Guide to Settlements of Buildings

CHAPTER 5
SETTLEMENT OF BUILDINGS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Settlement is a term that describes the vertical displacement of a structure, footing, road or
embankment due to the downward movement of a point. It is the reverse of heave which results
from upward movement at a point. Having determined an amount of settlement for a foundation, it
is then necessary to know whether it is acceptable or not. This value should be less than
permissible, tolerable or allowable settlement design value.
5.2 TYPES OF SETTLEMENT

From the structural point of view, settlement of structures may be of two types:
Equal or uniform settlement: This type has no serious implication on the structure or
civil engineering performance of the building. But it should have a maximum limit to prevent the
failure of soil under the structure.
Differential settlement: It means that one point of the structure settles more or less than
the others, therefore, it may lead to damage of the superstructure. Usually, it occurs due to one or
more of the following:
1. Variation of soil stratum (the subsoil is not homogeneous).
2. Variation in loading condition.
3. Large loaded area on flexible footing.
4. Differential difference in time of construction, and
5. Ground condition, such as slopes.
5.3 DEFINITIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT PARAMETERS

Some useful definitions of ground, foundation and structural movement which enable a
detailed investigation of various modes of movement of a structure are given as:
Settlement : Downward movement at a point which varies across a non-rigid structure.
Heave h : Upward movement at a point which varies across an excavation or beneath a
structure.
Differential settlement or differential heave or h : The difference in
settlement or heave between two points.
Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 5: Settlement of Buildings
Horizontal displacement u: Extension or contraction of a building in the horizontal

direction will result in tensile or compressive strains.
Rotation : The change in gradient of a line joining two reference points.
Tilt : The rigid body rotation of the structure or a well-defined part of it. This is obtained
by drawing a straight line between two edges of a building or a well-defined part
of it such as the points A and E in Fig.(5.1).
Relative deflection : The displacement relative to the tilted plane. Downward
displacement is described as sagging and upward movement as hogging, (see Fig.
(5.1)).
Deflection ratio / L : This denotes the degree of curvature to which a building or a part of
it has been subjected and can represent a sagging ratio or a hogging ratio. It
determines the amount of distortion and hence the degree of damage of the
structure. Deflection ratio is preferred to be angular distortion since the later is
affected by the amount of tilt, see Fig. (5.1).
Angular strain : This represents the total rotation at a point of a structure. For example,
at B on Fig. (5.1) it is given by: B AB BC
It is positive if it produces sag and negative if it produces hog.
Angular distortion : The rotation of the line joining two reference points relative to the
tilt line, see Fig. (5.1).
Thus, it is important to define certain parameters to quantify differential settlement and

develop limiting values for its parameters for desired safe performance of structures. Fig. (5.1)
shows the parameters of differential settlement for a structure in which various foundations at A,
B, C, D, and E have gone through some settlement. The settlement at foundation A is AA , at B is
BB , and so on.
AB
B C D
A E
T(max) E
A T(max)
max
D
C
B max
Fig.(5.1): Definition of differential settlement parameters

(Burland et al., 1978).
199
The parameters of differential settlement shown in Fig.(5.1) are defined as:

S T = total settlement of a given point,
S T = difference between total settlement between any two points,
= gradient between two successive points,
S T (ij)
= angular distortion = ; (Note: Lij = distance between points i and j),
L ij
= relative deflection (that is movement from a straight line joining two reference points),
/L = deflection ratio or displacement relative to tilt plane described as sagging in case of
downward movement or as hogging in case of upward movement, and
= tilting angle (in radians) of the whole structure or a part of it.
5.4 ROUTINE GUIDES FOR PERMISSIBLE SETTLEMENTS

Based on large number of observations of structures, Terzaghi and Peck (1948) and
Skempton and MacDonald (1956) gave limits to permissible settlements for framed structures as
summarized in Table (5.1). These guide values refer to routine buildings with fairly uniform
distribution of loading and uniform ground conditions. However, with regards to interaction
between structure and its supporting soil a number of important points emerge:
Permissible settlements for the same structure can be larger on clay soils than on sands.
This is probably due to the longer period of time over which settlements occur on clayey
soils compared with those occur on sandy soils.
Frame buildings and their claddings can tolerate more distortion than load bearing walls.
Many of the claddings in frame buildings are less sensitive to movement and they are
installed at a time when much of the settlement has already elapsed whereas load bearing
walls are more brittle and are subjected to settlements from commencement of
construction.
Frame building on isolated foundations may distort differently from buildings on raft
foundations.
A stiff soil layer overlying a compressible soil causing the settlements will not prevent the
occurring total settlement but will significantly reduce differential settlements.
Table (5.1): Routine Guides to Permissible Settlements.
Sand Clay
Settlement (mm)
Ref.1 Ref.2 Ref.2
maximum differential settlement 20 25 40
maximum settlement (isolated foundations) 25 40 65
maximum settlement (raft foundations) 50 40-65 65-100
Ref. 1-Terzaghi and Peck (1948), Ref. 2-Skempton and MacDonald (1956)
200
5.5 DAMAGE CRITERION FOR STRUCTURE

Based on the distortion of a structure, Skempton and MacDonald (1956) classified the
damages that occur in buildings into:
(a) Architectural damages (floor and finishing) occur when / L 1 / 300
(b) Structural damages occur when / L 1 / 150
(c) Combined damages occur when / L 1 / 75
Fig.(5.2) shows a simple criterion that relates the distortion of a structure (relative deflection
/ L ) to the onset of visible cracking of the cladding or finishes for frame buildings and load
bearing walls (Burland et al., 1977). It can be seen that for safe foundation design ( / L ) should
lie below the criterion line. Otherwise, if ( / L ) lies above the criterion lines, shown in Fig.(5.2),
a building will suffer architectural damage.
x Sever damage
Key Slight damage
No damage
Sagging ratio /L (x 103)
4.0
3.0
(a) Frame buildings
2.0
1.0
0 L/H
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sagging ratio /L (x 103)
2.0
1.5
(b) Load bearing walls (sagging)
1.0
0.5
0 L/H
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Hogging ratio /L (x 103)
2.0
1.5 (c) Load bearing walls (hogging)
1.0
0.5
0 L/H
0 1 2 3 4 12 13
Fig.(5.2): Damage criterion for different types of structure (after Burland et al., 1977).
201
5.6 TILTING OF FOUNDATIONS

The limiting values of foundation tilting are presented in Table (5.2) and can be estimated as:
ML 12s
tanL = Im ......(5.1a)
L2 B Es
MB 12s
tanB = Im ......(5.1b)
B2 L Es
where,
ML = moment in L - direction = Q. eL
MB = moment in B - direction = Q. eB
L and B = tilting angles in L and B directions, respectively, and
I m = moment factor that depends on the footing size as given in Table (5.3).
Table (5.2): Effect of foundation tilting on structures.
( in radians) Result to structure

1/150 Major damage
1/250 Tilting becomes visible
1/300 First cracks appear
1/500 No cracks (safe limit)
Table (5.3): Values of I m for various footing shapes.
Footing type Im
Circular 6.00
Rectangular with L/B = 1.00 (Square) 3.70
1.50 4.12
1.25 4.00
2.00 4.38
2.50 4.71
5.00 4.82
10.0 4.93
(Strip) 5.10
202
5.7 LIMITING VALUES OF SETTLEMENT PARAMETERS

Many investigators and building codes recommended the allowable values for the various
parameters of differential settlements as presented in Tables (5.4 - 5.7).
Table (5.4): Limiting values of maximum total settlement, maximum differential settlement,
and maximum angular distortion for building purposes
(Skempton and MacDonald, 1956).
Settlement (mm)
Settlement parameter Sand Clay
Ref.1 Ref.2 Rf.2
Maximum total settlement, S T (max .) 20 32 45
Maximum differential settlement, ST (max.)

Isolated foundations. 25 51 76
Raft foundations. 50 51-76 76 - 127
Maximum angular distortion, max . 1/300
Ref. 1 - Terzaghi and Peck (1948), Ref. 2 - Skempton and MacDonald (1956)
Table (5.5): Limiting values of deflection ratios

(Cited in Das, 2009, from The 1955 Soviet Code of Practice,).
Deflection ratio ( / L) Average maximum

Building type Settlement
Sand Clay (cm)
Steel and concrete frames 0.0010 0.0013 10
Multistory buildings
L/H 3 0.003 0.004 8 / 2.5
L/H 5 0.005 0.007 10 / 1.5
One-story building 0.001 0.001 -----------
Water towers, Ring foundations 0.004 0.004 -----------
L = length between two adjacent points under consideration, and

H = height of wall above foundation.
203
Table (5.6): Limiting angular distortion for various structures

(Bjerrum, 1963).
Angular distortion
Category of potential damage max .
Safe limit for flexible brick walls (L/H >4) 1/150
Danger for structural damage of general buildings 1/150
Cracking in panel and brick walls 1/150
Visible tilting of high rigid buildings 1/250
First cracking in panel walls 1/300
Safe limit of no cracking of building 1/500
Danger for frames with diagonals 1/600
Table (5.7): Recommendation of European Committee for Standardization

(1994) on differential settlement parameters.
Item Parameter Magnitude Comments
Limiting values 25 mm Isolated shallow foundation

ST
for serviceability 50 mm Raft foundation
5 mm Frames with rigid cladding

ST 10 mm Frames with flexible cladding
20 mm Open frames
1/500 -----------
ST 50mm Isolated shallow foundation

Maximum acceptable
foundation movement
ST 20mm Isolated shallow foundation
1/500 -----------
204
5.8 COMPONENTS OF TOTAL SETTLEMENT

Foundation settlement mainly consists of three components (see Fig. (5.3)):
(i) Immediate settlement ( Si ): occurs due to elastic deformation of soil particles upon load
application with no change in water content.
(ii) Primary consolidation settlement ( Sc ): occurs as the result of volume change in
saturated fine grained soils due to expulsion of water from the void spaces of the soil
mass with time.
(iii) Secondary consolidation settlement (Ssc): occurs after the completion of the primary
consolidation due to plastic deformation of soil (reorientation of the soil particles). It
forms the major part of settlement in highly organic soils and peats.
ST = Si + Sc + Ssc .....(5.2)
These components occur in different types of soils with varying circumstances:

For clay: ST = Si (minimum) + Sc (major) + Ssc (small, but present to certain extent)
Therefore, for clay these settlements must be calculated.
For sand: ST = Si (major) + Sc (present but mixed with Si) + Ssc (undefined)
Since sand is permeable, therefore, Terzaghi theory is not applicable.
Settlement
Si
Sc
S sc
t2
Time
t1
Loading
+ End of construction
p (net load)
Consolidation Time
tc
Excavation
p = gross load weight of excavated soil.
-
+
Swell
t c /2
Displacement Time
Corrected curve
tc
Settlement - Instantaneous time-settlement curve
(need to be corrected for construction period
using Terzaghi correction, See Text books)
Fig.(5.3): Settlement versus time relationship.
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5.8.1 METHODS OF COMPUTING IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT

Many methods are available to calculate the elastic (immediate) settlement of shallow
foundations. But, only those methods of practical interest are discussed herein:
1. Theory of Elasticity method.
2. Bjerrum method for layered clay under an undrained condition.
3. Schmertmann method for calculating settlement in granular soils.
5.8.1.1 Immediate Settlement Based on the Theory of Elasticity

The elastic settlement of a footing resting on granular soils or partially saturated clays, can
be estimated using the elastic theory as (see Fig.(5.4)):
1 s 2
Si (flexible ) q o .B I s .I D .C N ........(5.3)
Es
Si (rigid) 0.93.Si (flexible ) ......(5.4)
Si (average ) 0.85.Si (center ) ............ (5.5)
G.S.
Foundation
qo
BxL Df
Rigid foundation Flexible foundation

z settlement settlement
H
s Poisson' s..ratio
E s Modulus..of ..elsticity
Soil
Rock
Fig.(5.4): Elastic settlement of flexible and rigid foundations

(after Das, 2009).
where,
S i = immediate or elastic,
q o = net applied pressure on the foundation,
B = B/2 for center of foundation, and
= B for corners of foundation,
206
s = Poisson's ratio of soil, (see Table (5.8) for typical values).
E s = weighted average modulus of elasticity of the soil over a depth of H. For a multi-layered
soil stratum it is computed as:
E s(avg.)
Es (i) .H i
Hi
in which, H i and E i are the thickness and modulus of elasticity of layer i, and H i H
(the depth of hard stratum) or 5B whichever is smaller, (see Table (5.9) for typical values
of E s ).
I s = Shape factor (Steinbrenner, 1934) computed by:
1 2 s
I s I1 I2
1 s
where, I1...and...I 2 are influence factors = f (H / B,..L / B) obtained from Table (5.10), and
H = depth of hard stratum
I D = Depth factor (Fox, 1948) = f (D f / B,.. s ,..and..L / B) which can be approximated by:
( 0.19)
D L
I D 0.66 f 0.025 12 s 4.6 or Use Fig. (5.5).
B B
Note: when D f 0 , the value of I D = 1 in all cases.
C N = Number of contributing corners = 4 for center, 2 for edges, and 1 for corners.
Depth factor ID
Depth ratio, Df /B
Fig.(5.5): Influence factor I D for footing at a depth.

