Ch2 Subsoil Exploration (15-71)

CHAPTER 2
SUBSOIL EXPLORATION
2.1 SOIL EXPLORATION

All office, laboratory and field works are done in order to explore the subsurface of soil or
rock conditions at any given site to obtain the necessary information required in design and
construction. Subsoil exploration is the first step in the design of a foundation system. Soil
exploration consists essentially of boring, sampling and testing.
(a) Office, laboratory and field works:
Planning Boring Sampling Testing Report

for exploration program and
phases of soil investigation
Usually, the proper program of soil investigation for a given project depends on the type
and importance of structure; nature of the subsoil involved; type of equipment available; ground
water condition; and the budget allocated for the exploration. At present, site investigation
drilling and testing are carried out in a routine way, with the absence of any significant plan. This
may result in a significant loss of money and time, since the work is carried out without reference
to the special requirements of the project.
If previous site investigation reports exist for construction in the same soil, this allows the
geotechnical engineer to judge the likely performance of the ground under and around the
proposed development. In any case, geological maps coupled with experience will give a
considerable amount of information of great value in the initial stages of design. At this stage,
there should also be interaction between the client and all his design professionals. Thus, the
design should be modified to reduce possible geotechnical problems. For example, if a large site
is to be developed as a business park, the buildings might be re-aligned with their long sides
parallel to the contours; this will reduce the amount of cut and fill, thus keeping the cost of
foundations and retaining structures to a minimum, while also reducing the risks of slope
instability.
Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
From the knowledge of probable ground, groundwater conditions at and around the site, and
the required structural form(s), the geotechnical engineer can predict the types of foundations and
earth-retaining structures required for the project, and any possible problems (such as slope
instability, chemical attack on foundation concrete and construction difficulties) which may
therefore require further investigation.
(b) To explore subsurface conditions:

Drilling and trial pitting are normally carried out for a number of reasons, such as:
1. To establish the general nature of the strata below a site. This will decide whether the site is
good or not for the proposed project;
2. To determine depth (below the ground surface); thickness; extent of all soil layers in both
vertical and lateral directions. Also if rock is existing, the depth and the extent of its
surface, its thickness and nature should be defined and determined;
3. To determine for clay layers (if possible) whether it is a recent deposit or an old one that has
been compressed by pervious overburden which may be removed by erosion and whether
the clay has been subjected to cycles of wetting and drying;
4. To obtain disturbed and undisturbed soil samples for laboratory testing;
5. To allow field tests to be carried out;
6. To locate the level of water table, its seasonal variation and the methods of controlling it
during construction;
7. To install instruments such as piezometers, or extensometers, and
8. To verify the interpretation of geophysical surveys.
(c) To obtain information required in the design and construction

(i) For new structures:
Selection of the type and depth of foundation;
Determination of bearing capacity and settlement of the selected foundation;
Evaluation of the earth pressure against walls and abutments;
Suitability of soil and degree of compaction of fill material under slabs and earth works;
Establishment of the ground water level;
Provisions against constructional difficulties;
Swelling potential; and
Chemical contents.
(ii) For existing structures:

Investigation of the safety of the structure;
Prediction of settlement; and
Determination of remedial steps against water table problems, serious settlement and
cracks.
(iii) For highways and airfields:

The location of the road and runways both vertically and horizontally;
The location and selection of borrow materials for fills and subgrade treatments;
The design of ditches, culverts and drains;
The design of roadway section;
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The type of subgrade treatments; and

The location of local sources of construction materials for base, subbase, stabilizer, binder
and wearing courses and other structural works.
Mainly, subsoil exploration involves three phases; reconnaissance phase, preliminary site
investigation phase, and detailed site investigation phase.
2.1.1 RECONNAISSANCE PHASE

This phase consists of:
(a) Collection of all available information, and
(b) Reconnaissance of the site.
So that, it will indicate any settlement limitations and help to estimate foundation loads.
2.1.2 PRELIMINARY SITE INVESTIGATION PHASE

This phase consists of:
(a) Preliminary design data that satisfy building code requirements, and
(b) Number and depth of boreholes.
So, it involves knowing the distribution of structural loads which is required in the design
of foundations. Also, a few borings or tests pits are to be opened to establish the stratification
types of soil and location of water table. In addition, one or more borings should be taken to rock
when the initial boreholes indicate that the upper soil is loose or highly compressible.
2.1.3 DETAILED SITE INVESTIGATION PHASE

In this phase, additional boreholes, samples will be required for zones of poor soil at
smaller spacing and locations which can influence the design and construction of the foundation.
2.2 DRILLING OR BORING

2.2.1 TEST PITS
A pit is dug either by hand or by a backhoe. Probably in a test pit, the engineer can examine
in detail the subsoil strata and take disturbed or undisturbed samples at the desired location (see
Fig.(2.1)):
Advantages:
Inexpensive.
Provide detailed information of stratigraphy.
Large quantities of disturbed soils can be obtained for testing.
Large blocks of undisturbed samples can be carved out from the pits, and
Field tests can be conducted at the bottom of the pit.
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Disadvantages:
Depth limited to about 6m.
Deep pits are uneconomical as in the case of investigation that involves basement
construction.
Excavation below groundwater (high water table) and into rock is difficult and costly.
Too many pits may scar site and require backfill soils.
When the soil is unstable and has a tendency to collapse, this prevents the engineer from
entering the pit and accompanied by certain risks, and
Unsuitable in granular soils below water level or when the standard penetration resistance
test (N-value) is required.
Walls of test pit indicate four layers

(1) Clayey silt (2) Sandy silt (3) Clean sand (4) Sandy gravel
Fig.(2.1): Test pits.
2.2.2 DRILLING METHODS

Several methods can be used for drilling a hole into ground, these are:
(1) Auger Drilling

(a) Hand - auger drilling.
(b) Power - auger drilling.
(2) Wash Boring
(a) Jetting.
(b) Sludging (reverse drilling).
(3) Rotary Drilling

(a) Rotary drilling with flush.
(b) Rotary - percussion drilling.
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(4) Percussion Drilling

Each of these methods has its merits and its demerits. However, Table (2.1) gives a guide
for selecting the most appropriate drilling method.
Table (2.1): Drilling method selection (after Budhu, 2007).
Wash boring Rotary drilling

Hand Rotary Rotary Percussion
Type of soil auger Jetting Sludging drilling percussion drilling
drilling with drilling
flush
Gravel X X X X ? ?
Sand ? ?
Silt Unconsolidated
? ?
Clay formations ? slow slow
Sand with pebbles
X X X X ? ?
or boulders
shale Low to medium X X X slow
strength
Sandstone formations X X X
Limestone X X X slow slow
Igneous (granite, Medium to high
strength X X X X slow
basalt)
Metamorphic (slate, formations
X X X X V slow
gneiss)
Rock with fractures or voids X X X !
Above water-table ? X
Below water-table ?
= Suitable drilling method ? = Danger of hole collapsing ! = Flush must be maintained to continue drilling
? = Possible problems x = Inappropriate method of drilling
(5) Rock Core Drilling

o Used for obtaining rock cores.
o A core barrel which is fitted with a drill bit,
is attached to hollow drill rods. Fig.(2.2)
shows one box of bedrock drill core. The
core can be drilled in various diameters.
The core in the picture is about 2.0 inches
in diameter and is the most common size
drilled for mineral exploration.
Fig.(2.2): Core extracted from a drill

hole placed in a core box.
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2.2.2.1 Auger Drilling
(a) Hand - Augers

The auger of (1020) cm in diameter is rotated by turning and pushing down on the
handlebar. Then withdrawing and emptying the soil-laden auger to remove the excavated soil.
Several new auger sections are added until the required depth is reached. These augers can be
available in different types such as (see Fig.(2.3)):
Helical Auger.
Short flight Auger, and
Iwan Auger.
Advantages:
Inexpensive.
Simple to operate and maintain.
Not dependent on terrain.
Portable.
Used in uncased holes, and
Groundwater location can easily be identified and measured.
Disadvantages:
Slow compared with other methods.
Depth limited to about 6m.
Labor intensive.
Undisturbed samples can be taken only for soft clay deposit, and
Cannot be used in rock, stiff clays, dry sand, or caliches soils.
a. Helical (worm types) Augers b. Short flight Auger c. Iwan (posthole) Auger
Fig.(2.3): Handaugers (after Allen, 1993).
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(b) Power - Augers

Truck or tractor mounted type rig and equipped with continuous flight augers that bore a
hole 100 to 250 mm in diameter. These augers can have a solid or hollow stem of (20 -75) cm in
diameter (see Fig.(2.4)).
Advantages:
Used in clay or sand or silt soils.
Quick.
Used in uncased holes, therefore no need for using drilling mud.
Undisturbed samples can be obtained quite easily, and
Groundwater location can easily be identified and measured.
Disadvantages:
Depth limited to about 15m. At greater depth, drilling becomes expensive, and
Site must be accessible to motorized vehicle.
a. Continuous flight augers. b. Solid-stem auger c. Hollow-steam auger
Fig.(2.4): Power or mechanical-augers.
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2.2.2.2 Wash Boring
Water is pumped to bottom of borehole and soil washings are returned to surface. A drill bit
is rotated and dropped to produce a chopping action (see Fig.(2.5)).
Fig.(2.5): Wash boring rig.
(a) Jetting Method
Method: Water is pumped down the center of the drill-rods, emerging as a jet. It then
returns up the borehole or drill-pipe bringing with it cuttings and debris. The washing and
cutting of the formation is helped by rotation, and by the up-and-down motion of the drill-
string. A foot-powered treadle pump or a small internal-combustion pump is equally suitable.
(b) Sludging (Reverse Jetting)
Method: A hollow pipe of steel is moved up and down in the borehole while a one-way
valve can be used to improvise successfully and provide a pumping action. Water flows
down the borehole annulus (ring) and back up the drill pipe, bringing debris with it. A small
reservoir is needed at the top of the borehole for recirculation. Simple teeth at the bottom of
the drill-pipe, preferably made of metal, help cutting efficiency.
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Advantages:
The equipment can be made from local, low-cost materials, and it is simple to use.
Possible above and below the water-table.
Suitable for clay to silt clay, silt soils and unconsolidated rocks, and
Used in uncased holes.
Disadvantages:
Slow drilling through stiff clays and gravels.
Undisturbed soil samples cannot be obtained.
Water is required for pumping.
Difficulty in obtaining accurate location of groundwater level.
Boulders can prevent further drilling, and
Depth is limited to about 30m.
2.2.2.3 Rotary Drilling
(a) Rotary Drilling with Flush
Method: A drill-pipe and bit are rotated to cut the rock. Air, water, or drilling mud is
pumped down the drill-pipe to flush out the debris. The velocity of the flush in the borehole
annulus must be sufficient to lift the cuttings (see Fig.(2.6)).
Advantages:
Quick.
Can drill any type of soil or rock.
Possible to drill to depths of over 40 meters.
Operation is possible above and below the water-table.
Undisturbed soil samples or rock cores can easily be recovered.
Water and mud support unstable formations, and
Possible to use compressed air flush.
Disadvantages:
Expensive equipment.
Terrain must be accessible to motorized vehicle.
Water is required for pumping.
Difficulty in obtaining accurate location of groundwater level.
There can be problems with boulders, and
Rig requires careful operation and maintenance (additional time required for setup and
cleanup).
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(b) Rotary - Percussion Drilling

