http://www.paper.edu.
cn
and harmonic power components of the load current while maintaining
the sinusoidal currents and unity power factor at the source side.
Simulation Results: A simulation example for the three-phase
four-wire SAPF connected to a nonlinear load supplied by an unbal-
anced source is used to verify the usefulness of the proposed method for
calculating SAPF reference compensating currents. Figures 2 - 4 illus-
trate the simulation results for the SAPF instantaneous reactive and
harmonic power compensation. Figure 2 shows waveforms of the
source voltage, source currents before and after compensation at each
phase. Figure 3 reveals the waveform of the SAPF reference compen-
sating current at phase a. Figure 4 illustrates the waveforms of the in-
stantaneous and average active power supplied by the SAPF during
compensation. The waveforms in Figure 4 indicate that the average ac-
tive power consumed by the load is completely supplied by the source,
and the SAPF does not require the dc source to produce compensating
current. As illustrated in Figures 2 - 4, the SAPF is as expected to have a
good performance based on the proposed method for generating refer-
ence compensating currents.
Conclusions: The method proposed in this letter is useful for deter-
mining the three-phase SAPF reference compensating currents in the
a-b-c coordinate for reactive and harmonic power compensation of the
load. The SAPF compensation scheme based on the proposed method
is valid for both ideal and nonideal source voltages as well as load cur-
rents in the three-phase system, where the sinusoidal source currents
are maintained. Unlike the p-q theory-based methods that involve more
complex design in SAPF control circuit due to coordinate transforma-
tions, the proposed method provides a simpler way to implement the
SAPF controller. The new method is proved to be adequate for com-
pensation applications.
References:
[1] H. Akagi, Y. Kanazawa, and A. Nabae, Generalized theory of
the instantaneous reactive power in three-phase circuits, in Proc. IEEJ
Int. Power Electronics Conf. (IPEC-Tokyo), 1983, pp. 1375-1386.
[2] W.M. Grady, M.J. Samotyj, and A.H. Noyola, Survey of active
power line conditioning methodologies, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery,
vol. 5, pp. 1536-1542, July 1990.
[3] J.L. Willems, A new interpretation of the Akagi-Nabae power
components for nonsinusoidal three-phase situations, IEEE Trans.
Instrum. Meas., vol. 41, pp. 523-5297, Aug. 1992.
[4] F.Z. Peng and J.S. Lai, Generalized instantaneous reactive
power theory for three-phase power systems, IEEE Trans. Instrum.
Meas., vol. 45, pp. 293-297, Feb. 1996.
Copyright Statement: ISSN 0282-1724/01/$10.00 2001 IEEE.
Manuscript received 9 August 2000. This paper is published herein in
its entirety.
IEEE History Center
Mystery Photo Challenge
Who, What, When, Where, and Why?
The IEEE History Center is asking IEEE members
to help identify mystery photos posted each
month on its Web site, http://www.ieee.org/organi-
zations/history_center/mystery.html. The center
maintains a photographic collection of more than
2,800 images and some are unidentified. Members
are invited to identify the mystery photo and provide
any information they can, such as the description,
year, manufacturer, purpose of equipment, etc.
For more information, contact Mary Ann
Hoffman, IEEE History Center, +1 732 932 1066,
e-mail m.hoffman@ieee.org.
IEEE Power Engineering Review, March 2001
A Novel Technique for Measuring Grounding
Capacitance and Grounding Fault Resistance
in Ineffectively Grounded Systems
XiangJun Zeng, Xianggen Yin, Deshu Chen
Author Affiliation: Department of Electrical Power Engineering,
Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei Prov-
ince, China.
Abstract: A principle for resonance measurement based on inject-
ing resonant frequency signal is presented in this letter. The grounding
capacitance of lines and equipment and the grounding fault resistance
can be measured on-line in ineffectively grounded systems.
Petersen-coil automatic tuning is implemented, and 100% stator
grounding fault protection for generator stator windings is also pro-
posed. The prototype for Petersen-coil tuning has been tested on net-
works for many years. In addition the new method for generator stator
grounding fault protection is verified by simulation.
Keywords: Distribution systems, Petersen-coil tuning, generator
protection
Introduction: Many medium voltage distribution networks are res-
onant earthed neutral systems [1]. In China, most distribution systems
are isolated systems or resonant earthed neutral systems. To benefit
from this resonant earthed neutral systems (arc self-extinguishes), reso-
nance tuning between Petersen-coil inductance and grounding capaci-
tance of lines and equipment must be maintained on-line. The
grounding capacitance varies with the networks topology that changes
in practical operation. Consequently, the grounding capacitance must
be measured on-line. The traditional way for measuring grounding ca-
pacitance based on an analysis of neutral-to-earth voltage (that is, reso-
nance curve) is the Petersen coil [1]. Another method based on
injecting constant frequency current signal needs to measure ampli-
tudes and phases of the injected current, of neutral-to-ground voltage
and of their variation due to the injection with high accuracy [2].
In generator units, while high grounding fault is taking place, the
ground fault current is not larger than the capacitive current of genera-
tor stator windings. Thus this ground fault is difficult to detect by the
traditional protection scheme based on the fundamental frequency zero
sequence voltage and the third-order harmonic zero sequence voltage
[3], [4]. Another protection scheme based on injecting a subharmonic
frequency signal can improve sensitivity due to the high impedance
path of the generator and connected equipment capacitance at the low
frequency [5]. This still can not satisfy the requirement of large genera-
Figure 1. The equivalent circuit for resonance measurement with injection
signals
Figure 2. The equivalent circuit of resonance grounding system for current
injection
65
 http://www.paper.edu.cn