Use actual footing width and depth dimension for D/B ratio.
207
Table (5.8): Typical values of s (after Das, 2009).
Type of Soil s
Clay, saturated 0.40 0.50
Clay, unsaturated 0.10 0.30
Sandy clay 0.20 0.30
Silt 0.30 0.35
Sand (dense) 0.20 0.40
Coarse (void ratio = 0.4 - 0.7) 0.15
Fine-grained (void ratio = 0.4 - 0.7) 0.25
Rock 0.10 0.40
Loess 0.10 0.30
Concrete 0.15
Table (5.9): Typical values of E s for selected soils

(filed values depend on stress history, water content, density, etc.).
Type of Soil E s (MPa)
Clay
Very soft 2-15
Soft 5-25
Medium 15-50
Hard 50-100
Sandy 25-250
Glacial till
Loose 10-153
Dense 144-720
Very Dense 478-1440
Loess 14-57
Sand
Silty 7-21
Loose 10-24
Dense 48-81
Sand and gravel
Loose 48-144
Dense 96-192
Shale 144-14400
Silt 2-20
208
Table (5.10a): Values of I1 to compute Steinbrenner's influence factor

1 2 s
I s I1 I2 .
1 s
L/B
H / B 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
0.2 0.009 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007
0.4 0.033 0.032 0.031 0.030 0.029 0.028 0.028 0.027 0.027 0.027 0.027
0.6 0.066 0.064 0.063 0.061 0.060 0.059 0.058 0.057 0.056 0.056 0.055
0.8 0.104 0.102 0.100 0.098 0.096 0.095 0.093 0.092 0.091 0.090 0.089
1.0 0.142 0.140 0.138 0.136 0.134 0.132 0.130 0.129 0.127 0.126 0.125
1.5 0.224 0.224 0.224 0.223 0.222 0.220 0.219 0.217 0.216 0.214 0.213
2 0.285 0.288 0.290 0.292 0.292 0.292 0.292 0.292 0.291 0.290 0.289
3 0.363 0.372 0.378 0.384 0.389 0.393 0.396 0.398 0.400 0.401 0.402
4 0.408 0.421 0.431 0.440 0.448 0.455 0.460 0.465 0.469 0.473 0.476
5 0.437 0.452 0.465 0.477 0.487 0.496 0.503 0.510 0.516 0.522 0.526
6 0.457 0.473 0.488 0.501 0.513 0.524 0.533 0.542 0.549 0.556 0.562
7 0.471 0.489 0.506 0.520 0.533 0.545 0.556 0.566 0.575 0.583 0.590
8 0.482 0.502 0.519 0.534 0.549 0.561 0.573 0.584 0.594 0.602 0.611
9 0.491 0.511 0.529 0.545 0.560 0.574 0.587 0.598 0.609 0.618 0.627
10 0.498 0.519 0.537 0.554 0.570 0.584 0.597 0.610 0.621 0.631 0.641
20 0.529 0.553 0.575 0.595 0.614 0.631 0.647 0.662 0.677 0.690 0.702
500 0.560 0.586 0.612 0.635 0.656 0.677 0.696 0.714 0.731 0.748 0.763
L/B
H / B
2.5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 25 50 100
0.2 0.007 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006
0.4 0.026 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024
0.6 0.053 0.051 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049
0.8 0.086 0.082 0.081 0.080 0.080 0.080 0.093 0.092 0.091 0.090 0.089
1.0 0.121 0.115 0.113 0.112 0.112 0.112 0.111 0.111 0.110 0.110 0.110
1.5 0.207 0.197 0.194 0.192 0.191 0.190 0.190 0.189 0.188 0.188 0.188
2 0.284 0.271 0.267 0.264 0.262 0.261 0.260 0.259 0.257 0.256 0.256
3 0.402 0.392 0.386 0.382 0.378 0.376 0.374 0.373 0.378 0.367 0.367
4 0.484 0.484 0.479 0.474 0.470 0.440 0.464 0.462 0.453 0.451 0.451
5 0.543 0.554 0.552 0.548 0.543 0.540 0.536 0.534 0.522 0.522 0.519
6 0.585 0.609 0.610 0.608 0.604 0.601 0.598 0.595 0.579 0.576 0.575
7 0.618 0.653 0.658 0.658 0.656 0.653 0.650 0.647 0.628 0.624 0.623
8 0.643 0.688 0.697 0.700 0.700 0.698 0.695 0.692 0.672 0.666 0.665
9 0.663 0.716 0.730 0.736 0.737 0.736 0.735 0.732 0.710 0.704 0.702
10 0.679 0.740 0.758 0.766 0.770 0.770 0.770 0.768 0.745 0.738 0.735
20 0.756 0.856 0.896 0.925 0.945 0.959 0.969 0.977 0.982 0.965 0.957
500 0.832 0.977 1.046 1.102 1.150 1.191 1.227 1.259 1.532 1.721 1.879
B = B/2 for center of foundation, and = B for corners of foundation,

H = depth of hard stratum (rock) under the footing.
209
Table (5.10b): Values of I 2 to compute Steinbrenner's influence factor

1 2 s
I s I1 I2 .
1 s
L/B
H / B 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
0.2 0.041 0.042 0.042 0.042 0.042 0.042 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.043
0.4 0.066 0.068 0.069 0.070 0.070 0.071 0.071 0.072 0.072 0.073 0.073
0.6 0.079 0.081 0.083 0.085 0.087 0.088 0.089 0.090 0.091 0.091 0.092
0.8 0.083 0.087 0.090 0.093 0.095 0.097 0.098 0.100 0.101 0.102 0.103
1.0 0.083 0.088 0.091 0.095 0.098 0.100 0.102 0.104 0.106 0.108 0.109
1.5 0.075 0.080 0.084 0.089 0.093 0.096 0.099 0.102 0.105 0.108 0.110
2 0.064 0.069 0.074 0.078 0.083 0.086 0.090 0.094 0.097 0.100 0.102
3 0.048 0.052 0.056 0.060 0.064 0.068 0.071 0.075 0.078 0.081 0.084
4 0.037 0.041 0.044 0.048 0.051 0.054 0.057 0.060 0.063 0.066 0.069
5 0.031 0.034 0.036 0.039 0.042 0.045 0.048 0.050 0.053 0.055 0.058
6 0.026 0.028 0.031 0.033 0.036 0.038 0.040 0.043 0.045 0.047 0.050
7 0.022 0.024 0.027 0.029 0.031 0.033 0.035 0.037 0.039 0.041 0.043
8 0.020 0.022 0.023 0.025 0.027 0.029 0.031 0.033 0.035 0.036 0.038
9 0.017 0.019 0.021 0.023 0.024 0.026 0.028 0.029 0.031 0.033 0.034
10 0.016 0.017 0.019 0.020 0.022 0.023 0.025 0.027 0.028 0.030 0.031
20 0.008 0.099 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.013 0.014 0.015 0.016
500 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
L/B
H / B
2.5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 25 50 100
0.2 0.043 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044
0.4 0.074 0.075 0.075 0.075 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076 0.076
0.6 0.094 0.097 0.097 0.098 0.098 0.098 0.098 0.098 0.098 0.098 0.098
0.8 0.107 0.111 0.112 0.113 0.113 0.113 0.113 0.114 0.114 0.114 0.114
1.0 0.114 0.120 0.122 0.123 0.123 0.124 0.124 0.124 0.125 0.125 0.125
1.5 0.118 0.130 0.134 0.136 0.137 0.138 0.138 0.139 0.140 0.140 0.140
2 0.114 0.131 0.136 0.139 0.141 0.143 0.144 0.145 0.147 0.147 0.148
3 0.097 0.122 0.131 0.137 0.141 0.144 0.145 0.147 0.152 0.153 0.154
4 0.082 0.110 0.121 0.129 0.135 0.139 0.142 0.145 0.154 0.155 0.156
5 0.070 0.098 0.111 0.120 0.128 0.133 0.137 0.140 0.154 0.156 0.157
6 0.060 0.087 0.101 0.111 0.120 0.126 0.131 0.135 0.153 0.157 0.157
7 0.053 0.078 0.092 0.103 0.112 0.119 0.125 0.129 0.152 0.157 0.158
8 0.047 0.071 0.084 0.095 0.104 0.112 0.118 0.124 0.151 0.156 0.158
9 0.042 0.064 0.077 0.088 0.097 0.105 0.112 0.118 0.149 0.156 0.158
10 0.038 0.059 0.071 0.082 0.091 0.099 0.106 0.112 0.147 0.156 0.158
20 0.020 0.031 0.039 0.046 0.053 0.059 0.065 0.071 0.124 0.148 0.156
500 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.008 0.016 0.031
B = B/2 for center of foundation, and = B for corners of foundation,

H = depth of hard stratum (rock) under the footing.
210
Principle of Superposition
This principle is used to determine settlements at other points beneath the foundation such as
those shown in Fig. (5.6).
Fig.(5.6): Principle of superposition.
Principle of Layering
This principle is used to determine settlements when there are two or more layers of soil with
different modulus values or when the settlement at a point within the soil layer is needed, such as
the effect of a surface loaded area on a buried structure, e.g. a pipe, (see Fig. 5.7).
211
5.8.1.2 Average Settlement for Layered Clay Soil (Bjerrum Method)

q.B
Si (average )flexible o .1 .....(5.6)
Eu
where, o and 1 are factors for depth of embedment and thickness of soil layer beneath the
foundation, respectively; obtained from Fig.(5.8). Remember that the principle of layering could
be applied with this method such that the overlapping is equal to the number of layers 1.
Fig.(5.8): Coefficients of vertical displacement for foundations on saturated clays

(after Janbu et al., 1956).
212
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem (5.1): A flexible foundation 10 m long, 5m wide applies a uniform pressure to the
surface of saturated clay of 20m thickness. The undrained modulus of the clay is 8 MN/m2.
Determine the immediate settlement:
(a) at the corner of the foundation,
(b) at the center of the foundation,
(c) at the center of the foundation; if the foundation is placed 2m below ground level,
(d) at the center of the foundation in point c; if the foundation is rigid, and
(e) the average settlement for the (flexible) foundation in point c,
75 kN/m2
5m x10m
Solution: x
Si
20m
E u = 8 MN/m2, s 0.3
(a) at the corner of the flexible foundation:
1 s 2
Si (flexible ) q o .B I s .I D .C N ..(5.3)
Es
For H / B =20/5 = 4, L/B = 10/5 = 2: I1 0.476 and I 2 0.069 ; from Table (5.10)
1 2 s 1 2(0.3)
I s I1 I 2 0.476 0.069 0.519
1 s 1 0.3
I D = 1 (for D f 0 ); and C N = 1 (for corner).
1 (0.3) 2
Si (flexible ) (75)(5) (0.519 )(1)(1) 75 kN/m2
(surface ,corner ) 3
8.x.10 5m x 10m
= 22 mm x
Si
20m
E u = 8MN/m2
(b) at the center of the flexible foundation: B 5 / 2 2.5m
For H / B =20/2.5 = 8, L/B = 10/5 = 2: I1 0.611 and I 2 0.038 ; from Table (5.10)
1 2 s 1 2(0.3)
I s I1 I 2 0.611 0.038 0.633
1 s 1 0.3
ID = 1 (for D f 0 ); and C N = 4 (for center).
1 (0.3) 2
Si (flexible ) (75)( 2.5) (0.633 )(1)( 4)
(surface ,center ) 8.x.10 3
= 54 mm
213
(c) at the center of the flexible foundation 2m below ground surface:

75 kN/m2
( 0.19)
D L 5m x10m 2m
ID 0.66 f 0.025 12 s 4.6 x
B B 20m Si
( 0.19)
E u = 8MN/m2
2 10
0.66 0.025 12(0.3) 4.6 0.810
5 5
1 (0.3) 2
Si (flexible ) (75)( 2.5) (0.633 )(0.810 )( 4) = 44 mm
( 2m,.center ) 8.x.10 3
75 kN/m2
(d) Immediate settlement for rigid foundation: 5m x10m 2m

x
20m Si
Si (rigid) 0.93.Si (flexible ) .........(5.4) E u = 8MN/m2
Si ( rigid) 0.93.( 44) = 41 mm
(e) (Average settlement for point c): 75 kN/m2
5m x10m
(By Elastic Theory Method): x 2m
20m Si
E u = 8MN/m2
Si (average ) 0.85.Si (center ) ....... (5.5)
Si (average ) 0.85.( 44) = 37.4 mm
(By Bjerrum method):
From Fig. (5.8): for H/B = 20/5 = 4 and L/B = 2; 1 = 0.77

For D f /B = 0.4 and L/B = 2; o = 0.94
q.B
Si (average )flexible o .1 .(5.6)
Eu
(75)(5)(1000)
Si (average )flexible (0.94)(0.77) = 34 mm
(8x1000)
214
Problem (5.2): A (3m x 3m) square flexible tank is placed on a 9m thick sand layer as shown
in the figure below. Determine the immediate settlement at the center of the tank using
elastic theory method.
q = 100 kN/m2
flexible tank B =3m
9m Sand: E = 21000 kN/m2 , 0.3
Rock
Solution:
1 s 2
Si (flexible ) q o .B I s .I D .C N .....(5.3)
Es
1 2 s 1 2(0.3)
I s I1 I 2 0.457 0.026 0.472
1 s 1 0.3
I D = 1 (for D f 0 ); and C N = 4 (for center).
1 (0.3) 2
Si (flexible ) (100 )(1.5) (0.472 )(1)( 4) = 12.27 mm.
(surface ,center ) 21000
Note: If the foundation is circular, determine the equivalent dimension as:

.D 2
B = = 2.65 m = B and solve as before.
4
Problem (5.3): A (5m x 10m) rectangular flexible foundation is placed on two layers of clay,
both 10m thick as shown in the figure below. The modulus of elasticity of the upper
layer is 8 MN/m2 and that of the lower layer is 16 MN/m2. Determine the immediate
settlement at the center of the foundation using:
(1) Bjerrum Method, and
(2) Elastic Theory Method. 75 kN/m2
5m x10m
x
10m
Si E u1 = 8 MN/m2 , s 0.3
10m E u 2 = 16 MN/m2, s 0.3
215
Solution:
(1) (Bjerrum Method):
Settlement of 1st. layer (average settlement):
From Fig. (5.8): for D f /B = 0 and L/B = 2; o = 1.00

For H/B = 10/5 = 2 and L/B = 2; 1 = 0.70
q.B
Si (average )flexible o .1 .............(5.6)
Eu
(75)(5)(1000)
S1(average)flexible (1.00)(0.70) = 32.81 mm
(8x1000)
Settlement of 2nd. layer (average settlement):
From Fig. (5.8): for D f /B = 0 and L/B = 2; o = 1.00

For H/B = 20/5 = 4 and L/B = 2; 1 = 0.85
(75)(5)(1000)
S 2 (average)flexible (1.00)(0.85) = 19.92 mm
(16x1000)
The interaction between the 1st. and 2nd. Layers:
o = 1.00 and 1 = 0.70

(75)(5)(1000)
S3(average)flexible (1.00)(0.70) = 16.41 mm
(16x1000)
The immediate settlement at foundation center = S1 S2 S3
= 32.81 + 19.92 16.41 = 36.32 mm
(2) (Elastic Theory Method):
8(10) 16(10)
E avg. 12.MN / m 2 12000 .kN / m 2
20
1 s 2
Si (flexible ) q o .B I s .I D .C N .....(5.3)
Es
1 2 s 1 2(0.3)
I s I1 I 2 0.611 0.038 0.633
1 s 1 0.3
I D = 1 (for D f 0 ); and C N = 4 (for center).
1 (0.3) 2
Si (flexible ) (75)( 2.5) (0.633 )(1)( 4) = 36 mm.
(surface ,center ) 12000
216
5.8.1.3 Immediate Settlement of Foundations on Sands

A number of methods for estimating settlements of foundations on sand are available. They
are all based on empirical correlations between observed settlements and other appropriate
parameters such as cone penetration resistance qc or SPTN value. But because of the large range
of variables involved, these methods cannot predict settlements accurately. Some of them are as
follows:
1. Alpan (1964):
2
2B
For circular and square footings: Si (B) o .q q. B ...............(5.7a)
0.3 B
For rectangular footings: Si (B) m.q. B ..................................(5.7b)
where, o = reciprocal of the modulus of subgrade reaction for a 0.3m size plate, and
m = shape factor depends on (L/B) obtained from Table (5.11).
Table (5.11): Shape factor, m , (after Alpan, 1964).
L/B 1 1.5 2 3 5 10
m 1 1.21 1.37 1.60 1.94 2.36
Procedure:
(i) Find N-corrected from Fig.(5.9) using N-measured, effective overburden pressure at
foundation level and relative density curve at the intersection with Terzaghi-Peck curve.
(ii) Find o from Fig.(5.10) or Fig.(5.11) using N-corrected.
(iii) Find B / o from Fig.(5.12) for a given width of foundation (B).

Effective overburden pressure
(kN/m2)
Number of blows, SPT - value N
Fig.(5.9): Correction factor for effective overburden pressure (after Alpan, 1964).
217
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Fig.(5.10): o for low SPT 'N' values (after Alpan, 1964).
Fig. (5.11): o for high SPT 'N' values (after Alpa, 1964).
Fig.(5.12): Settlement ratio versus foundation width Relationship

(after Alpan, 1964).
218
2. Meyerhof (1965):
4q
For B 4 (ft): Si ...............................................................(5.8a)
N
2
6q B
For B > 4 (ft): Si ..........................................(5.8b)
N 1 B
where, q = applied pressure in (kip/ft2).
3. Parry (1971):
.q.B
Si C D .C W .C T .................................(5.9)
N
where, = constant = 200 for SI units.
q = applied pressure in (MN/m2).
N = measured at (0.75B) below the footing.
C D = correction factor for influence of excavation, from Fig.(5.13).
C W = correction factor for influence of water table and equal to:
Dw
= 1 ............................. for 0 < D w < D f
(D f 0.75B)
or
D ( 2B D f D w )
= 1 w ................... for 0 < D w < 2B
(D f 0.75B)2B
C T = correction factor for thickness of compressible layer, from Fig.(5.14).
D w = depth to W.T. from ground surface, D f = depth of excavation or footing, and
T = thickness of layer.
correction factor, CD
correction factor, CT
1.0
Compressible layer
Excavation
0.5
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
T/B
Df / B
Fig.(5.14): Thickness correction factor
Fig.(5.13): Excavation correction factor, CD,
(after Parry, 1971).
(after Parry, 1971).
219
4. Schultze and Sherif (1973) and Meyerhof (1974):

q. B
For sand and gravel: Si ...............................................(5.10a)
2N
q. B
For silty sand: Si ...............................................(5.10b)
N
where, S i = immediate settlement (inches).
q = applied pressure (tons/ft2), and
B = width of footing (inches).
5. Bowles (1977):
1.25 q
For B 4 (ft): Si ...............................................(5.11a)
Nlowest
2q 2B 2
For B > 4 (ft): Si
Nlowest
(1+B) ...............................(5.11b)
where, Si = maximum settlement on dry sand (inches).

q = applied pressure (tons/ft2), and
B = width of footing (ft).
But, if the ground water table is located at a depth below the base of the footing less than half
the footing's width (Dw < B/2), the settlement S i computed from Eqs.(5.11a and 5.11b) should
be corrected for water table by multiplying it by xB as follows:
Pd
xB ................................(5.11c)
Pw
where, Pd = effective overburden pressure at depth B/2 below the footing's base assuming that
the ground water table is not present, and
Pw = effective overburden pressure at the same depth B/2 below the footing's base with
the ground water table present.
220
6. Schmertmann's Method (1978): Use of Strain Influence Factor

This method is the most common among others. It is based on the Dutch cone penetration
resistance q c using the strain influence factor diagram. It is proposed for two cases, square
foundation (L/B = 1) where axisymmetric stress and strain conditions occur and strip foundation
(L/B = 10) where plane strain conditions exist.
C1C 2 2B I z
For square foundation: Si p z ...................................(5.12a)
2.5 0
qc
C1C 2 4B I z
For strip foundation: Si p z ............................(5.12b)
3.5 0 qc
where, P = gross applied pressure,
Po = effective stress at the foundation level,
P = net applied pressure = P - Po (in kN/m2),

q c = cone end resistance, kN/m2, for each soil layer,
z = thickness for each soil layer, (in meters),
Po
C1 = correction for depth of foundation = 1 0.5 0.5
p
t
C 2 = correction for creep or time related settlement = 1 0.2 log 10
0.1
t = time in (years) after construction,
I z = average strain influence factor for each soil layer obtained as the value at the
midpoint of each soil layer from a diagram drawn alongside the q c depth
graph with a depth of 2B for square foundation and 4B for strip foundation as
shown in Fig.(5.15), and
p
I z max 0.5 0.1 is the maximum value of I z , where v = vertical effective
v
stress at a depth of B/2 for a square foundation and B for strip foundation.
Notes:
Values of z , average q c and average I z for each soil layer are required for the
summation term and these can be conveniently presented in a table as illustrated in
Problem (5.5).
Settlements for shapes intermediate between square and strip can be obtained by
interpolation.
221
B
Po P Po IZ IZ
Df
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6
0 0
v for square 0.5B

IZmax
0.5B
B Square
v for strip
IZmax
B B Strip
2B 2B
2B 0.6 IZ
3B
Fig.(5.15): Strain influence factor diagrams for Schmertmann's method

(after Lee and Salgado, 2002)
4B
4B 0.6 IZ
7. Burland and Burbridge Method (1985):
This method is based on the SPT 'N' value and depends on foundation contact pressure ( q )
and the effective overburden pressure (Po ) values as follows:
For q Po
1 1.7
Si B 0.75 1.4 q .f s. f1 . ............................................(5.13a)
3 N
For q > Po
1.7 2
Si B 0.75 1.4
(q p o ).f s. f1 . ..........................................(5.13b)
N 3
where,
S i = average immediate settlement (mm).
2
L
1.25
f s = shape factor = B = 1.0 for square or circle (L/B = 1) and
L
0.25 = 1.56 for strip (L/B = )
B
Hs H
f 1 = thickness factor = 2 s ,
Z1 Z1
222
H s = thickness of sand below foundation (meters),

Z1 = depth of influence (meters) = B 0.75 below the base of foundation,
q = contact pressure at the foundation base (kN/m2).
Po = in-situ effective overburden pressure at base of foundation (kN/m2).
N = average corrected SPT N-value measured within the zone of influence Z1 (i.e., B 0.75 m
below the foundation's base).
The immediate settlements obtained from Eqs.(5.13a or 5.13b) should be corrected due to the
long-term effects as:
t
S t Si 1 R o R t log10 .....................................(5.13c)
3
where, t = time after end of construction (in years) and the values of Ro and Rt are given in
Table (5.12).
Table (5.12): Time correction factors.
Loading condition Ro Rt
Static loads 0.3 0.2
Fluctuating loads 0.7 0.8
Problem (5.4):
A (3m x 3m) square footing carrying a total load of 280 tons is to be constructed at 1.5m
depth on sand with the ground water table located at 2.1 m from the ground surface.
The corrected N-values of the SPT results conducted on the site are as shown in the
figure below. Determine the maximum expected settlement of the footing.
280 tons
Depth from G.S. Corrected
(m) N-values
1.5 31 G.S.
2.25 36 1.5m
3.0 30 2.1m 3m x 3m
3.75 28 W.T.
4.5 35 Medium to coarse sand
5.25 33
6.0 31 soil 19.5 kN/m3 above and below W.T.
Solution:
As a rule the average corrected N-value should be determined for at least a depth B below the
base of foundation, where B is the footing's width. In this problem, appropriate depths for
calculating average corrected Nvalues are (1.5 to 4.5) m.
223
Find the average corrected N-value as a cumulative average down to the depth indicated, and
then choose the lowest average N-value for design.
SPT sample depth N Corrected Navg.