Method: In very hard rocks, such as granite, the only way to drill a hole is to pulverize the
rock, using a rapid-action pneumatic hammer, often known as a 'down-the-hole hammer'
(DTH). Compressed air is needed to drive this tool. The air also flushes the cuttings and dust
from the borehole. Rotation of 1030 rpm ensures that the borehole is straight and circular
in cross section (see Fig.(2.6)).
Advantages:
Drills hard rocks.
Possible to penetrate gravel.
Fast, and
Disadvantages:
Higher tool cost than other tools illustrated here.
Air compressor required, and
Experience needed to operate and maintain.
Fig.(2.6): Rotary drilling.
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2.2.2.4 Percussion Drilling
Method: The lifting and dropping of a heavy (+ 50 kg) cutting tool will chip and
excavate material from a hole. The tool may be fixed to rigid drill-rods, a rope or a cable.
With a mechanical winch, depths of hundreds of meters can be reached.
Advantages:
Simple to operate and maintain.
Suitable for a wide variety of rocks.
It is possible to drill to considerable depths, and
Can be used for boring observation wells.
Disadvantages:
Slow, compared with other methods.
Problems can occur with unstable rock formations.
Water is needed for dry holes to help remove cuttings, and
Due to high disturbance of soil, the obtained samples cannot be used for testing.
2.2.2.5 Rock Core Drilling
Steps in the Process: (after IDEA Drilling, 1997)
1. Drilling holes begins with installing a pipe called casing from the surface through
soils and sealed into bedrock.
2. Diamond core drilling uses a diamond bit, which rotates at the end of drill rod (or
pipe) inside the casing.
3. The opening at the end of the diamond bit allows a solid column of rock to move up
into the drill pipe and be recovered at the surface.
4. Most drill rods are 3m long. After the first 3m drilling, a new section of pipe is
screwed into the top end, so the combination of pipes can be drilled deeper into the
ground.
5. The diamond bit is rotated with gentle pressure while being lubricated with water and
drilling fluid to prevent overheating.
6. The driller adjusts rotation speed, pressure and water circulation for different rock
types and drilling conditions.
7. Inside the drill pipe is a core tube, which has a latching mechanism attached to a
cable. At the end of each 3m run, the cable is lowered to winch the core tube
containing the new rock core to the surface where it can be recovered.
8. The drill core is stored in specially designed core boxes containing compartments to
hold sections of the core, and
9. The drill core is then logged and analyzed by a geologist.
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2.3 UNDERGROUND WATER IN THE TEST HOLE

The depth of the water table (W.T.) as measured during drilling and sampling should be
carefully evaluated. It is always necessary to wait for at least 24 hours to check on the stabilized
water table for the final measurement. The technician should plug the top of the drill holes and
flag them for identification. Care is required to ensure that the water level in the drill hole is
always maintained. Any sudden drop or rise of the water table should be carefully recorded in the
field logs of borings.
2.4 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

These methods represent indirect methods of subsoil exploration and mainly consist of:
(1) Ground Penetration Radar (GPR).

(2) Electrical Resistivity Method (ERM)
(3) Electromagnetic Method (EM), and
(4) Seismic Methods.
In subsoil investigation, the seismic methods are most frequently used. These methods are
based on the variation of the wave velocity in different earth materials. They involve in
generating a sound wave in the rock or soil, using a sledgehammer, a falling weight, or a small
explosive charge, and then recording its reception at a series of geophones located at various
distances from the shot point, as shown in Fig.(2.7). The time of the refracted sound arrival at
each geophone is noted from a continuous reader. Typical Pwave velocity in various soils and
rocks in (m/sec) are shown in Table (2.2).
Requirements of seismic exploration:

Equipment to produce an elastic wave, such as a sledgehammer used to strike a plate on the
surface.
A series of detectors, spaced at intervals along a line from wave origin point, and
A time-recording mechanism to record the time of origin of the wave and the time of its
arrival at each detector.
Advantages of seismic exploration:

1. Permits a rapid coverage of large areas at a relatively small cost.
2. Not hampered by boulders and cobbles which obstruct borings, and
3. Used in regions not accessible to boring equipment, such as the middle of a rapid river.
Disadvantages of seismic exploration:

1. Lack of unique interpretation.
2. It is particularly serious when the strata are not uniform in thickness nor horizontal,
3. Irregular contacts often are not identified, and
4. The strata of similar geophysical properties sometimes have greatly different properties.
Note: Whenever possible, seismic data should be verified by one or two borings before
definite conclusions can be reached.
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(b) Ground penetration radar. (a) Electrical resistivity method.
(c) Seismic survey method.
Fig.(2.7): Geophysical methods.
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Table (2.2): Typical P wave velocity in various soils and rocks (after Das ,2007).
Pwave Velocity
Type of soil or rock
(m/ sec)
Soil:
Sand, dry silt, and fine grained topsoil 200 -1000
Alluvium 500 - 2000
Compacted clays, clayey gravel, and dense clayey sand 1000 - 2500
Loess 250 - 750
Rock:
Slate and shale 2500 - 5000
Sandstone 1500 - 5000
Granite 4000 - 6000
Sound limestone 5000 -10000
2.5 SAMPLING
During the boring, three types of representative soil samples should be collected which are
valuable to geotechnical engineers; these are as follows:
(a) The disturbed samples (D): which were collected from auger cuttings at specified
depths?
(b) The undisturbed samples (U): which were obtained using a thin Shelby tubes of
100mm in diameter and (400-450)mm in length, and
(c) The (SS) samples: which were taken from standard split spoon sampler used in a
standard penetration test (S.P.T.) that performed at different intervals depending on soil
stratification.
All these samples are then sealed tightly in plastic bags to retain their in situ moisture
content, labeled and transported to the soil mechanics laboratory, to perform the required
tests.
2.5.1 DISTURBED SAMPLES
Disturbed samples can be collected during the drilling process from the auger cuttings at
certain intervals and/or each different stratum. In test pit excavation, large samples will
sometimes be required in order to fulfill the laboratory testing requirements. Such samples should
be at least (30 cm x 30cm) in size, wrapped in wax paper, and carefully transported to the
laboratory.
Representative samples can also be obtained by driving into the ground an open-ended
cylinder known as Split Spoon. Spoons with an inside diameter of about 5 cm consists of four
parts: a cutting shoe at the bottom; a barrel consisting of a length of pipe split into one half; and a
coupling at the top for connection to the drill rod.
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2.5.2 UNDISTURBED SAMPLES

These samples can be obtained by pushing a thin-walled Shelby or seamless steel tube
which is attached to a sampler into the soil at the desired depth. The operation must be performed
carefully so as to experience minimum deformation. The sampler head contains a check valve
and vents for the escape of air or water. The principal advantages of the Shelby tube sampler are
its simplicity and the minimal disturbance of soil.
Fig.(2.8) shows some details of standard split-spoon and thin-wall tube samplers that are
commonly used in in-situ testing and sample recovery equipment. A modification in the design
of the split spoon sampler allows the insertion of brass thin-wall liners into the barrel. Four
sections of brass liners (each 4 inch long) can be used. Such a device allows the sampling and
penetration test at the same time. This method was initiated in California and known as the
California sampler.
2.5.3 ROCK CORE SAMPLES

Samples of rock are generally obtained by rotary core drilling. Diamond core drilling is
primarily used in medium-hard to hard rocks. Special diamond core barrels up to 20 cms in
diameter are occasionally used and larger ones can be used. Such large samples enable the
geologist to study the formation and texture of the foundation rock in detail.
A summary of different sampler types which can be used to obtain disturbed or undisturbed
samples of each type of soil are listed in Table (2.3).
Fig.(2.8): Details of commonly used samplers for insitu testing (after Moore, 1980).
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Table (2.3): Types of samplers used for taking soil and rock samples from test holes.
Type of sampler Procedure Type of soil and Remarks

All types of soils,
Auger boring, wash boring,
1. Highly disturbed sampler Due to high disturbance it is unsuitable for
and percussion drilling.
foundation exploration.
Cohesive, cohesionless soils and soft rocks,
For taking disturbed samples which are
required for physical and geotechnical
Standard Penetration
2. Split spoon sampler Test.
analysis of soil as well as chemical tests.
In cohesionless soils, the penetration
number (N) is used for making both strength
and settlement estimates.
16 gauge seamless steel
For taking undisturbed samples from
tube (7.5- 15) cm dia.;
cohesive soil,
3. Thin wall Shelby tube preferably pushed by static
Unsuitable for granular soils and hard
force instead of driven by
materials.
hammer.
4. Core barrel sampler:
For taking undisturbed continuous rock
(a) Single tube, and Rotary drilling
samples.
(b) Double tube core barrel.
For taking undisturbed samples in soft and
5. Piston samplers Rotary drilling
slightly stiff cohesive soils.
6. Hard carved samples: Cut by hand from side of For taking disturbed samples in cohesive or
(a) Spring core catcher, and
test pit. cohesionless soils.
(b) Scraper bucket.
For taking disturbed samples in
Cut by hand from side of
7. Hand-cut samples test pit.
cohesionless soil or disturbed and
undisturbed block samples in cohesive soil.
2.6 SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