Table 1. Test result for capacitive current on network

Petersen coil Resonant frequency Capacitive current line length
Tap Current(A) (Hz) test (A) estimation (A) (km)
9 25 55.655 20.2 19.95 164.6
6 19.3 59.350 13.7 13.21 101.0
2 13.6 55.045 11.2 11.93 89.0
2 13.6 54.245 11.6 12.12 90.8
2 13.6 45.250 16.6 17.01 136.9
2 13.6 41.863 19.4 19.95 164.6

Table 2. Results of simulation for measuring fault resistance

Neutral grounding Appending Resonant frequency Injecting signal Measuring Phase difference ()
inductance (H) (Hz) frequency (Hz) grounding fault
resistance ()
High resistance 27.019 12.5 12.5 8002 0.25
10.554 20.0 20.0 7999 0.11
Petersen-coil No 48.0 12.5 154 89.05
20.0 278 88.45
40.0 1480 80.19
45.0 3773 62.05
48.0 8000 0.12

tor units, however (such as the hydro-generator of Three-Gorge Power
Station, which stator winding capacitance is about 6f ).
A novel method for resonance measurement based on injection res-
onant frequency signal is presented in this letter. Grounding capaci-
tance can be simply calculated and grounding fault resistance can also
be evaluated. Then, Petersen-coil tuning is implemented and 100%
stator high-impedance ground-fault protection for generator stator
windings can be realized.
The Principle of Resonance Measurement: The zero sequence
equivalent circuit for resonance measurement with injection signal in
ineffectively grounding systems is shown in Figure 1, where Is is a
variable frequency constant current signal source, U s is the signal volt-
age, R0 is the neutral point earthed resistance in high-resistance ground
systems or in resistor parallel with compensation equipment
(Petersen-coil) grounding systems, I n is the current injection at the neu-
tral point (not including the current through R0 ), L is the neutral point
earthed inductance in reactance grounding systems or resistor in paral-
lel with compensation equipment grounding systems, C is the total
grounding capacitance of equipment and lines, and R f is the grounding
fault resistance. By injecting a variable frequency signal, measuring
phase difference between the signal voltage (U s ) and the signal current
(I s ), while the phase difference is about equal to zero (that is reso-
nance), this signal frequency is the resonance frequency of the system.
The total capacitance to earth (C) can be calculated by
1 Each feeder was switched on or off, and the capacitive current was
C = L 2 tested (Table 1).
0
(1)
where 0 is the resonance angular frequency.
Injecting a signal with resonant angular frequency 0 during
grounding fault, the fault resistance R f can be calculated as
Us
Rf = .
In
(2)
Petersen-Coil Automatic Tuning: A variable frequency current
signal is injected though the secondary side of zero sequence voltage
transformer, which is contained in the Petersen coil, into the zero se-
quence circuit (as in Figure 2). By changing the signal frequency and
looking for the resonance frequency of the system, the total grounding
capacitance of lines and equipment can be calculated by (1). The total
capacitive current is
U
I C = 3 CU =
20 L
(3)
where is the system angular frequency and U is the phase voltage of
system.
The total inductive impedance of the Petersen coil will be adjusted
to equal capacitive impedance on-line. When a distribution system has
several Petersen coils, the grounding capacitance of the whole network
can be calculated easily only by selecting one Petersen coil to inject sig-
nal current and then looking for the systems resonant frequency.
Practical Experience with Petersen Coil Tuning: The prototype
for Petersen coil tuning is developed, which has been tested on net-
works for several years. Some operational feedback has already been
received. The capacitive current of one 35 kV distribution network in
Minlou (Hunan province, China) was measured on 6 January 1997.
From Table 1, we can find that the largest error is up to 0.6 A. It
maybe because the estimated value of the capacitive current is not ac-
curate and that the magnetic curve of Petersen coil is nonlinear.
Stator Grounding Fault Protection: In subharmonic injection
protection schemes, the signal frequency is usually selected as 12.5 Hz,
20 Hz, etc. They can reduce the effect of grounding capacitance of
stator windings, but they are difficult to eliminate. In order to satisfy the
requirement of 100% stator high-impedance ground-fault protection
for large generator units an inductance, which is connected in parallel
with the resistor at the secondary side of neutral point grounding trans-