(m)
1.5 31 31
2.25 36 33
3.0 30 32
3.75 28 31
4.5 35 32
For 1.5m depth: Navg. 31

31 36
2
31 36 30
3
31 36 30 28
For 3.75m depth: N avg. 31
4
31 36 30 28 35
For 4.5m depth: N avg. 32
5
N-value for design = Navg. (lowest) 31 blows
2q 2B 2
For B > 4 (ft) Si
Nlowest
(1+B) .........................................(5.11b)
B = 3m (10ft)
280.tons
q = 2.8 tons/ft2
(10ft).(10ft)
2
(2)(2.8.tons/ ft 2 ) (2)(10.ft)
Si(max.) 1 10ft 0.60 inch on dry sand.
31
Pd
xB ............................................................................(5.11c)
Pw
3
Pd = (19.5) (1.5 + ) = 58.5 kN/m2
2
Pw = (19.5)(2.1) + (19.5 10) (3.0 2.1) = 49.5 kN/m2
58.5
xB 1.18
49.5
Si(max.) (0.60)(1.18) = 0.71 inch on wet sand.
224
Problem (5.5): (Schmertmann's methodsettlement on sand)

A (3m x 3m) square footing rested at a depth of (2m) below the ground surface.
Estimate the immediate settlement of the footing under the load and soil conditions
shown in the figure below after (0.1 year) from construction.
1.8 MN
2m t 20 kN/m2
5000 qc
Depth from base Static cone penetration 3m x 3m IZ(avg.)
1
(m) resistance qc Z = 1.0m 10000 0.4
2
Z = 1.5m 0.5B 0.6
0-1.0 5000
1.0-1.5 10000 3
1.5-5.0 10000
5.0-6.0 5000 Z = 5m 0.133
6.0-8.0 15000 4
Z = 6m 15000 2B
2B 0.6 IZ
Z = 8m
Solution:
C C 2B I z
For square foundation: S i 1 2 p z .............................(5.12a)
2.5 0
qc
P
C1 = correction for depth of foundation = 1 0.5 o 0.5
p
Po = effective stress at the foundation level = D f . = 2(20) = 40 kN/m2
1.8x10 3
P = net increase in stress at footing level = P - Po = 40 160 kN/m2
3x3
40
C1 = 1 0.5 0.875 > 0.5 (O.K.)
160
t 0.1
C 2 = Time correction factor = 1 0.2 log 10 1 0.2 log10 1.0
0.1 0.1
Z .I Z
No. Z (m) qc I Z (average)
qc
1 1.0 5000 (0 + 0.4)/2= 0.2 0.000040
2 0.5 10000 0.5 0.000025
3 3.5 10000 0.366 0.000128
4 1.0 5000 0.066 0.0000132
20.62x10 5
(0.875)(1.0)
Si (160)(20.62x10 5 ) 0.01155 m = 11.55 mm
2.5
225
Problem (5.6): (Total immediate settlement)

Determine the total immediate settlement of the rectangular footing shown in the figure
below after 2 months.
1200 kN
G.S.
1.0m
3m x 4m
2.0m Clay qc 8000 .kN / m2 ,.. 20.kN / m3

0.5B =1.5m 0.6
0.533
4.5m I z (avg.) 3.0m Sand E 20000 .kN / m2

0.133
Rock
2B = 6m
2B 0.6 IZ
Solution:
Since the soil profile is made up of two different soils, then the total immediate settlement will be
the sum of the immediate settlements of each one of them, i.e.,
Si (Total) Si(clay ) Si(sand )
Immediate Settlement of clay by Bjerrum's method:
q.B
Si (average )flexible o .1 ............(5.6)
Eu
From Fig.(5.8): for D f /B = 1/3 = 0.33 and L/B = 4/3 = 1.33; o = 0.93
for H/B = 2/3 = 0.66 and L/B = 1.33; 1 = 0.38
(1200 / 3x 4)(3)(1000 )
S1(average )flexible (0.93)(0.38) = 6.6 mm
(2x8x1000 )
Immediate Settlement of sand by Schmertmann's method:
For square foundation:
C C 2B I z
S i 1 2 p z ............................................................(5.12a)
2.5 0
qc
Po
C1 = 1 0.5 0.5
p
At foundation level:
1200
Po = D f . = 1(20) = 20 kN/m2, P = P / A - Po = 20 80 kN/m2.
3x 4
226
On sand surface:
(80 )(3)( 4)
Po = D f . = 3(20) = 60 kN/m2, P 32 kN/m2 (2:1 method)
(3 2)( 4 2)
60
C1 = 1 0.5 0.06 < 0.5 Use C1 = 0.5
32
t 2 / 12
C 2 = 1 0.2 log 10 1 0.2 log10 1.04
0.1 0.1
0.533 0.133 I z .z (0.333 )(3)
I z (avg.) 0.333 , 4.9.x.10 5
2 E 20000
5
Si (sand ) (0.5)(1.04)(32)( 4.9.x.10 ) 0.815 mm
Si (Total) = 6.6 + 0.815 = 7.415 mm
Home work: Resolve problem (5.6) with sand instead of clay as shown in the figure below.
(Ans.: Si (Total) = 4.75 mm).
1200 kN
G.S.
1.0m
3m x 4m
2.0m sand qc 8000 .kN / m2 ,.. 20.kN / m3
3.0m clay E 20000...kN / m 2
Rock
5.9 PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
5.9.1 COMPRESSION INDEX Cc METHOD

This method is adopted for normally and lightly overconsolidated clays. The compression
index C c is the gradient of e log P plot for normally consolidated clay. While for
overconsolidated clay, C c is also the slope of the e log P but beyond the preconsolidation
pressure Pc . C c values obtained from oedometer tests are likely to be underestimated due to
227
sampling disturbance. Therefore, some correlations which relate C c with soil composition
parameter have been published and two of them are as follows:
C c 0.009(LL 10) ...................................... (Terzaghi and Peck, 1948)
PI
C c 0.5 s ................................................................... (Wroth, 1979)
100
where, LL = liquid limit, PI = plasticity index, and s = particle density.
Method (A):
1. Calculate the effective pressure o at center of the clay layer before the application of load.
2. Calculate the weighted average pressure increase at mid of clay layer using Simpson's rule:
1
avg. ( t 4 m b )
6
where, t , m , and b are respectively the pressure increase due to applied load at
the top, middle and bottom of clay layer.
3. Using o and avg. calculated above, obtain e from equations below, whichever is
applicable.
(i) If p < o , the soil is under consolidated:
o avg.
e C c log10 .................................(5.14a)
p
(ii) If p = o (OCR = 1), the soil is normally consolidated:
o avg.
e C c log10 .............................(5.14b)
o
(iii) If p > o (OCR > 1), the soil is overconsolidated, and

(a) If p o avg. then;
o avg.
e C s log10 ....................................(5.14c)
o
(b) If p < o avg. then;
o avg. p
e C c log10 C s log10 ....(5.14d)
p o
4. Calculate the consolidation settlement by:
e
Sc H t ................................................(5.14e)
1 eo
where, e o o .G s
228
Method (B):
1. For thick clay layer, better results in settlement calculation can be obtained by dividing a given
clay layer into (n) sub-layers.
2. Calculate the effective stress o (i) at the middle of each clay sub-layer.
3. Calculate the increase of stress at the middle of each sub-layer (i) due to the applied load.
4. Calculate e (i) for each sub-layer using Eqs.(5.14 a to 5.14 e) mentioned before in method
Astep 3, whichever is applicable.
5. Calculate the total consolidation settlement of the entire clay layer from:
n n e i
S c S c H i where e o o .G s ..................(5.15)
i 1 i 1 1 e o
Values at mid-point of each sub-layer

e (i )
Layer o (i) (i) e (i) o eo H i H i
1 eo
1
2
3
Sc =
G.S. G.S.
qo qo
Df Df
G.W.T. G.W.T.
Sand t Sand
H1 (1) Layer 1
m H 2 (2) Layer 2
Clay Variation Clay
Ht H
of
b
H n ( n) Layer n
Sand Sand
Method (A) Method (B)
Fig.(5.16): Calculation of consolidation settlement Methods.
229
5.9.2 OEDOMETER OR m v METHOD
From oedometer test, the values of volume change for each pressure increment is obtained
as:
av e e 1 H
mv but a v and H H t therefore; mv
1 eo P 1 eo p H t
H Sc m v .H t .p ........................................................... (5.16)
where,
a v = coefficient of compressibility of soil sample.
e o = initial void ratio of soil sample.
e = the change in void ratio corresponding to a pressure change p .
p = = change in stress.
H t = total thickness of the clay soil layer.
H = change in thickness, and
m v = coefficient of volume compressibility of soil sample determined during an oedometer test
for each pressure increment applied above the vertical effective stress or overburden
pressure Po at the depth from which the sample was taken. If the applied stress or m v
values vary with depth, then the soil deposit must be divided into layers and the change in
thickness determined for each layer. Typical values of m v for different clay types are given
in Table (5.12).
Table (5.12): Typical values of m v .
H
Type of clay m v m2/MN
Very stiff heavily < 0.05 H
Overconsolidated clay 0.05 - 0.1
Firm overconsolidated clay, H
0.1 - 0.3
Laminated clay, weathered clay
Depth
Soft normally consolidated clay 0.3 1.0 H

Soft organic clay, sensitive clay 0.5 2.0
Peat > 1.5
mv H
----- ----- -----
----- ----- -----
----- ----- -----
----- ----- -----
Oedometer or m v method. ----- ----- -----
230
5.10 SKEMPTON - BJERRUM MODIFICATION

FOR 3 - DIMENTIONAL CONSOLIDATION
In one-dimensional consolidation tests, there is no lateral yield of the soil specimen and the
ratio of minor to major principal effective stresses, K o , remains constant. In that case, the
increase of pore water pressure due to an increase of vertical stress is equal in magnitude, (i.e.,
u = ) where u is the increase in pore water pressure and is the increase of vertical
stress. While for actual simulation of field condition, in 3-dimensions, any point in a clay layer
due to a given load suffers from lateral yield and therefore, K o does not remain constant.
(a) Consolidation under the center of circular loading

The increase of pore water pressure at a point due to a given load is:
u = B3 A(1 3 )
where, A and B are Skempton's pore water pressure parameters, and B = 1.0 for fully saturated
soil and 0.0 for dry soil.
u = 3 A(1 3 )
Skempton and Bjerrum (1957) proposed that the vertical compression of a soil element of
thickness dz due to an increase of pore water pressure u may be given by:
dSc m v .u.dz
where, m v is coefficient of volume compressibility or
3
dSc m v . 3 A(1 3 .dz m v .1 A (1 A) dz
1
The above equation can be integrated to obtain the total consolidation settlement:
Ht 3
Sc m v .1 A (1 A) dz
0
1
For conventional one-dimensional consolidation ( K o condition):
Ht e H e 1 H
Sc (oed ) dz t .1dz t m v 1dz
0 1 eo 0 1 e
1 o
0
Ht 3
0 m v .1 A
1
(1 A)dz
Sc
Settlement ratio, =
Ht
0
Sc( oed ) m v .1dz
231
Ht

= A (1 A) 0
3 dz
A (1 A)M1
Ht
0 1dz
Ht
where, M1

0
3 dz
Ht
0 1dz
Sc circular .Sc(oed ) ................................................................. (5.17)
where, circular = correction factor depends on pore-pressure parameter (A); obtained from
Fig.(5.17) using solid lines.
(b) Consolidation under the center of strip loading

In this case, the increase of pore water pressure at a point due to a given load is:
3 1 1
u = 3 (A ) (1 3 ) (for 0.5 )
2 3 2
Ht Ht 3
So, Sc m v .u.dz m v .1 N (1 N) dz
0 0
1
Ht
3 1 1 Sc 0 m v .1 N 3 (1 N)dz
1
where, N ( A ) , Settlement ratio, circle =
2 3 2 S c(oed ) Ht
0 m v .1dz
Ht
= N (1 N)
0 3 dz
N (1 N)M1
Ht
0 1dz
Ht
where, M1

