuggest.Inrecent
years,historianshavearguedpersuasivelyagainstalmosteverypopularclichofWorldWarI.It
hasbeenpointedoutthat,althoughthelossesweredevastating,theirgreatestimpactwassocially
andgeographicallylimited.Themanyemotionsotherthanhorrorexperiencedbysoldiersinand
outofthefrontline,includingcomradeship,boredom,andevenenjoyment,havebeenrecognised.
Thewarisnotnowseenasa'fightaboutnothing',butasawarofideals,astrugglebetween
aggressivemilitarismandmoreorlessliberaldemocracy.IthasbeenacknowledgedthatBritish
generalswereoftencapablemenfacingdifficultchallenges,andthatitwasundertheircommand
thattheBritisharmyplayedamajorpartinthedefeatoftheGermansin1918:agreatforgotten
victory.[328]
Thoughtheseviewshavebeendiscountedas"myths",[327][329]theyarecommon.Theyhavedynamically
changedaccordingtocontemporaryinfluences,reflectinginthe1950sperceptionsofthewaras"aimless"
followingthecontrastingSecondWorldWarandemphasisingconflictwithintheranksduringtimesofclass
conflictinthe1960s.Themajorityofadditionstothecontraryareoftenrejected.[328]
Socialtrauma
Thesocialtraumacausedbyunprecedentedratesofcasualtiesmanifesteditselfindifferentways,whichhave
beenthesubjectofsubsequenthistoricaldebate.[330]
Theoptimismoflabellepoquewasdestroyed,andthosewhohadfoughtinthewarwerereferredtoasthe
LostGeneration.[331]Foryearsafterwards,peoplemournedthedead,themissing,andthemanydisabled.[332]
Manysoldiersreturnedwithseveretrauma,sufferingfromshellshock(alsocalledneurasthenia,acondition
relatedtoposttraumaticstressdisorder).[333]Manymorereturnedhomewithfewaftereffectshowever,their
silenceaboutthewarcontributedtotheconflict'sgrowingmythologicalstatus.Thoughmanyparticipantsdid
notshareintheexperiencesofcombatorspendanysignificanttimeatthefront,orhadpositivememoriesof
theirservice,theimagesofsufferingandtraumabecamethewidelysharedperception.SuchhistoriansasDan
Todman,PaulFussell,andSamuelHeynshaveallpublishedworkssincethe1990sarguingthatthesecommon
perceptionsofthewararefactuallyincorrect.[330]
DiscontentinGermany
TheriseofNazismandFascismincludedarevivalofthenationalistspiritanda
rejectionofmanypostwarchanges.Similarly,thepopularityofthestabinthe
backlegend(German:Dolchstolegende)wasatestamenttothepsychological
stateofdefeatedGermanyandwasarejectionofresponsibilityfortheconflict.
Thisconspiracytheoryofbetrayalbecamecommon,andtheGermanpopulace
cametoseethemselvesasvictims.Thewidespreadacceptanceofthe"stabin
theback"theorydelegitimizedtheWeimargovernmentanddestabilizedthe
system,openingittoextremesofrightandleft.
CommunistandfascistmovementsaroundEuropedrewstrengthfromthis
theoryandenjoyedanewlevelofpopularity.Thesefeelingsweremost
pronouncedinareasdirectlyorharshlyaffectedbythewar.AdolfHitlerwas
abletogainpopularitybyutilisingGermandiscontentwiththestill
controversialTreatyofVersailles.[334]WorldWarIIwasinpartacontinuation
ofthepowerstruggleneverfullyresolvedbyWorldWarI.Furthermore,itwas
commonforGermansinthe1930stojustifyactsofaggressionduetoperceived A1919bookforveterans,
injusticesimposedbythevictorsofWorldWarI.[335][336][337]American fromtheUSWar
historianWilliamRubinsteinwrotethat: Department.
The'AgeofTotalitarianism'includednearlyalloftheinfamous
examplesofgenocideinmodernhistory,headedbytheJewish
Holocaust,butalsocomprisingthemassmurdersandpurgesofthe
Communistworld,othermasskillingscarriedoutbyNaziGermany
anditsallies,andalsotheArmenianGenocideof1915.Allthese
slaughters,itisarguedhere,hadacommonorigin,thecollapseof
theelitestructureandnormalmodesofgovernmentofmuchof
central,easternandsouthernEuropeasaresultofWorldWarI,
withoutwhichsurelyneitherCommunismnorFascismwouldhave
existedexceptinthemindsofunknownagitatorsand
crackpots.[338]
Economiceffects
Oneofthemostdramaticeffectsofthewarwastheexpansionofgovernmentalpowersandresponsibilitiesin
Britain,France,theUnitedStates,andtheDominionsoftheBritishEmpire.Toharnessallthepoweroftheir
societies,governmentscreatednewministriesandpowers.Newtaxeswereleviedandlawsenacted,all
designedtobolsterthewareffortmanyhavelastedtothisday.Similarly,thewarstrainedtheabilitiesofsome
formerlylargeandbureaucratisedgovernments,suchasinAustriaHungaryandGermany.