66 IEEE Power Engineering Review, March 2001

 http://www.paper.edu.cn

former, is used to compensate the grounding capacitance of generator Aumann-Shapley Transmission

stator windings. The inductance is calculated by
Congestion Pricing
1
L 12
3 2
0 CN 2
(4) Anastasios G. Bakirtzis
Author Affiliation: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Depart-
where N is the ration of grounding transformer. ment of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Thessaloniki, Greece.
The ground fault resistance R f is equal to the result in (2), showing Abstract: This letter describes a methodology for congestion cost
the signal voltage divided by the signal current. allocation based on marginal costs and game-theoretic principles
In the resonance neutral earthed generator unit, however, there is a (Aumann-Shapley pricing). The methodology provides fair, economi-
Petersen coil inductance to compensate for the grounding capacitance. cally efficient prices and ensures that the revenue collected from the
It is unnecessary to append another inductance. But the resonant fre- transmission users will be equal to the cost of relieving the congestion.
quency may be close to the fundamental frequency. So, the resonant Introduction to Congestion Management and Pricing: This dis-
frequency signal is not easily filtered. Thus, the grounding fault resis- cussion is restricted to a power pool, although it can be extended to bi-
tance R f is also difficult to measure with precision, especially in lateral trading with minor modifications. The pool is operated by a pool
high-resistance grounding fault. In order to improve it, the injecting operator (PO) who is both the market maker and the transmission oper-
signal frequency is selected to be this frequency near resonant fre- ator, thus he has access to energy price data, which he uses in conges-
quency and is easily measured (i.e., 45 Hz, while fundamental fre- tion management as well. It is assumed that no strategic bidding takes
quency is 50 Hz). The phase difference between signal voltage and place, i.e., generators bid their actual costs. For simplicity, a dc load
signal current can be measured with high precision. The ground fault flow approximation is used in the analysis. Let ( Bik , cik ), k = 1,...., m i be
resistance R f can be calculated as the energy quantity-price bids submitted by generators at bus i.
The PO processes the generator offers at a particular settlement pe-
R f = X s tg riod (hourly settlement is assumed) and computes the unconstrained
(5)
schedule (US) and the unconstrained market clearing price (UMCP) by
solving the unconstrained (regarding network limitations) optimization
sL problem:
X s =
1 2s CL n
(6)
Min F U = Fi ( Pi )
i=1 (1)
where s is the signal angular frequency.
Simulation for Generator Protection: The hydrogenerator of
Three-Gorge Power Station with 8 k resistance grounding fault is
simulated. The stator winding capacitance is 6f . If the neutral point is
grounded through a Petersen coil, the resonant frequency is selected as
48.7339 Hz. If the neutral point is grounded through a high resistor, an
appending inductance parallels connection with the resistor. Results of
this simulation are shown in Table 2.
Conclusions: A novel technique for measuring grounding capaci-
tance and grounding fault resistance by injecting current signal in inef-
fectively grounded systems is presented. In resonance neutral earthed
systems, the capacitive current can be measured without changing
Petersen coil taps. The automatic Petersen coil tuning is implemented
on-line.
In generator units, grounding fault resistance is measured without
the effect of stator winding capacitance by injecting a resonant fre-
quency signal. With the neutral point grounding through a high resistor,
an appending inductance is needed to compensate for the grounding ca-
pacitance. This protection scheme is highly sensitive, even with high
resistance faults.
The Petersen coil tuning system has been tested in networks, and
generator-stator high-impedance grounding fault protection has been
simulated. Figure 1. Three bus example system
References:
[1] IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and
Commercial Power Systems, IEEE Standard 142-1991, 22 June 1992 .
[2] D. Griffel, V. Leitloff, Y. Harmand, and J. Bergeal, A new deal
for safety and quality on MV networks, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery,
vol. 12, pp. 1428-1433, 1997.
[3] X.G. Yin, O.P. Malik, and D. Chen, Adaptive ground fault pro-
tection schemes for turbo-generator based on third harmonic voltages,
IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 5, pp. 595-601, 1990.
[4] A.C. Pierce, Generator ground Protection guide, IEEE Trans.
Power App. Syst., vol. 103, pp. 1743-1748, 1984.
[5] J.W. Pope, A comparison of 100% stator ground fault protec-
tion schemes for generator stator windings, IEEE Trans. Power App.
Syst., vol. 103, pp. 832-840, 1984.
Copyright Statement: ISSN 0282-1724/01/$10.00 2001 IEEE.
Manuscript received 22 December 1999; revised 10 August 2000. This
paper is published herein in its entirety. Figure 2. Short run marginal congestion cost as a function of % demand

IEEE Power Engineering Review, March 2001 67