0
3 dz
Ht
0 1dz
Sc strip .Sc(oed ) ......................................................................(5.18)
where, strip = correction factor depends on pore-pressure parameter (A); obtained from
Fig.(5.17) using dotted lines.
232
Fig.(5.17): Settlement correction factor versus pore-pressure coefficient for

circular and strip footings (after Skempton and Bjerrum, 1957).
Problem (5.7): (consolidation settlement C c method)

A circular foundation 2m in diameter is shown in the figure below. A normally
consolidated clay layer 5m thick is located below the foundation. Determine the
consolidation settlement of the clay.
Circular foundation
diameter B = 2m
G.S.
1.0m Sand
q = 150 kN/m2
= 17 kN/m3
0.5m W.T.
z Sand
0.5m
sat . = 19 kN/m3
Normally consolidated clay
5.0m sat . = 18.5 kN/m3
C c =0.16, e o =0.85
233
Solution:
(1) As one layer of clay of 5m thick:

At the center of clay: o = 1.5(17) + 0.5(19-9.81) + 2.5(18.5-9.81)= 51.82 kN/m2
For circular loaded area, the increase of stress below the center is given by:
1
q 1 where: b = the radius of the circular foundation,
[( b / z) 2 1]3 / 2
1
At mid-depth of the clay layer: z = 3.5m; 150 1 16.66 kN/m2
[(1 / 3.5) 1]
2 3 / 2
51.82 16.66
e C c log10 o 0.16. log10 0.0194
o 51.82
e 0.0194
Sc Ht (5)(1000 ) 52.4 mm
1 eo 1 0.85
(2) Divide the clay layer into (5) sub-layers each of 1m thick:
Calculation of effective stress at the middle of each sub-layer o(i ) :

For 1st. Layer: o(1) =1.5(17) +0.5(19-9.81) + 0.5(18.5-9.81) = 34.44 kN/m2
For 2nd. Layer: o( 2) = 34.44 +1.0(18.5-9.81) = 34.44 + 8.69 = 43.13 kN/m2
For 3rd. Layer: o(3) = 43.13 + 8.69 = 51.81 kN/m2
For 4th. Layer: o( 4) = 51.81 + 8.69 = 60.51 kN/m2
For 5th. Layer: o(5) = 60.51 + 8.69 = 69.20 kN/m2
Calculation of increase of stress below the center of each sub-layer (i ) :

1

For 1st. Layer: (1) 150 1 63.59 kN/m2
3/ 2
[(1 / 1.5) 1]
2

1
For 2nd. Layer: ( 2) 150 1 29.93 kN/m2
[(1 / 2.5) 1]
2 3 / 2
1
For 3rd. Layer: (3) 150 1 16.66 kN/m2
[(1 / 3.5) 1]
2 3 / 2
234
1
For 4th. Layer: ( 4) 150 1 10.46 kN/m2
3/ 2
[(1 / 4.5) 1]
2
1
For 5th. Layer: (5) 150 1 7.14 kN/m2
[(1 / 5.5) 1]
2 3 / 2
e (i )
H i o (i) (i) H i
Layer no. e *
(i ) 1 eo
m kN/m2 kN/m2
m
1 1 34.44 63.59 0.0727 0.0393
2 1 43.13 29.93 0.0366 0.0198
3 1 51.82 16.66 0.0194 0.0105
4 1 60.51 10.46 0.0111 0.0060
5 1 69.20 7.14 0.00682 0.0037
= 0.0793
o(i) (i)
e * (i) C c log10 ; C c = 0.16, e o = 0.85, S c = 0.0793 m = 79.3 mm.
o(i)
(3) Weighted average pressure increase (Simpson's rule):
At the center of clay: o = 1.5(17) + 0.5(19-9.81) + 2.5(18.5-9.81)= 51.82 kN/m2

1
At z = 1.0m from the base of foundation: 150 1 75 kN/m2
3/ 2
[(1 / 1) 1]
2
1
At z = 3.5m from the base of foundation: 150 1 16.66 kN/m2
[(1 / 3.5) 1]
2 3 / 2
1
At z = 6.0m from the base of foundation: 150 1 6.04 kN/m2
[(1 / 6) 1]
2 3 / 2
avg. ( t 4 m b ) 75 4(16.66) 6.04 24.61 kN/m2

1 1
6 6
o 51.82 24.61
e C c log10 0.16. log10 0.027
o 51.82
e 0.027
Sc Ht (5)(1000 ) 72.9 mm
1 eo 1 0.85
235
Problem (5.8): (consolidation settlement mv method)

A building is supported on a raft of (30m x 45m), the net pressure being 125 kN/m 2 as
shown in the figure below. Determine the settlement under the center of the raft due to
consolidation of the clay.
Raft foundation
30m x 45m
G.S.
q = 125 kN/m2 15m
3.5m
7.0m
W.T. 22.5m
25m Sand
45m
23.5m
4.0m Clay
m v = 0.35 m2/MN
30m
Solution:
From the vertical stress below the corner of flexible rectangular or square loaded area
z I.q o
At mid-depth of the layer , z = 23.5m below the center of the raft:
n L / z = 22.5/23.5 = 0.96 and m B / z = 15/23.5 = 0.64 therefore; I = 0.140
z = (4)(0.140)(125) = 70 kN/m2
Sc m v .H t . ...........................................................(5.16)
S c = (0.35)(70)(4)(1000) = 98 mm.
5.11 SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

It occurs after the primary consolidation settlement has been finished and when all pore
water pressures have dissipated (see Fig.(5.18)). Secondary consolidation can be ignored for hard
or overconsolidated soils. But, it is highly increased for organic soil such as peat. This can be
explained due to the redistribution of forces between particles after large structural
rearrangements that occurred during the normal consolidation stage of the soil.
236
Settlement
Si Primary Secondary
consolidation. consolidation.
Time
Sc
t1
S sc t 2 >> t 1
t2
t2
Time
t1
Fig. (5.18): Definition of secondary compression (after Das, 2009).

t2
S c s C .H. log10 ..................................................(5.19)
t1
where, Sc s secondary consolidation settlement,
C = coefficient of secondary consolidation; obtained from Table (5.13),
H = thickness of clay layer,
t1 = time of primary consolidation settlement, and
t 2 = time of secondary consolidation settlement.
C v .t C v .t 1 H2
To determine t1 : from Tv take Tv = 1.0 and t = t1; then 1.0 or t 1
H2 H2 Cv
Estimation of C Values:
Values of C for some typical soils are shown in Table (5.13). It can be obtained from the
laboratory Oedometer test by taking readings beyond the primary consolidation stage. However,
as the time periods are plotted on a logarithmic scale to establish the secondary compression line,
the test will be time-consuming. Therefore, it may be sufficient to estimate C values based on
correlation such as the one published by Mesri (1973) who reported the coefficient of secondary
compression as C . Fig.(5.19) shows the significant effect of secondary compression for
natural deposits; (i) organic soils, (ii) clay mineralogy as represented by high plasticity as
montmorillonite, and (iii) sensitive clays.
Table (5.13): Values of C for some typical soils.
Type of clay C
Normally consolidated clay 0.005-0.02

Plastic or organic soil 0.03
Hard clay or overconsolidated clay with O.C.R > 2 0.001 - 0.0001
237
Fig. (5.19): Coefficients of secondary compression C for natural deposits

(after Mesri, 1973).
Problem (5.9): (total settlement)
As shown in the figure below, a footing 6m square, carrying a net pressure of 160 kN/m2 is
located at a depth of 2m in a deposit of stiff clay 17m thick; a firm stratum lies immediately
below the clay. Form Oedometer tests on specimens of the clay, the value of mv was found
to be 0.13 m2/MN and from Triaxial tests the value of A was found to be 0.35. The
undrained Young's modulus for the clay is estimated to be 55 MN/m2. Determine the total
settlement under the center of the footing.
Square foundation (6m x 6m)
q = 160 kN/m2 G.S.

2m
3m 1.5m
3m
17m 3m 4.5m
thick clay layer 3m
7.5m 6m
m v = 0.13 m /MN
2
10.5m
Eu = 55 MN/m2
6m
A = 0.35 13.5m
Firm stratum
238
Solution:
(1) Immediate settlement (Using Bjerrum method):

From Fig.(5.8): for H/B = 15/6 = 2.5, L/B = 1 and D f /B = 2/6 = 0.33
o = 0.91 and 1 = 0.60

q.B
Si (average )flexible o .1 ..........(5.6)
Eu
(160 )(6)(1000 )
Si (average )flexible (0.91)(0.60) = 9.5 mm
(55 x1000 )
(2) Consolidation settlement (mv - method):

From the vertical stress below the corner of flexible rectangular or square loaded area
z I.q o
At mid-depth of each 3 m depth as shown in the table below:
Layer z
I z Sc (oed ) m v .H t .z
no.
n L/z , m B/ z From
(m)
Fig. (4.15) (kN/m2) (mm)
1 1.5 2.00 , 2.00 0.233 149 58.1
2 4.5 0.67 , 0.67 0.121 78 30.4
3 7.5 0.40 , 0.40 0.060 38 14.8
4 10.5 0.285 , 0.285 0.033 21 8.2
5 13.5 0.222 , 0.222 0.021 13 4.1
= 116.6
For 1st. Layer: n L / z = 3/1.5 = 2.00 and m B / z = 3/1.5 = 2.00 therefore; I = 0.233
z = (4)(160)(I)...............................(kN/m2)
Sc (oed ) m v .H t .z ...........................................................(5.16)
Sc (oed ) =
0.13
(3)(1000) ( z ) ....... (mm).
1000
(3) Correction for pore water pressure:
From Fig.(5.17) for circular loading: for H/B =15/6.77 = 2.2 (equivalent diameter = 6.77 m)
and A = 0.35; circle =0.55 then, S c (oed ) = (0.55)(116.6) = 64 mm.
Total settlement = ST = Si + Sc = 9.5 + 64 = 73.5 mm
239
5.12 IN-SITU MEASUREMENT OF SETTLEMENT

It is well known that installing piezo-meters or extensometers at the required site can monitor
the progress of consolidation and record the change in excess pore water pressures with time. The
magnitudes of settlement can be measured by recording the levels of suitable reference points on a
structure or in the ground. Presice-levelling in this case is essential.
5.13 DEGREE OR RATE OF SETTLEMENT

It is the ratio of consolidation at time (t) to that of 100% consolidation when the pore water
pressure diminishes. It is calculated as follows:
(1) First, from Oedometer tests, the coefficient of consolidation ( C v ) is calculated as:
k
Cv .......................................................................(5.20)
m v . w
av e
where, m v volume.change .coefficien t , av = compressibility coefficient
1 eo p
and k = permeability of soil.
(2) Second, the time factor ( Tv ) is calculated as:

C v .t
Tv .........................................................................(5.21)
(H d ) 2
where, H d (drainage path) = H (for one-way drainage) and H d = H/2 (for twoway
drainage).
(3) Third, with ( Tv ) value obtained from Eq. (5.21), the degree of consolidation U% at any
time (t) is calculated from Fig.(5.20) depending on the distribution of the excess pore
water pressure; or one of the following equations:
U% 2
Tv ( ) for U 60% .....................................................(5.22a)
4 100
Tv 1.781 0.933 . log10 (100 U%) for U 60% .........................(5.22b)
(4) From the degree of consolidation U% at any time (t), the settlement at any time is
calculated from the following relation if the total settlement is known:
S t Settlement.at.any.time ( t )
Ut ........(5.23)
S Total.settlement
where, S = ST = Si + Sc + Ssc.
240
Note: U% for any layer depends on pore water pressure distribution using Figs.(5.20a and
5.20b) to find U t at any time. But, for other shapes, use division to suit the figures as
shown in the following example.
Example:
2b
Clay H B C
A = +
b
Curve (1+3) Curve (1) Curve (3)
U B .A B U c .AC
UA
A
Fig.(5.20): Variation of average degree of consolidation and time factor

(for EPWP conditions given in Figs. a, and b) .
(a) 1D drainage H
Curve (1) Curve (2) Curve (3)
(b) 2D drainage 2H
Curve (1) Curve (2) Curve (3)
241
5.14 CONSOLIDATION FOR LAYERED SOIL