Certain amounts of disturbance during sampling must be regarded as inevitable:-
1. Effect of stress relief:

Due to boring, the stress state in soil will be changed as a result of a stress relief.
2. Effect of area ratio (Ar %):

It is the ratio of the volume of soil displacement to the volume of the collected sample.
Do 2 Di 2
Ar x100 .(2.1)
Di 2
where, Di and Do are inner and outer diameters of the used sampler.
For stiff clay < 20%, for soft clay 10% and samples with A r > 20% considered as disturbed
samples.
3. Effect of friction and adhesion:

If the length of sampler is large with respect to diameter, a bearing capacity failure may occur
due to disturbance of sample.
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Do Di
Ci x100 ..(2.2)
Di
where, Ci inside clearance = (0.30.4)% and not more than 1%.
4. Effect of the way in which the force is applied to the spoon: that means by pushing
or driving or by constant rate of penetration.
2.7 TESTING
The tests performed on each type of the three different soil samples are as follows:
As a rule, undisturbed samples (U) can be tested for strength and compressibility to determine the
stress strain characteristics of the material, in addition to classification and chemical tests.
Whereas, disturbed (D) or (SS) samples as available were mainly used for physical and
geotechnical analysis of soil as well as chemical tests.
2.7.1 LABORATORY TESTS

The obtained samples should be tested according to the procedure of the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) or the British Standards (BS) whichever is appropriate. The
test program of the samples includes the followings:
1. Classification Tests:
Sieve and hydrometer analysis, natural water content, Atterberge limits, specific gravity,
and wet and dry unit weights.
2. Compaction Test:
Modified Procter compaction test must be carried out on some soil samples to obtain the
maximum dry density ( dmax . ) and the relevant optimum moisture content (OMC).
3. Shear Strength and Compressibility Tests:

Unconfined or Triaxial compressive strength test, one-dimensional consolidation, and
swelling tests.
4. Chemical Tests:
Sulphate Content (SO3-2)%, Total Soluble Salts (T.S.S.), Organic Matter Content
(ORG.)%, PH- value, Carbonate Content (CO3-2), Chlorides Content (Cl-1)% , and
Gypsum content %.
2.7.2 FIELD TESTS

During the subsoil exploration, several field tests for soils or rocks as given in Tables
(2.4) and (2.5), respectively, can be performed depending on the available testing equipment,
required parameters for design of foundations, and the economic point of view.
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Table (2.4): Types of field tests for soils.
Purpose of test Type of test

1. SPT N-value
Standard or Dynamic Penetration Test (SPT).
(for granular soil)
Static Penetration Test (CPT)
Vane shear test (for soft to medium fine grained soil, clay and silt clay;
up to Cu =1.0 kg/cm2),
Tor vane shear test (for soft soil; up to Cu =5.0 kg/cm 2),
2. Undrained shear strength Pocket penetrometer,
(for cohesive soil) Pressuremeter test; it is of three types:
a- Menard (to obtain; R D ,.,.Su ,.Es ,.G,.mv ,.Cc ),
b- Self boring (to obtain; R D ,.,.Su ,.u,.Es ,.G,.mv ,.Cc ,.Cv ),
c- Screw boring (to obtain; E s ...and...G ).
Pavements: plate bearing ;CBR test,
Footings: plate bearing test,
3. Bearing capacity
Piles subjected to vertical loads: load test,
Batter piles: lateral load test.
Seismic Tests:
a- Cross-hole,
4. Elastic and shear modulus b- Down-hole, and
c- Surface refraction (to measure R D , Es , G , liquefaction resistance
and thickness of soil layers).
Pumping Test:
a- Constant head test,
5. Permeability
b- Variable head test,
c- Piezometers test (or ground water observation).
Field or In-place Density:
6. Compaction control For Sand: a- Sand cone method, b- Rubber balloon method,
For Clay: a- Penetration needle, b- Core cutter method.
Table (2.5): Types of field tests for rocks.
Purpose of test Type of test

1. Strength & Rock Quality Field Vane Shear1,
Direct Shear, Point Load, Pressuremeter2, Uniaxial
Designation (RQD %) Compressive2, Borehole Jacking2.
2. Bearing capacity Plate Bearing1, Standard Penetration1.
Hydraulic Fracturing, Pressuremeter, Overcoring, Flat Jack, Uniaxial
3. Stress Conditions
(Tunnel) Jacking2, Chamber (Gallery) Pressure2.
Geophysical (Refraction)3, Pressuremeter or Dilatometer, Plate Bearing,
4. Mass Deformability Uniaxial (Tunnel) Jacking2, Borehole Jacking2, Chamber (Gallery)
Pressure2.
5. Anchor Capacity Anchor / Rockbolt Loading.
Constant Head, Rising or Falling Head, Well Slug Pumping, Pressure
6. Rock Mass Permeability
Injection.
Notes: 1. Primarily for clay shales, badly decomposed, or moderately soft rocks, and rock with soft seams.
2. Less frequently used.
3. Dynamic deformability.
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2.8 LOGS OF BORINGS AND RECORDS OF TESTING RESULTS

At the beginning, a map giving specific locations of all borings should be available. Each
boring should be identified (by number) and its location documented by measurement to
permanent features. Such a map is shown in Fig.(2.9). For each boring, all pertinent data should
be recorded in the field on a boring log sheet. These sheets are preprinted forms containing
blanks for filling in appropriate data. Fig.(2.10) shows an example of a boring log sheet.
Soil data obtained from a series of test borings can best be presented by preparing a
geologic profile, which shows the arrangement of various layers of soil, the groundwater table,
existing and proposed structures, and soil properties data. An example of a geologic profile is
shown in Fig.(2.11).
Depending on the results of the laboratory tests and the field observations, the actual subsoil
profiles or logs of borings can more accurately be sketched (see Fig.(2.12)). In addition to, the
actual description of soil strata in each borehole is summarized within records of tests results.
90m
B-1 7.5m B-2
15m 30m 30m 15m
45m
15m B-3
B-4 7.5m B-5
Fig.(2.9): Example map showing boring locations on site plan.
DRILLING COMPANY, INC. BORE HOLE NO.: -------------

PROJECT: LOCATION: --------------------
Name ---------------------------------------------------- Date Time Depth Casing at

Address ------------------------------------------------ ------------- -------------- ---------------- ------------------------------------
CASING (SIZE AND TYPE) ---------------------------------
SAMPLE SPOON (SIZE AND TYPE) ---------------------
HAMMER (CSG): WT. ------------, DROP ------------------
(SPOON): WT. ------------, DROP ------------------
DATE: STARTED --------------------------------------------, COMPLETED ----------------------, DRILLER ----------------------
Field Depth of
'N'- Value
Samples Sampling (m) Visual Description of Soil
No. Type From To 6 6 6
1 D 0.0 2.0 Black and grey moist fill,
2 U 2.0 4.0 Black peat.
3 S.S 4.5 5.0 11 14 6 Sandy clay and silt mixture.
4 D 5.0 7.0 Sandy silt and clay mixture.
5 U 7.0 9.0 Silt with fine gravel and traces of fine sand.
6 S.S 9.5 10.0 4 8 3 Sandy clay and silt mixture.
Fig.(2.10): Boring log sheet.
33
Fig.(2.11): Example of geologic profile.
Natural ground surface

(N.G.S.) BH.no.1 BH.no.2 BH.no.3
0
2 Sandy clay
and Sandy clay
silt mixture and
silt mixture
4
Depth (m)
Sandy clay
and
6 E.O.B.
silt mixture
Sandy silt
and
8 clay mixture
10 Sandy clay
and
silt mixture
12
E.O.B. E.O.B.
Fig.(2.12): Log of borings for 1st. stage of garden city housing project
Tanahi District / Duhok city.
34
A RECORD OF TESTS RESULTS
35
A RECORD OF TESTS RESULTS
36
2.9 NUMBER OF BOREHOLES

can be drawn with reasonable accuracy and then the preliminary program can be adjusted to
suit subsoil conditions. Obviously, the more boreholes and the closer they are spaced, the more
accurate the resulting geologic profile will be. Boreholes number and layout may need to be
changed as more information emerges, so that, additional boreholes may be required during the
survey.
The layout of the borings should aim not only to provide soil profiles and samples at
positions related to the proposed structures and their foundations, but should also be arranged to
check the hypotheses formed during the survey, the geological succession, the presence of drift
deposits and the extent of the various materials on site in order to allow cross-sections to be
drawn. Also, when a structure is to be found on slope, the overall stability of the structure and the
slope obviously must be investigated, and a deep borehole near the top of the slope is very useful.
For example, a typical investigation for a motorway in the UK might use 5 to l0m deep borings
every 150m along the proposed road line, with four 25 to 30m deep borings at the proposed
position of each bridge structure.
However, for rough guidelines, if soil conditions are relatively uniform or the geological
data are limited, Tables (2.6, 2.7 and 2.8) can be used as a guide in planning of the preliminary
program:
Table (2.6): Number and spacing of boreholes according to the type of project
(after Hvorslev 1949, and Road Research Laboratory 1952).
Distance between borings (m)