Grossdomesticproduct(GDP)increasedforthreeAllies(Britain,Italy,andUS),butdecreasedinFranceand
Russia,inneutralNetherlands,andinthethreemainCentralPowers.TheshrinkageinGDPinAustria,Russia,
France,andtheOttomanEmpirerangedbetween30%and40%.InAustria,forexample,mostpigswere
slaughtered,soatwar'sendtherewasnomeat.
Inallnations,thegovernment'sshareofGDPincreased,surpassing50%inbothGermanyandFranceand
nearlyreachingthatlevelinBritain.TopayforpurchasesintheUnitedStates,Britaincashedinitsextensive
investmentsinAmericanrailroadsandthenbeganborrowingheavilyonWallStreet.PresidentWilsonwason
thevergeofcuttingofftheloansinlate1916,butallowedagreatincreaseinUSgovernmentlendingtothe
Allies.After1919,theUSdemandedrepaymentoftheseloans.Therepaymentswere,inpart,fundedby
Germanreparationswhich,inturn,weresupportedbyAmericanloanstoGermany.Thiscircularsystem
collapsedin1931andtheloanswereneverrepaid.BritainstillowedtheUnitedStates$4.4billion[339]ofWorld
WarIdebtin1934,andthismoneywasneverrepaid.[340]
Macroandmicroeconomicconsequencesdevolvedfromthewar.
Familieswerealteredbythedepartureofmanymen.Withthedeathor
absenceoftheprimarywageearner,womenwereforcedintothe
workforceinunprecedentednumbers.Atthesametime,industryneeded
toreplacethelostlabourerssenttowar.Thisaidedthestrugglefor
votingrightsforwomen.[341]
WorldWarIfurthercompoundedthegenderimbalance,addingtothe
phenomenonofsurpluswomen.Thedeathsofnearlyonemillionmen
duringthewarinBritainincreasedthegendergapbyalmostamillion:
from670,000to1,700,000.Thenumberofunmarriedwomenseeking
economicmeansgrewdramatically.Inaddition,demobilisationand
economicdeclinefollowingthewarcausedhighunemployment.The
warincreasedfemaleemploymenthowever,thereturnofdemobilised
mendisplacedmanyfromtheworkforce,asdidtheclosureofmanyof
thewartimefactories.
InBritain,rationingwasfinallyimposedinearly1918,limitedtomeat,
sugar,andfats(butterandmargarine),butnotbread.Thenewsystem Postershowingwomenworkers,
workedsmoothly.From1914to1918,tradeunionmembershipdoubled, 1915.
fromalittleoverfourmilliontoalittleovereightmillion.
Britainturnedtohercoloniesforhelpinobtainingessentialwarmaterialswhosesupplyfromtraditional
sourceshadbecomedifficult.GeologistssuchasAlbertErnestKitsonwerecalledontofindnewresourcesof
preciousmineralsintheAfricancolonies.Kitsondiscoveredimportantnewdepositsofmanganese,usedin
munitionsproduction,intheGoldCoast.[342]
Article231oftheTreatyofVersailles(thesocalled"warguilt"clause)statedGermanyacceptedresponsibility
for"allthelossanddamagetowhichtheAlliedandAssociatedGovernmentsandtheirnationalshavebeen
subjectedasaconsequenceofthewarimposeduponthembytheaggressionofGermanyandherallies."[343]It
waswordedassuchtolayalegalbasisforreparations,andasimilarclausewasinsertedinthetreatieswith
AustriaandHungary.Howeverneitheroftheminterpreteditasanadmissionofwarguilt."[344]In1921,the
totalreparationsumwasplacedat132billiongoldmarks.However,"AlliedexpertsknewthatGermanycould
notpay"thissum.Thetotalsumwasdividedintothreecategories,withthethirdbeing"deliberatelydesigned
tobechimerical"andits"primaryfunctionwastomisleadpublicopinion...intobelievingthe"totalsumwas
beingmaintained."[345]Thus,50billiongoldmarks(12.5billiondollars)"representedtheactualAllied
assessmentofGermancapacitytopay"and"therefore...representedthetotalGermanreparations"figurethat
hadtobepaid.[345]
Thisfigurecouldbepaidincashorinkind(coal,timber,chemicaldyes,etc.).Inaddition,someoftheterritory
lostviathetreatyofVersailleswascreditedtowardsthereparationfigureaswereotheractssuchashelping
torestoretheLibraryofLouvain.[346]By1929,theGreatDepressionarrived,causingpoliticalchaos
throughouttheworld.[347]In1932thepaymentofreparationswassuspendedbytheinternationalcommunity,
bywhichpointGermanyhadonlypaidtheequivalentof20.598billiongoldmarksinreparations.[348]Withthe
riseofAdolfHitler,allbondsandloansthathadbeenissuedandtakenoutduringthe1920sandearly1930s
werecancelled.DavidAndelmannotes"refusingtopaydoesn'tmakeanagreementnullandvoid.Thebonds,
theagreement,stillexist."Thus,followingtheSecondWorldWar,attheLondonConferencein1953,Germany
agreedtoresumepaymentonthemoneyborrowed.On3October2010,Germanymadethefinalpaymenton
thesebonds.[349]
Seealso
OutlineofWorldWarI Deathratesinthe20thcentury
EuropeanCivilWar ListsofWorldWarItopics
ListofpeopleassociatedwithWorldWarI TimelineofWorldWarI
Listsofwars WorldWarIcasualties
Listofwarsandanthropogenicdisastersby WorldWarImedalabbreviations
deathtoll
Footnotes
a.TheUnitedStatesdidnotratifyanyofthetreatiesagreedtoattheParisPeaceConference.