(INTERNAL DRAINAGE LAYERS)
In nature, layers of deposited clay with sand frequently occurs. In these deposits, the sandy
layers work as a drainage path which accelerate the consolidation of clay.
G.S. q / unit area

Df
H1 S c1 Clay layer (1)
Sand
HT H2 Sc2 Clay layer (2)
Sand
H3
S c3
Clay layer (3)
Sand
Steps of Solution:
1. Calculate the settlement of each individual clay layer using the suitable formula.
2. Calculate the total amount of settlement for all layers as:
Sc Sc1 Sc2 Sc 3 ..
3. Calculate the average degree of consolidation at any time (t) for all layers from:
1
U i (avg.) = U ( t ) (Sc1 U1 Sc2 U 2 S c 3 U 3 .......... ) ....(5.24)
Sc
where, U1 = degree of consolidation at time (t) for the first layer,

U2 = degree of consolidation at time (t) for the second layer, and
(U %) for any layer is computed using Fig.(5.20).
242
4. To calculate the amount of settlement for any degree of consolidation, first, assume time
and find ( Tv ) for each layer; 1, 2, 3, .as follows: Assume t1 and calculate the time
C v .t 1 C .t C .t
factor for each layer: Tv1 , Tv 2 v 1 , Tv3 v 1
2 2 2
(H d ) 1 (H d ) 2 (H d ) 3
Then, using ( Tv1 , Tv 2 , Tv 3 , .), from Fig.(5.20) get (U1, U2, U3, ..). Thus, find
U1(avg.) for all layers corresponding to the assumed time (t = t1).
5. Repeat step (4) assuming another time as: (t = t2 ) and calculate the time factor for each
C v .t 2 C v .t 2 C v .t 2
layer: Tv1 , T
v2 , T
v3 and solve for U 2 (avg.)
2 2 2
d 1
( H ) d 2
( H ) d 3
( H )
and so on.
t U i (avg.)
Tv1 Tv 2 Tv 3 U1 U2 U3 Sc Sc1 Sc2 Sc 3
(year) Eq. (5.24)
t1
t2
t3
6. Plot a relationship between U i (avg.) and t i to find the time (t) for 50% or a given degree
of consolidation.
Problem (5.10): (degree of consolidation)
For pore water pressure distribution across a clay soil layer shown below, find the average
degree of consolidation after (15) years.
100 kN/m2 60 kN/m2 40 kN/m2

Impervious
Clay 4m = +
Pervious 60 kN/m2
60 kN/m2
Given: PWP Case (1) Case (3)
C v 0.4 m2/year
243
Solution:
C v .t (0.4)(15)
Tv 0.375
(H d ) 2 (4) 2
From Fig.(5.20) for Tv 0.375; U1 65% (curve 1) and
for Tv 0.375; U 2 75% (curve 3)
U 1 .A 1 U 2 .A 2 0.65(4)(60) 0.75(4)(40) / 2
U avg. 0.675 67.5%
A (
100 60
)(4)
2
Problem (5.11): (degree of consolidation)
For a layer of clay of 4m thick, if the coefficient of consolidation C v = 0.4 m2/year, and PWP
distribution is given as below, calculate: (1) the average degree of consolidation after 20
years, and (2) the time required for 62 % consolidation.
Pervious 100 kN/m2 100 kN/m2 0 kN/m2
Clay 4m = +
Impervious
250 kN/m2 100 kN/m2 150 kN/m2
Given: PWP Case (1) Case (2)
Solution: C v 0.4 m3/year
C v .t
(1) Tv ..................................................................................(5.21)
(H d ) 2
(0.4)( 20 )
Tv 0.50
(4) 2
From Fig.(5.20) for Tv 0.50; U1 76% (curve 1) and

for Tv 0.50; U 2 69% (curve 2)
U1 .A 1 U 2 .A 2 0.76(4)(100) 0.69(4)(150) / 2
U avg. 0.73 73%
A (
100 250
)(4)
2
244
(2) To calculate the time required for any degree % of consolidation, take several times t i ( year )
and find the corresponding U i (avg.) as follows:
U1 .A1 U 2 .A 2
t i (year) Tv U1 U2 U avg. (%)
A
10 0.25 0.55 0.45 50.7 < 62
12 0.30 0.62 0.50 56.8 < 62
15 0.375 0.67 0.57 62.7 62
18 0.45 0.72 0.64 68.5 > 62
Sample of Calculation:
C v .t
For t = 10 (years): Tv ...................................................(5.21)
(H d ) 2
(0.4)(10)
Tv 0.25
( 4) 2
From Fig. (5.20) for Tv 0.25; U1 55% (curve 1) and
for Tv 0.25; U 2 45% (curve 2)
U 1 .A 1 U 2 .A 2 0.55(4)(100) 0.45(4)(150) / 2
U avg. 0.507 50.7%
A (
100 250
)(4)
2
After drawing U i (avg.) versus t i ( year ) as obtained from the table above; it can be
seen that the required time for 62% consolidation = 15 (years).
245
Problem (5.12): (consolidation for layered soils)

A raft foundation is placed at a surface of a normally consolidated clay layers with internal
sand drain layers as shown in the figure below. Determine the % degree of consolidation
after 10 years if the PWP distribution is as given in the figure.
2
100 kN/m2
50 kN/m G.S.
10m x 20m
2m C v 0.4m / year, C c 0.1 , e o = 0.60
2
Clay layer (1)
18 kN/m3
Sand
PWP Distribution
3m
C v 0.3m 2 / year, C 0.09, e = 0.65 Clay layer (2)
c o
19 kN/m3
Sand
C v 0.2m 2 / year, C 0.08, e = 0.60

4m c o
Clay layer (3)
20 kN/m3
100 kN/m2 Impervious
Solution:
(1) Calculate ( Tv ) for each clay layer; 1, 2, 3:

C v .t 0.4(10)
Tv1 1 2 4,
(H 1 ) (2 / 2)
2
C v 2 .t 0.3(10)
Tv 2 2
1.333 , and
(H 2 ) (3 / 2)
2
C v 3 .t 0.2(10)
Tv3 2
0.125
(H 3 ) (4) 2
(2) Calculate ( S C i ) for each clay layer; 1, 2, 3:
Cc
for normally consolidated clay: S Ci H t log 10 o
1 eo o
for clay layer (1):
o = .H = 18(1) = 18 kN/m2, =100(10)(20)/(10+1)(20+1) = 86.580 kN/m2
0.1 18 86.580
S C1 (200) log 10 9.55cm
1 0.60 18
for clay layer (2):
246
o = .H = 18(2) + 19(1.5) = 64.5 kN/m2, =100(10)(20)/(10+3.5)(23.5) = 63.042 kN/m2
0.09 64.5 63.042

S C2 (300) log 10 4.85cm
1 0.65 64.5
for clay layer (3):
o = .H = 18(2) + 19(3)+ 20(2) = 133 kN/m2, =100(10)(20)/(10+7)(27) = 43.573 kN/m2
0.08 133 43.573

S C3 (400) log 10 2.46cm
1 0.60 133
(3) Calculate (U %) for each clay layer; 1, 2, 3 after (10) years:
Total settlement for all layers:
S c S c1 S c2 S c 3 = 9.55 + 4.85 + 2.46 = 16.86 cm
From Fig.(5.20):
for clay layer (1): for Tv 1 4; U1 100% (curve 1)
for clay layer (2): for Tv 2 1.33; U 2 95% (curve 1)
for clay layer (3): the PWP distribution consists of cases (1 + 2) and calculated as:
Pervious 50 kN/m2 50 kN/m2 0 kN/m2
4m = +
Impervious
100 kN/m2 50 kN/m2 50 kN/m2
C v 0.2 m3/year Curve (1) Curve (2)
for Tv 3 0.125; U1 0.38 (curve 1) and U 2 0.22 (curve 2)
U1 .A1 U 2 .A 2 0.38(4)(50) 0.22 (4)(50) / 2

U3 0.326 33 %
A (
50 100
)( 4)
2
The average degree of consolidation after (10)years for all layers is calculated from:
1
U i (avg.) = U ( t ) (Sc1 U1 Sc 2 U 2 Sc 3 U 3 ..........) ......(5.24)
Sc
U i(avg.)
1
(9.55 x1.00) (4.85 x0.95) (2.46 x0.33) 0.89 = 89 %
16.86
247
5.15 SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATION DUE TO

EARTHQUAKE LOADING
According to Richards et al. (1993), the settlement of a foundation (supported by a
granular soil) during an earthquake can be given as:
4
V2 kh
Se = 0.174 | | ....(5.25)
A.g A
where, Se = settlement,
V = peak velocity of the design earthquake,
A = peak acceleration coefficient of the design earthquake,
k h = critical acceleration ratio (function of safety factor (FS) taken over the ultimate
static bearing capacity, embedment ratio (Df /B), and the soil friction angle ());
obtained from Fig.(5.21).
The variations of (tan AE ) with (k h ) and () are given in Fig.(5.22).
Fig.(5.21): Critical acceleration for incipient foundation settlement

(after Richards et al. (1993).
248
Fig.(5.22): Variation of with and (after Richards et al. (1993).
(after Richards et al. (1993).
Problem (5.13): (Settlement due to earthquake loading)

For the same foundation of problem (3.33); page 148. If qall. = 118 kN/m2, A = 0.32, and
V = 0.35 m/sec, determine the expected settlement of the foundation.
Solution:
B = 1.5 m, = 1.0 m, = 17 kN/m3, c = 30 kN/m2, =25o, = 0.25; = 0.
For static load, the ultimate bearing capacity of a continuous footing is given by:
qult. cNc q Nq 0.5 .B.N .........(3.55)
Hansen's bearing capacity factors:
Nc (Nq 1).cot , Nq e . tan .. tan2 (45 / 2) , N 1.5(Nq 1) tan
For 25 : Nc 20.7 , Nq 10.7 , N 6.8
249
1
qult. (30)(20.7) (1)(17)(10.7) (17)(1.5)(6.8) 889.6 kN/m2
2
qult. 889.6
F. S. = = = 7.5
qall. 348
From Fig.(5.21): for F.S. = 7.5 and Df /B =1/1.5 = 0.67; the magnitude of k h 0.30
From Fig.(5.22): for = 25o and k h = 0.30; tan AE 0.50

4
V2 k
Se = 0.174 A.g | Ah| tan AE ......(5.25)
(0.35 m/sec)2 0.3 4

Se = (0.174) | | (0.5) = 0.0126 m = 12.6 mm
(0.32)(9.81 m/sec2 ) 0.32
250
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem (5.13):
A continuous foundation on a layer of sand is shown in the figure below along with the
variation of modulus of elasticity of the soil Es. Assuming that = 18 kN/m3 and creep time
= 10 years for the correction factor C2 , estimate the elastic settlement of the foundation
using the strain influence factor.
G.S.
q = 195 kPa
1.5m
Es (kPa)
2.5m 6000
2
12000
10000
14
Solution: Depth (m)
Layer z
= E/2
No. (m)
1 2.0 0.250 3000 0.1667 (10-3)
2 0.5 0.550 6000 0.045 (10-3)
3 5.5 0.375 6000 0.3437 (10-3)
4 2.0 0.075 5000 0.03000 (10-3)
=0.586(10-3)
1 2
= p 4
0
3.5
Po
C1 =1 0.5 0.5 , Po = D = 18(1.5) = 27 kPa , p = 195 27 = 168 kPa
P
t
C1 = 0.92 , C2 = 1 + 0.2 log10 0.1 = 1.4
0.92(1.4)
Si = (168)(0.5861)(10-3)(1000) = 36.235 mm
3.5
251
Problem (5.14):
Under the load and soil conditions shown in the figure below, compute the total
(immediate + consolidation) settlement (in mm) at point (b) of the footing after 10 years.
Take w 9.81 kN/m3.
1000
kN
M L = 100
2mkN-m
x 3m
a b L G.S.
0.0 m
ML 3m x 6m -1.5 m
B b W.T.
Losse sand -3.0 m
= 15.89 /3 , = 18.75 /3 , = 5
-5.0 m
Soft clay
= 18.56 /3 , = 0.15 , = 0.03 , = 0.85,
= 90 , = 45 .
-10.0 m
Solution: Impervious layer
(1) Consolidation Settlement in Clay
o at clay center = 3(15.89) + 2(18.759.81) + 2.5(18.569.81) = 87.425 kPa