Minimum number
Project Horizontal stratification of soil of boreholes
uniform average erratic
Multi-story building 45 30 15 4
1 or 2 story building 60 30 15 3
Bridge, pier, abutment, Tv. Tower ---- 30 7.5 1-2
Highways 300 150 30 ----
Borrow pits 150300 60150 1530 ----
Isolated small structures: such as small
1
houses.
4
Compact projects: such as buildings,
deeper and closely
dams, bridges or small landslips
spaced
Extended projects: such as motorways,
shallower
railways, reservoirs and land reclamation
and widely spaced
schemes.
Table (2.7): Number of borings for medium to heavy weight buildings, tanks, and other
similar structures on shallow foundations (after Sowers, 1979).
Subsurface Conditions Structure Footprint Area for Each Exploratory Boring (m2)
Poor quality and / or erratic 100 300
Average 200 400
High quality and uniform 300 1000
37
Table (2.8): Minimum borings guidelines (after MDT Manual, 2008).
Geotechnical
Minimum number of borings
feature
Provide at least 1 boring per substructure unit 30 m width,
Provide at least 2 borings per substructure unit > 30 m width,
Shallow Foundations
Provide additional borings in areas where erratic subsurface conditions are
encountered.
Provide at least 1 boring per bridge pier location for driven piles,
Provide at least 1 boring per drilled shaft location, unless the shaft is part of
Deep Foundations a group in which case a single boring per group is sufficient,
Provide additional borings in areas where erratic subsurface conditions are
encountered, especially for shafts socketed into bedrock.
Provide at least 1 boring for each retaining wall,

For walls of length > 30 m, space borings 30 m to 60 m with locations
alternating from in front of the wall to behind the wall,
Retaining Structures For anchored walls, provide additional borings in the anchorage zone space
at 30 to 60 m,
For soil-nailed walls, provide additional borings at a distance of 1.0 1.5
times the height of the wall behind the wall spaced at 30 to 60 m.
When approach embankments are to be placed over soft ground, provide at

Bridge Approach least 1 boring at each embankment to determine if any problems associated
Embankments over with stability and settlement of the embankment are present,
Soft Ground Typically, test borings taken for the approach embankments are located at
the proposed abutment locations and serves a dual function.
Provide borings at a minimum spacing of approximately 300 m,

Roadways Provide additional borings in areas where erratic subsurface conditions are
encountered.
Typically, space borings every 60 m for erratic conditions, to 120 m for

uniform conditions with at least 1 boring taken in each separate landform,
Roadway Cuts and
For high cuts and fills and other critical locations, provide a minimum of 3
Embankments
borings along a line perpendicular to centerline or planned slope face to
establish geologic cross-section for analysis.
Provide a minimum of 3 borings along a line perpendicular to centerline or

Landslides planned slope face to establish geologic cross-section for analysis,
The actual number of borings depends on the extent of stability problem.
Varies widely depending on ground improvement technique(s) being

Ground Improvement
employed, for more information, see FHWA Ground Improvement Technical
Techniques
Summaries, FHWA SA98086R.
Material Sites (Borrow Space boring every 30 m to 60 m.

Sources, Quarries)
38
2.10 DEPTH OF BORINGS

It is good practice on any site to sink at least one deep borehole to establish the site
geology. On extended projects several of these may be necessary, partly in order to establish the
depth of weathering. Hvorslev (1949) and MDT Manual (2008) suggested a number of general
rules which remain applicable:
The borings should be extended to strata of adequate bearing capacity and should
penetrate all deposits which are unsuitable for foundation purposes such as
unconsolidated fill, peat, organic silt and very soft and compressible clay;
The soft strata should be penetrated even when they are covered with a surface layer of
high bearing capacity;
When structures are to be founded on clay and other materials with adequate strength to
support the structure but subject to consolidation by an increase in the load, the borings
should penetrate the compressible strata or be extended to such a depth that the stress
increase for still deeper strata is reduced to values so small that the corresponding
consolidation of these strata will not materially influence the settlement of the proposed
structure;
In case of very heavy loads or when seepage or other considerations are governing, the
borings may be stopped when rock is encountered or after a short penetration into strata of
exceptional bearing capacity and stiffness, provided it is known from explorations in the
vicinity of the area that these strata have adequate thickness or are underlaid by still
stronger formations. But, if these conditions are not satisfied, some of the borings must be
extended until it has been established that the strong strata have adequate thickness
irrespective of the character of the underlying material;
When the structure is to be founded on rock, it must be verified that bedrock and not
boulders have been encountered, and it is advisable to extend one or more borings from 3
to 6m into solid rock in order to determine the extent and character of the weathered zone
of the rock;
For rough guidelines, the following criteria can be used for minimum depths, from
considerations of stress distribution or seepage,:
1. Foundations:
All borings should extend below all deposits such as top soils, organic silts, peat,
artificial fills, very soft and compressible clay layers;
Boring should be sufficiently deep for checking the possibility of a weaker soil at greater
depth which may settle under the applied load;
Deeper than any strong layer at the surface checking for a weaker layer of soil under it
which may cause a failure (see Fig.(2.13a));
The depth at which the net increase in stress due to the foundation or building load is less
than 5% of the effective overburden pressure;
The depth at which the net vertical total stress increases because the foundation or
building load is less than 10% of the stress applied at foundation level (contact pressure);
For isolated spread footings or raft foundations, explore to a depth equal 1.5B (B = least
width of the footing or the raft) (see Fig.(2.13b));
39
For group of interfering footings, explore to a depth equal 1.5B (where, B = width of
interfering footings) (see Fig.(2.14));
For heavy structures (pressure 200 kPa), the depth of borings should be extended to
2B (width of footing);
L
For strip footings, explore to not less than 3B (width of footing) for B 6m and 10 .
B
For multistory buildings, explore to:
(i) D Df 3.S0.7 (in meter). for light steel or narrow concrete buildings,
(ii) D Df 6.S0.7 (in meter) ... for heavy steel or wide concrete buildings.
where, D = Depth of boring, D f = Depth of footing, and S = Number of stories.
2
If piled foundation is expected, the borehole depth D =( + 3 L+ 1.5B) or D = (L + 3m)
into the bearing stratum (see Fig.(2.15a));
2. Reservoirs: Explore soil to:

(i) The depth of the base of the impermeable stratum, or
(ii) Not less than 2 x maximum hydraulic head expected.
3. Dams: Because the critical factor is the safety against seepage and foundation failure,
boreholes should penetrate not only soft or unstable soils, but also permeable soils to such a
depth that seepage patterns can be predicted. Thus, it is recommended:-
For earth structures, explore soil to 1.5 times the base width of the dam, and
For concrete structures, explore to a depth 1.52.0 times the height of the dam, and for
any case, the depth of boring must be checked with (1.52.0) of the water head.
4. Roads, highways, and air fields: the minimum depth is 5m below the finished road level,
provided that vertical alignment is fixed but should extend below artificial fill. In practice,
some realignment often occurs in cuttings, and side drains may be dug up to 6m deep or to
bore to at least 1.5 times the embankment height in fill areas, and to at least 5m below
finished road level in cut.
5. Retaining walls, slopes stability problems: Explore to:

1.5B (wall base width) or 1.5H (wall height) whichever is greater below the bottom of
the wall or its supporting piles (see Fig.(2.15b)), Moreover,
It must be below an artificial fills, and deeper than possible surface of sliding;
6. Canals, deep cut and fill sections on side hills: Explore at least to:
(i) 3m below the finished level in cut, or
(ii) B when B H , or
(iii) H when B H (see Figs.(2.16a and 2.16b)).
7. Embankments: The depth of exploration should be at least equal to the height of the
embankment and should ideally penetrate all soft soils if stability is to be investigated. If
settlements are critical then soil may be significantly stressed to depths below the bottom of
the embankment equal to the embankment width (see Fig.(2.16c)).
40
G.S.
Borehole
Strong layer
Weak layer
(a) Existence of rock layer
B S B
LB
Column
Footing
Plan
P1 P2 P
G.S. when S 4B G.S.

Df
Borehole depth Borehole depth
(Df 1.5B) (Df 1.5B)
D = 1.5B B
Section
(b) Isolated spread footing (c) Raft or mat foundation.
Fig.(2.13): Depth of borings for spread and raft foundations.
41
W
B S B S B
L=W B
P1 P2 P3
G.S.
S S Df
Borehole depth
(D f 1.5B) B B B
(a) Single row of adjacent spread footings when S 4B
P1 P2 P3
G.S.
S S Df
Borehole depth
B B B
(Df D)
D = 1.5B when S 4B
= 3.0B when S 4B..and..S 2B
= 4.5B when S 2B
(b) Multiple rows of adjacent spread footings.
Fig.(2.14): Depth of borings for adjacent spread footings.
42
G.S.
B
Df Pile cap
2 Borehole depth
L
3 2
L (D f L 1.5B)
3
Individual pressure bulbs

Combined pressure bulb
Rock or hard layer
(a) Piles
G.S.
Backfill Soil
H
G.S.
B
Base Soil
Depth of B.H. = 1.5B or 1.5H

whichever is greater
(b) Retaining walls
Fig.(2.15): Depth of borings for piles, and retaining walls.
43
Fill
H
Cut
B
Depth of borehole = 3m minimum or
= B when B H or
= H when B > H
(a) Deep cut and fills sections on side

hills.
Fill
Side hill
Fill
Cut
Depth of borehole = 3m mimm.
(b) Normal section of a canal.
Depth of borehole = H minm.
(c) High embankment
Fig.(2.16): Depth of borings for cuts and fills, canals, and embankments.
44
2.11 FIELD LOAD TEST

It is a method to investigate the stress-strain (or loadsettlement) relationship of soils.
Then, the results are used in estimating the bearing capacity. In this test, the load is applied to a
model footing and the amount of load necessary to induce a given amount of settlement is
measured.
Round plates from (150750)mm in diameter by 150mm increment (i.e., 150, 300, 450,
600, 750)mm are available as well as square plates of (1.0 ft2) area. The minimum thickness of
plate is (1 inch or 25.4mm).
1.0 ft2 25.4 mm
Round plate square plate
Procedure of load test as given by ASTM D11072:

(1) Excavate a pit to width at least 6 times as wide as the used plate, and to the depth that the
foundation is to be placed.
P
G.S.
Df B
2.5 B 2.5 B
If it is specified that three sizes of plates are to be used for the test, the pit should be large
enough so that, there is an available spacing between tests of 3 times the diameter (D) of the
largest plate. This is useful for studying the size effect of footings.
G.S.
300mm D = 750mm 450mm
Df
2.5 B 3D 3D 2.5 B
(2) A square loading plate 2.5cm thick and (30 x 30)cm is placed on the surface of the soil at
the bottom of the pit. There should not be any surcharge load placed on the soil within a
distance of (60cm) from around the plate.
(3) A vertical load is placed on the plate in increments and settlements are recorded as an
average from at least three dial gauges accurate to (0.025mm) attracted to an independent
suspension system. Load increment should be approximately 1/10 of the estimated
allowable soil pressure. For each load increment, settlement readings should be taken at
regular intervals of not less than (1 hr.) until there is no further settlement. The same time
duration should be used for all the loading increments.
45
(4) The test is continued until a settlement of 25mm is observed or until the load increments
reached 1.5 times the estimated allowable soil pressure.
(5) If the load is released, the elastic rebound of the soil should be recorded for periods of time
equal to the same time durations of each applied load increment.
(6) The result of each test can be represented graphically as follows (see Fig.2.17):-
(a) Settlement versus log time curve (for each load increment),
(b) Load-settlement curve (for all increments) from which qult . is obtained.
Pressure (kN/m2) Log Time (min.)

q ult . q ult .
q ult .
Settlement
Settlement
(mm)
(mm)
b
settl.
c
a
(a) Load - settlement curve (b) Log time- Settlement curve
Fig.(2.17): Typical load test results.
For cohesive soil (bearing capacity is independent of footing size):

qf qp

s s B f ................................................................................(2.3)
f p
Bp

For cohesionless soil (bearing capacity increases with size of footing):
Bf
qf qp B
p

2 .................................................................(2.4)
s s 2B f
f p
Bp Bf
Settlement for both cohesive and cohesionless soils:

sf / Bf Bf n
( ) .....................................................................(2.5)
sp / Bp Bp
46
where, s f and s p are settlements of footing and plate, B f and B p are their respective widths;
Bf
provided that B p = 1.0 ft for 5 as well as the footing and plate carry the same
Bp
intensity of load, and (n) is an exponent that depends on soil type; with some of its values
are:
Type of soil n
Clay 0.03 - 0.50
Sandy clay 0.08 - 0.10
Dense sand 0.40 - 0.50
Medium sand 0.25 - 0.35
Loose sand 0.20 - 0.25
For c soils (bearing capacity from two-plate load tests; after Housel, 1929):
V A.q P.s .................................................................................(2.6)

where,
V = total load on a bearing area,
A = contact area of footing or plate,
q = bearing pressure beneath A,
P = perimeter of footing or plate, and
s = shear perimeter.
This method needs data from two-plate load tests so that Eq.(2.6) can be solved for q and s
(for given settlement). After the values of q and s are known, the size of a footing required to
carry a given load can be calculated.
2.12 FIELD PENETRATION TESTS

2.12.1 DYNAMIC OR STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT)
This test is preferred for very hard deposits, particularly of cohesionless soils for which
undisturbed samples cannot be easily obtained. It utilizes a split-spoon sampler shown previously
in Fig.(2.8a) that is driven into the soil.
The test consists of driving the standard split-barrel sampler of dimensions (680mm length,
30mm inside diameter and 50mm outside diameter) a distance of 460mm (18'') into the soil at the
bottom of the boring. This was done by using a 63.5kg (140Ib) driving mass (or hammer) falling
"free" from a height of 760mm (30"). Then, counting the number of blows required for driving
the sampler the last 305mm (12") to obtain the (N) number (neglecting the no. of blows for the
upper first 150mm).
Note: The SPT- value is rejected or halted in any one of the following cases:
(a) if 50 blows are required for any 150mm increment, or
(b) if 100 blows are obtained, or
(c) if 10 successive blows produce no advancement.
47
The number of blows (N) can be correlated with the relative density ( D r ) of cohesionless
soil (sand) and with the consistency of cohesive soil (clay) as shown in Tables (2.9, 2.10 and
2.11).
Table (2.9): Relative density of sands according to results

of standard penetration test.
Relative density
SPT- value emax einsitu
N/30cm Dr x100
emax emin
0-4 0 -15 Very loose 28
4 - 10 15 - 35 Loose 28 - 30
10 - 30 35 - 65 Medium 30 - 36
30 - 50 65 - 85 Dense 36 - 41
> 50 85 - 100 Very dense > 41
Table (2.10): Relation of consistency of clay, SPT N-value, and

unconfined compressive strength ( q u ).
SPT- value
N/30cm
consistency q u (ksf ) q u (kg / cm 2 )
Below Very soft 0 - 0.5 0 - 0.25
2-4 Soft 0.5 - 1 0.25 - 0.5
4-8 Medium 1-2 0.5 - 1
8 - 15 Stiff 2-4 1-2
15 - 30 Very stiff 4-8 2-4
> 30 Hard >8 >4
Table (2.11): Empirical values for ,..Dr , and of granular soils based
on the SPT at about 6 m depth and normally consolidated.
Description Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense

Relative density D r 0 - 0.15 0.15 0.35 0.35 0.65 0.65 - 0.85 > 0.85
------
SPT N70 : Fine 1-2 3-6 7-15 16-30
> 40
Medium 2-3 4-7 8-20 21-40
> 45
Coarse 3-6 5-9 10-25 26-45
------
: Fine 26-28 28-30 30-34 33-38
< 50
Medium 27-28 30-32 32-36 36-42
------
Coarse 28-30 30-34 33-40 40-50
wet : Pcf 70-100 90-115 110-130 110-140 130-150
(kN/m3) (11-16) (14-18) (17-20) (17-22) (20-23)
48
2.12.1.1 Corrections for Nvalue
(1) W.T. Correction (in case of presence of W.T.):
For N > 15: N corr . 15 0.5( N field 15) ....(2.7)

and
For N 15: N corr . N field ..............(2.8)
If N-value is measured above water table, no need for this correction.
(2) Overburden pressure, C N ; Energy ratio, 1 ; Rod length, 2 ; Sampler;

3 ; and Borehole dia., 4 Corrections:
N70 Nfield .CN ..1..2..3..4 ....(2.9)
where,
N70 corrected (N) using the subscript for the energy ratio E rb and ( ' ) to indicate it
has been adjusted or corrected,
C N = adjustment for overburden pressure for p 25.(kPa) and can be calculated from
the following formula:
2000
C N 0.77 log .......(2.10)
Po
If p 25.(kPa) , no need for overburden pressure correction.
where,
p o overburden pressure in ( kPa ),
i : factors obtained from (Table 2.12) as:
1 hammer correction = (average energy ratio)/(drill rig energy) = E r / E rb ;
2 rod length correction;
3 sampling method correction; and
4 borehole diameter correction.
49
Table (2.12): Hammer, borehole, sampler, and rod i correction factors.
Hammer correction 1
Average energy ratio Er

Donut Safety
Country
R-P Trip R-P Trip R-P = Rope -Pulley: 1 E r / E rb
USA For USA trip/auto w / E r = 80
North America 45 ---- 70-80 80-100 1 80/70 = 1.14
Japan 67 78 ------ -------
UK ---- ---- 50 60
China 50 60 ------ -------
Rod length correction 2
> 10m 2 = 1.00

6 -10 = 0.95
Length N is too high for L < 10 m
4-6 = 0.85
0-4 = 0.75
Sampling method correction 3
Without liner: 3 = 1.00

With liner: Dense sand, Clay = 0.80 N is too high with liner
Loose sand. = 0.90
Borehole diameter correction 4
60 -120 mm 4 = 1.00
Hole diameter 150 mm = 1.05 N is too small for oversize hole
200 mm = 1.15
Notes:
1. It is evident that all i =1.0 for the case of a small borehole, no sampler liner, length of
drill rod > 10 m and the given drill rig has E r 70 . In this case, the only adjustment is
for overburden pressure (i.e., Ncorr . Nfield .CN ).
E
2. Large values of E r decrease the blow count (N) linearly (i.e., N 2 r1 ..N1 ). This
E r2
equation is used to convert any energy ratio to any other base.
30
3. If N field 10...blows / 10cm , then Ncorr . 10. 30...blows / 30cm.
10
50
2.12.3 STATIC OR CONE PENETRATION TEST (CPT)

This is a simple static test used for soft clays and fine to medium coarse sands. The test is
not applicable in gravels and stiff hard clays. It is performed by pushing the standard cone
(according to ASTM D3441 with a 60o point and base diameter = 35.7mm with cross-section area
of 10 cm2) into the ground at a rate of (10 20) mm/sec. Several cone configurations can be used
such as:
1. Mechanical or the earliest "Dutch Cone Type",
2. Electric friction with strain gauges,
3. Electric piezo for pore water measurement,
4. Electric piezo/friction to measure q c , q s and u or (pwp), and
5. Seismic cone to compute dynamic shear modulus.
Fig.(2.18b) shows the operations sequence of a mechanical cone as: in position (1) the cone
is seated; position (2) advances the cone tip to measure q c ; position (3) advances the friction
sleeve to measure q s ; and position (4) advances both tip and sleeve to measure q t = q c + q s .
Therefore, at any required depth, the tip and sleeve friction resistances q c and q s are measured
and then used to compute a friction ratio f R as:
q
f R (%) s x100 ; f R < 1% for sands; f R > 5 or 6% for clays and peat.
qc
The data collected from the CPT can be correlated to establish the undrained shear strength
S u of cohesive soils, allowable bearing capacity of piles, to classify soils; and to estimate ,..Dr
for sands. A typical data set is shown in Fig.(2.19b).
CPT Correlations
1. The cone resistance q c is related to the undrained shear strength S u of cohesive soils as:
q po
Su c .(2.11)
Nk
where, p o .z = overburden pressure at point where q c is measured., and
N k = cone factor computed from Fig.(2.20).
2. The q c and f R results are used to classify soils from Fig.(2.21) for standard electronic cone.
3. The cone resistance q c can be related to the pore pressure as:
q po
Su T ..(2.12)
N kT
where, q T q c u.(1 a ) ,
a = area ratio depends on the cone type,
u = measured pore water pressure, and NkT 13 (5.5.Ip / 50) .
For normally consolidated clays of low sensitivity (S t 4) and I p 30 a value of N k
about 18 and N kT of 14 may be satisfactory (see Figs. (2.18) to (2.25)).
51
(a) Dutch cone modified to measure both (b) Positions of the Dutch cone during (c) Typical output.
point resistance q c and skin friction q f a pressure record.
.
Fig.(2.18): Mechanical (or Dutch) cone, operations sequence, and tip resistance data.
(a) Piezocone. (b) Cone Penetration record for clay soil.
Fig.(2.19): Electric cone and CPT data.
52
Fig.(2.20): Cone factor N k vs. I P Fig.(2.21): Soil classification chart for

(after Anagnostopoulos etal., 2003 ). standard electric cone.
(after Anagnostopoulos etal., 2003 ).
Fig.(2.22): Approximate relationship between Fig.(2.23): vs. D r

q c and D r (after Schmertmann, 1978). (after Schmertmann, 1978).
53
(a) Cone bearing vs. relationship. (b) Correlation between peak friction angle and q c
for uncemented, quartz sands (after Robertson
and Campanella, 1983).
Fig.(2.24): Correlations between cone data and angle of internal friction ( ).
Fig.(2.25): Relationship between mean grain size ( D50 ) and q c / N ratio.