b.BulgariajoinedtheCentralPowerson14October1915.
c.TheOttomanEmpireagreedtoasecretalliancewithGermanyon2August1914.Itjoinedthewaronthesideofthe
CentralPowerson29October1914.
d.TheUnitedStatesdeclaredwaronAustriaHungaryonDecember7,1917.
e.AustriawasconsideredoneofthesuccessorstatestoAustriaHungary.
f.TheUnitedStatesdeclaredwaronGermanyonApril6,1917.
g.HungarywasconsideredoneofthesuccessorstatestoAustriaHungary.
h.AlthoughtheTreatyofSvreswasintendedtoendthewarbetweentheAlliesandtheOttomanEmpire,theAlliesand
theRepublicofTurkey,thesuccessorstateoftheOttomanEmpire,agreedtotheTreatyofLausanne.
Notes
1."BritishArmystatisticsoftheGreatWar".1914 31.Djordjevi,DimitrijeSpence,RichardB.(1992).
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EuropeanNewspapersfromthestartoftheFirstWorldWar(http://www.theeuropeanlibrary.org/tel4/news
papers/search?query=&decade=19101919&month=7&year=1914&&count=50)andtheendofthewar
(http://www.theeuropeanlibrary.org/tel4/newspapers/search?query=&decade=19101919&month=11&ye
ar=1918&count=50)
Powerpointsummaryofthewar(http://www.americanhistoryprojects.com/downloads/WorldWarI.ppt)
TheWorldWarIDocumentArchive(http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Main_Page)Wiki,Brigham
YoungUniversity
MapsofEurope(http://maps.omniatlas.com/europe/19140905/)coveringthehistoryofWorldWarIat
omniatlas.com
"WorldWarICrossroads"(https://networks.hnet.org/worldwaricrossroads)currentdiscussionsby
scholars
WorldWarI(FirstWorldWar)Guidetowebsites(http://www.americanhistoryprojects.com/downloads/m
ilitary.htm#J.)
DocumentsfromMountHolyokeCollege(https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ww1.htm)
EFG1914FilmdigitisationprojectonFirstWorldWar(http://project.efg1914.eu/)
WWIFilmsontheEuropeanFilmGateway(http://www.europeanfilmgateway.eu/node/33/efg1914/multil
ingual%3A1)
TheBritishPathWW1FilmArchive(http://www.britishpathe.com/workspaces/page/ww1thedefinitive
collection)
WorldWarIBritishpressphotographcollection(http://digitalcollections.library.ubc.ca/cdm/landingpage/
collection/WWIphoto)AsamplingofimagesdistributedbytheBritishgovernmentduringthewarto
diplomatsoverseas,fromtheUBCLibraryDigitalCollections
WorldWarIinColour(https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL1zefP4G38zhmjemixOreAii6SJqiDbB
c)inYouTube.
Animatedmaps
Ananimatedmap"Europeplungesintowar"(http://www.themapashistory.com/demos/tome06/)
AnanimatedmapofEuropeattheendofthewar(http://www.themapashistory.com/demos/tome03/)
Libraryguides
NationalLibraryofNewZealand(http://natlib.govt.nz/researchers/guides/firstworldwar)
StateLibraryofNewSouthWales(http://guides.sl.nsw.gov.au/wwiandaustralia)
USLibraryofCongress(http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/wwi/wwi.html)
IndianaUniversityBloomington(http://libraries.iub.edu/guideworldwariresources),USA
NewYorkUniversity(http://guides.nyu.edu/content.php?pid=568692),USA
UniversityofAlberta(http://guides.library.ualberta.ca/worldwar1914),Canada
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