P (90 kPa) > o (O.C. clay)
Q
Stress due to point load: z = Ab , z = 6m at clay center.
Z2
3/2
r/z = 1.5/6, Ab = 1.5 = 0.410
[1+( 6 )2 ]5/2
1000
zb = (0.410) = 11.389 kPa
62
o + = 87.425 + 11.389 = 98.814 kPa > = 90 kPa

+
e = Cs log10 + Cc log10

90 98.814
e = 0.03 log10 + 0.15 log10 = 0.00646
87.425 90
5(1000)
Sc (b) = (0.00646) = 17.46 mm
1+0.85
252
(2) Immediate settlement in sand:
e = M/P = 0.1m
1000 6(0.1)
qmax
min = [1 ]
(3)(6) 6
qmax = 61.111 kPa , qmin = 50 kPa

C1 C2 Iz
Sib = p 4B
0 z
3.5 qc
Po =1.5(15.89) = 23.835 kPa

P = 61.111 23.835 = 37.276 kPa
C1 = 1 0.5 (23.835 / 37.276) = 0.68 > 0.5 O.K.
C2 = 1 + 0.2 log10 (10/0.1) = 1.4
0.6+0.567)
(0.68)(1.4) 3(0.3) 0.5(
Si (b) Sand = (37.276) [ + 2
] (1000) = 2.417 mm
3.5 5000 5000
(3) Immediate settlement in Clay:

q B
Si (b) clay = 0 1 = Si (b) [sand + clay] Si (b) (overlap)
E
qb = qmax = 61.111 kpa
Si (b) [sand + clay]:

From Fig.(5.8) for L/B = 6/3 = 2, Df/B = 0.5: 0= 0.89
and for H/B = 8.5/3 = 2.833: 1 = 0.762 (by interpolation).
(61.111)(3)(1000)
Si (b) [sand + clay] = (0.89)(0.762)([ ] = 2.763 mm
45000
Si (b) (overlap):
(61.111)(3)(1000)
Si (b) (overlap) = (0.89)(0.517)[ ] = 1.875 mm
45000
Si (b) clay = 2.763 1.875 = 0.888 mm
STotal (b) = 17.46 + 2.417 + 0.888 = 20.765 mm
253
Problem (5.15):
Two column footings (1m x 1m) are located 6m apart center to center. They transmit a
load of 250 kN each to the top layer of sandy soil at 1.5m depth below the surface. A 6m
thick compressible clay stratum is found at a depth of 5m below the surface, and it is
underlain by stiff impervious stratum. If the water table is at 3m below the surface,
estimate:
1. Total consolidation settlement (in cms) of the two columns, and
2. Time (in days) required for degree of consolidation to become 45%.
Col. (1) Col. (2)

6m
250 kN 250 kN
G.S.
0.0
m
-1.5 m
A
W.T.
Medium dense sand -3.0 m
Gs 2.65 , e 0.70 , .above..W.T. 8%

-5.0 m
Soft clay
4 2
Gs = 2.55, e = 0.95, Cc = 0.36, Cv 4x10 cm / sec.
-11.0 m
Impervious layer
Solution:
For sand:
1+0.08
t(sand) = ( ) (2.65)(9.81) = 16.5 kN/m3
1+0.7
2.65+0.7
sat(sand) = ( ) 9.81 = 19.3 kN/m3
1+0.7
(sand) = sat = 19.3 9.81 = 9.49 kN/m3
For clay:
2.55+0.95
sat = ( ) 9.81 = 17.6 kN/m3
1+0.95
= 3(16.5) + 2(9.49) + 3(7.79) = 91.85 kN/m2
254
Stresses due to column loads:

Treating columns loads as point loads, the stresses at centre of the clay layer are calculated

from: = . By symmetry the pressures under the two columns will be same. At
2
elevation 8m: z = 6.5m.
Stress due
Below col.(1) r (m) r/z Ab Q. Ab =
to col. No. 2
1 0 0 0.478 119.5
At point (A) 145
2 6 0.923 0.102 25.5 = 3.432 kPa
6.52
= 145 kN
Consider normally consolidated clay

Cc H o + 0.36600 91.85+3.432
Sc = log10 = log10 =1.76cm
1+eo o 1.95 91.85
u% 2 Cv t
Tv for u = 45% : Tv = ( ) = 0.159, Tv =
4 100 Hd2
t = (0.159)(62)(1002)/(4)(10-4) = 1.431(108) sec = 1656 days.
Problem (5.16):
Under the load and soil conditions shown in the figure below, estimate the differential
settlement (in mm) between points (A and B) of the two footings.
Col. (1) Col. (2)

6m
150 kN 450 kN
G.S.
0.0 m
1m x 2m 2m x 3m -1.5 m
A B
W.T.
Medium dense sand -3.0 m
Gs = 2.65, e = 0.70, ..above..W.T. 8%,..qc 10.MN/ m2

-5.0 m
Cc 0.15,..Cs 0.03,..eo 0.85,..Gs 2.65
Soft clay
p 100.kPa,..E 45.MN/ m2
-11.0 m
Impervious layer
255
Solution:
Sand:
1+ 1 + 0.08
= = (9.81) (2.65) = 16.52 kN/m3
1+ 1 + 0.7
+
= = 19.33 kN/m3
1+
= 19.33 9.81 = 9.52 kN/m3
Clay:
2.65 +0.85
= (9.81) = 18.56 kN/m3
1.85
= 18.56 9.81 = 8.75 kN/m3
(1) Immediate settlement in sand:

C1 C2 Iz
Si = p 4B
0 q z
3.5 c

Sec No. z (m) (.)

1 1.0 10000 0.30 0.00003
2 2.5 10000 0.35 0.000175
= 0.000205

C1 = 1 0.5 0.5

= 1.5 (16.52) = 24.78 kPa

Pcol.= (150/(1)(2) 24.78 = 50.22 kPa
C1 = 1 0.5(24.78/50.22) = 0.753 > 0.5 (O.K.)

C2 = 1 + 0.2 log10 (10/0.1) = 1.4
1 2 (0.753)(1.4)
= p 4
0 = (50.22)(0.000205)(1000) = 3.10 mm
3.5 3.5

Sec No. z (m) (.)

1 2.0 10000 0.300 0.00006
2 1.5 10000 0.525 0.000175
= 0.000138
256
= 24.78 kPa
Pcol.2 = (450/(2)(3) 24.78 = 50.22 kPa
C1 = 0.753, C2 = 1.4
1 2 (0.753)(1.4)
= p 4
0 = (50.22)(0.000138)(1000) = 2.09 mm
3.5 3.5
(2) Immediate settlement in clay:

= 0 1

Column 1:
= 1 + 2 3
Layer 1:
From Fig.(5.8) for L/B = 2, Df/B =1.5: 0 = 0.72

for L/B = 2, H/B = 3.5: 1 = 0.80
E = 2 = 20000 kPa
50.22(1)
1 = (0.72)(0.8) = 1.446 mm
20000
Layer 2:
0 = 0.72, From Fig.(5.8) for L/B = 2, H/B = 9.5: 1 = 0.80
E = 45000 kPa
50.22(1)
2 = (0.72)(0.95) = 0.763 mm
45000
Overlap:
50.22(1)
3 = (0.72)(0.8) = 0.643 mm
45000
=1.446 + 0.763 0.643 = 1.566 mm
Column 2:
= 1 + 2 3
257
Layer 1:
From Fig.(5.8) for L/B = 3/2 = 1.5, Df/B =0.75: 0 = 0.8

for L/B = 1.5 , H/B = 1.75: 1 = 0.6
E = 2 = 20000 kPa
50.22(2)
1 = (0.8)(0.6) = 2.410 mm
20000
Layer 2:
0 = 0.8, From Fig.(5.8) for L/B = 1.5, H/B = 9.5/2 = 4.75: 1 = 0.7
E = 45000 kPa
50.22(2)
2 = (0.8)(0.7) = 1.250 mm
45000
Overlap:
50.22(2)
3 = (0.8)(0.6) = 1.071 mm
45000
= 2.410 + 1.250 1.071 = 2.589 mm
(3) Consolidation settlement:
(At center of clay) = 3(16.52) + 2(9.52) + 3(8.75) = 94.85 kPa

= 100 kPa > O.C. Clay
:

Treating column loads as point loads, = . z = 6.5m at clay center
2
Stress due to col.

Below col. r (m) r/z Ab Q. Ab
No.
1 0 0 0.477 150 (0.477) = 71.55
1 at point (A) 2 6 6/8 = 0.75 0.156 150 (0.156) = 23.40
= 94.95kN
2 0 0 0.477 450 (0.477) = 214.65
1 6 0.75 0.156 450 (0.156) = 70.20
2 at point (B)
= 284.85 kN
258
= 94.95/6.52 = 2.247 kPa

= 284.85/6.52 = 6.742 kPa
+
+ = 97.097 kPa < = 100 kPa e = Cs log10

(6)(1000)
ScA = [0.03 log10 (97.097/94.85)] = 0.989 mm
1.85
+
+ = 101.592 kPa > = 100 kPa e = Cs log10 + Cc log10

(6)(1000) 100 101.592

ScB = (0.03 log10 + 0.15 log10 ) = 5.571 mm
1.85 94.85 100
() = () + () + () = 3.10 + 1.566 + 0.989 = 5.655 mm
() = () + () + () = 2.09 + 2.589 + 5.571 = 10.250 mm
The differential settlement between points A and B = 10.250 5.655 = 4.595 mm
Problem (5.17):
For the rectangular footing shown in the figure below, determine:
(a) The factor of safety against bearing capacity failure, and
(b) Total (immediate and consolidation) settlement.
2100 kN
2m x 3m
G.S. 0.0m
W.T.
2m x 3m - 1.0m
Sand layer
t 17.3 kN/m3, sat . 19.2 kN/m3, = 35o Es = 45 MN/m2, = 0.3
- 4.0m
Clay layer
qu = 100 kN/m2, sat. = 20 kN/m3 , Cc = 0.10, Cs = 0.01

eo = 0.65, p = 60 kPa, Es = 35 MN/m2
- 6.0m
Rock layer
259
Solution:
(a) Factor of safety against B.C.:
Due to soil layering, first check Hcrit from: Hcrit = 0.5 B tan (45 + 35/2) = 1.92 m < 3.0m
the 2nd layer is not included (i.e., the footing is rested on one layer).
2100
qapplied = = 350 kPa
(2)(3)
Using Meyerhofs B.C. equation:

qult = C*Nc*Sc*dc + q*Nq*Sq*dq + 0.5B **N*S*d
c = 0 ( Sand layer)
= (1.1 0.1 B/L) tr = [1.1 0.1(2/3)](35) = 36.2
Bearing Capacity Factors:
Nq = tan 36.2 *tan2(45 + 36.2/2) = 38.725
N = (38.7251) tan1.4 (36.2) = 46.058
Shape Factors:
Sq = S = 1 + 0.1 Kp (B/L), Kp = tan2(45 + 36.2/2) = 3.885
Sq = S = 1 + 0.1(3.885)(1/2) = 1.259
Depth factors:
dq = d = 1+ 0.1 3.885 (1/2) = 1.098
qult. = (1)(17.3)(38.725)(1.259)(1.098)
+ 0.5(2)(20 9.81)(46 0.58)(1.259)(1.098) = 1574.911 kPa
F.S. (B.C.) = (1574.911 / 350) = 4.5
(b) Total settlement (immediate + consolidation)
1. Immediate settlement: = () + ()
() by elastic method:
12
() =
Is ID
B = 2/2 =1
H = (6 1) = 5m < [5B = (5)(2) = 10m]
260
use H = 5m, H/ = 5/1 = 5, L/B = 3/2 = 1.5

I1 = (0.437 + 0.526) /2 = 0.4815
I2 = (0.031 + 0.058) /2 = 0.0445
Is = 0.507
ID = 0.66 (1/2)0.19 + 0.025[3/2 + (12)(0.3) 4.6] = 0.765
() = 350(2/2) [(1 0.32) / 45000] (0.507)(0.765)(4)(1000) = 10.98 mm
() by Bejurrum method:

= 0 1

() = 1(+) 2( )
Si1 (sand + clay):

From Fig.(5.8) for L/B = 3/2 = 1.5 and Df/B = 0.5: 0 = 0.88
for L/B = 1.5 and H/B = 5/2 = 2.5: 1 = 0.56 (By interpolation)
350(2)
1(+) = (0.88)(0.56) (1000) = 9.85 mm
35000
Si2 (sand overlap):

0 = 0.88, From Fig.(5.8) for L/B = 1.5, H/B = 3/2 = 1.5: 1 = 0.50
350(2)
2( ) = (0.88)(0.5) (1000) = 6.84 mm
45000
() = 9.85 6.84 = 3.01 mm
2. Consolidation Settlement of Clay:
(At center of clay layer) = (1)(17.3) + (3)(19.2 9.81) + (1)(20 9.81) = 55.66 kPa
= 55.66 kPa < = 60 kPa Overconsolidated clay.