(after Robertson et al., 1983 and Ismael and Jeragh, 1986)
54
2.13 VANE SHEAR TEST

It is a field test used to determine the in-situ shearing resistance (undrained shear
strength) of soft to medium clay and silt clay having U.C.S.< 1.0 ( kg / cm 2 ), then to be used for
design of foundations and slopes.
Apparatus (see Fig.(2.26):

1. Van shear test equipment;
2. Drilling rig;
3. Casing (as required); and
4. Other necessary tools and supplies such as stop watch, pipe, etc..
Fig.(2.26): Vane shear apparatus.
55
Procedure:
1. The equipment is installed in place properly either at the ground surface without a hole
(case 1) or at the bottom of a borehole (case 2) and then the vane is pushed into the
soil layer to the required depth; (see Fig.(2.27)).
2. A torque is applied at a uniform rate of 0.1o per sec. or (1o-6o per minute).
3. Readings are taken every minute interval until failure happens.
T
T
T
t G.S. H
S H
S
S
H
S
S D S
4t
a 11%
.D Case 1
S D
where, t = thickness of plate, and
S D D = diameter of vane.
Case 2
dr Standard dimensions of vane B.S. 1377

Rate of test (6 -12)deg./ min.
r
Soil strength (kPa) H (mm) D (mm)
< 50 150 75
D 50-75 100 50
> 75 Not suitable
Fig.(2.27): Vane shear standards.
Calculation:
(i) Case (1): In this case, the vane is not embedded in soil, so that only the bottom end
takes pant in shearing. If the soil is isotropic and homogenous, then:
(a) Total shear resistance at failure developed along cylindrical surface = .D.H.S
(b) Total resistance of bottom ends, considering a ring of radius r and thickness dr
D/2
= (2.r.dr ).S
0
56
D D/2
(c) The torque T at failure will then equal: T (.D.H.S) (2.r.dr ).S.r
2 0
.D2Su D
or T (H ) .....(2.13)
2 6
(ii) Case (2): If the top end of the vane is also embedded in soil, so shearing takes place
on top and bottom ends:
.D2Su D
or T (H ) .....(2.14)
2 3
Notes:
Use consistent units, such as: T in (kg-cm); S u in (kg/cm2); and H and D in (cm).
It is found that the S u values obtained by vane shear test are too large for design.
Therefore, Bjerrum's (1972) proposed a reduction factor using the following formula:
S u , design ..S u , field .....(2.15)
where, is a correction factor depends on plasticity index I p and obtained from Fig.(2.28a);
Also, Aas et al. (1986) proposed another charts (see Fig.(2.28b)) taking into account the
effects of aging and OCR (Overconsolidation ratio).
Ip , %
Ip , % Vane strength ratio Su, v / Po
(a) Bjerrum correction factor for vane-shear test. (b) Reinterpretation of the Bjerrum chart of part a by
[(Bjerrum, 1972) and Ladd et al., 1977)]. (Aas et al. (1986) to include effects of aging and OCR ).
Fig.(2.28): Vane shear correction factor .
57
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem (2.1): A thin-walled tube (OD = 76.2mm, ID = 73mm) was pushed into a soft clay at
the bottom of a borehole a distance of 600mm. When the sampler was recovered a
measurement done inside the tube indicated a recovered sample length of 575mm.
Calculate the recovery and area ratios.
Solution:
575
Recovery ratio: L r 0.958
600
(76.2) 2 (73) 2
Area ratio: Ar x100 8.96%
(73) 2
Problem (2.2): A three story steel frame office building will be built on a site where the soils are
expected to be of average quality and uniformity. The building will have a (30m x 40m)
footprint and is expected to be supported on spread footing foundations located about (1m)
below the ground surface. The site appears to be in its natural condition, with no evidence
of previous grading. Bedrock is several hundred feet below the ground surface. Determine
the required number and depth of the borings.
Solution:
Number of borings:
From Table (2.7), one boring will be needed for every 200 to 400 m2 of footprint area.
Since the total footprint area is 30 x 40 =1200 m2, use (4) four borings.
Depth of borings:
For subsurface condition of average quality, the minimum depth is: 4.
4.5.S0.7 Df 4.5(3) 0.7 1 11m.
However, it would be good to drill at least one of the borings to a slightly greater depth to
check lower strata. In summary, the exploration plan will be 4 borings with, 3 borings to
11 m, and 1 boring to 15 m.
Problem (2.3): Given: Available information about:

Structure: Multistory building with 3 stories and basement
No. of columns = 16, Column load = 1000 kN
Raft dimensions: 16m x 16m x 1m, Foundation at 3m below G.S.
Soil profile: d = 16 kN/m3 , sat = 20 kN/m3 , W.T. at 6m below G.S.
Required: Number, layout, and depth of B.Hs.?
58
Solution:
Number and layout of borings:

From Table (2.7), for poor quality and/or erratic subsurface conditions, one boring is
needed for every (100 to 300) m2 of footprint area. Since the total footprint area is 16x16
= 256m2 > 200m2 (average value), use one or two borings.
Depth of borings:
(a) d 1.5(16) 24 m
(b) 10% of contact pressure:
16.(1000) 24(16)(16)(1)
q contact ( net ) (3)(16) 38.5..kPa
(16)(16)
38.5(16)(16)
0.1.(38.5) , . .....d = 34.6 m
(16 d) 2
(c) 5% of overburden pressure:
38.5(16)(16)
0.05.[16(6) (d 3)(20 10)] , ...d = 15.5 m
(16 d) 2
From (b and c) take the lower d = 15.5 m
(d) d 6.S0.7 6.(4)0.7 15.83m

From (24m, 15.5m, and 15.38m) take the highest d = 24 m
Use D = 24 + 3 = 27 m from G.S.
Problem (2.4): A wide strip footing applying net pressure of 35 kPa is to be constructed 1.0 m
below the surface of uniform soil having unit weight of 19 kN/m 3. The footing is 5.0 m wide
and the water table is at ground surface. Is 12 m depth of boring (measured from ground
surface) sufficient for subsoil exploration program.
Solution:
(a) d 3( B) 3(5) 15 m
(35)(5)(1)
(b) 10% of contact pressure: 0.1.(35) ,....................... d = 4.3 m
(5 d)(1 d)
(35)(5)(1)
(c) 5% of overburden pressure: 0.05(9 9d) ,................ d = 5.2 m
(5 d)(1 d)
From (b and c) take the lower d = 4.3 m
59
From (15 m, and 4.3 m) take the highest d = 15 m, and so the depth from ground
surface D 15 1 16 m, 12 m is not sufficient.
Problem (2.5): A standard penetration test was performed on dense sand soil. If Nfield = 20,
rod length = 12m, hole diameter = 150mm, po 205...kPa , determine N60 and N70 for
each of the following conditions:
a. Use safety hammer with E r 80, and no liner.
b. Use safety hammer with E r 60, and with sample liner.
c. po 100.kPa , 205 mm hollow stem auger, hole depth = 6m, use safety hammer with
E r 55, and no liner.
Solution:
2000 2000
(a) Since po 205...kPa 25 kPa C N 0.77. log10 0.77. log10 0.76
po (kPa) 205
From (Table 2.12):
1 E r / E rb 80 / 70 1.14
2 = 1.00 (for L = 12m (rod length 10m)),
3 = 1.00 (for no liner),
4 = 1.05 (for B.H. diameter = 150mm),
N70 Nfield ..CN ..1..2..3..4 = 20 (0.76)(1.14)(1.00)(1.00)(1.05) = 18
and
70
N60..Er 60 N70.. Er 70 , or N60 (18) 21
60
(b) C N 0.76
From (Table 2.12):
1 Er / Erb 60 / 70 0.86
2 = 1.00 (for L = 12m (rod length) 10m),
3 = 0.80 (dense sand with liner),
N70 Nfield ..CN ..1..2..3..4 = 20 (0.76)(0.86)(1.00)(0.80)(1.05) = 10
and
70
N60..Er 60 N70.. Er 70 , or N60 (10) 11
60
60
2000
(c) Since po 100...kPa 25 kPa C N 0.77. log10 1.00
100
From (Table 2.12):
1 Er / Erb 55 / 70 0.79
2 = 0.95 (for L 6m (rod length) 10m),
3 = 1.00 (for no liner),
4 = 1.00 (for 205mm hollow stem auger),
N70 Nfield ..CN ..1..2..3..4 = 20 (1.00)(0.79)(0.95)(1.00)(1.00) = 15
and
70
N60..Er 60 N70.. Er 70 , or N60 (15) 17
60
Problem (2.6): A standard penetration test SPT has been conducted in a coarse sand to a
depth of 4.8 m below the ground surface. The blow counts obtained in the field were as
follows: 0 6 in: 4 blows; 6 -12 in: 6 blows; 12 -18 in: 8 blows. The test was conducted
using a USA-style donut hammer in a 150mm diameter boring with a standard sampler and
liner. If the vertical effective stress at the test depth was 70 kN/m2, determine N60 ?
Solution:
The raw SPT value is N = 6 + 8 = 14

2000
Since po 70...kPa 25 kPa C N 0.77. log10 1.12
70
From (Table 2.12):
1 Er / Erb 45/60 = 0.75
2 = 0.85 (for L 4.8m (rod length) 6m),
3 = 0.90 (for loose sand with liner),
N60 Nfield ..CN ..1..2..3..4 = 14(1.12)(0.75)(0.85)(0.90)(1.05) = 10 blows
Problem (2.7): A standard penetration test was carried out in sand at 5m depth below the
ground surface gave (N = 28) as shown in the figure below. Find the corrected N-value?
Solution: G.S.
Water table correction: 2m W.T. = 18 kN/m3
For N 15 ... N 15 0.5.( Nfield 15) Fine sand

N = 15 + 0.5 (28 15) = 21 3m sat = 20 kN/m3
Nfield 28..blows / 30cm
61
Overburden correction:
Po = 2(18) + 3(20 9.81) = 66.57 kPa 25 kPa
2000 2000
C N 0.77 log = 0.77 log 1.14
Po 66.57
Ncorr . N..CN = 21(1.14) = 23 blows
Problem (2.8): A standard penetration test was carried out at a depth of (10m) in a saturated
fine sand yielded a blow count of (N = 41). If the saturated unit weight of the sand equals
(19 kN/m3), find the corrected value of (N).
Solution:
Water table correction:
For N 15 . N 15 0.5.( Nfield 15)

N = 15 + 0.5 (41 15) = 28 blows
Overburden correction:
Po = 10 (19 9.81) = 91.9 kPa 25 kPa
2000 2000
C N 0.77 log = 0.77 log 1.03
Po 91.9
Ncorr . N..CN = 28(1.03) = 28.8, say 28 blows
Problem (2.9): It is proposed to construct a spread wall footing of (3m width) in sand at (1.5m)
below the ground surface to support a load of 12 Ton/m. The SPT results from a soil boring
are as shown below. If the water table is located at 0.9m from G.S. and soil(sat .) 17.6
kN/m3, determine the average corrected N-value required for design?
SPT sample depth

1.5 2.25 3.0 3.75 4.5 5.25 6
(m)
Nfield 31 25 22 20 28 33 31
Solution:
Find Po at each depth and correct Nfield values up to at least a depth B below the base of
foundation according to the magnitude of overburden pressure in comparison with 25 kPa.
2000
Overburden pressure correction: C N 0.77 log
Po
62
For 1.5m depth:

Po = 0.9(17.6) + (0.6)(17.6 9.81) = 20.5 kPa 25 kPa, therefore, C N =1.00
For 4.5m depth:
Po = 0.9(17.6) + (3.6)(17.6 9.81) = 43.9 kPa 25 kPa, therefore, C N =1.28
Find the average corrected N-value as a cumulative average down to the depth indicated,
and then, choose the N-value for design as the lowest average N-value.
SPT
sample Po CN N avg
.
Nfield N CN .Nfield N 15 0.5( N 15)
depth (kN/m ) 2
(m)
1.5 31 20.5 1.00 31 23 23
2.25 25 26.3 1.45 36 25 24
3.0 22 32.2 1.38 30 22 23
3.75 20 38.0 1.32 26 20 22
4.5 28 43.9 1.28 35 25 23
For 1.5m depth: Navg. 23

23 25
For 2.25m depth: N avg. 24
2
23 25 22
3
23 25 22 20
4
23 25 22 20 25
5
N-value for design = Navg. (lowest) 22 blows
Problem (2.10): Given: qc 300.(kg / cm 2 ) at depth z = 8m in sand with 11.15 (kN/ m3).
Required: estimate angle of internal friction ( ).
Solution:
po 8(11.15) 89.2...kPa
q 300(100)
qc Vb .po , Vb (bearing capacity factor) c 336
po 89.2
1. Using Fig.(2.22) with qc 300.(kg / cm ) and p o 89.2.kPa , the intersection is above
2
D r 100% ; with D r 100% and using Fig.(2.23) obtain = 42 to 46, say = 44o,
63
2. From Fig.(2.24a) at Vb =336 project to curves and down to obtain: = 34.5 to 39.5 ,
say =37o,
300.(98.07)
3. From Fig.(2.24b) and q c = 29.4.MPa , obtain = 46o.
1000
(37 44 46)
A better estimate might be obtained by taking an average value: 42 o
3
but this value is still, high, because it is recommended to use not over (40o).
Problem (2.11): Classify the soil of Fig.(2.19b) at (10-12)m depth. Also, estimate the
undrained shear strength S u if the average =19.65 kN / m 3 for the entire depth of CPT. It
is known that the profile is entirely in cohesive soil.
Solution:
From Fig.(2.19b), at average depth of 11.0m: q c = 11 MPa and f R =4%

p o =19.65(11) = 216 kPa, from Fig.(2.19) estimate N k 18 .
Using Fig.(2.21), with q c = 11000 kPa and f R = 4%, the soil is stiff, sandy silt and (the
11000 216
expected I p = 10 or less), Su = 600 kPa.
18
Problem (2.12): Load-settlement data obtained from load test of square plate of size (1.0 ft)
are as shown below. If a square footing of size (7.0 ft) settles (0.75 inch), what is the
allowable soil pressure of the footing? Consider sandy soil.
Load (Tsf) 2 5 8 10 14 16 19
Settlement (inch) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Solution:
Bf
qf qp B
p 0.75 0.75
For cohesionless soil:

2 , sp 0.25
2
s s 2B f 2x 7 3.05
f p 1 7
Bp Bf
Now by drawing the given data and for s p 0.25 , Pressure (Tsf)
q p 6.5 T/ft2, and q p 6.5

s p 0.25
B 7
q f q p f 6.5 45.5 T/ft2 .
Settlement
Bp 1
(inch)
64
Problem (2.13): Use Housels method to determine the size of square footing required to carry
a column load P = 45 tons if the two plate loading tests results are as given below:-
plate size (1) = 35 x 35 cms, corresponding load = 5.6 tons; relative to 1.0 cm settlement.
plate size (2) = 50 x 50 cms, corresponding load = 10 tons; relative to 1.0 cm settlement.
Solution:
From Housel's method (Eq. 2.6): V = A. q + P. s
5.6 = 0.123 q + 1.4 s
10 = 0.25 q + 2 s
Solving the two equations, gives: q = 26.9 and s = 1.63.
Again from Eq.(2.6) shown above, the footing area required to carry 45 tons load is
calculated as:
45 = B2 q + 4B s
45 = B2 (26.9) + 4B (1.63)
26.9 B2 + 6.52 B 45 = 0
B2 + 0.24 B 1.67 = 0
0.24 (0.24) 2 4(1)(1)(1.67) 0.24 2.59

B 1.18 m
(2)(1) 2
Take the footing size as 1.20 m x 1.20 m.
Problem (2.14): A vane tester with a diameter d = 9.1cms and a height h = 18.2 cms requires
a torque of 110 N-m to shear a clay soil sample, with a plasticity index of 48%. Find the soil
un-drained cohesion Su ?
Solution:
For CASE (2) with top and bottom vane ends embedded in soil, the torque is given by:
.D2.Su ,field D
T (H )
2 3
T 0.110
or S u , field 40 kN/m2
2 2
.D D .(0.091) 0.091
(H ) 0.182
2 3 2 3
From Fig.(2.28a) for a plasticity index of 48%, Bjerrum's correction factor = 0.80, and
Therefore, Su ,design ..Su ,field 0.8(40) 32 kPa
65
PROBLEMS
P2.1 Name several sources for information and preliminary evaluation of a building site.
P2.2 Explain briefly the difference between preliminary exploration and detailed exploration.
P2.3 Give useful information obtained from a typical subsurface investigation.
P2.4 Give factors that are relevant to planning for a well-balanced exploration program.
P2.5 How does someone select the depth of boring, boring layout, and type of samples?
P2.6 What is a test pit? Give few negative and positive aspects of it.
P2.7 What is a test boring? How does it differ from a test pit?.
P2.8 What are disturbed and undisturbed soil samples? How do you obtain each of them?.
P2.9 Describe Shelby-tube sampler features. How does it differ from split-spoon sampler?
P2.10 What is a core sample? How is it obtained? What sort of information can be obtained
after evaluation.
P2.11 What is a vane shear test? Describe the apparatus.
P2.12 What are boring logs? Define them.
P2.13 Can a split-spoon sampler penetrate a typical rock formation? Can a fight auger
penetrate a rock formation? Explain briefly.
P2.14 Shelby tubes are usually pushed into a strata. However, some practitioners regard
driving the tube an acceptable approach. How might the disturbance be affected by the
two methods for each type listed below? (a) Very soft clay, and (b) Hard clay.
P2.15 a- List general rules of estimating the number and depth of soil investigation boreholes.
b- What are the different types of samplers you may use to obtain undisturbed samples
of cohesive soil?
P2.16 a- The load-settlement data obtained from load test of a square plate of size (1ft X1ft) are
as shown below. If a square footing of size (7ft X 7ft) settles 0.75 inch, what is the
allowable soil pressure (consider the soil is a cohesionless soil)?
Load (Tsf) 2 5 8 10 14 16 19
Settlement (inch) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
b- Compute the area ratio (Ar) of the standard split spoon dimensions (OD = 51 mm and
ID = 38mm). Then, what ID would be required to give Ar = 10%?
66
P2.17 For cone penetration records shown in the table below, plot the CPT data including f R
and then estimate Su and at a depth of 5.6m if I P = 30. Take av = 16.5 kN/m3 up to
ground water table (GWT) at depth of 3m and = 19.81 kN/m3 for soil below the GWT.
Depth (m) q s (kPa) q c (MPa) Soil Classification