:
3/2
Treating column Loads as point loads: at mid of clay =
2 [1+(/)2 ]5/2
2100
= (0.477) = 62.67 kPa
42
+ = 55.66 + 62.67 = 118.33 kPa > 60 kPa.
261
0 +
Sc = log10 + log10
1+ 0 1+ 0
0.01(2)(1000) 60 0.10(2)(1000) 118.33

() = log10 55.66 + log10 = 36.145 mm
1.65 1.65 60
Total settlement:
= () + () + () = 10.98 + 3.01 + 36.145 = 50.135 mm
Problem (5.18):
A strip footing of 2m wide rested at depth of 1.5m in 5.5m thick clay soil with E = 35
MN/m2 underlined by another 4m thick clay soil with E = 45 MN/m2 followed by hard
stratum. Estimate the total consolidation settlement (in cms) under the footing.
1 o H/B L/B D/B 200 kN/m G.S.
0.60 0.9 1 2 0.5 1.5m W.T.
0.70 0.9 2 2 0.5 2m

clay (1)
0.85 0.9 4 2 0.5 4m C c = 0.15, Cs 0.03 , e o = 0.85, sat . = 18.5 kN/m3,
0.95 0.9 5 2 0.5
p 110.kPa , E 35.MN/ m2 , Cv 0.3.m 2 / year
clay (2)
4m C c = 0.09, Cs 0.01 , e o = 0.68, sat . = 19.2 kN/m3,
p 80.kPa , E 45.MN/ m2 , Cv 0.2.m 2 / year
Hard stratum
Solution:
Clay 1:
clay layer (1) = 1.5(18.5) + 2(18.5 9.81) = 45.13 kPa
= 110 kPa > (1) = 45.13 kPa the clay is overconsolidated.
(200)(2)(1)
= = = 33.33 kPa
(+)(+) (2+2)(1+2)
262
= 110 kPa > (1) + = 78.46 kPa

0 +
e = Cs log10 = (0.3) log10 (78.46 / 45.13) = 0.0072
0
Sc1 = [400 / (1 + 0.85)] (0.0072) = 1.556 cm
Clay 2:
clay layer (2) = 45.13 + 2(18.5 9.81) + 2(19.2 9.81) = 81.29 kPa
= 80 kPa < (2) = 81.29 kPa the clay is under consolidated
(200)(2)(1)
= = = 7.14 kPa
(+)(+) (2+6)(1+6)
0 +
e = Cc log10 = 0.09 log10 [(81.29 + 7.14) /2] = 0.0039

Sc2 = [400/(1 + 0.68)] (0.0039) = 0.928 cm

Sc (total) = Sc1 + Sc2 = 2.84 cm
263
PROBLEMS
P5.1 A strip footing of 2m wide rested at a depth of 1.5m in 5.5m thick clay soil with E = 35
stratum. Estimate:
1. the total consolidation settlement (in cms) under the footing, and
2. time (in days) required for degree of consolidation to become 70%.
200 kN/m G.S.

1.5m W.T.
2m
clay (1)
4m C c = 0.15, Cs 0.03 , e o = 0.85, sat . = 18.5 kN/m3,
p 110.kPa , E 35.MN/ m2 , Cv 2x104.cm2 / sec.
clay (2)
4m C c = 0.09, Cs 0.01 , e o = 0.68, sat . = 19.2 kN/m3,
p 80.kPa , E 45.MN/ m2 , Cv 4x104.cm2 / sec.
Hard stratum
P5.2 A 4m x 2m rectangular footing is rested at 1m depth in 5m thick clay soil with E =35
stratum. Estimate the total (immediate + consolidation) settlement under the footing.
200 kN/m2 G.S.

1m
2m Soft clay (1)

1 o H/B L/B D/B
0.60 0.9 1 2 0.5
4m C c = 0.25, Cs 0.06 , e o = 0.85, sat . = 18.5
0.70 0.9 2 2 0.5 kN/m3, p 100.kPa , E 35.MN/ m2
0.85 0.9 4 2 0.5
0.95 0.9 5 2 0.5 Soft clay (2)
4m C c = 0.16, Cs 0.03 , e o = 0.68, sat . = 19.2
kN/m3, p 100.kPa , E 45.MN/ m2
Hard stratum
264
P5.3 For the layout shown in figure, find the total settlement of the footing after 50 years.
100 kN/m2 G.S.

1m
2m x 2m
1 o H/B L/B D/B SAND
0.60 0.9 1 2 0.5 4m q c = 10 MPa, t = 18.0 kN/m3
0.70 0.9 2 2 0.5
0.85 0.9 4 2 0.5 W.T.
0.95 0.9 5 2 0.5
C c = 0.10, Cs 0.05 , e o = 0.70, sat . = 20 kN/m3,
4m p 50.kPa , C 0.005 , C v 0.4 m2/year,
E 45.MN/ m2 CLAY
Hard stratum
265
REFERENCES
Alpan, I. (1964),Estimating settlements of foundations on sands. Civ. Eng. And Public Works
Review.
Bjerrum, L. (1963),"Allowable settlement of structures," Proc., European Conf. on Soil Mech.
and Found. Engr., Weisbaden, Germany, Vol. 3, pp. 135-137.
Bowles, J.E. (1977),Foundation analysis and design, Second Edition. McGrawHill Book
Company, New York, NY.
Burland, J.B., and Burbridge, M.C. (1985),Settlement of foundations on sands and gravels.
Part1, 78: 1325-1381. London: Institution of Civil Engineers.
Burland, J.B., Broms, B.B. and de Mello, V.F.B. (1977),Behaviour of foundations and
structures. Proc. 9 ICSMFE, Tokyo, Vol.2, pp. 495-546.
Das, Braja M. (2009),Settlement and allowable bearing capacity, Shallow Foundations, CRC
Press: 165-228.
European Committee for Standardization, (1994),Basis of design and actions on structures,
Eurocode 1, Brussels, Belgium.
Fox, E. N., (1948),The mean elastic settlement of a uniformly loaded area at a depth below the
ground surface, in Proc., II Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng.,Vol.1, No.129.
Janbu, N, Bjerrum, L. and Kjaernsli, B. (1956),Veileduing ved losning, av fundamentering-
sopogaver (Soil mechanics applied to some engineering problems). Norwegian
Geotechnical Institute Pub. 16, Oslo.
Lee, J. and R. Salgado (2002),"Estimation of footing settlement in sand." The International
Journal Geomechanics 2(1): 1-28.
Mesri, G. (1973),Coefficient of secondary compression. Journal of the soil mechanics and
foundation divisions, ASCE, Vol. 99, No. SM1, pp 123-137.
Meyerhof, G.G. (1965),Shallow foundations. Journal SMFED, ASCE 91(SM2): 21-31.
Meyerhof, G.G. (1974),General report: Outside Europe Proc. 1st. European Symp. on
penetration testing 2.1: 40-48 Stockholm.
Parry, R.H.G. (1971),A study of the influence of intermediate principal stress on values using
a critical state theory. 4th Asian Reg. Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineers, Bangkok, Vol. 1, pp. 15966.
Richards, R., Jr., Elms, D. G., and Budhu, M.,(1993),Seismic bearing capacity and settlement of
foundations, J. Geotech. Eng., ASCE, 119(4), 622.
Schmertmann, J. H., and Hartman, J. P., (1978),Improved strain influence factor diagrams, J.
Geotech. Eng. Div., ASCE, Vol.104(8), pp.1131-1135.
Schultze, E., and Sherif, G., (1973),Prediction of settlements from evaluated settlement
observations for sand, In Proc., VIII Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., Moscow,
U.S.S.R., Vol.1(3), pp.225-230.
Skempton, A. W., and MacDonald, D. H. (1956),Allowable settlement of buildings, in Proc. of
Institute of Civil Engineers, London, Part 3, Vol. 5, pp. 727-768.
Steinbrenner, W. (1934), Tafeln zur Setzungsberechnung. Die strasse, Vol.1, Oct., pp121-124.
Terzaghi, K. and Peck, R.B., (1948),"Soil mechanics in engineering practice", Wily, New York.
Wroth, C.P. (1979),Correlations of some engineering properties of soils. In Proc. 2nd. Int.
Conf. on Behaviour of Off-Shore Structures. London (Cranfield: BHRA Fluid Engineering),
Vol.1, pp. 121-32.
266

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CHAPTER 5

5.2 TYPES OF SETTLEMENT

5.3 DEFINITIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT PARAMETERS

Horizontal displacement u: Extension or contraction of a building in the horizontal

Thus, it is important to define certain parameters to quantify differential settlement and

Fig.(5.1): Definition of differential settlement parameters

The parameters of differential settlement shown in Fig.(5.1) are defined as:

5.4 ROUTINE GUIDES FOR PERMISSIBLE SETTLEMENTS

Table (5.1): Routine Guides to Permissible Settlements.

5.5 DAMAGE CRITERION FOR STRUCTURE

1.5 (c) Load bearing walls (hogging)

5.6 TILTING OF FOUNDATIONS

Table (5.2): Effect of foundation tilting on structures.

( in radians) Result to structure

Table (5.3): Values of I m for various footing shapes.

5.7 LIMITING VALUES OF SETTLEMENT PARAMETERS

Maximum differential settlement, ST (max.)

Maximum angular distortion, max . 1/300

Table (5.5): Limiting values of deflection ratios

Deflection ratio ( / L) Average maximum

One-story building 0.001 0.001 -----------

Water towers, Ring foundations 0.004 0.004 -----------

L = length between two adjacent points under consideration, and

Table (5.6): Limiting angular distortion for various structures

First cracking in panel walls 1/300

Safe limit of no cracking of building 1/500

Danger for frames with diagonals 1/600

Table (5.7): Recommendation of European Committee for Standardization

Item Parameter Magnitude Comments

Limiting values 25 mm Isolated shallow foundation

5 mm Frames with rigid cladding

ST 50mm Isolated shallow foundation

5.8 COMPONENTS OF TOTAL SETTLEMENT

These components occur in different types of soils with varying circumstances:

Fig.(5.3): Settlement versus time relationship.

5.8.1 METHODS OF COMPUTING IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT

5.8.1.1 Immediate Settlement Based on the Theory of Elasticity

Si (average ) 0.85.Si (center ) ............ (5.5)

Rigid foundation Flexible foundation

Fig.(5.4): Elastic settlement of flexible and rigid foundations

s = Poisson's ratio of soil, (see Table (5.8) for typical values).

Fig.(5.5): Influence factor I D for footing at a depth.

Table (5.8): Typical values of s (after Das, 2009).

Table (5.9): Typical values of E s for selected soils

Type of Soil E s (MPa)

Table (5.10a): Values of I1 to compute Steinbrenner's influence factor

B = B/2 for center of foundation, and = B for corners of foundation,

Table (5.10b): Values of I 2 to compute Steinbrenner's influence factor

B = B/2 for center of foundation, and = B for corners of foundation,

Fig.(5.6): Principle of superposition.

5.8.1.2 Average Settlement for Layered Clay Soil (Bjerrum Method)

Fig.(5.8): Coefficients of vertical displacement for foundations on saturated clays

(b) at the center of the flexible foundation: B 5 / 2 2.5m

(c) at the center of the flexible foundation 2m below ground surface:

(d) Immediate settlement for rigid foundation: 5m x10m 2m

(e) (Average settlement for point c): 75 kN/m2

(By Bjerrum method):

From Fig. (5.8): for H/B = 20/5 = 4 and L/B = 2; 1 = 0.77

9m Sand: E = 21000 kN/m2 , 0.3

Note: If the foundation is circular, determine the equivalent dimension as:

10m E u 2 = 16 MN/m2, s 0.3

(1) (Bjerrum Method):

Settlement of 1st. layer (average settlement):