0.50 22.02 1.86 sandy silt
1.50 27.77 1.83 silt and clayey silt
1.60 28.72 1.16 silty clay
2.10 32.55 1.15 silty clay
2.50 24.89 2.28 silty sand
3.10 22.02 0.71 silty clay
3.50 12.44 0.29 Clay
4.10 15.32 0.38 Clay
4.50 21.06 1.09 silty clay
5.60 28.72 1.57 silt and clayey silt
P2.18 For the cone penetration records of clay soil shown in the figure below, if LL = 45 and PL
= 20% estimate Su and at the 78 m depth. Assume avg. = 16.5 kN/m3 for soil above
the GWT and = 19.81 kN/m3 below it.
Sleeve friction qs Point resistance qc Friction ratio fR

kPa kPa %
Depth z , meters
Depth z , meters
67
P2.19 In the soil profile shown in the figure below, if the cone penetration resistance ( q c ) at
point (x) as determined by an electric friction cone penetrometer is 0.80 MN/m2 find:
(a) the over-consolidation ratio, OCR ,
(b) the un-drained cohesion C u .
1.01
q o C
Use: OCR 0.37 c ; and OCR . u.field where, 22.( PI) 0.48
o o
and o , o are total and effective vertical stresses in (MN/m2).
G.S.
2m W.T. Clay
= 18 KN/m3
4m
sat = 20 KN/m3
x
P2.20 For a vane shear data shown in the figure below, estimate Su ,.v and Su,.remolded if 100
mm diameter vane is used with H/ D =2 (rectangular). Also estimate if I p = 40 and Po
=125 kPa.
200
200 -
Total torque, N-m
150 -
T for Su,v
Friction
100 -
50 - Tremolded
16.7
0-
Rotation,
Typical vane shear data.
P2.21 Vane shear tests were conducted in a layer of clay. The vane dimensions were 63.5 mm
(D) x 127mm (H). At certain depth, the torque required to cause failure was 0.051 N-m.
The liquid limit of the clay was 46 and the plastic limit was 21. Estimate the undrained
cohesion of the clay to be used in design by applying Bjerrum's relationship:
1.7 0.54 log10 (PI(%)) .
68
P2.22 Given: A two-thin walled sample tubes of dimensions are as follows:
OD ID Length
(inch) (inch) (inch)
3.0 2.875 24
3.5 3.375 24
Required: What is the area ratio of each of these two sample tubes? and what kind of
sample disturbance is obtained?
P2.23 For the soil profile shown in the figure below, along with the standard penetration
numbers in the clay layer, determine the variation of C u ..and..OCR with depth.
0.689
2 N
Use: Cu.(kN/m ) 29N060.72 ;
and OCR 0.193 60
o
where, o = effective vertical stresses in (MN/m2).
G.S.
2.0m W.T. Dry sand = 17 KN/m3
2.0m N 60 Sand sat = 19 KN/m3

5
1.5m
8
1.5m
6 Clay sat = 17 KN/m3
1.5m
4
1.5m
6
Sand
P2.24 For the soil profile shown in the figure below, along with the standard penetration
numbers in sand layers, calculate the corrected N-values and then estimate an average
peak soil friction angle using: 1. .(deg .) 27.1 0.3.N 60 0.00054.( N 60 )2

2. .(deg .) tan1 ( N 60 / 12.2 20.3( o ))0.34
100
G.S. N 60
1.5m 6
6.0m Dry sand = 18 KN/m3 3.0m 8
W.T. 4.5m 9
6.0m 8
Sand sat = 20.2 KN/m3 7.5m 13

9.0m 14
69
P2.25 For the log of boring shown the in figure below, make reasonable estimates of the
relative density D r ..and.. for the sand both above and below the GWT. Assume that
E r 60 for the N-values shown, the unit weight of sand increases linearly from (15 to
18.1) kN/m3 close to the ground surface up to water table level and sat 19.75 kN/m3
below GWT. Also, estimate the N-value you would use for a square footing of (2m x 2m)
located at -2m depth?
Nvalues G.S.
0.0
Top soil
- 0.3
-6
Sand
-10
- 4.0 -8 W.T.
Depth (m)
-7
sat 19.75 kN/m3
- 6.0 -9
-11
q u 50.kPa
- 8.0 -15
q u 60.kPa
-14
Sandy clay
70
REFERENCES
Aas, G., et al., (1986),Use of in situ tests for foundation design on clay, 14th. PSC, ASCE, pp.
1-30.
Allen, D.V., (1993),Low-cost hand drilling, Consallen Group Sales Ltd., Loughton.
Anagnostopoulos, A., Koukis, G., Sabatakakis, N., and Tsiambaos, G. (2003),Empirical
correlations of soil parameters based on cone penetration tests (CPT) for Greek soils,
Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, Vol. 21, No. 4, 377387.
Bjerrum, L. (1972),Embankments on soft ground, In Proc. ASCE Spec. Conf. Performance
Earth Earth-Supported Structures, Purdue University, 2:154, Geotechnical Journal,
20(4): 718-745.
Budhu, M. (2007),Soil mechanics and foundations, 2nd. edition, Wiley, section 2.6, Soils
exploration Program, Pgs.21.
Das, Braja M. (2007), Principles of foundation engineering, 6th Edition, Nelson a division of
Thomson Canada Limited.
Housel, W.S. (1929),Discussion of: The science of foundations, Trans. ASCE, Vol. 93, pp.322-
330.
Hvorslev, M.J. (1949),Subsurface exploration and sampling of soils for civil engineering
purposes, US Waterways Experimental Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.
IDEA Drilling,(1997),Bedrock core drilling: Mineral exploration, In Minnesota, http:// Idea
drilling.com/ 1997 9th Avenue North Virginia.
Ismael, N.F. and Jeragh, A.M. (1986).Static cone tests and settlement of calcareous desert
sands, CGJ, Vol. 23, No. 3, Aug.,pp. 297-303.
Ismael, Nabil F. and Vesic, Aleksandar S. (1981), "Compressibility and bearing capacity," ASCE
Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division. Vol. 107. No. GTI2, pp. 1677-1691.
Ladd, C.C., Foote, R., Ishihara, K., Schlosser, F. and Poulos, H.G. (1977), "Stress deformation
and strength characteristics, State-of-the-art report, Proceedings. Ninth International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. Vol. 2, p. 421-494, Tokyo.
MDT Geotechnical Manual, (2008),Subsurface Investigations / Field Tests, Section 8.2.4,
Pgs.12-14.
Moore, R. (1980), Reasoning about knowledge and action, PhD. Dissertation, Cambridge MA,
MIT, Published as TN-191, SRT International, Menlo Park, CA.
Road Research Laboratory (1952),Soil mechanics for road engineers, Department of scientific
and industrial research, HMSO, London.
Robertson, P.K. and Campanella, R.E. (1983),Interpretation of cone penetration tests, Part I:
sand, CGJ, Vol.20, No.4, Nov., pp. 718-733.
Robertson, P.K., Campanella, R.G. and Wightman, A. (1983),SPT-CPT correlation, JGED,
ASCE, Vol. 109, No. 1, pp. 1449-1459.
Schmertmann, J.H. (1978),Guidelines for cone penetration test: performance and design,
FHWA-TS-78-209(report), U. S. Dept. of Transportation, 145 pp.
Sowers, G.F. (1979), Introductory soil mechanics and foundations: Geotechnical engineering,
4th ed., MacMillan Publishing Co., New York, NY, p. 621.
Terzaghi, K. (1943), Theoretical soil mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Terzaghi, K., Peck, R. and Mesri, G. (1996),Soil mechanics in engineering practice, John
Wiley-Interscience Publication, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
71

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CHAPTER 2

2.1 SOIL EXPLORATION

(a) Office, laboratory and field works:

Planning Boring Sampling Testing Report

(b) To explore subsurface conditions:

(c) To obtain information required in the design and construction

(ii) For existing structures:

(iii) For highways and airfields:

The type of subgrade treatments; and

2.1.1 RECONNAISSANCE PHASE

2.1.2 PRELIMINARY SITE INVESTIGATION PHASE

2.1.3 DETAILED SITE INVESTIGATION PHASE

2.2 DRILLING OR BORING

Walls of test pit indicate four layers

Fig.(2.1): Test pits.

2.2.2 DRILLING METHODS

(1) Auger Drilling

(3) Rotary Drilling

(4) Percussion Drilling

Table (2.1): Drilling method selection (after Budhu, 2007).

Wash boring Rotary drilling

(5) Rock Core Drilling

Fig.(2.2): Core extracted from a drill

2.2.2.1 Auger Drilling

(a) Hand - Augers

Fig.(2.3): Handaugers (after Allen, 1993).

(b) Power - Augers

a. Continuous flight augers. b. Solid-stem auger c. Hollow-steam auger

Fig.(2.4): Power or mechanical-augers.

2.2.2.2 Wash Boring

Fig.(2.5): Wash boring rig.

(a) Jetting Method

(b) Sludging (Reverse Jetting)

2.2.2.3 Rotary Drilling

(a) Rotary Drilling with Flush

(b) Rotary - Percussion Drilling

Fig.(2.6): Rotary drilling.

2.2.2.4 Percussion Drilling

2.2.2.5 Rock Core Drilling

Steps in the Process: (after IDEA Drilling, 1997)

2.3 UNDERGROUND WATER IN THE TEST HOLE

2.4 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

(1) Ground Penetration Radar (GPR).

Requirements of seismic exploration:

Advantages of seismic exploration:

Disadvantages of seismic exploration:

(b) Ground penetration radar. (a) Electrical resistivity method.

(c) Seismic survey method.

Fig.(2.7): Geophysical methods.

2.5.1 DISTURBED SAMPLES

2.5.2 UNDISTURBED SAMPLES

2.5.3 ROCK CORE SAMPLES

Type of sampler Procedure Type of soil and Remarks

2.6 SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

1. Effect of stress relief:

2. Effect of area ratio (Ar %):

3. Effect of friction and adhesion:

2.7.1 LABORATORY TESTS

3. Shear Strength and Compressibility Tests:

2.7.2 FIELD TESTS

Table (2.4): Types of field tests for soils.

Purpose of test Type of test

Table (2.5): Types of field tests for rocks.

Purpose of test Type of test